Page 1 of 10 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes

The zeroth (0th) law of thermodynamics (contd.)

Temperature measurement: instruments, temperature scales and thermometric
function
 Temperature measuring instrument → thermometer – because certain substances
(thermometric substances) have physical properties (thermometric properties) that change
with temperature.
Thermometric properties e.g. expansion of a fluid, pressure change in a gas, resistance
change in metals, etc.

 Thermometers - broadly be classified as,

1. Expansion thermometers
2. Pressure thermometers
3. Thermocouple thermometers
4. Thermoresistive thermometers
5. Radiative thermometers (pyrometers)

1. Expansion thermometers – make use of differential expansion of two different

substances.
They include liquid-in-glass thermometers and bimetallic thermometers.

Liquid-in-glass thermometers
‒ Makes use of the differential expansion of liquid and the containing glass.

‒ The liquid fills the glass bulb and extends into

the bore of the glass stem.
‒ It is brought into thermal contact with the
system whose temperature is to be determined.
‒ Volume expansivity of the liquid and glass are
different: 𝛽𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 = 182 × 10−6 𝐾−1 , 𝛽𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 =
27 × 10−6 𝐾−1
⇒ mercury expands more readily compared to
glass.
‒ The differential expansion is seen as the liquid
column rises up the bore along the graduated
scale and this gives a quantitative indication of
temperature.

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Page 2 of 10 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes
‒ The liquids used in liquid-in-glass thermometers have certain properties, including:
i. They must not freeze at low temperatures.
ii. They should have a sufficiently high boiling point (so that they do not vaporize
at high temperatures).
iii. They must expand evenly with temperature in the range used – ensures an even
division of the scale.

‒ Most liquid-in-glass thermometers use ethanol (temperature measurement range

−115 °𝐶 to 78.5 °𝐶). Mercury (temperature measurement range −37 °𝐶 to 356 °𝐶)
is also used, though not as common as ethanol since it is poisonous.

‒ Therefore, the thermometric substance is liquid and the thermometric property is

expansion of the liquid.

Bimetallic thermometers
‒ Makes use of the differential expansion of two dissimilar solids (wires).

‒ Two flat strips of different metals are placed side by side and are welded together.

Metals such as invar (nickel-iron alloy, ∝𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑟 ~1.2 × 10−6 𝐾 −1 ) and copper
(∝𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 ~17 × 10−6 𝐾 −1 ).
‒ One of them is a low expanding metal and the other is high expanding metal.
Copper linearly expands more than invar (∝𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 ≫∝𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑟 ).

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Page 3 of 10 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes
‒ A common variant used in ovens:
‒ The bimetal strip
is coiled in the
form of a spiral.
‒ Due to rise in
temperature, the
curvature of the
strip changes.
‒ The differential
expansion of a
strip causes the
pointer to move
on the dial of the
thermometer.

‒ Another common variant used in air-conditioning systems:

‒ A bimetallic strip used as the
arm of a switch between
electrical contacts.
‒ As the room temperature
changes, the bimetallic strip
bends and when it bends far
enough, it makes contact with
electrical leads, which turn
air-conditioning on or off.

‒ Therefore, the thermometric substance is metal and the thermometric property is

expansion of the metal.

2. Pressure thermometers – make use of pressure change when a fluid confined in a

closed system is heated. the change in pressure is measured to infer temperature change.
They include gas-filled thermometers, liquid-filled thermometers and vapor pressure
thermometers.

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Page 4 of 10 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes
Gas-filled thermometers → constant volume gas thermometer
‒ Makes use of the differential expansion of gas and the containing glass.

- As the gas pressure increases with

temperature, the closed tube on the right
is raised to keep the mercury level at R,
hence maintaining a constant gas
volume.
- h becomes a measure of the gas
pressure and hence of temperature.
- The gas pressure and temperature are
linearly related.

‒ Therefore, the thermometric substance and the thermometric property is gas and
pressure of the gas respectively.
‒ The gases used are nitrogen and helium – both are chemically inert and their
coefficients of expansion are high.
‒ Suppose the gas used is an ideal gas,
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 where, 𝑛 ≡ number of moles and 𝑅 ≡ universal gas constant.
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅′ 𝑇 where, 𝑚 ≡ mass of the gas and 𝑅′ ≡ gas constant of the specific gas
used.
Since 𝑉 and 𝑚 are constant,
𝑃 = 𝑘𝑇 where, 𝑘 ≡ constant.

A pressure thermometer therefore measures temperature indirectly by measuring

pressure. The gage is a pressure gage, but is typically calibrated in units of
temperature instead.

Exercise: vapor and liquid-filled thermometers.

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Page 5 of 10 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes
3. Thermocouple thermometers - make use of differential temperature between two
ends of dissimilar metals to produce a potential difference and if one end has a known
temperature, the potential difference can infer the unknown temperature on the other
end.

‒ Two dissimilar metals are connected to have two ends and if these two ends are
maintained at different temperatures, a measurable electromotive force (emf) is
produced (thermoelectric emf) and this can be used to determine the temperature
difference between the two junctions.
‒ A potential difference (V1)
results when metal A and
metal B (two dissimilar
metals) are joined at a point.
‒ V1is a function of the
temperature at the joined
point/junction.
‒ If metal A and metal B are
joined at two places, two
junctions are formed.
‒ If the two junctions are at
different temperatures, there
will be a net emf in the circuit.
‒ A current will flow determined
by the emf and the total
resistance in the circuit.

‒ Cold junction/reference junction → end that is immersed into an environment

whose temperature is known e.g. an ice-bath.
‒ Hot junction/measuring junction → end that is immersed into an environment
whose temperature is unknown.
‒ Let TH and TC be temperatures at the hot and cold junctions respectively and the
corresponding voltages be VH and VC.

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Page 6 of 10 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes

The measured output voltage, VOUT, is the difference between VH and VC and
since VH and VC are generated by a temperature difference between the two
junctions, VOUT is also a function of this temperature difference.
Thus,
VOUT = VH − VC = α(TH − TC )

Where, α ≡ the Seebeck coefficient i.e. the scale factor which relates the voltage
difference to the temperature difference.

‒ Thermocouples are named based on metal combinations used to make them.

For instance,
Temperature
Type Positive Metal/Alloy Negative Metal/Alloy
Range (°C)
T Copper Constantan (Copper + Nickel) -200 to +350
J Iron Constantan 0 to +750
K Chromel (Chromium + Nickel) Alumel (Aluminium + Nickel) -200 to +1250
E Chromel Constantan -200 to +900

‒ Thermocouples find important applications in chemical plants, refineries, and

power plants, where they play the vital role of sending a signal back to the
control room so operators can monitor and control temperature.

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Page 7 of 10 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes
4. Thermoresistive thermometers – make use of change in electrical resistance of a
material when heated. The resistance change measured infers temperature change.

Two types: resistance temperature devices (RTDs) and thermistors.

Resistance temperature devices (RTDs)

‒ Based on metals
‒ Their electrical resistance increases linearly with increase in temperature. This is
likely to be different in different materials and it is, therefore, quantified by the
temperature coefficient of resistance (𝛼). Example:
Metal 𝜶 (/°C)
Aluminum 0.00429
Tungsten 0.0045
Iron 0.00651
Platinum 0.00393

‒ All metals exhibit a positive temperature coefficient of resistance (PTC).

‒ Platinum → though expensive than other suitable materials, it is the most preferred
metal for use in RTDs because it is chemically inert.
Other commonly used materials: copper (it is cheap) and BALCO (alloy of nickel
and iron).
‒ The relationship between electrical resistance (𝑅) and temperature (𝑇) for most
RTDs is given by,
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 [1 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 )]

Where, 𝛼 is the temperature coefficient of resistance, 𝑅𝑜 is the electrical resistance

at reference temperature 𝑇𝑜 .

Example:

1. The resistance of a platinum RTD is 100 Ω at 0°C, calculate its resistance at

60°C. Take αplatinum = 0.00393 °C-1.
Solution:
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 [1 + 𝛼𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 )]
𝑅 = 100 Ω[1 + 0.00393 °C−1 (60 °𝐶 − 0 °𝐶)] = 123.58 Ω

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Page 8 of 10 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes
2. The variation of resistance (𝑅) with temperature (𝑇) for a certain platinum RTD
is given by
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐴 ∙ 𝑇 + 𝐵 ∙ 𝑇 2 )
Where, Ro, A and B are constants determined by measurements at the ice point,
steam point and Sulphur point.
If the resistance is 10.000 Ω at ice point (0 °𝐶), 13.946 Ω at steam point
(100 °𝐶) and 24.817 Ω at Sulphur point (444.6 °𝐶), determine Ro, A and B.
Solution:
→ At ice point, 𝑇 = 0 °𝐶, 𝑅ice point = 10 Ω
10 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐴 ∙ 0 + 𝐵 ∙ 0)

𝑅𝑜 = 10 Ω

→ At steam point, 𝑇 = 100 °𝐶, 𝑅steam point = 13.946 Ω

13.946 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐴 ∙ 100 + 𝐵 ∙ 1002 )
13.946 = 10(1 + 100𝐴 + 10000𝐵)

13.946 = 10 + 1000𝐴 + 100000𝐵

3.946 = 1000𝐴 + 100000𝐵 -----------------------------1

→ At Sulphur point, 𝑇 = 444.6 °𝐶, 𝑅Sulphur point = 24.817 Ω

24.817 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐴 ∙ 4444.6 + 𝐵 ∙ 444.62 )
24.817 = 10(1 + 444.6𝐴 + 197.669 × 103 𝐵)

24.817 = 10 + 4446𝐴 + 197.669 × 104 𝐵

14.817 = 4446𝐴 + 197.669 × 104 𝐵 ----------------------2

→ From eq. 1,

𝐴 = 3.946 × 10−3 − 100𝐵 ----------------------------------3

→ Substituting eq. 3 into eq. 2 yields,

𝐵 = 6.133 × 10−6

→ Substituting 𝐵 into eq. 3 yields,

𝐴 = 3.33 × 10−3

Therefore, 𝑅𝑜 = 10 Ω, 𝐵 = 6.133 × 10−6 , 𝐴 = 3.33 × 10−3

Verify the answers obtained.
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Page 9 of 10 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes

Thermistors
‒ Based on semiconductors.
‒ They exhibit a large change in resistance over a relatively small range of
temperature. This relationship, however, is nonlinear and can be either resistance
increasing with increasing temperature (PTC), or resistance decreasing with
increasing temperature (NTC).
‒ NTC thermistors are common than PTC thermistors.
‒ Thermistor image:

5. Radiative thermometers – the energy emitted from an object (in form of infrared
radiation) is used to infer temperature.
Also known as pyrometers.
Two types: infrared pyrometers and optical pyrometers → both are non-contact.

Infrared pyrometers
‒ Operating principle → an object emits an amount of energy that is a function of its
temperature.
This function dictates that as the temperature of an object rises, so does the amount
of energy it emits.
‒ Infrared pyrometers determines temperature by measuring the intensity of the
energy given off by an object.

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Page 10 of 10 SPH 2202 – Thermal Physics I Lecture notes
‒ The construction of an infrared pyrometer includes a thermocouple:

‒ A mirror focuses the radiation on a

thermocouple. This energy raises
the thermocouple’s temperature,
and in turn generates a voltage.
‒ The generated voltage infers
temperature.
‒ Thus, rise of temperature is a
function of the amount of radiation
emitted from the object.

Optical pyrometers
‒ Operating principle → matter glows when its temperature is above 480 °C and the
colour of visible radiation is proportional to the temperature of the glowing matter.
The amount of light radiated from the glowing matter (solid or liquid) infers
temperature.
‒ Optical pyrometers are mostly used for the measurement of high temperatures.

NB: Supplement your learning from the lecture and lecture notes by independent study and discussions.