Math in Focus Year 11 2 Unit Ch5 Functions and Graphs PDF

5
Functions and
Graphs
TERMINOLOGY
Arc of a curve: Part or a section of a curve between two
points
Even function: An even function has line symmetry

(reflection) about the y-axis, and f ] - x g = - f ] x g
Asymptote: A line towards which a curve approaches but

never touches
Function: For each value of the independent variable x,

there is exactly one value of y, the dependent variable.
A vertical line test can be used to determine if a
relationship is a function
Cartesian coordinates: Named after Descartes. A system of

locating points (x, y) on a number plane. Point (x, y) has
Cartesian coordinates x and y
Curve: Another word for arc. When a function consists
of all values of x on an interval, the graph of y = f ] x g is
called a curve y = f ] x g
Dependent variable: A variable is a symbol that can
represent any value in a set of values. A dependent
variable is a variable whose value depends on the value
chosen for the independent variable
Direct relationship: Occurs when one variable varies
directly with another i.e. as one variable increases, so
does the other or as one variable decreases so does
the other
Discrete: Separate values of a variable rather than a
continuum. The values are distinct and unrelated
Domain: The set of possible values of x in a given domain
for which a function is defined
Independent variable: A variable is independent if it may

be chosen freely within the domain of the function
Odd function: An odd function has rotational symmetry
about the origin (0, 0) and where f ] - x g = - f ] x g
Ordered pair: A pair of variables, one independent and
one dependent, that together make up a single point in
the number plane, usually written in the form (x, y)
Ordinates: The vertical or y coordinates of a point are
called ordinates
Range: The set of real numbers that the dependent
variable y can take over the domain (sometimes called
the image of the function)
Vertical line test: A vertical line will only cut the graph of
a function in at most one point. If the vertical line cuts
the graph in more than one point, it is not a function
Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs
INTRODUCTION
FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS are used in many areas, such as mathematics,
science and economics. In this chapter you will study functions, function
notation and how to sketch graphs. Some of these graphs will be studied in
more detail in later chapters.
DID YOU KNOW?

The number plane is called the Cartesian plane after Rene
Descartes (15961650). He was known as one of the first
modern mathematicians along with Pierre de Fermat
(16011665). Descartes used the number plane to develop
analytical geometry. He discovered that any equation
with two unknown variables can be represented by a line.
The points in the number plane can be called Cartesian
coordinates.
Descartes used letters at the beginning of the
alphabet to stand for numbers that are known, and letters
near the end of the alphabet for unknown numbers. This is
why we still use x and y so often!
Do a search on Descartes to find out more details of
his life and work.
Descartes
Functions
Denition of a function
Many examples of functions exist both in mathematics and in real life. These
occur when we compare two different quantities. These quantities are called
variables since they vary or take on different values according to some pattern.
We put these two variables into a grouping called an ordered pair.
201
202
Maths In Focus Mathematics Preliminary Course
EXAMPLES
1. Eye colour
Name
Anne
Colour Blue
Jacquie Donna Hien
Marco
Russell
Trang
Brown
Green
Brown
Brown
Grey
Brown
Ordered pairs are (Anne, Blue), (Jacquie, Brown), (Donna, Grey), (Hien,
Brown), (Marco, Green), (Russell, Brown) and (Trang, Brown).
2. y = x + 1
x
The ordered pairs are (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4) and (4, 5).
3.
A
C
3
D
4
The ordered pairs are (A, 1), (B, 1), (C, 4), (D, 3) and (E, 2).
Notice that in all the examples, there was only one ordered pair for each
variable. For example, it would not make sense for Anne to have both blue
and brown eyes! (Although in rare cases some people have one eye thats a
different colour from the other.)
A relation is a set of ordered points (x, y) where the variables x and y are
related according to some rule.
A function is a special type of relation. It is like a machine where for
every INPUT there is only one OUTPUT.
INPUT
PROCESS
OUTPUT
The rst variable (INPUT) is called the independent variable and the
second (OUTPUT) the dependent variable. The process is a rule or pattern.
For example, in y = x + 1, we can use any number for x (the independent

variable), say x = 3.
When x = 3
y=3+1
=4
As this value of y depends on the number we choose for x, y is called the
dependent variable.
A function is a relationship between two variables where for

every independent variable, there is only one dependent variable.
This means that for every x value, there is only one y value.
Investigation
When we graph functions in mathematics, the independent variable
(usually the x-value) is on the horizontal axis while the dependent
variable (usually the y-value) is on the vertical axis.
In other areas, the dependent variable goes on the horizontal axis. Find
out in which subjects this happens at school by surveying teachers or
students in different subjects. Research different types of graphs on the
Internet to nd some examples.
Here is an example of a relationship that is NOT a function. Can you see the
difference between this example and the previous ones?
A
B
1
2
C
3
D
E
In this example the ordered pairs are (A, 1), (A, 2), (B, 1), (C, 4), (D, 3)
and (E, 2).
Notice that A has two dependent variables, 1 and 2. This means that it is
NOT a function.
While we often call the

independent variable
x and the dependent
variable y, there are other
pronumerals we could
use. You will meet some
of these in this course.
203
204
Here are two examples of graphs on a number plane.

1.
2.
There is a very simple test to see if these graphs are functions. Notice that
in the rst example, there are two values of y when x = 0. The y-axis passes
through both these points.
y
There are also other x values that give two y values around the curve. If
we drew a vertical line anywhere along the curve, it would cross the curve in
two places everywhere except one point. Can you see where this is?
In the second graph, a vertical line would only ever cross the curve in one
place.
So when a vertical line cuts a graph in more than one place, it shows that
it is not a function.
If a vertical line cuts a graph only once anywhere along the graph, the
graph is a function.
y
If a vertical line cuts a graph in more than one place anywhere along the
graph, the graph is not a function.
y
205
206
EXAMPLES
1. Is this graph a function?
Solution
You will learn how to sketch these

graphs later in this chapter.
A vertical line only cuts the graph once. So the graph is a function.
2. Is this circle a function?
Solution
A vertical line can cut the curve in more than one place. So the circle is
not a function.
3. Does this set of ordered pairs represent a function?

^ - 2 , 3 h , ^ - 1, 4 h , ^ 0 , 5 h , ^ 1 , 3 h , ^ 2 , 4 h
Solution
For each x value there is only one y value, so this set of ordered pairs is a
function.
4. Is this a function?
y
Solution
y
Although it looks like this is not a function, the open circle at x = 3 on

the top line means that x = 3 is not included, while the closed circle on
the bottom line means that x = 3 is included on this line.
So a vertical line only touches the graph once at x = 3. The graph is
a function.
207
208
5.1 Exercises
Which of these curves are functions?
1.
6.
2.
7.
3.
8.
4.
9.
^ 1, 3 h, ^ 2, -1 h, ^ 3, 3 h, ^ 4, 0 h
10. ^ 1, 3 h, ^ 2, -1 h, ^ 2, 7 h, ^ 4, 0 h
11.
5.
12.
13.
14. Name Ben

Paul
Pierre Hamish Jacob
Lee
Pierre
Lien
Sport Tennis Football Tennis Football Football Badminton Football Badminton
15. A
Function notation
If y depends on what value we give x in a function, then we can say that y is a
function of x. We can write this as y = f ] x g.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of y when x = 3 in the equation y = x + 1.
Solution
When x = 3:
y = x +1
= 3+1
=4
2. If f ] x g = x + 1, evaluate f (3).
Solution
f ]x g = x + 1
f ]3 g = 3 + 1
=4
Notice that these two examples are asking for the same value and f (3) is
the value of the function when x = 3.
If y = f ] x g then f (a) is the value of y at the point on the function where x = a
209
210
EXAMPLES
1. If f ] x g = x 2 + 3x + 1, nd f ] - 2 g .
Solution
This is the same as finding y
when x = - 2.
f ( - 2) = ] - 2 g 2 + 3 (- 2) + 1
=4-6+1
= -1
2. If f ] x g = x 3 - x 2, nd the value of f ] - 1 g .
Solution
f (x) = x 3 - x 2
f (- 1) = ] - 1 g 3 - ] - 1 g 2
= -1 - 1
= -2
3. Find the values of x for which f ] x g = 0, given that f ] x g = x 2 + 3x - 10.
Solution
f (x) = 0
Putting f (x) = 0 is different
from finding f (0) . Follow
this example carefully.
i.e.
x + 3x - 10 = 0
( x + 5 ) ( x - 2) = 0
x + 5 = 0,
x-2=0
x = -5
x=2
2
4. Find f ] 3 g, f ] 2 g, f ] 0 g and f ] - 4 g if f ] x g is dened as

3x + 4 when x $ 2
f ]x g = )
- 2x
when x 1 2.
Use f (x) = 3x + 4 when
x is 2 or more, and use
f (x) = - 2x when x is less
than 2.
Solution
f (3 ) = 3 ( 3) + 4
= 13
f (2 ) = 3 ( 2) + 4
= 10
f (0) = - 2 (0)
=0
f (- 4) = - 2 ( - 4)
=8
5. Find the value of
x2
g ] x g = * 2x - 1
5
since
3$2
since
2$2
since
012
since -4 1 2
g ] 1 g + g ] - 2 g - g ] 3 g if
when x 2 2
when - 1 # x # 2
when x 1 - 1
211
Solution
g (1 ) = 2 ( 1) - 1
=1
g (- 2) = 5
since -1 # 1 # 2
since - 2 1 - 1
g (3) = 3
since 3 2 2
=9
So g (1) + g (- 2) - g (3) = 1 + 5 - 9
= -3
2
DID YOU KNOW?

Leonhard Euler (170783), from Switzerland, studied functions and invented the term
f (x) for function notation. He studied theology, astronomy, medicine, physics and oriental
languages as well as mathematics, and wrote more than 500 books and articles on
mathematics. He found time between books to marry and have 13 children, and even when
he went blind he kept on having books published.
5.2 Exercises
1.
Given f ] x g = x + 3, nd f ] 1 g and
f ]-3 g.
10. If f ] x g = 2x - 9, nd f ^ p h and
f ]x + h g.
2.
If h ] x g = x 2 - 2, nd h ] 0 g, h ] 2 g
and h ] - 4 g .
11. Find g ] x - 1 g when

g ] x g = x 2 + 2x + 3.
3.
If f ] x g = - x 2, nd f ] 5 g, f ] - 1 g, f ] 3 g
and f ] - 2 g .
12. If f ] x g = x 3 - 1, nd f ] k g as a
product of factors.
4.
Find the value of f ] 0 g + f ] - 2 g if

f ] x g = x 4 - x 2 + 1.
5.
Find f ] - 3 g if f ] x g = 2x 3 - 5x + 4.
13. Given f ] t g = t 2 + 2t + 1, nd
t when f ] t g = 0. Also nd any
values of t for which f ] t g = 9.
6.
If f ] x g = 2x - 5, nd x when
f ] x g = 13.
7.
Given f ] x g = x + 3, nd any
values of x for which f ] x g = 28.
15. f ] x g = )
8.
If f ] x g = 3 x, nd x when
1
f ]x g =
.
27
9.
Find values of z for which

f ] z g = 5 given f ] z g = 2z + 3 .
Z 2x - 4 if x $ 1
]
16. f ] x g = [x + 3
if -1 1 x 1 1
] 2
x
if x # -1
\
Find the values of
14. Given f ] t g = t 4 + t 2 - 5, nd the

value of f ] b g - f ] - b g .
x3
for x 2 1
x
for x # 1
Find f ] 5 g, f ] 1 g and ] - 1 g .
f ] 2 g - f ] - 2 g + f ] -1 g .
We can use pronumerals

other than f for functions.
212
17. Find g ] 3 g + g ] 0 g + g ] - 2 g if
x+1
when x $ 0
g ]x g = )
- 2x + 1 when x 1 0
18. Find the value of
f ] 3 g - f ] 2 g + 2f ] - 3 g when
x
for x 2 2
f ]x g = * x
4
for -2 # x # 2
for x 1 -2
19. Find the value of f ] - 1 g - f ] 3 g

if f (x) = *
20. If f ] x g =
x3 - 1
2x 2 + 3x - 1
for x $ 2
for x 1 2
x 2 - 2x - 3
x-3
(a) evaluate f (2)

(b) explain why the function
does not exist for x = 3
(c) by taking several x values
close to 3, nd the value of y that
the function is moving towards
as x moves towards 3.
21. If f ] x g = x 2 5x + 4, nd
f ] x + h g - f ] x g in its simplest
form.
f ]x + h g - f ]x g
22. Simplify
where
h
f ] x g = 2x 2 + x
23. If f ] x g = 5x - 4, nd f ] x g - f ] c g
in its simplest form.
24. Find the value of f ^ k 2 h if
3x + 5
for x $ 0
f ]x g = * 2
x
for x 1 0
Z 3
25. If
when x $ 3
]x
f ] x g = [5
when 0 1 x 1 3
] 2
x - x + 2 when x # 0
\
evaluate
(a) f (0)
(b) f ] 2 g - f ] 1 g
(c) f ^ - n 2 h
Graphing Techniques
You may have previously learned how to draw graphs by completing a table
of values and then plotting points. In this course, you will learn some other
techniques that will allow you to sketch graphs by showing their important
features.
Intercepts
One of the most useful techniques is to nd the x- and y-intercepts.
Everywhere on the x-axis,

y = 0 and everywhere on
the y-axis x = 0 .
For x-intercept, y = 0
For y-intercept, x = 0
213
EXAMPLE
Find the x- and y-intercepts of the function f ] x g = x 2 + 7x - 8.
Solution
This is the same as

y = x 2 + 7x - 8.
For x-intercept: y = 0
0 = x 2 + 7x - 8
= ]x + 8 g]x - 1 g
x + 8 = 0,
x-1=0
x = - 8,
x=1
For y-intercept: x = 0
You will use the intercepts

to draw graphs in the next
section in this chapter.
y = ] 0 g2 + 7 ] 0 g - 8
= -8
Domain and range

You have already seen that the x-coordinate is called the independent variable
and the y-coordinate is the dependent variable.
The set of all real numbers x for which a function is dened is called the
domain.
The set of real values for y or f (x) as x varies is called the range (or
image) of f.
EXAMPLE
Find the domain and range of f ] x g = x 2 .
Solution
You can see the domain and range from the graph, which is the parabola y = x 2 .
y
CONTINUED
214
Notice that the parabola curves outwards gradually, and will take on any
real value for x. However, it is always on or above the x-axis.
Domain: {all real x}
Range: {y: y $ 0}
You can also nd the domain and range from the equation y = x 2. Notice
that you can substitute any value for x and you will nd a value of y.
However, all the y-values are positive or zero since squaring any number
will give a positive answer (except zero).
Odd and even functions

When you draw a graph, it can help to know some of its properties, for
example, whether it is increasing or decreasing on an interval or arc of the
curve (part of the curve lying between two points).
If a curve is increasing, as x increases, so does y, and the curve is moving
upwards, looking from left to right.
If a curve is decreasing, then as x increases, y decreases and the curve

moves downwards from left to right.
215
EXAMPLES
1. State the domain over which each curve is increasing and decreasing.
y
x2
x1
x3
The curve isnt increasing or

decreasing at x2. We say that it is
stationary at that point. You will
study stationary points and further
curve sketching in the HSC Course.
Solution
The left-hand side of the parabola is decreasing and the right side is
increasing.
So the curve is increasing for x 2 x2 and the curve is decreasing when
x 1 x2.
2.
y
x1
x2
x3
Solution
The left-hand side of the curve is increasing until it reaches the y-axis
(where x = 0). It then turns around and decreases until x3 and then
increases again.
So the curve is increasing for x 1 0, x 2 x 3 and the curve is
decreasing for 0 1 x 1 x 3 .
Notice that the curve is

stationary at x = 0 and x = x 3 .
216
As well as looking at where the curve is increasing and decreasing, we can

see if the curve is symmetrical in some way. You have already seen that the
parabola is symmetrical in earlier stages of mathematics and you have learned
how to nd the axis of symmetry. Other types of graphs can also be symmetrical.
Functions are even if they are symmetrical about the y-axis. They have
line symmetry (reection) about the y-axis.
This is an even function:
y
For even functions, f ] x g = f ] - x g for all values of x.

Functions are odd if they have point symmetry about the origin. A graph
rotated 180 about the origin gives the original graph.
This is an odd function:
y
For odd functions, f ] - x g = - f ] x g for all values of x in the domain.
217
EXAMPLES
1. Show that f ] x g = x 2 + 3 is an even function.
Solution
f ] - x g = ] - x g2 + 3
= x2 + 3
= f ]x g
` f ] x g = x 2 + 3 is an even function
2. Show that f ] x g = x 3 - x is an odd function.
Solution
f ] - x g = ] - x g3 - ] - x g
= -x3 + x
= - ^ x3 - x h
= -f ]x g
` f ] x g = x 3 - x is an odd function
Investigation
Explore the family of graphs of f ] x g = x n.
For what values of n is the function even?
For what values of n is the function odd?
Which families of functions are still even or odd given k? Let k take on
different values, both positive and negative.
1. f ] x g = kx n
2. f ] x g = x n + k
3. f ] x g = ] x + k gn
5.3 Exercises
1.
Find the x- and y-intercept of

each function.
(a) y = 3x - 2
(b) 2x - 5y + 20 = 0
(c) x + 3y - 12 = 0
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
f ] x g = x 2 + 3x
f ] x g = x2 - 4
p ] x g = x 2 + 5x + 6
y = x 2 - 8x + 15
p ] x g = x3 + 5
k is called a parameter.
Some graphics calculators
and computer programs use
parameters to show how
changing values of k change the
shape of graphs.
218
x+3
]x ! 0 g
x
2
(j) g ] x g = 9 - x
(i) y =
2.
Show that f ] x g = f ] - x g where

f ] x g = x 2 - 2. What type of
function is it?
3.
If f ] x g = x 3 + 1, nd
(a) f ^ x 2 h
(b) 6 f (x) @ 2
(c) f ] - x g
(d) Is it an even or odd function?
4.
Show that g ] x g = x 8 + 3x 4 - 2x 2 is
an even function.
5.
Show that f (x) is odd, where

f ] x g = x.
6.
Show that f ] x g = x 2 - 1 is an even

function.
7.
Show that f ] x g = 4x - x 3 is an
odd function.
8.
Prove that f ] x g = x 4 + x 2 is an
even function and hence nd
f ]x g - f ]-x g.
9.
Are these functions even, odd or

neither?
x3
(a) y = 4
x - x2
1
(b) y = 3
x -1
3
(c) f ] x g = 2
x -4
x-3
(d) y =
x+3
x3
(e) f ] x g = 5
x - x2
10. If n is a positive integer, for

what values of n is the function
f ] x g = xn
(a) even?
(b) odd?
11. Can the function f ] x g = x n + x
ever be
(a) even?
(b) odd?
12. For the functions below, state

(i) the domain over which the
graph is increasing
(ii) the domain over which
the graph is decreasing
(iii) whether the graph is odd,
even or neither.
y
(a)
(b)
(c)
-2
(d)
(e)
4
2
-2
-1
-2
-4
Investigation
Use a graphics calculator or a computer with graphing software to sketch
graphs and explore what effect different constants have on each type of
graph.
If your calculator or computer does not have the ability to use parameters
(this may be called dynamic graphing), simply draw different graphs by
choosing several values for k. Make sure you include positive and negative
numbers and fractions for k.
Alternatively, you may sketch these by hand.
1. Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k.
(a) y = kx
(b) y = kx 2
(c) y = kx 3
(d) y = kx 4
k
(e) y = x
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs? Could you give a
general comment about y = k f ] x g?
(a) y = ] x + k g 2
(b) y = x 2 + k
(c) y = x 3 + k
(d) y = x 4 + k
1
(e) y = x + k
general comment about y = f ] x g + k?
CONTINUED
219
220

(a) y = x + k
(b) y = ] x + k g2
(c) y = ] x + k g3
(d) y = ] x + k g4
1
(e) y =
x+k
general comment about y = f ] x + k g?
When k 2 0 , the graph

moves to the left and when
k 1 0 , the graph moves to
the right.
For the family of functions y = k f ] x g, as k varies, the function changes

its slope or steepness.
For the family of functions y = f ] x g + k, as k varies, the graph moves up
or down (vertical translation).
For the family of functions y = f ] x + k g, as k varies, the graph moves left
or right (horizontal translation).
Notice that the shape of most graphs is generally the same regardless of the
parameter k. For example, the parabola still has the same shape even though it
may be narrower or wider or upside down.
This means that if you know the shape of a graph by looking at its
equation, you can sketch it easily by using some of the graphing techniques in
this chapter rather than a time-consuming table of values. It also helps you to
understand graphs more and makes it easier to nd the domain and range.
You have already sketched some of these graphs in previous years.
Linear Function
A linear function is a function whose graph is a straight line.
Gradient form:
y = mx + b has gradient m and y-intercept b
General form:
ax + by + c = 0
Investigation
Are straight line graphs always functions? Can you nd an example of a
straight line that is not a function?
Are there any odd or even straight lines? What are their equations?
221
Use a graphics calculator or a computer with dynamic graphing capability

to explore the effect of a parameter on a linear function, or choose
different values of k (both positive and negative).
Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k
1. y = kx
2. y = x + k
3. y = mx + b where m and b are both parameters
What effect do the parameters m and b have on these graphs?
EXAMPLE
Sketch the function f ] x g = 3x - 5 and state its domain and range.
Solution
This is a linear function. It could be written as y = 3x - 5.
Find the intercepts
y
6
0 = 3x - 5
5
5 = 3x
4
2
=x
3
1
y = 3 ]0 g - 5
= -5
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 23
1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Notice that the line extends over the whole of the number plane, so that
it covers all real numbers for both the domain and range.
Range: {all real y}
The linear function ax + by + c = 0 has domain {all real x}

and range {all real y} where a and b are non-zero
Special lines
Horizontal and vertical lines have special equations.
Notice too, that you can

substitute any real number
into the equation of the
function for x, and any real
number is possible for y.
222
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch y = 2 on a number plane. What is its domain and range?
Solution
x can be any value and y is always 2.
Some of the points on the line will be (0, 2), (1, 2) and (2, 2).
This gives a horizontal line with y-intercept 2.
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1 -1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Domain: " all real x ,

Range: " y: y = 2 ,
2. Sketch x = - 1 on a number plane and state its domain and range.
Solution
y can be any value and x is always - 1.
Some of the points on the line will be ^ - 1, 0 h, ^ - 1, 1 h and ^ - 1, 2 h .
This gives a vertical line with x-intercept - 1.
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Domain: " x: x = - 1 ,
Range: " all real y ,
x = a is a vertical line with x-intercept a

Domain: ! x: x = a +
Range: {all real y}
y = b is a horizontal line with y-intercept b
Range: " y: y = b ,
5.4 Exercises
1.
Find the x- and y-intercepts of

each function.
(a) y = x - 2
(b) f ] x g = 2x + 3
(c) 2x + y - 1 = 0
(d) x - y + 3 = 0
(e) 3x - 6y - 2 = 0
2.
Draw the graph of each straight

line.
(a) x = 4
(b) x - 3 = 0
(c) y = 5
(d) y + 1 = 0
(e) f ] x g = 2x - 1
(f) y = x + 4
(g) f ] x g = 3x + 2
(h) x + y = 3
(i) x - y - 1 = 0
(j) 2x + y - 3 = 0
3.
Find the domain and range of

(a) 3x - 2y + 7 = 0
(b) y = 2
(c) x = - 4
(d) x - 2 = 0
(e) 3 - y = 0
4.
Which of these linear functions

are even or odd?
(a) y = 2x
(b) y = 3
(c) x = 4
(d) y = - x
(e) y = x
5.
By sketching x - y - 4 = 0 and
2x + 3y - 3 = 0 on the same set
of axes, nd the point where they
meet.
223
224
Quadratic Function
The quadratic function gives the graph of a parabola.
f ] x g = ax 2 + bx + c is the general equation of a parabola.

If a 2 0 the parabola is concave upwards
If a 1 0 the parabola is concave downwards
The pronumeral
a is called the
coefficient of x 2.
Applications
The parabola shape is used in many different applications as it has special
properties that are very useful. For example if a light is placed inside the parabola
at a special place (called the focus), then all light rays coming from this light and
bouncing off the parabola shape will radiate out parallel to each other, giving a
strong light. This is how car headlights work. Satellite dishes also use this property
of the parabola, as sound coming in to the dish will bounce back to the focus.
The lens in a camera and glasses are also parabola shaped. Some bridges look
like they are shaped like a parabola, but they are often based on the catenary.
Research the parabola and catenary on the Internet for further information.
Investigation
Is the parabola always a function? Can you nd an example of a parabola
that is not a function?
to explore the effect of a parameter on a quadratic function, or choose
different values of k (both positive and negative).
Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k.
1. y = kx 2
2. y = x 2 + k
3. y = ] x + k g2
4. y = x 2 + kx
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs?
Which of these families are even functions? Are there any odd quadratic
functions?
225
226
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Sketch the graph of y = x 2 - 1, showing intercepts.
(b) State the domain and range.
Solution
(a) This is the graph of a parabola. Since a 2 0, it is concave upward
0=x -1
1 = x2
!1 = x
2
y = 02 - 1
= -1
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
(b) From the graph, the curve is moving outwards and will extend
to all real x values. The minimum y value is - 1.
Range: " y: y $ -1 ,
2. Sketch f ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2.
Solution
This is a quadratic function. We nd the intercepts to see where the
parabola will lie.
Alternatively, you may know from your work on parameters that
f ] x g = ] x + a g 2 will move the function f ] x g = x 2 horizontally a units to the
left.
So f ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2 moves the parabola f ] x g = x 2 1 unit to the left.
0 = ]x + 1 g2
x+1=0
x = -1
y = ]0 + 1 g2
=1
227
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
3. For the quadratic function f ] x g = x 2 + x - 6

(a) Find the x- and y-intercepts
(b) Find the minimum value of the function
(c) State the domain and range
(d) For what values of x is the curve decreasing?
Solution
(a) For x-intercept: y = 0
This means f ] x g = 0
0 = x2 + x - 6
= ]x + 3 g]x - 2 g
x + 3 = 0, x - 2 = 0
x = - 3, x = 2
f ] 0 g = ] 0 g2 + ] 0 g - 6
= -6
(b) Since a 2 0, the quadratic function has a minimum value.
Since the parabola is symmetrical, this will lie halfway between the
x-intercepts.
Halfway between x = - 3 and x = 2:
-3 + 2
1
=2
2
1
Minimum value is f c - m
2
1
1 2
1
f c- m = c- m + c- m - 6
2
2
2
1 1
= - -6
4 2
1
= -6
4
1
So the minimum value is - 6 .
4
CONTINUED
You will learn more

about this in Chapter 9.
228
(c) Sketching the quadratic function gives a concave upward parabola.

y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-1 , -6 14
2
From the graph, notice that the parabola is gradually going outwards and
will include all real x values.
Since the minimum value is - 6 1 , all y values are greater than this.
4
1
Range: ' y: y $ -6 1
4
(d) The curve decreases down to the minimum point and then
1
increases. So the curve is decreasing for all x 1 - .
2
4. (a) Find the x- and y-intercepts and the maximum value of the
quadratic function f ] x g = - x 2 + 4x + 5.
(b) Sketch the function and state the domain and range.
(c) For what values of x is the curve increasing?
Solution
(a) For x-intercept: y = 0
So
f ]x g = 0
0 = - x 2 + 4x + 5
x 2 - 4x - 5 = 0
]x - 5 g]x + 1 g = 0
x - 5 = 0, x + 1 = 0
x = 5,
x = -1
f ] 0 g = - ] 0 g2 + 4 ] 0 g + 5
=5
Since a 1 0, the quadratic function is concave downwards and has a

maximum value halfway between the x-intercepts x = - 1 and x = 5.
-1 + 5
=2
2
f ]2 g = -]2 g 2+ 4 ]2 g + 5
=9
So the maximum value is 9.
(b) Sketching the quadratic function gives a concave downward parabola.
y
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1 -1
-2
-3
-4
-5
From the graph, the function can take on all real numbers for x, but the
maximum value for y is 9.
Range: " y: y # 9 ,
(c) From the graph, the function is increasing on the left of the
maximum point and decreasing on the right.
So the function is increasing when x 1 2.
5.5 Exercises
1.

each function.
(a) y = x 2 + 2x
(b) y = - x 2 + 3x
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - 1
(d) y = x 2 - x - 2
(e) y = x 2 - 9x + 8
2.
Sketch
(a) y = x 2 + 2
(b) y = - x 2 + 1
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - 4
2
(d) y = x + 2x
(e) y = - x 2 - x
(f) f ] x g = ] x - 3 g 2
229
230
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
3.
f ] x g = ] x + 1 g2
y = x 2 + 3x - 4
y = 2x 2 - 5 x + 3
f ] x g = - x 2 + 3x - 2
For each parabola, nd

(i) the x- and y-intercepts
(ii) the domain and range
(a) y = x 2 7x + 12
(b) f ] x g = x 2 + 4x
(c) y = x 2 - 2x - 8
(d) y = x 2 - 6x + 9
(e) f ] t g = 4 - t 2
4.

(a) y = x 2 - 5
(b) f ] x g = x 2 - 6x
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - x - 2
(d) y = - x 2
(e) f ] x g = ] x - 7 g 2
5.
Find the range of each function

over the given domain.
(a) y = x 2 for 0 # x # 3
(b) y = - x 2 + 4 for -1 # x # 2
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - 1 for -2 # x # 5
(d) y = x 2 + 2x - 3 for -2 # x # 4
(e) y = - x 2 - x + 2 for 0 # x # 4
6.
Find the domain over which each

function is
(i) increasing
(ii) decreasing
(a) y = x 2
(b) y = - x 2
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - 9
(d) y = - x 2 + 4x
(e) f ] x g = ] x + 5 g2
7.
Show that f ] x g = - x 2 is an even

function.
8.
State whether these functions are

even or odd or neither.
(a) y = x 2 + 1
(b) f ] x g = x 2 - 3
(c) y = -2x 2
(d) f ] x g = x 2 - 3x
(e) f ] x g = x 2 + x
(f) y = x 2 - 4
(g) y = x 2 - 2x - 3
(h) y = x 2 - 5x + 4
(i) p ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2
(j) y = ] x - 2 g 2
Absolute Value Function

You may not have seen the graphs of absolute functions before. If you are not
sure about what they look like, you can use a table of values or look at the
denition of absolute value.
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch f ] x g = x - 1 and state its domain and range.
Solution
Method 1: Table of values
When sketching any new graph for the rst time, you can use a table of
values. A good selection of values is -3 # x # 3 but if these dont give
enough information, you can nd other values.
e.g. When x = -3:

y = | -3 | -1
=3-1
=2
x
-3
-2
-1
-1
This gives a v-shaped graph.

y
5
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Method 2: Use the denition of absolute value

when x $ 0
x-1
y = | x | - 1 = &x - 1 when x 1 0
This gives 2 straight line graphs:
y = x - 1 ]x $ 0 g
y
5
y=x-1
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
CONTINUED
231
232
y = -x - 1 ] x 1 0 g
y
y=-x-1
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Draw these on the same number plane and then disregard the dotted
lines to get the graph shown in method 1.
y
y = -x - 1
y=x-1
4
3
2
1
-4 -3
-2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Method 3: If you know the shape of the absolute value functions, nd the
intercepts.
So f ] x g = 0
0 = | x |- 1
1 =| x |
` x = !1
f (0) = | 0 | - 1
= -1
The graph is V-shaped, passing through these intercepts.

y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3
-2 -1
-1
x
If you already know how
to sketch the graph of
y = | x | , translate the
graph of y = | x | - 1
down 1 unit, giving it a
y-intercept of -1.
-2
-3
-4
-5
From the graph, notice that x values can be any real number while the
minimum value of y is - 1.
Range: {y: y $ -1}
2. Sketch y = | x + 2 | .
Solution
Method 1: Use the denition of absolute value.
+2
when x + 2 $ 0
y = | x + 2 | = 'x
- (x + 2) when x + 2 1 0
This gives 2 straight lines:
y = x + 2 when x + 2 $ 0
x $ -2
y
5
y=x+2
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
CONTINUED
233
234
y = - ] x + 2 g when x + 2 1 0
i.e. y = - x - 2 when
x 1 -2
y
5
4
y = -x - 2
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Draw these on the same number plane and then disregard the dotted lines.
y
5
y = -x - 2
y=x+2
4
3
2
1
-4 -3
-2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Method 2: Find intercepts

So f ] x g = 0
There is only one
solution for the
equation | x + 2 | = 0.
Can you see why?
0 =| x + 2 |
0=x+2
-2 = x
f (0) = | 0 + 2 |
=2
The graph is V-shaped, passing through these intercepts.

y
5
4
3
2
1
-4
-3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Investigation
Are graphs that involve absolute value always functions? Can you nd an
example of one that is not a function?
Can you nd any odd or even functions involving absolute values? What
are their equations?
to explore the effect of a parameter on an absolute value function, or
choose different values of k (both positive and negative).
1. f ] x g = k | x |
2. f ] x g = | x | + k
3. f ] x g = | x + k |
The equations and inequations involving absolute values that you studied in
Chapter 3 can be solved graphically.
If you know how to

sketch the graph of
y = | x | , translate it 2
places to the left for the
graph of y = | x + 2 | .
235
236
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. | 2x - 1 | = 3
Solution
Sketch y = | 2x - 1 | and y = 3 on the same number plane.
The solution of | 2x - 1 | = 3 occurs at the intersection of the graphs, that

is, x = -1, 2.
2. | 2x + 1 | = 3x - 2
Solution
Sketch y = | 2x + 1 | and y = 3x - 2 on the same number plane.
The graph shows that

there is only one solution.
Algebraically, you need to
find the 2 possible solutions
and then check them.
The solution is x = 3.
3. | x + 1 | 1 2
Solution
Sketch y = | x + 1 | and y = 2 on the same number plane.
The solution of | x + 1 | 1 2 is where the graph y = | x + 1 | is below the

graph y = 2, that is, - 3 1 x 1 1.
5.6 Exercises
1.
2.
3.

each function.
(a) y = | x |
(b) f ] x g = | x | + 7
(c) f ] x g = | x | - 2
(d) y = 5 | x |
(e) f ] x g = - | x | + 3
(f) y = | x + 6 |
(g) f ] x g = | 3x - 2 |
(h) y = | 5x + 4 |
(i) y = | 7x - 1 |
(j) f ] x g = | 2x | + 9
Sketch each graph on a number
plane.
(a) y = | x |
(b) f ] x g = | x | + 1
(c) f ] x g = | x | - 3
(d) y = 2 | x |
(e) f ] x g = -| x |
(f) y = | x + 1 |
(g) f ] x g = -| x - 1 |
(h) y = | 2x - 3 |
(i) y = | 4x + 2 |
(j) f ] x g = | 3x | + 1
each function.
(a) y = | x - 1 |
(b) f ] x g = | x | - 8
(c)
(d)
(e)
f ] x g = | 2x + 5 |
y = 2 | x |- 3
f ] x g = -| x - 3 |
4.
Find the domain over which each

function is
(i) increasing
(ii) decreasing
(a) y = | x - 2 |
(b) f ] x g = | x | + 2
(c) f ] x g = | 2x - 3 |
(d) y = 4 | x | - 1
(e) f ] x g = - | x |
5.
For each domain, nd the range

of each function.
(a) y = | x | for - 2 # x # 2
(b) f ] x g = - | x | - 4 for
-4 # x # 3
(c) f ] x g = | x + 4 | for -7 # x # 2
(d) y = | 2x - 5 | for -3 # x # 3
(e) f ] x g = -| x | for - 1 # x # 1
6.
For what values of x is each

function increasing?
(a) y = | x + 3 |
(b) f ] x g = - | x | + 4
(c) f ] x g = | x - 9 |
(d) y = | x - 2 | - 1
(e) f ] x g = - | x + 2 |
237
238
7.
(k) | 2x + 3 | # 5
(l) | 2x - 1 | $ 1
(m) | 3x - 1 | = x + 3
(n) | 3x - 2 | = x - 4
(o) | x - 1 | = x + 1
(p) | x + 3 | = 2x + 2
(q) | 2x + 1 | = 1 - x
(r) | 2x - 5 | = x - 3
(s) | x - 1 | = 2x
(t) | 2x - 3 | = x + 3
Solve graphically
(a) | x | = 3
(b) | x | 2 1
(c) | x | # 2
(d) | x + 2 | = 1
(e) | x - 3 | = 0
(f) | 2x - 3 | = 1
(g) | x - 1 | 1 4
(h) | x + 1 | # 3
(i) | x - 2 | 2 2
(j) | x - 3 | $ 1
The Hyperbola
a
A hyperbola is a function with its equation in the form xy = a or y = x .
EXAMPLE
1
Sketch y = x .
Solution
1
y = x is a discontinuous curve since the function is undened at x = 0.
Drawing up a table of values gives:
x
-3
1
3
1
2
-2
-1
1
2
-1
-2
1
4
1
4
1
2
-4
1
2
1
3
Class Discussion
What happens to the graph as x becomes closer to 0? What happens as x
becomes very large in both positive and negative directions? The value of
y is never 0. Why?
To sketch the graph of a more general hyperbola, we can use the domain and
range to help nd the asymptotes (lines towards which the curve approaches
but never touches).
The hyperbola is an example of a discontinuous graph, since it has a gap
in it and is in two separate parts.
Investigation
Is the hyperbola always a function? Can you nd an example of a
hyperbola that is not a function?
Are there any families of odd or even hyperbolas? What are their
equations?
to explore the effect of a parameter on a hyperbola, or choose different
values of k (both positive and negative).
k
1. y = x
1
2. y = x + k
3. y =
1
x+k
EXAMPLES
3
.
x-3
(b) Hence sketch the graph of the function.
1. (a) Find the domain and range of f ] x g =
Solution
This is the equation of a hyperbola.
To nd the domain, we notice that x - 3 ! 0.
So x ! 3
Also y cannot be zero (see example on page 238).
Domain: {all real x: x ! 3}
Range: {all real y: y ! 0}
The lines x = 3 and y = 0 (the x-axis) are called asymptotes.
CONTINUED
The denominator cannot

be zero.
239
240
To make the graph more accurate we can nd another point or two. The
easiest one to nd is the y-intercept.
3
y=
0-3
= -1
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
Notice that this graph is

3
a translation of y =
x
three units to the right.
y=0
Asymptotes
x=3
-4
-5
2. Sketch y = -
1
.
2x + 4
Solution
This is the equation of a hyperbola. The negative sign turns the hyperbola
around so that it will be in the opposite quadrants. If you are not sure
where it will be, you can nd two or three points on the curve.
To nd the domain, we notice that 2x + 4 ! 0.
2x ! - 4
x ! -2
For the range, y can never be zero.
Domain: {all real x: x ! -2}
Range: {all real y: y ! 0}
So there are asymptotes at x = -2 and y = 0 (the x-axis).
To make the graph more accurate we can nd the y-intercept.
1
2 ( 0) + 4
1
=4
y=-
-2
- 14
a
is a hyperbola with
bx + c
c
domain & all real x: x ! - 0 and
b
The function f ] x g =
range {all real y: y ! 0}
5.7 Exercises
1.
For each graph

(i) State the domain and range.
(ii) Find the y-intercept if it
exists.
(iii) Sketch the graph.
2
(a) y = x
1
(b) y = - x
1
(c) f ] x g =
x+1
3
(d) f ] x g =
x-2
1
(e) y =
3x + 6
2
(f) f ] x g = x-3
4
(g) f ] x g =
x-1
2
x+1
2
(i) f ] x g =
6x - 3
6
(j) y = x+2
(h) y = -
2.
3.
2
Show that f ] x g = x is an odd
function.
Find the range of each function
over the given domain.
1
(a) f ] x g =
for -2 # x # 2
2x + 5
1
(b) y =
for -2 # x # 0
x+3
5
(c) f ] x g =
for - 3 # x # 1
2x - 4
241
242
3
for - 3 # x # 3
x-4
2
for 0 # x # 5
(e) y = 3x + 1
1
1
for -1 # y # 7
x-1
3
for
(d) f ] x g = 2x + 1
1
-1 # y # 3
6
1
(e) y =
for 1 # y # 6
3x - 2
2
(c) f ] x g =
(d) f ] x g = -
4.
Find the domain of each function

over the given range.
3
(a) y = x for 1 # y # 3
2
1
(b) y = - x for - 2 # y # 2
Circles and Semi-circles

The circle is used in many applications, including building and design.
Circle gate
A graph whose equation is in the form x 2 + ax + y 2 + by + c = 0 has the

shape of a circle.
There is a special case of this formula:
The graph of x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is a circle, centre ^ 0, 0 h and radius r
Proof
y
(x, y)
r
x
y
x
243
Given the circle with centre (0, 0) and radius r:

Let (x, y) be a general point on the circle, with distances from the origin x
on the x-axis and y on the y-axis as shown.
By Pythagoras theorem:
c2 = a2 + b2
` r2 = x2 + y2
EXAMPLE
(a) Sketch the graph of x 2 + y 2 = 4. Is it a function?
(b) State its domain and range.
Solution
The radius is
(a) This is a circle with radius 2 and centre (0, 0).

y
-2
-2
The circle is not a function since a vertical line will cut it in more than
one place.
y
-2
-2
CONTINUED
4.
244
(b) Notice that the x-values for this graph lie between - 2 and 2 and
the y-values also lie between - 2 and 2.
Domain: {x: -2 # x # 2}
Range: {y: -2 # y # 2}
The circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 has domain: ! x: -r # x # r + and

range: " y: -r # y # r ,
We can use Pythagoras theorem to nd the equation of a more general circle.
The equation of a circle, centre (a, b) and radius r is ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2
Proof
Take a general point on the circle, (x, y) and draw a right-angled triangle as
shown.
y
(x, y)
y
r
b
y-b
x-a
(a, b)
a
Notice that the small sides of the triangle are x a and y b and the
hypotenuse is r, the radius.
By Pythagoras theorem:
c2 = a2 + b2
r 2 = ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Sketch the graph of x 2 + y 2 = 81.
Solution
(a) The equation is in the form x 2 + y 2 = r 2.
This is a circle, centre (0, 0) and radius 9.
y
-9
-9
(b) From the graph, we can see all the values that are possible for x
and y for the circle.
Domain: {x: -9 # x # 9}
Range: {y: -9 # y # 9}
2. (a) Sketch the circle ] x 1 g2 + ^ y + 2 h2 = 4.
Solution
(a) The equation is in the form ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2.
] x 1 g 2 + ^ y + 2 h2 = 4
] x 1 g 2 + _ y ] - 2 g i2 = 2 2
So a = 1, b = - 2 and r = 2
CONTINUED
245
246
This is a circle with centre ^ 1, - 2 h and radius 2.

To draw the circle, plot the centre point ^ 1, - 2 h and count 2 units up,
down, left and right to nd points on the circle.
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2
-1
-1
-2
-3
(1, -2)
-4
-5
(b) From the graph, we can see all the values that are possible for x
and y for the circle.
Domain: {x: -1 # x # 3}
Range: {y: -4 # y # 0}
3. Find the equation of a circle with radius 3 and centre ^ -2, 1 h in
expanded form.
Solution
This is a general circle with equation ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2 where
a = - 2, b = 1 and r = 3.
Substituting:
] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2
You may need to revise this
in Chapter 2.
] x - ] - 2 g g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 3 2
] x + 2 g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 9
Remove the grouping symbols.
] a + b g2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
So ] x + 2 g2 = x 2 + 2 ] x g ] 2 g + 2 2
= x 2 + 4x + 4
2
] a b g = a 2 - 2ab + b 2
So ^ y 1 h2 = y 2 - 2 ^ y h ] 1 g + 1 2
= y 2 - 2y + 1
The equation of the circle is:
x 2 + 4x + 4 + y - 2y + 1 = 9
x 2 + 4 x + y - 2y + 5 = 9
x 2 + 4 x + y 2y + 5 - 9 = 9 - 9
x 2 + 4x + y - 2y - 4 = 0
Investigation
The circle is not a function. Could you break the circle up into
two functions?
Change the subject of this equation to y.
What do you notice when you change the subject to y? Do you get two
functions? What are their domains and ranges?
If you have a graphics calculator, how could you draw the graph of a
circle?
By rearranging the equation of a circle, we can also nd the equations of

semi-circles.
The equation of the semi-circle above the x-axis with centre (0, 0)
and radius r is y = r 2 - x 2
The equation of the semi-circle below the x-axis with centre (0, 0)
and radius r is y = - r 2 - x 2
Proof
x2 + y2 = r2
y2 = r2 x2
y = ! r2 - x2
This gives two functions:
y = r 2 - x 2 is the semi-circle above the x-axis since its range is y $ 0

for all values.
y
-r
The domain is {x: -r # x # r } and the range is {y: 0 # y # r }
247
248
y = - r 2 - x 2 is the semi-circle above the x-axis since its range is

y # 0 for all values.
y
-r
-r
The domain is {x: - r # x # r } and the range is {y: -r # y # 0}
EXAMPLES
Sketch each function and state the domain and range.
1. f ] x g =
9 - x2
Solution
This is in the form f ] x g = r 2 - x 2 where r = 3.
It is a semi-circle above the x-axis with centre (0, 0) and radius 3.
y
-3
Domain: {x: -3 # x # 3}
Range: {y: 0 # y # 3}
2. y = - 4 - x 2
Solution
This is in the form y = - r 2 - x 2 where r = 2.
It is a semi-circle below the x-axis with centre (0, 0) and radius 2.
y
-2
-2
Domain: {x: -2 # x # 2}
Range: {y: -2 # y # 0}
5.8 Exercises
1.
2.
For each of the following

(i) sketch each graph
(ii) state the domain and
range.
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 9
(b) x 2 + y 2 - 16 = 0
(c) ] x 2 g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 4
(d) ] x + 1 g2 + y 2 = 9
(e) ] x + 2 g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 1
For each semi-circle
(i) state whether it is above or
below the x-axis
(ii) sketch the function
(iii) state the domain and
range.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
3.
y = - 25 - x 2
y = 1 - x2
y = 36 - x 2
y = - 64 - x 2
y = - 7 - x2
Find the length of the radius and

the coordinates of the centre of
each circle.
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 100
(b) x 2 + y 2 = 5
(c) ] x 4 g2 + ^ y 5 h2 = 16
(d) ] x 5 g2 + ^ y + 6 h2 = 49
(e) x 2 + ^ y 3 h2 = 81
249
250
4.
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
Find the equation of each circle

in expanded form (without
grouping symbols).
(a) Centre (0, 0) and radius 4
(b) Centre (3, 2) and radius 5
(c) Centre ^ -1, 5 h and radius 3
(d) Centre (2, 3) and radius 6
Centre ^ -4, 2 h and radius 5

Centre ^ 0, -2 h and radius 1
Centre (4, 2) and radius 7
Centre ^ -3, -4 h and radius 9
Centre ^ -2, 0 h and radius 5
Centre ^ -4, -7 h and radius 3
Other Graphs
There are many other different types of graphs. We will look at some of these
graphs and explore their domain and range.
You will meet these
graphs again in the
HSC Course.
Exponential and logarithmic functions

EXAMPLES
1. Sketch the graph of f ] x g = 3 x and state its domain and range.
Solution
If you do not know what this graph looks like, draw up a table of values.
You may need to revise the indices that you studied in Chapter 1.
e.g. When x = 0:
y = 3c
=1
When x = -1:
y = 3-1
1
= 1
3
1
=
3
x
y
-3
1
27
-2
1
9
-1
1
3
27
If you already know what the shape of the graph is, you can draw it
just using 2 or 3 points to make it more accurate.
You learned about

exponential graphs in earlier
stages of maths.
This is an exponential function with y-intercept 1. We can nd one

other point.
When x = 1
y = 31
=3
3
2
1
x
From the graph, x can be any real value (the equation shows this as well
since any x value substituted into the equation will give a value for y).
From the graph, y is always positive, which can be conrmed by
substituting different values of x into the equation.
Range: " y: y 2 0 ,
2. Sketch f ] x g = log x and state the domain and range.
Solution
Use the LOG key on your calculator to complete the table of values.
Notice that you cant nd the log of 0 or a negative number.
x
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.6
2
1
-1
From the graph and by trying different values on the calculator, y can be
any real number while x is always positive.
Domain: ! x: x 2 0 +
251
252
The exponential function y = a x has domain {all real x} and

range {y: y 2 0}
The logarithmic function y = log a x has domain ! x: x 2 0 + and
range {all real y}
Cubic function
A cubic function has an equation where the highest power of x is x 3 .
EXAMPLE
1. Sketch the function f ] x g = x 3 + 2 and state its domain and range.
Solution
Draw up a table of values.
x
25
10
29
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
If you already
know the shape of
y = x 3, f (x) = x 3 + 2 has
the same shape as f (x) = x 3
but it is translated 2 units up
(this gives a y-intercept of 2).
-3
-4
-5
The function can have any real x or y value:

Domain and range

Sometimes there is a restricted domain that affects the range of a function.
EXAMPLE
1. Find the range of f ] x g = x 3 + 2 over the given domain of -1 # x # 4.
Solution
The graph of f ] x g = x 3 + 2 is the cubic function in the previous example.
From the graph, the range is {all real y}. However, with a restricted
domain of -1 # x # 4 we need to see where the endpoints of this
function are.
f ] -1 g = ] -1 g3 + 2
= -1 + 2
=1
f ] 4 g = ] 4 g3 + 2
= 64 + 2
= 66
Sketching the graph, we can see that the values of y all lie between
these points.
y
(4, 66)
(-1, 1)
x
Range: " y: 1 # y # 66 ,
253
254
You may not know what a function looks like on a graph, but you can still
nd its domain and range by looking at its equation.
When nding the domain, we look for values of x that are impossible.
For example, with the hyperbola you have already seen that the denominator
of a fraction cannot be zero.
For the range, we look for the results when different values of x are
substituted into the equation. For example, x2 will always give zero or a
positive number.
EXAMPLE
Find the domain and range of f ] x g =
x - 4.
Solution
We can only nd the square root of a positive number or zero.
So x 4 $ 0
x$4
When you take the square root of a number, the answer is always positive
(or zero). So y $ 0
Domain: ! x: x $ 4 +
Range: " y: y $ 0 ,
5.9 Exercises
1.
(c) f ] x g = | 2x - 3 |

(a) y = 4x + 3
(b) f ] x g = -4
(d) y = | x | - 2
(e) f ] x g = - 2x + 5
(c) x = 3
(d) f ] x g = 4x 2 1
(e) p ] x g = x 3 2
You may like to

simplify the function
by dividing by x.
(f) y = 5 - | x |
(g) y = 2 x
(h) y = -5 x
x+1
(i) f ] x g = x
4x - 3
(j) y =
2x
(f) f ] x g = 12 - x - x 2
(g) x 2 + y 2 = 64
3
t-4
2
(i) g (z) = + 5
z
(j) f ] x g = | x |
(h) f ] t g =
2.

(a) y = x
(b) y =
x-2
3.
Find the x-intercepts of

(a) y = x ] x - 5 g2
(b) f ] x g = ] x 1 g ] x 2 g ] x + 3 g
(c) y = x 3 - 6x 2 + 8x
(d) g ] x g = x 4 - 16x 2
(e) x 2 + y 2 = 49
4.
(a) Solve 1 - x 2 $ 0.
(b) Find the domain of
f ] x g = 1 - x2 .
5.
Find the domain of

(a) y = x 2 - x - 2
(b) g ] t g = t 2 + 6t
6.
Each of the graphs has a

restricted domain. Find the range
in each case.
(a) y = 2x - 3 in the domain
-3 # x # 3
(b) y = x 2 in the domain
-2 # x # 3
(c) f ] x g = x 3 in the domain
9.
x
Given the function f ] x g = x
(a) nd the domain of the
function
(b) nd its range.
Draw each graph on a number
plane
(a) f ] x g = x 4
(b) y = - x 3
(c) y = x 4 - 3
(d) p ] x g = 2x 3
(e) g ] x g = x 3 + 1
(f) x 2 + y 2 = 100
(g) y = 2 x + 1
-2 # x # 1
1
(d) y = x in the domain
1# x #5
10. (a) Find the domain and range of

y = x - 1.
(b) Sketch the graph of y = x - 1 .
(e) y = | x | in the domain

0#x#4
11. Sketch the graph of y = 5 x .
(f) y = x 2 - 2x in the domain

-3 # x # 3
12. For each function, state

(i) its domain and range
(ii) the domain over which the
function is increasing
(iii) the domain over which the
function is decreasing.
(a) y = 2x - 9
(b) f ] x g = x 2 - 2
1
(c) y = x
(d) f ] x g = x 3
(e) f ] x g = 3 x
(g) y = - x 2 in the domain

-1 # x # 1
(h) y = x 2 - 1 in the domain
-2 # x # 3
(i) y = x 2 - 2x - 3 in the domain
-4 # x # 4
(j) y = - x 2 + 7x - 6 in the
domain 0 # x # 7
7.
8.
(a) Find the domain for the

3
function y =
.
x+1
(b) Explain why there is no
x- intercept for the function.
(c) State the range of the
function.
13. (a) Solve 4 - x 2 $ 0.

(b) Find the domain and range of
(i) y = 4 - x 2
(ii) y = - 4 - x 2 .
255
256
DID YOU KNOW?

A lampshade can produce a hyperbola
where the light meets the flat wall.
Can you find any other shapes made by
a light?
Lamp casting its light
Limits and Continuity

Limits
A line that a graph approaches

but never touches is called an
asymptote.
The exponential function and the hyperbola are examples of functions that
approach a limit. The curve y = a x approaches the x-axis when x approaches
very large negative numbers, but never touches it.
That is, when x " - 3, a x " 0.
Putting a - 3 into index form gives
1
a-3 = 3
a
1
=3
Z0
We say that the limit of a x as x approaches -3 is 0. In symbols, we write
lim a x = 0.
x " -3
EXAMPLES
1. Find lim
x "0
x 2 + 5x
.
x
Solution
0
, which is undened.
0
Factorising and cancelling help us nd the limit.
x 1 ]x + 5 g
x 2 + 5x
lim
lim
=
x
x "0
x "0
x1
= lim (x + 5)
Substituting x = 0 into the function gives
x "0
=5
2. Find lim
x "2
x-2
.
x2 - 4
Solution
Substituting x = 2 into the function gives
0
, which is undened.
0
x-2
x-2
= lim
2
1
x
"
2
x -4
^x + 2h _x - 2i
1
= lim
x "2 x + 2
1
=
4
1
lim
x "2
3. Find lim
h "0
2h 2 x + hx 2 - 7h
.
h
Solution
lim
h "0
h ^ 2hx + x 2 - 7 h
2h 2 x + hx 2 - 7h
= lim
h "0
h
h
= lim 2hx + x 2 - 7
h "0
= x2 - 7
Continuity
Many functions are continuous. That is, they have a smooth, unbroken curve
(or line). However, there are some discontinuous functions that have gaps in
their graphs. The hyperbola is an example.
If a curve is discontinuous at a certain point, we can use limits to nd the
value that the curve approaches at that point.
EXAMPLES
1. Find lim
x "1
y=
x2 - 1
and hence describe the domain and range of the curve
x-1
x -1
. Sketch the curve.
x-1
2
Solution
Substituting x = 1 into
x2 - 1
0
gives
x-1
0
CONTINUED
257
258
lim
x "1
]x + 1 g]x - 1 g
x2 - 1
= lim
x-1
x-1
x-1
= lim (x + 1)
x "1
=2
y=
x2 - 1
is discontinuous at x = 1 since y is undened at that point.
x-1
This leaves a gap in the curve. The limit tells us that y " 2 as x " 1, so
the gap is at ^ 1, 2 h .
Domain: " x: all real x, x ! 1 ,
Range: " y: all real y, y ! 2 ,
y=
=
x2 - 1
x-1
^x + 1h ^x - 1h
x-1
=x+1
the graph is y = x + 1 where x ! 1
Remember that x ! 1.
2. Find lim
x " -2
x2 + x - 2
x2 + x - 2
and hence sketch the curve y =
.
x+2
x+2
Solution
Substituting x = -2 into
lim
x " -2
x2 + x - 2
0
gives
x+2
0
^x - 1h ^x + 2h
x2 + x - 2
= lim
x
"
2
x+2
^x + 2h
= lim ^ x - 1 h
x " -2
= -3
y=
y=
x2 + x - 2
is discontinuous at x = - 2
x+2
^x + 2h ^x - 1h
x+2
=x-1
So the function is y = x - 1 where x ! -2. It is discontinuous at ^ -2, -3 h .
5.10 Exercises
1.
Find
(a) lim x 2 + 5
2.
x "4
(b) lim t - 7
t " -3
(c) lim x 3 + 2x - 4
x "2
(d) lim
x 2 + 3x
x
(e) lim
h2 - h - 2
h-2
(f) lim
y 3 - 125
y-5
(g) lim
x 2 + 2x + 1
x+1
(h) lim
x 2 + 2x - 8
x+4
x "0
h "2
y "5
x "-1
x " -4
Determine which of these

functions are discontinuous and
nd x values for which they are
discontinuous.
(a) y = x 2 - 3
1
(b) y =
x+1
(c) f ] x g =
x-1
1
(d) y = 2
x +4
1
(e) y = 2
x -4
3.
Sketch these functions, showing

any points of discontinuity.
(a) y =
x 2 + 3x
x
(i) lim
c-2
c2 - 4
(b) y =
(j) lim
x-1
x2 - x
x 2 + 3x
x+3
(c) y =
x 2 + 5x + 4
x+1
(k) lim
h 3 + 2h 2 - 7h
h
(l) lim
hx 2 - 3hx + h 2
h
(m) lim
2hx 3 - h 2 x 2 + 3hx - 5h
h
c "2
x "1
h "0
h "0
h "0
x3 - c3
(n) lim
x "c x - c
259
260
Regions
Class Investigation
How many solutions are there for y $ x + 2? How would you record
them all?
Inequalities can be shown as regions in the Cartesian plane.

You can shade regions on a number plane that involve either linear or
non-linear graphs. This means that we can have regions bounded by a circle or
a parabola, or any of the other graphs you have drawn in this chapter.
Regions can be bounded or unbounded.
A bounded region means that the line or curve is included in the region.
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region x # 3.
Solution
Remember that x = 3 is a
vertical line with x-intercept 3.
x # 3 includes both x = 3 and x 1 3 in the region.

Sketch x = 3 as an unbroken or lled in line, as it will be included in the
region. Shade in all points where x 1 3 as shown.
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
x=3
261
An unbounded region means that the line or curve is not included in the
region.
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region y 2 -1.
Solution
y 2 -1 doesnt include y = -1. When this happens, it is an unbounded
region and we draw the line y = -1 as a broken line to show it is not
included.
Sketch y = -1 as a broken line and shade in all points where y 2 -1 as
shown.
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
y = -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
For lines that are not horizontal or vertical, or for curves, we need to
check a point to see if it lies in the region.
Remember that y = -1 is a
horizontal line with
y-intercept -1.
262
EXAMPLES
Find the region dened by
1. y $ x + 2
Solution
First sketch y = x + 2 as an unbroken line.
On one side of the line, y 2 x + 2 and on the other side, y 1 x + 2.
To nd which side gives y 2 x + 2, test a point on one side of the
line (not on the line).
For example, choose ^ 0, 0 h and substitute into
y$x+2
0$0+2
0$2
(false)
This means that ^ 0, 0 h does not lie in the region y $ x + 2. The
region is on the other side of the line.
Any point in the region will

make the inequality true.
Test one to see this.
2. 2x - 3y 1 6
Solution
First sketch 2x - 3y = 6 as a broken line, as it is not included in the
region.
To nd which side of the line gives 2x - 3y 1 6, test a point on one
side of the line.
For example, choose ^ 0, 1 h and substitute into
2x - 3y 1 6
2 ] 0 g - 3 (1 ) 1 6
-3 1 6 (true)
This means that ^ 0, 1 h lies in the region 2x - 3y 1 6.
2x - 3y = 6
3. x 2 + y 2 2 1
Solution
The equation x 2 + y 2 = 1 is a circle, radius 1 and centre ^ 0, 0 h .
Draw x 2 + y 2 = 1 as a broken line, since the region does not include
the curve.
Choose a point inside the circle, say ^ 0, 0 h
x2 + y2 2 1
02 + 02 2 1
0 2 1 (false)
So the region lies outside the circle.
4. y $ x 2
Solution
The equation y = x 2 is a parabola. Sketch this as an unbroken line, as it is
included in the region.
CONTINUED
263
264
Choose a point inside the parabola, say ^ 1, 3 h.

y $ x2
3 2 12
3 2 1 (true)
So ^ 1, 3 h lies in the region.
y = x2
Sometimes a region includes two or more inequalities. When this

happens, sketch each region on the number plane, and the nal region is
where they overlap (intersect).
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region x # 4, y 2 -2 and y # x 2 .
Solution
Draw the three regions, either separately or on the same set of axes, and
see where they overlap.
Put the three regions together.
If you are given a region, you should also be able to describe it

algebraically.
EXAMPLES
Describe each region.
1.
6
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
Solution
The shaded area is below and including y = 6 so can be described as
y # 6.
It is also to the left of, but not including the line x = 4, which can be
described as x 1 4.
The region is the intersection of these two regions:
y # 6 and x 1 4
CONTINUED
265
266
2.
2
-2
-2
Solution
The shaded area is the interior of the circle, centre (0, 0) and radius 2 but
it does not include the circle.
The equation of the circle is x 2 + y 2 = 2 2 or x 2 + y 2 = 4.
You may know (or guess) the inequality for the inside of the circle.
If you are unsure, choose a point inside the circle and substitute into the
equation e.g. (0, 0).
LHS = x 2 + y 2
= 02 + 02
=0
1 4 ] RHS g
So the region is x 2 + y 2 1 4.
5.11 Exercises
1.
Shade the region dened by

(a) x # 2
(b) x 2 1
(c) y $ 0
(d) y 1 5
(e) y # x + 1
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
y $ 2x - 3
x+y21
3x - y - 6 1 0
x + 2y - 2 $ 0
2x - 1 1 0
2.
Write an inequation to describe

each region.
(a)
(d)
y
5
y = x2 - 4
4
3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
3
2
-2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-3
-4
-5
-2
-3
(e)
-4
y
y = 2x
(b)
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
3.
Shade each region described.

(a) y 2 x 2 1
(b) x 2 + y 2 # 9
(c) x 2 + y 2 $ 1
(d) y # x 2
(e) y 1 x 3
4.
Describe as an inequality
(a) the set of points that lie
below the line y = 3x - 2
(b) the set of points that lie
inside the parabola y = x 2 + 2
(c) the interior of a circle with
radius 7 and centre (0, 0)
(d) the exterior of a circle with
radius 9 and centre (0, 0)
(e) the set of points that lie to
the left of the line x = 5 and
above the line y = 2
-4
(c)
6
5
y=x+1
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
267
268
The first quadrant is

where x and y values
are both positive.
5.
Shade the region

(a) ] x - 2 g2 + y 2 # 4
(b) ] x - 1 g2 + ^ y - 2 h2 # 1
(c) ] x + 2 g2 + ^ y - 1 h2 2 9
6.
Shade the intersection of these

regions.
(a) x # 3, y $ -1
(b) x $ -3, y 2 x -3
(c) y # 1, y $ 3x - 5
(d) y 2 x + 1, y # 3 - x
(e) y # 1, x 2 + y 2 # 9
(f) x 2 -1, x 2 + y 2 1 4
(g) y # 4, y $ x 2
(h) x 1 -2, y # 3, y 2 x 3
(i) y # 0, x 2 + y 2 $ 1
(j) -1 1 x - y # 2
7.
Shade the region bounded by

(a) the curve y = x 2, the x-axis
and the lines x = 1 and x = 3
(b) the curve y = x 3, the y-axis
and the lines y = 0 and y = 1
(c) the curve x 2 + y 2 = 4, the

x-axis and the lines x = 0 and
x = 1 in the rst quadrant
2
(d) the curve y = x , the x-axis
and the lines x = 1 and x = 4
1
, the
x+2
x-axis and the lines x = 0 and
(e) the curve y =

x=2
8.
Shade the regions bounded by

the intersection of
(a) x 1 2, y 1 5 and y # x 2
(b) x 1 3, y $ -1, y # x - 2
(c) y # 1 - x, y # 2x + 1, 2x - 3y # 6
(d) x $ -3, y # 2, x 2 + y 2 $ 9
(e) x 1 2, y # 3, y $ | x |
Application
Regions are used in business applications to find optimum profit. Two (or more)
equations are graphed together, and the region where a profit is made is shaded.
The optimum profit occurs at the endpoints (or vertices) of the region.
EXAMPLE
A company makes both roller skates (X ) and ice skates (Y ). Roller skates make a
$25 profit, while ice skates make a profit of $21. Each pair of roller skates spends
2 hours on machine A (available 12 hours per day) and 2 hours on machine B
(available 8 hours per day). Each pair of ice skates spends 3 hours on machine A
and 1 hour on machine B.
How many skates of each type should be made each day to give the greatest
profit while making the most efficient use of the machines?
SOLUTION
Profit P = $25 X + $21Y
Machine A: 2X + 3Y # 12
Machine B: 2X + Y # 8
Sketch the regions and find the
point of intersection of the lines.
The shaded area shows all possible ways of making a profit. Optimum profit
occurs at one of the endpoints of the regions.
(0, 4): P = $25 ] 0 g + $21 ] 4 g = $84
(4, 0): P = $25 ] 4 g + $21 ] 0 g = $100
(3, 2): P = $25 ] 3 g + $21 ] 2 g = $117
^ 3, 2 h gives the greatest profit, so 3 pairs of roller skates and 2 pairs of ice
skates each day gives optimum profit.
269
270
Test Yourself 5
1.
If f ] x g = x 2 - 3x - 4, nd
(a) f ] -2 g
(b) f ] a g
(c) x when f ] x g = 0
2.
Sketch each graph

(a) y = x 2 - 3x - 4
(b) f ] x g = x 3
(c) x 2 + y 2 = 1
(d) y = 1 - x 2
(e) y = - 1 - x 2
2
(f) y = x
(g) 2x - 5y + 10 = 0
(h) y = | x + 2 |
(b)
3.
Find the domain and range of each graph

in question 2.
4.
If f ] x g = *
2x
if x $ 1
x -3
if x 1 1
11. Describe each region

(a)
nd f ] 5 g - f ] 0 g + f ] 1 g
3
5.
if x 2 3
Given f ] x g = * x
if 1 # x # 3
2 - x if x 1 1
nd
(a) f ] 2 g
(b) f ] -3 g
(c) f ] 3 g
(d) f ] 5 g
(e) f ] 0 g
2
6.
Shade the region y $ 2x + 1.
7.
Shade the region where x 1 3 and y $ -1.
8.
Shade the region given by x 2 + y 2 $ 1.
9.
Shade the region given by

2x + 3y - 6 # 0 and x $ -2.
10. Shade the region y 2 x + 1 and

x + y # 2.
(c)
12. (a) Write down the domain and range of

2
the curve y =
.
x-3
2
(b) Sketch the graph of y =
.
x-3
13. (a) Sketch the graph y = | x + 1 |.

(b) From the graph, solve
(i) | x + 1 | = 3
(ii) | x + 1 | 1 3
(iii) | x + 1 | 2 3
17. Find
(a) lim
x 2 - 2x - 3
x-3
(b) lim
2x
x + 5x
(c) lim
x3 + 1
x2 - 1
x "3
x "0
14. If f ] x g = 3x - 4, nd
(a) f ] 2 g
(b) x when f ] x g = 7
(c) x when f ] x g = 0
x " -1
(d) lim
h "0
15. Find the x- and y-intercepts of

(a) 2x - 5y + 20 = 0
(b) y = x 2 - 5x - 14
16. State which functions are (i) even
(ii) odd (iii) neither even nor odd.
(a) y = x 2 - 1
(b) y = x + 1
(c) y = x 3
(d) y = x 4
(e) y = 2 x
2xh 2 + 3h
h
18. Sketch y = 10 x, y = log x and y = x on the

same number plane.
19. (a) State the domain and range of
y = 2x - 4 .
(b) Sketch the graph of y = 2x - 4 .
20. Show that
(a) f ] x g = x 4 + 3x 2 - 1 is even
(b) f ] x g = x 3 - x is odd.
Challenge Exercise 5
1.
Find the values of b if f ] x g = 3x 2 - 7x + 1

and f ] b g = 7.
2.
6.
Sketch y = ] x + 2 g2 - 1 in the domain

-3 # x # 0.

1
y= 2
.
x -1
7.
Sketch the region x 1 y, x + 2y 1 6,

x + 2y - 4 $ 0.
3.
Sketch the region y 2

quadrant.
8.
Find the domain and range of x 2 = y in

the rst quadrant.
4.
Draw the graph of y = | x | + 3x - 4.
9.
If f ] x g = 2x 3 - 2x 2 - 12x, nd x when
f ] x g = 0.
5.
4 - x 2 in the rst
Z 2x + 3 when x 2 2
]
f ] x g = [1
when -2 # x # 2
] 2
x
when x 1 -2
\
Find f ] 3 g, f ] -4 g, f ] 0 g and sketch the
curve.
1
10. Sketch the region dened by y 2
x+2
in the rst quadrant.
271
272
11. If h ] t g = )
1 - t2
t2 - 1
(b) Find the domain and range of
if t 2 1
if t # 1
y=
nd the value of h ] 2 g + h ] -1 g - h ] 0 g and

sketch the curve.
12. Sketch y =
1 - x in the rst quadrant.

2
13. Sketch the region y $ x - 5, y 1 x + x.

2
14. If f ] x g = 2x - 1, show that

f ^ a 2 h = f _ (-a)2 i for all real a.
15. Find the values of x for which f ] x g = 0
when f ] x g = 2x 2 - x - 5 (give exact
answers).
16. (a) Show that
2x + 7
1
=2+
.
x+3
x+3
2x + 7
.
x+3
(c) Hence sketch the graph of

y=
2x + 7
.
x+3
17. Sketch y = 2 x - 1 .
18. Sketch y =
|x |
.
x2
19. Find the domain and range of
f ] x g = 2x - 6 .
20. What is the domain of y =
21. Sketch f ] x g = 1 -
1
.
x2
1
4 - x2

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5

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