18MC406 - Metrology

and Measurements

Dr.A.Megalingam @ Murugan
Associate Professor
Department of Mechatronics
 Temperature measurement
Temperature
- a physical property of a material that gives a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecular
movement in an object or a system.
-as a condition of a body by virtue of which heat is transferred from one system to another.
-Temperature is a measure of the internal energy of a system, whereas heat is a measure of the transfer of
energy from one system to another.
-The rise in temperature of a body is due to greater absorption of heat, which increases the movement of the molecules
within the body.
 METHODS OF MEASURING TEMPERATURE

*Measurement of temperature cannot be done by directly as like length and mass.

*A standardized calibrated device or system is necessary to determine temperature.
Response of the temperature-sensing device is influenced by:
1. Thermal conductivity and heat capacity of an element
2. Surface area per unit mass of the element
3. Film coefficient of heat transfer
4. Mass velocity of a fluid surrounding the element
5. Thermal conductivity and heat capacity of the fluid surrounding the element.
Contact-type sensors Non-contact-type sensors
1. Thermocouples
2. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) 1. Radiation pyrometers
3. Thermistors 2. Optical pyrometers
4. Liquid-in-glass thermometers
5. Pressure thermometers
6. Bimetallic strip thermometers
 THERMOCOUPLES
*active sensors employed for the measurement of temperature.
In 1821, Thomas Johan Seebeck
*when two dissimilar metals are joined together
to form two junctions such that one junction is at a higher
temperature than the other junction a net emf is generated.
*Magnitude of emf generated is a function of the junction temperature and used materials.
*The thermoelectric emf is a result of the Peltier effect and the Thomson effect.
Peltier effect:potential difference always exists between two dissimilar metals in contact with each other.
Thomson effect :states that even in a single metal a potential gradient exists, provided there is a temperature
gradient exist.
The flow of current through the circuit is spontaneous when two dissimilar metals are joined together to form a
closed circuit, that is, a thermocouple, provided one junction is maintained at a temperature different from the
other( termed the Seebeck effect).

voltage increases as the temperature rises. Variations in emf are calibrated in terms of temperatures;
the devices employed to record these observations are termed thermocouple pyrometers.
 Laws of Thermocouples
(i)Law of Homogeneous Circuit
*a thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a single homogenous material, regardless of the
variation in its cross section and by the application of heat alone.
*suggests that two dissimilar materials are required for the formation of any thermocouple circuit.
(ii)Law of Intermediate Metals

*If these two additional junctions(R&S) are

maintained at the same temperature(T3),
* net emf of the thermocouple circuit
remains unaltered

(iii)Law of Intermediate Temperatures

*pertains to the calibration of the thermocouple

Thermocouple Materials

Base metals: measure up to 1000 °C.

Type K, TypeE , Type T, and Type J.

Noble metals: measures up to 2000 °C.

Type R, Type S, or Type B.
Thermopiles
*An extension of thermocouples.

*A thermopile comprises a number of thermocouples connected in series.

*Hot junctions are arranged side by side or in a star formation
*Total output is sum of individual emfs
*Measurement of temperature of sheet glass- thermopiles are constructed using a series of semiconductors

For average temperature measurement, thermocouples can be connected in parallel but hot junctions must
be insulated well.
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORs (RTD) or Resistance Thermometers
*Resistance of a metal increases with an increase in temperature.
*a temperature sensor where the resistance of electrically conductive material is proportional to the temperature
to which they are exposed.
*a temperature measuring device composed of a resistance thermometer element, internal connecting wires, a
protective shell with or without means for mounting a connection head, or connecting wire or other fittings.
*Materials: platinum(mostly preferred),nickel, and copper, which are contained in a bulb ; Temp :200 to 650 °C

wire-wound RTD

*number of turns of resistance wire wrapped around a

Thin film RTD
Deposit thin film of platinum on a
small flat ceramic substrate
solid silver core.
*Transmission of heat takes place quickly from the end
flange through the core to the winding.
 THERMISTORS
*Semiconductors that are used to measure temperature
*resistance decreases with increase in temperature

*valence electrons, which are mutually shared by the metal atoms, move continuously and freely through the
metal during their movement from atom to atom.
*vibration in the crystal lattice of atoms increases with the increase in temperature. The free movement of
electrons becomes restricted due to an increase in the volume of space occupied by the atoms.
* valence electrons are attached more firmly to the atoms; some of the electrons are detached and flow due to
the increase in temperature, which decreases electrical resistance facilitating the easy flow of electrons.

*Materials : have very high temperature coefficients (8–10 times

higher than platinum and copper) and high resistivity (higher than
any pure metal).
[oxides of manganese, nickel cobalt, nickel copper]
*very sensitive to small variations in temperature and respond very
quickly.
 LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETERS

*walls of the bulb should be thin in order to facilitate quick transfer of heat.

*For quick response, the volume of liquid should be small.

*Larger the volume of the liquid, the higher the sensitivity.

*accuracy of this type of thermometers is around 0.1 °C

PRESSURE THERMOMETERS
*thermal expansion of the matter due to change in temperature is
to be measured
*bulb filled with a liquid, vapour, or gas; a flexible capillary tube; and a bourdon
tube
*Due to variation in temperature, the pressure and volume of the system
change and the fluid either expands or contracts.
*bourdon tube to move or uncoil, which actuates the needle on the scale, thus
providing a measure of the temperature.

*Increasing the bulb size reduces the time response of the system but does
not degrade the response.
 BIMETALLIC STRIP THERMOMETERS

*different metals expand and contract to different degrees, depending on the coefficient of expansion of the
individual metals.

*difference in the expansion of two metals, which makes the strip bend, is a measure of temperature

*lateral displacement in both the metals is much larger than the small longitudinal expansion
* are used for sensing temperature of hot water pipes

(a) Normal condition (b) Cold condition (c) Hot condition

 PYROMETRY
*pyro stands for ‘fire’ and metron means ‘to measure’.
*are carried out either by measuring energy radiated by a hot body or by colour comparison
*all bodies above absolute zero radiate energy, and radiation does not require any medium.
*When heat is radiated by a body at a given intensity, radiation is emitted across a spectrum of wavelengths.
*Radiation intensity is directly proportional to temperature
*When radiation intensity falls-corresponding increase in the wavelength of radiation.

Stefan–Boltzmann law: total energy radiated by a black body is a function of its absolute temperature

*The pyrometer receives energy that is equivalent to the energy emitted by a perfect black body radiating at T.
*This temperature is lower than the temperature of the body under consideration.
* the energy emitted by a non-black body is given by the equation E = eσT4a
Hence, eT4a = T4
With the help of this equation, the value of Ta can be determined.
 TOTAL RADIATION PYROMETER
measure of temperature by evaluating the heat radiation
emitted by a body

Heat energy emitted from the hot body

is focused by an optical system onto the detector(thermocouple).
measurement of temperature in corrosive environments

Optical Pyrometer

*the red wavelength from the hot body is compared with the radiation of a
similar wavelength emitted by an electric lamp
Thank you