:

2010-11.

. .

.............................................................................................................................. 5
.......................................................................................................... 5
1.1
.............................................................................................................. 6
1.2
............................................................................................................. 6
1.3
.............................................................................................................. 8
1.4
...................................................................................... 10
1.5
.......................................................................................................... 11
2.
.......................................................................................................................... 13
2.1
.......................................................................................... 13
2.2
............................................................................................................ 16
2.3
................................................................................................................. 17
3.
.................................................................................................................... 18
3.1
............................................................................................................ 18
4.
.................................................................................................................. 21
4.1
............................................................................................................ 21
4.2
........................................................................................... 24
4.3
..................................................................................... 25
4.4
................................................................................................................. 26
II
.......................................................................................................................... 28
5.
......................................................................................................... 28
5.1
................................................................................... 28
5.2
.......................................................................................................... 30
5.3
..................................................................................................... 34
6.
.................................................................................................................. 36
6.1.
....................................................................................................... 36
6.2.
....................................................................................................... 38
6.3.
....................................................................................... 40
6.4.
................................................................................................. 44
7.
....................................................................................................................... 46
7.1.
...................................................................................... 46
7.2.
................................................................................... 48
7.3.
......................................................................................... 49
8.
....................................................................................................................... 51
III
.................................................................................................................. 55
.
................................................................................................................... 56
.1.
,
............................................................................. 57
.2.
.......................................................................................... 59
.3.
.................................................................................... 60
.4.
........................................................................................ 61
.5.
.................................................................................. 62
10.
.................................................................................................................... 62
10.1.
.................................................................... 63
10.2.
....................................................................... 64
1.

10.3.
...................................................................................... 66
10.4.
.............................................................................................................. 67
11.
.......................................................................................................... 67
11.1.
................................................................................. 68
11.2.
.......................................................................... 70
11.3.
....................................................................................... 73
11.4.
.................................................................................. 75
11.5.
...................................................................................... 77
IV
................................................................................................................... 80
12.
......................................................................................................... 80
12.1.
.................................................................................... 81
12.2.
........................................................................ 83
13.
............................................................................................................. 86
13.1.
............................................................................................... 87
13.2.
..................................................................................... 89
13.3.
........................................................................................................... 92
13.4.
.................................................................................................... 93
14.
................................................................................................................ 93
14.1.
........................................................................................... 94
14.2.
...................................................................................................... 97
14.3.
................................................................................................ 98
15.
............................................................................................ 102
15.1.
....................................................................................................... 102
15.2.
............................................................................................................ 105
V
....................................................................................................................... 107
16.
............................................................................................................ 108
16.1.
..................................................................................... 109
16.2.
............................................................................................... 113
16.3.
................................................................................. 118
17.
....................................................................................................... 121
17.1
................................................................................................... 121
17.2.
.................................................................................. 123
17.3.
............................................................................. 126
VI
..................................................................................................................... 130
18.
................................................................................................. 130
18.1.
........................................................................................ 130
18.2.
................................................................................. 133
18.3.
............................................................................................ 137
1.
............................................................................................................... 139
1.1.
....................................................................................... 139
1.2.
........................................................................................ 145
1.3.
.......................................................................... 148
VII
................................................................................................................ 153
20.
.......................................................................... 154
20.1.
..................................................................................... 154
20.2.
..................................................................... 156

:
20.3.
21.
21.1.
21.2.
21.3.
VIII
22.
22.1.
22.2.
22.3.
23.
23.1.
23.2.
24.
24.1.
24.2.

.................................................................................................... 159
.................................................................................... 162
................................................................................. 162
....................................................................................... 163
........................................................................................ 164
..................................................................................................... 170
.............................................................................................. 170
................................................ 170
................................................................... 173
...................................................................................................... 175
.......................................................................................... 178
.......................................................................................... 179
....................................................................................... 181
........................................................................................... 184
............................................................................... 184
................................................................................................. 188

I
1.
.

,
,
.

,
,

,
.

,
,

,
.

, .

,
.

.
,

.
)
).

1.
2.

( .
( .

:
( ) = (

( - ).

I
( ) =

. ),
1 0.

1.1
1.1.1 2+35

. 2+36

1.1.2

180

1.1.3

1.1.4

.
1.1.5

4 6

,
,

- )

A, B

A B (
.

,
.
.

)
,

)
,

,
,

)
,

(
.

A B (

A, B

,
,

1.2
( ).

AB(

.
B

B)
,

B)

AB(
.
, .

A, B

,
,

A B (
.
.

A, B

A, B

B)

( ),

().
,

.
,
:

) (a b) a b;
b
T

1.2.1.

a
T
T

) (a b) a b.
ab
T
T

(a b)

)
a

a b

T
T

T
T

T
T

1.3

17 11 5 3
( ) (2,3456 1,2345 = 10/9); (b) ;
19 13 7 5
17 13 13 9
1 1 1 1 1 1
(c) ; (d) .
19 15 15 11
2 3 6 3 4 12

1.3.1

m 1 m 2 m m 1
m m 2
(a) m n 2

; (b)
.
n 1 n 2 n n 1
n n2

1.3.2

1.3.3

(a)

; (b)
.

; (c)

(a) A & B = (A B) (A B);

(b) A B = B A;
(c) A B = (A B) (A B).
1.3.4
(i) A (B A);
(ii) ((A B) A) A;
(iii) (A B) ((B C) (A C)).

( . B A).

(i),

,
(

,
.

1.3.5
(iv) A B A;
(v) A B B;
(vi) (A B) ((A C) (A B C)).

AB

( .

= T)

( = ).
.

(vi)
B

).
(B = T)

AC

ABC

(A C) (A B C)

(vi)

1.3.6
(vii) A A B;
(viii) B A B;
(ix) (A C) ((B C) (A B C)).

1.3.7
(x) (A B) (A B);
(xi) (A B) (B A);
(xii) (A B) ((B A) (A B)).
1.3.8
(xiii) A (A B);
(xiv) (A B) ((A B) A);
(xv) (A B) ((A B) B).
1.3.9

.
,

a, b
a b ba
a (b c) (a b) c
a (b c) (a b) (a c)

a, b, c

;
;

a, b, c
.

1854.

1.4
,

,
:
1.
2.

AB

3.

(Modus ponens)

|- A,

,
.
.

:
1. (Modus ponens).
B;
2. (Demonstratio per enumerationem
C BC
,
3. (Deductio ad absurdum

B
B
,
.

).
(A B) C;
).
A.
,
.

(1)
,

B = ,

10

I
.

B = .

:
1. A |- B A (
B
2. A B |- (B C) (A C) (
AB
3. A B, B C |- B (A C) (
AB BC
4. |- (A B) (B A) (
5. |- (A (A B)) (A B) (
6. |- ((A B) A) ((A B) B);
7. |- (((B C) C) (A C)) (B (A C));
8. |- (A (B C)) (B (A C));
9. |- (A B) (A) (B) (
);
10. |- (A B) (A) (B).
. (1)

(ii),

(i),

. (2)

(iii),

);
... );

()

... );
);

. (3)
,

().

(xN)(yN)(x < y),

x = 1.

1.4.1.

) (xR)(yR)(x < y); ) (xR)(yR)(x < y);

) (aZ)(bZ)(a + b = 0); ) (aZ)(bZ)(a + b = 0);
R
, Z
.

1.5

.
,

,
.

.
AB

( )

11

B
A B,

AB

B
A

AB

1.5.1

: A (B C), A (B C).

1.5.2
,
:
(1) A (B C) = (A B) ( C); (2) A (B C) = (A B) (A C).

12

(Claude Elwood Shannon, 1916. 2001),

.
21-

1939.
148.

2.
,
.

.
.

118),
1874.

10

(1845

,
.
.

.
,

2.1
S
.

,
-

13

:
,

I
,

:
S={

},

={

= 3.

S B,

B.

}, B = {

}.

|S| = 3, |E| = 2, |B|

S E,

S,
S,
E,

B,

E, B.

B;
E;
B.
.

P =SB

x P x S x B.

S B

P = {x| x S x B},
.P

S
, . P E = .

P={

B.
}.

U=SB
S B

x U x S x B.

U = {x| x S x B},
.U
U={

S
,

B.

,
(

}.
)

14

.
S U
S
U.
2.1.1

U
x S x U.

S
.

2.1.2
B
1. A A B B A B;
2. A B A A B B.

A B B A.

A= B

,
R=S\B
x R x S x B.

S B

R = {x| x S x B},
.R

S
R={
S
S.

S' = {x| x S}, .

B.

}.

U
U

U \ S.

U
S

S.

.
{A| A S}.

(S)

(S) = {, {
}, S}.

}, {

}, {

}, {

S,

}, {

}, {

15

:
(S)

23

A, B

A B = {(x, y)| x A y B}.

2.2

A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
.

2.2.1
A, B, C

30
.
.

2.2.2
13

5,

1
7.

P, L, I.
,

A, B, C

,
B

3.

(A B) A B

2.2.3

AB

4, 3, 5
.

(A B) A B.

.
A

8,
30.

,
(A B)

14,

5,

.
.

A B

16

,
A (B C) = (A B) (A C),

2.2.4

( x, y).
( x, y) A (B C) x A y (B C) x A ( y B y C).

(x A y B) (x A y C) (( x, y) A B) (( x, y) A C)
( x, y) (A B) (A C).
,
,
.

2.3
2.3.1
A, B, C
A C = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g},
B C = {d, e, f, g}, A C = {e}, B C = {e, f}, A \ B = {a, b, c}, B \ C = {d}.

2.3.2
M, N, P
M N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6},
N P = {2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, P M = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}, M N = {5, 6}, N \ P = {7, 8}.

2.3.3
B

(a) A B A B = A; (b) A B A B = B;
(c) A (A B) = A; (d) A (A B) = A.
2.3.4
A B
( )
AB=
|A B| = |A| + |B|;
(b) |A B| = |A| + |B| - |A B|;
(c) |A \ B| = |A| - |A B|.
2.3.5

(S)?

S.

(a) 10; (b) 12;

( )

2.3.6

(b)

2.3.7
A, B, C
(a) A \ (B C) = (A \ B) (A \ C); (b) A \ (B C) = (A \ B) (A \ C).
2.3.8
,
(a) A (B \ C) = (A B) \ (A C);
(b) A \ (B C) = (A \ B) C;
(c) ( \ B) (B \ A)
(d) A (B C) = (A B) (A C);
(e) A (B \ C) = (A B) \ (A C).
2.3.9

17

(a)
(b)
(c)

A = {a, b, c}

A B = (A \ B) (B \ A).
B = {b, c, d, e},
A B.

A B = (A B) \ (A B).

2.3 (1) A = {a, b, c, d, e}, B = {d, e, f}, C = {e, f, g}; (2) M = {1, 3, 5, 6}, N
= {2, 4, 5, 6}, P = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}. (5a) 210 = 1024.

3.

.
,

A B.

A B:

= {(b,1), (b,2), (c,2)},

. (b,1), (b,2), (c,2) ,

- ,
,
).

b1, b2, c3.

B, (
. (b,1) (1,b).

3.1
3.1.1.

: = {(a,a), (a,e), (b,b), (b,d), (b,e), (c,d), (d,c), (e,c)}.

3.1.2

= {a, b, c}

B = {1, 2}.

:
A B = {(a,1), (a,2), (b,1), (b,2), (c,1), (c,2)}.
|A B| = |A||B| = 32 = 6
,

.
26 = 64
,
,
63
(
).
BA
63
.
,
126
.

18

:
3.1.3

Z , -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, .
,
m < n, .

(m,n)

= {(m,n) Z Z | m < n}.

Z.
,
.

3.1.4
3.1.5

R.

R.

xy

= {(x,y) | x, y R, x2 + y2 = 1, y > 0}.

,
(0,0)

.
(

(x) xx.
(x,y) xy yx.
(x,y) xy yx x = y.
(x,y,z) xy yz xz.
,

,
,

mn

.
,

, ,

, , .
,

( )

, , .
.
.

,
,

19

:
,

I
)

[x] = {y | xy},

.
x A, [x] ;
[x],
[x] = [y],
x, y A;
x, y A,
[x] = [y],
[x] [y] = ;

1.
2.
3.
4.

.
,

.
.
.

3.1.6

(x,y)

,
,

N 1, 2, 3, .
3,

2.

xy x y (mod 3),

0, 1,
.

0 3, 6, ,
1 1, 4, 7,
2 2, 5, 8,

.
,

[3]

[4]

{[0], [1], [2]}.

.

[0],

,
xy x y 0 (mod 3),

3.1.7
, , , .

, .
2, 4, 6, ,

1, 3, 5, .

xy
[2]

[1]

20

4.

f: A B,
f(a) = 1, f(b) = 2, f(c) = 2.
f = {(a,1), (b,2), (c,3)
,

(xA)(!yB) y = f(x),
.

.
X Y
(x,y1), (x,y2) f

f
D(f) = X,

X Y,

.
(Leibniz, 1646-1716)

.
f(x),

(Dirichlet, 1805-185),

Y, .

(Clairant) 1734.
(Euler, 1707-1783)

4.1

, .

y1 = y2.

.
,

(yY)(xX) y = f(x),
.

21

:
,

1-1

B,

f(x1) = f(x2) x1 = x2 .
4.1.1

f
,

B
.

1 2 3 4
, . f(1) = 3, f(2) = 4, f(3) = 4, f(4) = 1
f
3 4 4 1
{1, 2, 3, 4}2 = {1, 2, 3, 4}{1, 2, 3, 4}.
,
.

4.1.2

ZZ
f(n) = 2n - 3,
2n 3

4.1.3
,
,

n.

2B

f = {(n, 2n-3) | n Z}.

n
n.

,
2n 3 = m

n = (m 3)/2,

m2
.

,
f(n1) = f(n2) 2n1 3 = 2n2 3 n1 = n2 ,

.
4.1.4

f = x2
,

f: R [0,

+].

22

f = x2 , . f: x x2 ,
.
,

,
-

2,

(2, 4)
.

2
,

4.1.5
.

,
.

=4

B,

,
-

1 2 3 4
.
g 1
4 3 1 2
,

4.

(+2)2 = (-2)2 = 4, .

.
1 2 3 4

g
3 4 2 1

, .

.
.

4.1.6.
4.1.7

f(x+1) = x - 2
!

,
.
:

1
2
3
4
5
... .
x+1 = t,

f(2) = -1,
f(3) = 0,
f(4) = 1,
f(5) = 2,
f(6) = 3,
x = t 1,

f(t) = t 3,
23

f(x) = x 3.
,
,

t.

, . f(x) = x 3,

(4.1.7)

f(x) = x 3,

,
x 3 = r.
r

x = r + 3,
f-1(x) = x + 3.
f-1

+ 3,

4.2

f-
,

f-1

.
.

( )
( B)
( ).

( B)

,
!
3.

(1-1

(2 B)

4.1.6),
,
.
4.2.1

f(S)

B A,

.
f : X Y.
S
f.

X Y
{f(x) | x S}
A = {a, b, c}

4.2.2

S X,

f(A) = {1, 2}.

f(A B) = f(A) f(B),

f
A

:
y f(AB).

),
(b, c ).
.

B
f
y = f(x)

D.
.

x AB.

y f(A)f(B).

D.

24

f(AB) f(A) f(B).

,
y f(A) f(B).
y = f(a)
a A, y = f(b)
b B.
f(b),
a = b.
, y f(AB).
f(AB) = f(A) f(B).
,
f(x) = f(y) x y.
f(B) = {f(x)} .

y f(A)

y f(B).
,
f(a) =
f(A) f(B) f(AB).

f(AB) = f(A) f(B)

D.
.
,
x, y D
{x} B = {y}.
AB = , f(AB) = .

, f(A)
f(AB) f(A) f(B),
.
,

4.3

f:AB

g : B C,

h : A C,
h(x) = (g o f)(x) = g(f(x)).
,

g.

h(a) = (g o f)(a) = g(f(a)) = g(1) = ,

h(b) = (g o f)(b) = g(f(b)) = g(2) = ,
h(c) = (g o f)(c) = g(f(c)) = g(2) = .

4.3.1

1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
, g
.
f
3 1 4 2
2 3 4 1
) f o g ) g o f ) f2 = f o f ) g2.

fog
gof
(f o g)(1) = f(g(1)) = f(3) = 4
(g o f)(1) = g(f(1)) = g(2) = 1
(f o g)(2) = f(g(2)) = f(1) = 2
(g o f)(2) = g(f(2)) = g(3) = 4
(f o g)(3) = f(g(3)) = f(4) = 1
(g o f)(3) = g(f(3)) = g(4) = 2
(f o g)(4) = f(g(4)) = f(2) = 3
(g o f)(4) = g(f(4)) = g(1) = 3
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
) g f
; ) f 2
.
) f g
4 2 1 3
1 4 2 3
3 4 1 2
.
,
.
4.3.2

(x R). )
f o (g o h) = (f o g) o h. )

f(x) = 2x + 1, g(x) = 2x 3, h(x) = 3x 1,

f o g o h.
25

: )
[f o (g o h)](x) = f((g o h)(x)) = f(g(h(x)))
[(f o g) o h](x) = (f o g)(h(x)) = f(g(h(x))). ) f(g(h(x))) = f(g(3x 1)) = f(2(3x 1) 3) =
2(2(3x 1) 3) + 1 = 12x 9.

4.4

f:RR

x2
) f(x) = 2x2 x + 1 ; b) f(x) = x3 + 2x ; c) f(x) = |x| 3x + 2 ; d) f ( x)
.
x3

4.4.1

4.4.2
a)
b)

A = {1, 2, 3}.
.

,f:RR:
x 2
x 1
x 1
3x 2
2x 3
2x 1
; b) f (
; c) f (
;
a) f (
)
)
)
x 2
x 2
x 1
3x 2
2x 3
3x 2
1
1
1
1
d) 2 f ( x) f ( ) 3x ; e) 3 f ( x) 2 f ( ) ; f) f ( x) 3 f ( ) x2 .
x
x
x
x
1 2t
2
1
1 2t
1 5t
x 1
1 t
f (t )
,
,
: )

x
t
1 2t
1 t
5 4t
x 2
3
2
1 t
1
1 5x
. d)
x = t,
2 f (t ) f ( ) 3t ;
f ( x)
t
5 4x
1
3
x = 1/t,
2 f ( ) f (t ) .
t
t
3
1
t
2u v 3t 2v u ,
u f (t ) , v f ( )
t
t
1
1
.
u 2t ,
f ( x) 2 x .
t
x
4.4.3

4.4.4
a)
b)
c)

1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
, g
h
.
f
3 3 4 1
2 4 3 1
4 3 2 1
f2,g3 h3;

e
je u v,
fo u =h vo g =h .
(f o g)-1 = g -1 o f -1.

4.4.5
f : X Y A, B X.
a) f(AB) = f(A) f(B);
b) f(AB) f(A) f(B);
c) f(A\B) f(A) \ f(B),

:
.

26

:
f : X Y,

4.4.6

SY

a) f (AB) = f -1(A) f -1(B);

b) f -1(AB) = f -1(A) f -1(B);
c) f -1(A\B) = f -1(A) \ f -1(B).

f -1(S) = {x X | f(x) S}.

A, B Y.

-1

A B,

4.4.7

A, B
|A| = |B|.

a)
b)
c)
d)
: d)

f : A B.

, . Z N;
, . Q N;
-1
1, . R (-1, 1).

f ( x)

x
1 x

(-1, 1).

27

II
.

(R),
, .

(I),

(Q).

(Z),
(N).
.

5.

N 1, 2, 3, 4,
Z = {0, 1, -1, 2, -2, 3, -3, ,
f : N Z,
(

N Z,

(Z )
#

.
|N| = |Z| = 0.

kard N = kard Z,

5.1
x y

5.1.1:
y S.

,
5.1.2:

, .

S Z#,
S Z#,

S.
S
1.
n no , n Z#,
nS
n + 1 S;
2.
no m < n , n Z#,
mS
n S.
#
Tada {n Z | n no } S.

xS

no

28

:
5.1.3

1 2 3 ... n

1,

1 (1 1)
, .
2

1.

1 2 3 4

10,
!

4 (4 1)
,
2

n(n 1)
.
2
.

n = 1.

1,
,

n = 4.

(n no) S(n) S(n+1),

.
.

n(n 1)
2
(n 1)(n 2)
.
S(n+1) : 1 2 3 ... n (n 1)
2
S(n+1)
S(n)
n(n 1)
(n+1).

(n 1) ,
2

S(n) : 1 2 3 ... n

(n 1)(n 2)
,
2

.
,

(n 3) 2n + 1 2n .

5.1.4

n = 3,
n = 4,
n = 5,

23 + 1 2 ,
24 + 1 24 ,
25 + 1 25 ,
3

,
,
,

7 8.
16.
11 32.

(n no = 3) S(n) S(n+1),

n+1
S(n) : 2n + 1 2 ,
S(n + 1) : 2(n+1)+ 1 2 .
S(n+1)
S(n).
2(n+1)+ 1 = 2n + 2 + 1 = (2n + 1) +2
2n + 2 ,
S(n)
2n +2n ,
n 3 2 2n
= 2n+1 ,
S(n+1)
.
, 2n + 1 2n
n 3.
n

29

)
)
)
)

5.1.5

n {1, 2, 3, ...}
2 n 1
n
3
(1) 2 0 (mod 5) , .
n(n 1)(2n 1)
;
12 2 2 32 ... n 2
6
6
7n 1
n
n2 .

5.2

5.2.1.
8.

2n.
3
6++++3
3n.

75

5n .
7

14

25.

7.

7.

2,

4.

5
25,

63

3.

5n

203

1 26, 26
.
57575736

13.
,

, 57575746
5.2.2.

13.

nN

3n

11
11.
,
1 358 024 67
(3+8+2+6+) (1+5+0+4+7) = 28 17 11
13

5.

25.

25

123...75
n

20 23 14,

11
11.
351
.

13

6 2 4 14
4
6 2 3 12
.

4,

35

4.

30

:
) 23

) 47
10, 11, 12, ...
: )

23

23 : 2 = 12
12 : 2 = 6
6:2=3
3:2=1
1:2=0

3 ) 56, n = 7; ) 98, n 12.

A, B, C, .
2

x qy

(5.1.1)
q Z.

S.
r
py + r ,

7 23 + 1,
.

x = qy + r .
,

0r,
r |y| = y .

,
r y S,
r |y| = -y , .
x = p|y| + r, 0 r < |y| ,
q=-p
.

0.

y 0.
0 r < |y| .
7

x = qy + r,

,
.

y > 0.
je y 1.
S = {x uy | u Z, x uy 0}.

r S
.

r=

r < |y|.
x (q+1)y = (x qy) y = r y
r
,
p
.
x=
0 r < |y| ,

q r.
x = qy + r = qy + r,
0 r , r y|.
r r (q
|r r q qy| .
-|y| < r r y|,
|r r| < |y|.
0 |q q 1.
q q
,
,
|r r| 0.
, q q 0 r r 0, . q = q r = r .
q r
.

q
q)y .

5.2.4
q
,
qy + r,

x, y Z
x = qy + r,

7, 3 Z

, 1

).

,
,3

10
.
23 110012 .
110012
1 2 4 1 23 0 2 2 0 21 1 2 0
16 8 0 0 1 23

.
1
0
0
1
1

5.2.3. (

0 r < |y|.

|y| = y ,

x
,
x = qy + r,

0 r <y.

0,

x = qy + r,

q r
0 r <y.

x=

31

(nzd)

1. d | x d | y (d
x d
2. (cZ) c|x c|y c|d.
5.2.5

y, .

x, y

d);

,
d = mx + ny.

m, n
5.2.6

,
m, n
d = mx + ny:
) , = 45, 126; ) 70, 154; ) 132, 156; ) 143, 165.
) nzd(45, 126) = 9

,
d = nzd(a, b).
d|1,
d = 1.
,

5.2.8
a|c.

.
a, b
mac + nbc = c.
5.2.9

m, n Z

b
a

p.

a b
1, . nzd(a, b) = 1.

5.2.7
.

d,

9 = 45 - 136
= 45 1 (126 2 45)
= 3 45 + (-1) 126.
2,
7
m = -2, n = 1; ) d = 12, m = 6, n =

nzd,

126 = 2 45 + 36
45 = 1 36 + 9
36 = 4 9 + 0,
) d = 14,
70/154
14 = m70 + n154
14,
-5; ) 11, 7, -6.
,

d.

m n
ma + nb = 1
a b, . d|a d|b
a, b, c Z

a|bc
a, b, p Z

nzd(a, b) 1.
ma + nb = 1.

5.2.3
m n.
d|(ma + nb),

a 0.
,

ma + nb = 1.

a|bc

a, b

m, n Z
ma + nb = 1.
a|a
a|( mac + nbc)
a|c.
p

p|ab

p|a

p|b.

32

:
.

p|a
,

p
p|b.

I
.

a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , , a n , p Z
p| a 1a 2a 3a n
i, 1 i n.

5.2.10
p|a i

a.

.
2 33 .

54

496125

5.2.11 (

5.2.12 (

k>1

k p1c1 p2c2 pncn ,

, c1 , c2 ,, cn

p1 , p2 ,, pn

.
p1 , p2 ,, pn
pi
x p1 p2 ... pn 1 .
,

(n)

34 53 72 .

n+1

.
.

1
,
.

i 1, 2, , n.
p
p|x .

x,
,

, . (n) kard{m | m n nzd (m, n) 1} .

, (2) 1 , (3) 2 , (4) 2 , (12) 4 .

5.2.13
1)
)
)
)

n n;
n 3 7n ;
n 3 11n .

n
2)
5
5
) n n
) (n 1)(2n 5)(7n 6)
) n7 n
7.

3)

n,

B:

33

) A n 2 3n 5 , B n 2 ;
) A n 2 6n 8 , B n 3 ;
) A n 2 8n 15 , B n 4 .
1) )

2, 3, 4, 5, .
6.

)
5
f (n)
n 5k , n 5k 1 , n 5k 2 , n 5k 3
n(n 1)(n 1)(n 2 1) )

2) )

n 5k 4 , k ,
, 6

n(n 1)(n 1)(n 2 n 1)(n 2 n 1) .

) n 2 4n 5 (n 2) 2 1 , ) n 2 8n 15 (n 4) 2 1

3)

5.3
5.3.1

ab

a b (mod n)

a b
a

n
b

(1777 - 1855)

n.

1801.

24.
Disquisitiones
,
.

Arithmeticae,

.
5.3.2

a
n,

,
,

,
.

n | (a b) , . n

a b m n , mZ.
ab
mZ.

a a m n (mod n) ,
b
n
a b
a b (mod n) n | (a b) .
51 46 36 21 1 (mod 5) .

34

5.3.3
1)

) 34 28 (mod 3) ,
34 28 = 23;
) 7 - 1 (mod 4),
7 + 1 = 8 = 2 4;
) -19 - 4 (mod 5), jer je -19 (-4) = (-3) 5;
) 23 0 ( 23) , jer je 23 0 = 1 23.
a, b, c
n

a a (mod n) ;
a b (mod n) b a (mod n) ;
a b (mod n) b c (mod n) a c (mod n) .

2)

. a a = 0 = 0 n;
. a b= m n b a = (-m) n;
. a b= m1 n b c= m2 n a c= (m1 + m2) n.

3)

c d (mod n)

a b (mod n)
1. a c b d (mod n) ;
2. a c b d (mod n) ;
3. a c b d (mod n) ;

4. a m b m (mod n) , m ;
5. ka kb (mod n) , k .
1. 2. a b = m1 n
c d = m2 n (a c) (b d) = (m1 m2)n;
3. (m1m2) n2 = (a - b)( c - d) = ac bc ad + bd =
= ac bd bc + bd ad + bd =
= ac bd - b(c - d) - d(a - b) =
= ac bd - (bm1)n - (dm2)n
ac - bd = ((m1m2) n + bm1 + dm2)n.
4. 5.
3.
,
b = c = k.

1980 1990

4)
(72)2 (-1)2 1 (mod 10)
4|1980
5)
) 3100

13

4.

13

90

10

3.
72 = 49 = 50 1 -1 (mod 10)
74 =
32 = 9 = 10 1 (mod 10), . 34 1 (mod 10).

1980 1990

4|80,
) 1136

380

380

) 62010

90

1 1 0 (mod 10) .

) 32011

11.

35

:
)

3.

33 = 27 = 213 + 1, . 33 1(mod 13) ,

33 ,
399 1(mod 13) ,

3,

) 1 ) 3 35

3 (mod 11).

402

3 ) 1;

6.
,

Q {

m
| m n } .
n
,

6.1.

6.1.1.
) 0,333...
) 3,121212...
: )

x 0,333...

10 x 3,333... ,

10 x 3 x ,

13
4
; ) 12
.
3
33
990

10

9x 3 ,

100

)
,

.
,
3 2 1
1

1 ,
2
2
2

3
,
9

1 2
, , ... .
5 5
(

, ...

,
(

) 0,272727...
) 12,0131313...

,
,

),

, .

6
2
1 .
4
4
(

3/11 )

,
)

36

6.1.2.

.
.

.
,

)
)

25.
) 2/5 ) 7/15 ) 13/11 ) -3/4,
6.1.3.

25

2.

-4/3.

17 2 5 2
54 4 4
5 6 36
,
,
.
17 3 5 3 5 4 2 20 2 4 2 5 4 5 2 32 34

)
)

3n 4
21n 4
2n 3
; ii.
; iii)
.
i.
14n 3
5n 7
4n 5

n:

: ) 12/229; 1/9; 16; ) i.

a, b
k1
5
2
5a 2b
,
1
7n 1
.
1
1
1
14n 3
2
7n 1
,

,
2n + 3 = ak, 5n + 7 = bk.
1 = 5ak 2bk, .
. ii.

k
,

6.1.4.
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
4
8
16
; )
.
)

...

2
4
8
1 2 2 3 3 4
99 100
1 a 1 a 1 a
1 a
1 a
1 a 16

2 1 3 2
100 99

...
1 2 2 3
99 100
1 3
2
99
2
100

...

1 2 1 2 2 3 2 3
99 100 99 100
99
32
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1

; )
,
...

1 a 32
1 2 2 3
99 100 1 100 100
.

: )

)
1, 2, 3, ... .

,
.

37

0, 1, -1, 2, -2, 3, -3, ... .

,

(
.

).

6.1.5.
,

2-

6.2.
.
,
,

2 14

3 21

,
a :b c:d .

a d bc .

2 21 3 14 , . 42 42.

6.2.1.

5 x
;
3 15
x 3 x 1
)
;

x 4 x9

x7 2
;
x5 3
x5 x6
)
.

x 7 x3

: ) 25; ) 31; ) 31; ) -27.

6.2.2.
) a b : b c d : d ;
) a b : a b c d : c d ;
6.2.3.

a c
,
b d

2a 3b 4c
;
2u 3v 4w
: ) 5; ) 25.

a :b c:d
) a b : b c d : d ;
) 2a 3b : 4a 5b 2c 3d : 4c 5d .

a b c
5
u v w

)
a :b : c u : v: w

a 2 2b 2 3c 2
.
u 2 2v2 3w2

a b c
k.
u v w

38

)
)
)
)

6.2.4.
x: y: 6 y: 7 : 2;
( y x) : ( y x) : 15 x : 11 : 5 ;

x
x

y2 : x2 y 2 : 10 ( x y) : ( x y) : 2 ;
3
y3 : x y : x y : 3 : 2 .
2

: ) 63, 21; ) 33, 66; ) (0, 5),

(5, 0) ) 2/7, 1/7.

6.2.5.
) x : y 7 : 13 , y : z 7 : 5 ;
) (c b) : (c a ) : (a b) 2 : 3 : 5 ;

) m: n 9 : 4, m: p 6 : 5 ;
) (u v) : (u w) : (v w) 11 : 10 : 7 .

: ) x : y : z 49 : 92 : 35 ; ) m : n : p 18 : 8 : 15 ; ) a : b : c 2 : 3 : 5 ; )
u : v : w 7 : 4 : 3.

G mn ,
.
,

m: G G : n

m n
2

1 1

m n

n.
6.2.6.

)
)

6.

)
m n

)
m n.

: )

a : b (ka) : (kb)

AH

G,
G AH .
H G A,

a ka a

, .
b kb b

m n 2mn

mn . )
2
m n

,
3

m n.

6 49 . )

. )
m n

0.

, .

abc .

39

( x 1) : x x : 1 ,

x2 x 1 ,

, AC : AB AB : AC ,

( x y) : x x : y .

x2 x

1
5

x .
2
4

y 1 , . AC x 1

10.
450 . . . .

1 5
,
4 4

1 5
2

x2 x 1 .

1 5
.
2

1.6180339887498948482 .

6.2.7.

1
1

1
1
1 ...

1 1 1 ...

x 1

: )

x 1

1
.
x

1
1

1
1 ...

x2 x 1

x 1 1 1 ... .

x 1 x, .
2

. )
,

6.3.

.
.

,
6.3.1.

126

20

.
.

40

:
)

: )

140 0 126.
40
.

, .1

6.3.2.
.

: ) 14
.
x

14
12 , .
8
,

5
,

26

5
5

12

, 8

12 14 8,

3/5

,
:5 = 6 :9
3/5 1 ,
,

, . x:5

: 6 = 4 : 7,

21

, .3

17

140

3
x 3
7

) 14

, 126

, 0
,

100

.
6

5
.

6 (3 / 5)
.
9 1

,
2

6.3.3.

41

:
)
18

5 ,

6 ,

.
1,5

3
, .3
6

3
, .1
, .1

V1 : V2 18 : x ,

657
,
568

6.3.4.

800

6 .
3
1

,
2 .
2/3

7 68
18 , .
689

.
x : 140 = 6 : 5
=5:6
=7:8
,
,

500
.

3 .

140
5 ,

V1 6 8 9 (
V2 7 6 8 .

x : 140

)
)
2%

,
, . 1,5

),
x 14
)

1,5

6 ,

:
1,5

160

.
,

3
1,5%

(
1,5 %
20%

2, 3
)

5.
,
.

: )
x, y z.
x y z 500
x 2k , y 3k z 5k ,
x: y: z 2:3:5.
2k 3k 5k 500 ,
k 50 .
x 100 , y 150 z 250
. )

5%
3000, . 2850
,
60
,
45
,
45
. ) 220, 264 316
.
6.3.5.

42

:
)
)

6
.

400, 500

)
40%, 30%
11

30%
,

: )

66, 4

50 %
: )
,
x y 90
,

12

214

800

42, 40
,

, . 213, 267

,
36

320

00
, . 164
40% 30% 30%,

40% 30%, .
.
,

4/11

00

66 + 234, 4 + 175 + 327

.

.
200
0

5/
00
5
5
3
4
900 175
900 234 ,
9
9
7
7
4
, . 327
.
,
,
4
, . 300, 551 4
,

1,2

700
3
,

118
36/118
700
, . 24, 237
.
4/15, 5/15 6/15
.
,
.
2/11

)
)

,
42/118, 40/118

6.3.6.

800
.

600
00

1,1
60

65 %, 60 %

500
1,16
60 x 30 y 50 90 ,

45 %
,
. )

50 %

50

50

300
30
00

200 1,1 300 1,2 500 x .

= 60, 30
60
50, 100

150

.
30.

43

I
.

x, y z

x y z 900
150, 300
x : y : z 50 : 100 : 150
450
,
.

.
6.3.7.

)
98%
)

18

2
8%.

: )
99
v
.

v s 100

rv
98
.

rv s 100
50,5%
. )
1%
,
2%
,
8
.
, 100

8%.

4,5%

.
v

rv

2%.

K G T

,T

,p

30
.
79
T
0,216 ,
365

%
100

,G

365 (

360

, 7

p
,
100

r 0,45

366)

79
0,219
360

6.4.
(

)
.

6.4.1.

.
.

.
.

44

:
)

I
.

n N
: )

6.4.2.

)
)
)
)

(
k: )

n
.

V n (n 1) ... (n k 1)

6.4.3.

).

0-5?

0-4?
,
,

5
4

. ) 4432 = 96.
6.4.4.

.
,

,
,
.

: )
1-5.
566 120
)
)
)
)

n
n-1
, -

: )

)
)

n-k+1

n
k

n
n(n-1)

k n

. )

n,

. ) n! 1 2 ... n ,

. ) 24

6.4.5.
23k10-

0, 1, ..., 5,
5

554 = 100

0-5?
0-4?
,
. ) 500.
.
5
5
n

2-

0-5.

8-

45

: )

5-

.
,

4,

54

2! 12.

)
.

C 25

,
, .

5 4
10 . )
1 2

Vkn n (n 1) ...(n k 1)
5 43
n
. )

C
10 . ) C k
k!
1 2 ... k
1 2 3
10 9 10 9 (8 ... 3)
C 210
C810 .

1 2
1 2 (3 ... 8)

5
3

45,

7.
7.1.
,

3 1,732
3 = 1,732... ;

2 = 1,414... ;

,
(1,732)2 3

4 =2;

4 1,587

(1,587)3 4.

5 2,236...

6.1.1.)

.
.

7.1.1.

2
2

.
m 2n .
2

m
n

,
.

m n
,

,m

m = 2k,

m
n

k = 1, 2, 3, ... ,

m).

(2k) 2 2n 2 , . n 2 2k 2 .
m n
,

46

xy x y
.

20 45 ; )
: )

x
y

7.1.2.

1
x

x
.
x

6 15 ; ) (4 3 2 )(4 3 2 ) ; )

45 95 2 5 3 5 5 5 ; )

9 10 3 10 ; ) (4 3 ) 2 ( 2 ) 2 48 4 44 ; )

3 2
18

2 3 35

3 2

92

3 2
3 2

295

1 .

7.1.3.

3 1

: )

4 2 2 6.

3 1

7.1.4.
ABC
CD.
CD = 10 cm.

; )

4 3

3 22 6

3 1

3 1

3 1
8 18 12 6
4 3
2 6 3 2
; )

2
24 18
2 6 3 2 2 6 3 2

AC = 15 cm
AD = x, AB = y BC = z.

x2 15 2 10 2 ,
:
ACD ABC
. x 5 5 cm.
15 x = y : 15 = z : 10.
y 9 5 cm

z 6 5 cm.

47

7.2.
)

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c),

2 + (3 + 5) 2 + 8 10.
2 (3 5) = 2 15 = 30.
, . a (b c) ab ac
(
2 (3 + 5) = 2 3 + 2 5,

).

16.

(a b) c = a (b c).

, (2 + 3) + 5 5 + 5 10
, (2 3) 5 = 6 5 30
.

)
a, b

7.2.1.
(a + b)2 = a 2 + 2ab + b2 ,

(a + b)3 = a 3 + 3a 2b + 3ab2 + b3 ,
(a + b)4 = a 4 + 4a 3b + 6a 2b2 + 4ab3 + b4 ,

7.2.2.

(a b)2 = a 2 2ab + b2 ,

(a b)3 = a 3 3a 2b + 3ab2 b3 ,
(a b)4 = a 4 4a 3b + 6a 2b2 4ab3 + b4 ,

.
b

7.2.3.
1
1

1
1

1
(

2
3

4
)

1
4

(a b)5 = a 5 5a 4b + 10a 3b2 10a 2b3 + 5ab4 b5.

7.2.4.

48

:
a 2 b2 = (a b)(a + b),
a 3 b3 = (a b)(a 2 + ab + b2),
a 3 + b3 = (a + b)(a 2 ab + b2),

7.2.5.
,

) x5 + x + 1; ) x4 + x2y2 + y4; ) (x + y + z)3 x3 y3 z3.

: ) x5 x2 x2 x 1 x2 ( x3 1) ( x2 x 1)
( x2 x 1)( x3 x2 1) ; ) x4 2 x2 y 2 y 4 x2 y 2 ( x2 y2 ) 2 ( xy) 2
( x2 y2 xy)( x2 y 2 xy) ; ) (( x y z) 3 x3 ) ( y3 z3 )

(( x y z) x)(( x y z) 2 x( x y z) x2 ) ( y z)( y2 yz z 2 )
( y z)((3x2 y2 z 2 3xy 3xz 2 yz) ( y2 yz z 2 ))
( x y)(3x2 3xy 3xz 3 yz) 3( y z)( x( x y) z( x y))
3( x y)( x z)( y z) .
7.2.6.

1.

2
2
) 2 x x 1 ) 3a 2a 1 ) 5b 2 4b 1 ) 7c 2 6c 1 .
2.

2
2
) 6a 13ab 5b ) 14u 2 19uv 3v2 ) 10 x2 9 xy 7 y 2 .
3.

) 2a 3 ) 3x 5 2 ) 3u 2v ) 2 3 3 2 .
4.

2
2
2
) 4 x 12 x ... ) 9a 30a 2 ... ) 9m 12mn ... ) 12 12 6 ... .
5.

2
2
2
2
(a b c) a b c 2ab 2ac 2bc .
6.

) 2a 1 ) x 3 ) 3 2 ) 2 5 b .
7.

3
3
2
2
) 8x 12 x ... ) a 9a ... ) 3 3 9 2 ... ) 24 3 36c ... .
8.
:

2
1
1
1
4

) (a b) c ) ( 5 ) 2 ) 2 x ) 3 1 2 .
2
4
5
9

9.
,

) (a 1) 3 125 ) ( x 3) 343 ) x6 1 ) a 3b 3 a 3 b 3 1 .
10.

4n2
3n 3
n 1
125a ) 3b
81b n1 ) c 5n 4c 3n 8c 2n 32 ) x6n 56 x3n 512 .
) 5a

7.3.

49

x2 x
x( x 1)
21 3 7 3
x
, x 1 0 .
7.3.1. )
; ) 2

35 5 7 5
x 1 ( x 1)( x 1) x 1
.
(

67
1
2 3 4 70 63 60
2
3
; )

x x 1 x 1
3 5 7 105 105 105 105
x2 1 2( x 2 x) 3( x2 x)
( x 1)( x 1)
2 x( x 1)
3x( x 1)

x( x 1)( x 1) x( x 1)( x 1) x( x 1)( x 1)

x( x 2 1)

7.3.2. )

2 x2 5x 1
.
x3 x
(

)
.

a c ac
,

b d bd

a c a :c
.
:
b d b:d

,
3 2 6
,

5 7 35
x2 1 x 1
x 1
:
2
, x 1.
3
x 1 x 1 x x 1

7.3.3. )

x
x
x2
10 5 2
2

,
: ; )
x 1 x 1 x 1
35 7 5

a c a d
: .
b d b c

7.3.4. )
(

x( x 1)
x x 1
x
x
7 9
7 13 91

:

; )
x 1 x
x 1 x 1
10 13 10 9 90
x( x 1)
x 1
)
, x 0.
x 1

50

a
a c b ad
:
.
b d c bc
d
7.3.5.

8a 3
1
1
1 b
3
1
1 bn
1
b

27
b
) a
; )
; )
; )
.
1
1
1 1
1
1
4a 2 2a
a
1
...

1
1
b b2 b3
bn
1 b2
9b 2 3b
a
a
: ) a

a 4 3a 2 1
a 2 1
, a 0,1,1 ; ) 1 b, b

a 3 2a
a 3 2a

a
a 1
(1 b)(1 b b 2 ... b n 1 )
2a
1; )
1 , b 0; )
b n (1 b) , b 0.
1
3b
(b n 1 b n 2 b n 3 ... 1)
n
b
7.3.6.

a 3 a 2
x 1 x 2
a 7
x 2
1. )
; )
.

2
2
a 2 a 3 a 5a 6
x 1 x 2 x 3x 2
1 1 1 x 1 y
x2 y
2m m n
m n
.

2. ) 2
1
; )
2
x
m n m n
x x y x y y
n m
2

v u
v
2
m n m n m n m n
u
3. ) 2

:
: 2 ; )
.
u
m n m n m n m n
u uv u v u v v
a 2 b 2 c 2 2ab
2c a 2 b 2 c 2
;
: 1

4.
) 2
2
2
a
c
b
2
bc

a
c
b
ac
2

1
1 1
1 v2 w2 u 2
.
)
:
: 1
2vw
u v w u v w

8.
1.
) n 3 5n 3 4n
) n 3 3n 2 2n

n:
120
6.

n:
2.
) (n 1)(2n 5)(7n 6)
) n2 1
3.

51

3.

4.

23.

6.

10
6.
,

x y (mod m) ,

n xn y n (mod m) .

f1 1 , f2 1 , n fn2 fn1 fn .
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610,... .
n:

) f3n
) f4n
3
) k k | n fk | fn .
.
.

7.

8.

9.
42.

10.

11.

450

12.

78%

1000
2007.

7187,

13.

n
,
n2
n 2
n 3
) 4 5 4 5 n 3
) 2 n2 32n1 2 n1 32n

5.

.
5

75

, 1%

2410,

4211

, 20%

37

115

52

:
5,5

14.

I
6,25

00

10,10
120

15.
,80

, 27%

16.
17.

370,

,65

250

5000
,

18.

19.

7000
,

20.

22.

21.

40%

8%

6%

.
, .
5

2 3

) (4 3 2 ) 2 (4 3 2 )(4 3 2 ) )

1
2

(2 2 1) 2 (1 8 ) .
20 cm

23.

12 cm.

24.

) ( x2 4 x)( x2 4 x 6) 9 ) ( y2 5 y)( y 2 5 y 8) 16 ;
) (a 2 5a )(a 2 5a 10) 24 ) (b 2 7b)(b 2 7b 22) 120 .

25.

) x10 x6 x4 1 ) u 6 u 5 u 4 2u 3 u 2 u 1 ;
) 64 y6 16 y3 1 ) v6 v5 v4 2v3 v2 v 1 .

26.

) a 2 (b c) b 2 (c a ) c 2 (a b) ;
) a 2 (b c) b 2 (c a ) c 2 (a b) ;
) (a b) 3 (b c) 3 (c a ) 3 .

53

:
27.
) (ax by) 2 (ay bx) 2 (a 2 b 2 )( x2 y 2 ) ;
) (ax by) 2 (ay bx) 2 (a 2 b 2 )( x2 y 2 ) ;
) (ax by) 2 (ay bx) 2 (a 2 b 2 )( x2 y2 ) ;
) ( x2 y 2 )(a 2 b 2 ) (ax by) 2 (bx ay) 2 .

54

III
.

.
p

A B,
.
.

A B
p AB

AB
(
,
,

.
.

.
.

.
.

,
,
p.
.

,
,

,
,

p
(

55

:
.

6.
),

. . .

6.

. . .

( .
3.

.
13

,
,

.
.

18.

9.

17.

1.
,

,
,

1.

(David Hilbert, Grundlagen der Geometrie,

.

,
.
157.
,
8.
.
.

18),

56

I
.

,
.

(1-8);

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

9.1.

1.

(1-4);
(1-5);

(1-2).

.
.

I-1
I-2
I-3

I-4

I-5
.

I-6
.

I-7
.

I-8

...;

, , , ...

.
I-7
I

.
I-4-8

a, b, c, ...

,
I-1-3

A, B, C,
,

I-8

I.

57

(I-1,2),
A B
,
,

:
,

,
I-1,2

A B.
.
,

, . a = b.
.

.
9.1.2.

, ...

,
a

9.1.1.

a=b
.

I-3

.
I-4.

9.1.3.

p
I-3,
I-4,

A B,
A, B C
A B

I-6
I-4,5

C
,

A, B C,

C.
9.1.4.
:

p q {A} ,

.
.
A
A
I-4

I-3
B,
C.
A, B C
I-5

p
q

58

9.1.5.

:
I-1,2

,
B.
p
B

,
,

I-7
B
I-6

p.

p
p
.

I-5
,
9.1.6.

,
.

9.1.7.

3.

4.

5.

9.2.

"

,
II-1

B
B

I-8

2.

.
1.

I-6

"

A C,

.
A, B, C

59

C
A B.

II-2
II-3

A, B C

A C.

AB,

II-1

A.

.
II-4

A, B C

ABC
AB,

AC,

BC.
II-4

.
ABC

BC.
AC

BC.

9.3.

.
III-1
',
III-2

III-3
'C'.

, 'B'

A, B
',
AB
AB 'B'.
'B' "B"
"B",
.
B BC
B'C'

'
B,

, '
B'
'B',

AB 'B'

BC B'C',

'B'

,
'

,
AC

Moritz Pasch: Vorlesungen uber neuere Geometrie, Leipzig 1882.

60

:
,

AB BA.
,
.

, .

.
(a, b)
b
Oa

(b, a)

Ob

.
),

III-4

'

'

(p, q)
a'.
p'

'

(p', q')

q')
(p', q').

9.4.

9.4.1.

.
B

AOB,

B.

'
a'
q'

a'

',

(p, q)
(p',
(p, q)

9.4.2.
IV (

.
).

.
9.4.3.

IV,

a, b
,

,
p .

I-5

p .
b

a,

a
a.

61

(12.4.1.)

(12.4.2)

I
,

,
.

,
12.1.4.

.
,

9.4.4.

9.5.
V-1 (

).

AB CD
CD

n,

A
B.

B
V-2 (

).

10.

I-III

,
.
,
t

AB,

1, 2, ..., 4.

3 3.

V-1.

b.

1, 2, 3 4.
,
3, 4, 1 2.

3 1.

,
,

1 2.

62

10.1.
180 (
10.1.1.

).
.

180 .
,

.
.

10.1.2.
180.
10.1.3.

.
10.1.4.

360.

10.1.5.

)
)
)
)

360.
540.
(n 2) 180 .
360.

nn-

: )
n1
n-3
,
A1A3, A1A4, A1A5, , A1An-1.
n-2
123, 134, 145, ..., 1n-1n.
(n 2) 180 .
n-2

.
n.

n 3, 4, 5, .

1, 2, 3,
..., n,
.
1 + 1 = 180, 2 +
2 = 180, 3 + 3 = 180, ... , n + n = 180.
1+2+3+...+n= (180-1) +
(180-2) + (180-3) + ... + (180-n) = n180 + 1+2+3+...+n = n180 + (n.

1, 2, 3, ..., n,

2)180 = 360.

60.

63

.
(

).
.

10.1.6.

BC
C-D-B CD = b.
,
.

> ,

ABD,

BC > AC, . a > b.

ABC,

D,
ADC

A D
BAC =

= ABD, . > >

.

10.1.7.

> ,

a > b.
b > a.
(
.

10.2.
1.
2.
3.

10.2.1.
AB
CD
2
AB
CD
2
AB
CD
2

: 1.
AD > CD
DB > CD
AD CD (
ACD = (

)
2:1

CD

ABC:

C > 90.
C = 90.
C < 90.

ABC
ACD > ,
DCB > .

> + ,
180,
DB CD)
DCB > ).
= 90.

> 180 - ,

> 90. 2.

= + ,

, .

64

0 (

0,

0.
.

10.2.2.
.
:
B

D.

1 + 2 = 180.
10.2.3.

)
)

,
+ 2 = 180.

ABCD
360,

ABC
C

3645'30''

6225'30'' .

.
B.

: )

60. , )

.
.
.
10.2.4.
:
A B
+ = 90.
ABS,

S
135,

S
.

135.

45.
135.

ABC
, .
,
,

/2 /2,
,
0.

B(

45,
C

65

:
10.2.5.

I
12

:
13

,
ABC. ABC = = 90
x2 5 2 12 2 , .

45 + = 112,38.

10.3.
,

10.3.1.
.
2.

1.

1.

=1+2
AD

.
,

OBC = ,
AD
= 2. 3.

3.

AOB
= 2
DB,

BOC,
. 2.
1 = 2 1 2= 2 2 ,
= 1 2,

BD.
10.3.2. (

66

)
)

.
),

: )

2.
ACD
)

180.

BCD.
tAB ACB

CAD

10.4.
1.

2.

3.
.
4.

5.
6.

ABC

CD

.
105.

AB
CD = BC.

C.

7.

AA

8.
H
AHB + C = 180.

11.

BB

ABC

ha

hb)

ABC,

,
,

AB

.
,

67

:
,
)
)
)
)

.
(
AB1C

11.0.1.
Op
OM

AB2C

),

b.

Opq
Q

2.

M.
Oq

P
MP = MQ,

Opq.

,
OMP OMQ
(P = Q = 90),
,
OM.
MP = MQ,
OMP OMQ,
POM = QOM.

11.1.
11.1.1.
:

ADC A1D1C1
a = a 1 h = h1,

ABC

A1B1C1

BC B1C1 , AC A1C1
CD C1 D1 , . a a 1, b b1 h
h1.
, .
D = 90.
a b.
,

D = D1,

68

:
ADC A1D1C1.
,
ABC A1B1C1.

10.1.7.), .
A = A1.

A = A1,

AE

= .

ABC

ab

)
,

.
,

ABC,
==

CD.
AD = DB.

E
ADE (

h,

:
C/2,

a = a 1 , b = b1

2:1
11.1.2.

,
C-D-E CD = DE.
),
BDC ADE.
AEC
, . AC = AE.
AC = BC, .
.

CD
BDC =
BC =
,

11.1.3.
.
:

AC = BC ,
.
AEC BDC,
AE = BD, .
,
= BT 2/3

AD = BE,

AC = BC,
.

EC = CD =
C
.

,
AEC BDC,

, . AE = BD,
DT = ET 1/3
ATD = BTE.
ATD BTE.
ABC

AT

69

:
11.1.4. (
ABC A1B1C1
AB A1B1.
BCD = B1C1D1,
:

),

I
, 17.
D D1
AD = A1D1.

183.

BCD B1C1D1
AB DB = A1B1 D1B1,

DB = D1B1

AD =

A1D1.

11.1.5.
1.
ABC ABC
) b = b, ha = ha , = ; ) hc = hc, = , = ;
) a = a, c = c, tc = tc; ) hc = hc, tc = tc, c = c.
2.
)

3.

4.

.
M

AB

5.
)
)

6.
(

11.2.
,

AM = BM.

11.2.1.

.
,

70

ABCD

AC.
ACB = CAD,

CAB = ACD,
ABC CDA.

11.2.2.
,
DA
.
E
CDE (

.
AB CD
ABCD,

BC

ABE

,
.

).

11.2.3.

11.2.4.

ABC

M N

AC

MN
.
P-M-N PM = MN.
ANCP
(2) CN PA
.
,

11.2.5.
ABCD.
:

M N
DM BN
,

AME
= FC.

CNF

EG || MB
EGF AME (
AE = EF.
AC
.

11.2.6.

DM BN
(
)
MBGE
),
DM BN
.

P
(3)

(2)

, MN AB AB = 2MN.

ABNP

MN

BC,

AB CD

AC
E

F.

AE

21

71

ABC

ABDC.
CM BN (N
T V
S

TV
A.

) AS CM

AS

D.
CD)

AD
AT = TV = VD.
AT = 2TS,

21

AS

11.2.7.

.
,

.
.

11.2.8. (
ABCD
AC, E
.

, 15.
AB > BC.
AB1 CD.
:
DCA
AB1

AEC

11.2.9.
BAM

DC
BC

B1

CB1E
CAB

CAB CAB1
AB

AC.
DCA CAB1,
(AE = EC).
, CB1 = CB = DA
DEA CEB1,
ADE CB1E
.

ABCD
N.

DC

184.)
B
ADE

M.
AM = DM + BN.

P-D-M PD = BN,
.
ADP ABN,
APD
PAM,
APD = ANB
= 90 - , PAM = PAD + DAM = + (90 ,
AMP
2) = 90 - .
.
AM = MP = DM + DP
= MD + BN.

72

,
.
.

.
11.2.10.1.

)
)

2.

3.

.
AC
ABC ACD.

4.
C.
5.

ABCD

A
,

6.
M N
+ CD = 2MN.

AD

7.

8.
CD
BD

)
)

BC

ABCD,

AB
,

.
(

ABCD
BC AD,

)
M N
AC

11.3.

10.3.

.
(
(

AB
AC

)
)

BD.

(
10.3.2.)

10.3.1.).

73

:
11.3.1.
CD = BC + AD.
AB CD| = |AD BC|.

ABCD

AB +

.
ABCD
M, N, P

CD

DA.

DQ.

AB, BC,
A, B, C D
, . AM = AQ, BN = BM, CN = CP DP =
AB + CD = BC + AD.
11.3.2.

Q,

(180).

:
ABCD.
BD, . + = 180.

(
A C)

11.3.3.

A.
B C.

(0).

BAC
:

, AS
SA SB

SA SB
SA = SB = SC.
S

A
,

A, B C,
A

BC
11.3.4.
1.

65, 105

2.

115.
123.

A, B C
ABC.

3.
s c,

a bc
2

s a, s b
.

74

:
4.

5.

6.
D.

ABC

BC

ABD

[30]
7.

AB.
C D.

A B
COD
.

11.4.
180 (
360 (

10.1.2.),
(
10.1.4.).

10.1.3.),
.

.
11.4.1.

(&10.).

ABC

AO
sA sB.

ON OP
CA AB.

APO
/2.
/2,

BPO
OP = OM.

OP = ON.

OCM,

OP = ON = OM.
CNO,
OM = ON.

OCN

11.4.2.

ANO

BMO

CMO

BO
OM,
BC,

CO

OP = ON = OM
.

75

:
:

ABC

S
BC

I
sa
CA.

M N

.
,

MBS MCS
.
NCS NAS.
,

sb

BS = CS.

CS = AS.
AS = BS = CS.
ABS
sc

AB.
S

ABC.
.
11.4.3.
:

,
,

A, B C

.
ABC
NP, PM MN
BC, CA AB.
BMC, CNA

APB

,
,

.
A, B C
NP, PM MN.
MNP

(11.1.2.),
H,

ABC.
,

(&11.1.).
,

11.4.4.
1.
2.

2:1
(

11.2.4.)

21

.
(

11.2.6)
, .

.
.
.

76

. 1.
T.
,

AN BM

ABC

MN
.

AB
ABT

PQ,
AB

MN || PQ MN = PQ.
MNT PQT
MNT PQT,
AT Q
BT,
A
B.
2.
AN BM
ABC

PT = TN QT = TM.

T.
CP

BM
.
, BS = 2SM,

BS

2
BM .
3
2
BT BM .
3

, BT = 2TM
BS = BT,
S T
.

CP

P
21

11.4.5.
1.

.
.

2.
3.

4.
BC

DE BC.

AB
F

CD
BED
GF || BD,
DE GF.

ABC.
DE.
.
G
GF CD.
, CF

BE
F
ABE

11.5.
10.1.6.

7.).

E
AE CF.
GE

CF DG.
AE || DG

CDG,
, DG
AE CF.]
(

77

I
,

.
11.5.1. (

BC
.
ACD
BAC =
DAC = ADC = .
< BAD,
BDA < BAD.
10.1.7.)
a<b+ c

AB < BD, . c < a + b.

b < a + c.

.
ABC

D-B-C

DC = CA = b,

c a < b, c b < a.
.
,
|a b| < c < a + b,
a, b c
).

.
c<a+ b

11.5.2.

,
A

= ,
<

>

a = a, b = b

C
ABC ABC,

,
C
c = c,
11.2.2. 3) >

a = a, b = b

c > c.
A=
CB
AB

DB = DB.
AD + DB AB,

c > c

= , < ,

> .

> . 1)

11.5.4.

1.

. 2)

.
.

2.

3.
[

:
C = C,
.
s
BCB
D.
DCB DCB (
),
,
AB > AB.

11.5.3.
:

ABC
BO AO, BOC: /2 < /2

.
CO < BO.

, ABO: /2 /2
,
CO.]

78

I
.

4.
5.

.
.

6.
[
,

7.

10.
ABC
) ACB < AMB; ) AM + MB < AC + CB.

M.

11.
ABC
s < AM + BM + CM < a + b + c,

M.

.
.

a, b

tc < a + c/2]
.

8.
9.
)
)

tc < b + c/2

, s

79

IV
.
,
,

(&13),

"

"
.

)
,

12.

).
(&14.).

.
:
1
2:
3
4

5
6

.
:

( - - )
( - - )

( - - )
( - - )

.
,

,
.
2

(42-384. . . . .)

80

.
.

a, b
(

ha ,

ABC.

12.1.1.
.

B C
BC

12.1.

a,
b,

ha .
.
B

k(B,a)

Bx

BC.

BC :
Bx;
C = Bx k(B,a).
k1(C,b).
n BC
C;
P, Q n k2(C, ha ).
p q
P Q
BC.
: p k1(C,b),
q k1(C,b),
AiBC (i = 1, 2, 3, 4
),

81

:
.
< ha , b = ha ,

2,

b
.

b > ha .

12.1.2.

.
ABC,

a + c.

.
AB
D.

B-D, AD = c + a.

B
A-

BDC
s

DC

B.
.
ADC,

,
.

.
B = AD s.
.

s(D,C)
ABC.

DC
ADC,
BDC
D = /2.
, AD = AB + BD = c + a,
AB + BC = a + c.

,
BD = BC = a,
ADC (
B,

ADC,
DC.

, a + c, /2
).

.
< 90

90

AD
.

.
12.1.3.
1.
ha , hb

2.
hb, tb
3.

4.

a, b

tc.
.

ta , tb , tc.

82

:
5.

6.

AB = c, hc

AC = b, BC = c

7.
)

tc

ABC.

ha

ABC.

) b c, , hb (b > c);
) a + c, b, .

8.
) c a, b, (c > a);
) b + c, hb, ;
9.

a, b c

.
10.

12.2.
,

12.2.1.
,

.
M, N P.

CE = h
N,

=s

P,
CN
AN = NB.
AB

h
AB

ON.
G

M P
.

G
O, G

C = h k.
ON.
:

NO,

,
M,
CG = t

ABC
CF

ACB
,

ANB.

N
M

G = CP ON .
ABC.
NO ,

, 160.

83

:
12.2.2.

).

:
AB, BC, CD DA

A.
= 180 .
PQ

P, Q, R S

,
B

BD
PQ

k
K.

PQ

SR PQ.

.
A C

RS
DR, DS, BP

BQ.

ABC.

BK

RS
L

, DL

S R

.
S P,
.

12.2.3.
.

PBK = CBK, .
ADC.
, BD
ABCD

(
:

k1

=
K L
)

k2

K L. D = k p, B = l p.
DS BP DR BQ.

PK = QK
(

PQ

S
,

.
4

O1

O2,

.
d.

15.

84

:
,

t1
,
AB = d

t2

CD =

d.
O2P
k3

O2Q
O2
O2P = O2Q.

O2.

k2.
k3

k1

(d)

O2

k3.

(O2)

k1

k3.

.
12.2.4.
.

.
AB = a.

ABC
B

BC = a/2,
.

a/2,
AC

E.
,

DE = a.
AD
.
AD = x, M AB M
x : (a x).
.

a
a

a x ,
2
2

AB + BC = AC

a : x x : (a x) .

AM =

x2 a (a x) ,

12.2.5.
1.

85

I
.

2.

3.
4.
)

5.
)

6.
)

7.
)

)
.

8.

9.

.
.

d ( d < k).

d.
,

10.

13.

(A,B )(! m R m 0) d(A,B) = m.

:
,

A B

m
m.

A, B

d(A,B)
A B.

1. d(A,A) = 0;
2. d(A,B) = d(B,A);
3. d(A,B) d(A,C) + d(C,B).
.

A, B C
.

(3)
.

86

(f : ) : d(A,B) = d(f(A),f(B)),
.
d(f(A),f(B))

A B
d(A,B)

B,

f(A)
,

f(B)

f(A) = A.
.
1)

2)

A
.

,
,

3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

13.1.
A A

AA

Ss :
A

,
.

13.1.1.
:

.
AB,

AB

AB

s,
Ss : AB AB.
, .

AB
AB, AA

BSS2 BSS2
AB = AB.

S1
SA = SA

13.1.2.

S2.
SB = SB.

d(A,B) = d(A,B).

BB
s
ASS1 ASS1

S,
SAB SAB

, 168.

87

:
.

M, N P
O

k
ABC.
BN CP

AM,
S,

CAM = BAM CM = BM OM BC.

CBN = ABN CN = AN ON AC.
ACP = BCP AP = BP OP AB.

BAC = 180 NOP,

.
,
BOC = 2BAC.

BAC

OM, ON OP.
MOC = . B
ON.

NOP.
OM. A

AM, BN CP
C
AM

.
, B
CM = BM, . CAM = BAM
.

BC.
CAB.

Qq

OC
C
OM
=

OM

M, N P
.

13.1.3.

Opq

PQ
:

Pp

q,
p

1 2

Q.

PQ .

TP + PQ + QT = T1P + PQ +
QT2 = T1T2.
,
. TP + PQ + QT = T1P + PQ +
QT2
T1PQT2
T1PQT2.
, .

.
, .

88

13.1.4.
1.
)

2.

AB
:

s; )

A B

s.

A B

s.

: a) a, hb, b + c; ) c, ha , a + c.

3.
4.

a,

)
)
)

b
p

5.

c;
k;
k1

k2.

A B
APB

6.

ABC
D

P p

p.
.

BC

AC = BC
E.

AB = c.
ABE

AC

3c.

ABC.

13.2.

13.2.1.
S
.

,A B

SS : A B

AB,
A

B
13.2.2.

S.
F1

F2

S,
1
2

S,

13.2.3.

Sp

p'

p;

)
m||p (

M
m||p').

QQ'

Q'

p'

89

:
: )
B'

'

I
p

Bp

S,

S,
p'

' B',
.
AS = SA', BS = SB' ASB = A'SB'
SAB SA'B'
,
= '.
,
,
p||p'.
c
S
p p'
A'SC'

C C',
CS = SC',

C
p'
n p'

C'

)
np
N,
SAN SA'N',
NS = SN', .
Q Q'
q
QQ' S, M m.
Q
rp
P
M
PM = MP'.
NN'PP'
NP SM || NP, . m || p.
c,

S.
N'.
S

p
p

Q'
,

13.2.4. )

ASC
S.

.
M

p'

p',

r p'
NSMP

M.
P'.
SM =
.

.
13.2.5.
(
:

).

AB A'B'
S
.
, AS = SA SB = SB ,
ASB = ASB
SAB SAB AB
= AB =
AB || AB,
.
.

SAB SAB
S.

S.

AB AB

S.
,
AB AB
AA BB
,
= , = ,

90

13.2.6.

13.2.7.
:
a, b
ab T

a, b

S.
a || a, b || b.
M-S-M
M
S.
STM STM
MS = SM, .
'
S.
13.2.8.
.

A, B

A, B
ASB ASB
.

AB AB.

13.2.9.
1.
)
)
)
2.
)

(1.

(1.
(1.

2.

3.

,
.

);

).

5)

3.

3)

4)

2.
2.

.
.

91

:
6)

ABCD.
A1, B1, C1
DD1.

CC1

13.3.
MOM

D1

B, C, D
A1B1C1D1

M
OM = OM.

( = aOb)

S
, .

(a, b).

13.3.1.

, : M M.

(Oa

AOA =
BOB =

M'

13.3.2.

OA = OA,
OB = OB.
AB = AB.
)
A B
.
,

= 120.

2.
3.

30.

5.

: ) = 30; ) = 45; ) = 60.

1.

4.

AOB AOB
(

AA1, BB1,

S :

Ob)

AB ,

.
.

92

:
6.

13.4.

Sv :

MM '
Sv M M ' .

13.4.1.

Sv : AB A' B' ,

A B

ABBA,
, .

13.4.2.

: )

1.
2.

aOb,

d.
d.

q || p

k1(C1, r 1) k2(C2, r 2), r 1 r 2

A k1, B k2 AB || C1C2.

3.

4.

5.

AB,
ABCD

d.

AB = d

.
Ck Dp

k.
.

6.

.
[

.
.
.]

14.
.

', B'

'
',

, B
B : 'B'
.

93

:
'

~ '.

'
,

14.1.
(

,
.
. Intercept theorem),

624. 546. . . . .)

,
14.1.1.

.
.

ABC

DE (D AB, E AC).

DE || BC

94

AD / BD = k,
AE / CE = k.
:
DE
,
DG
BE

CD.

CD.

1
AD EF
2
1
P(ADE) = AE DG
2

P(ADE) =

k
,

ABC

BC.
AD / BD = AD / CE.
E D
EF
AB AC
.
,
EF AB DG AC, BE,

1
BD EF ,
2
1
P(CED) = CE DG .
2

P(BDE) =

P(ADE) / P(BDE) = AD / BD
P(ADE) / P(CED) = AE / CE.

P(BDE) = P(CED)
BC, .
AD / BD = AE / CE

DE
B C.
.

ADE = ADC AED = ACB.

,
AD / BD = AE / CE
BD / AD = CE / AE,
BD / AD + 1 = CE / AE + 1,
(BD + AD)/AD = (CE + AE)/AE, . AB / AD = AC / AE,
AD / AB = AE / AC.
14.1.2.
:

.
ABC

AB AC
AD / DB = AL / LC,
DL || BC.

.
BC

p,
DP.
(14.1.1.)
AD / DB = AP / PC.
AP / PC = AL / LC.

AD / DB = AL / LC

.
14.1.3.

95

:
AE BE
,

EC ED
ABCD

ABCD
.
.

AB.
CE CF
,

EA FB
DE CF
CE DE
, . EF

EB FB
EA EB
ABCD
.

EF (F BC)
(14.1.1.)

CD.

AB || DC

14.1.4.

p
,

a, b
A, B C,

.
p || q
a, b c

(p)
AGED
, GHFE

ACH je BG || CH,
AB DE
.

BC EF

1.

14.1.5.
M, N P

AB, BC
:

) P(AMP) = P(BNM); ) P(MNP) =

CA

4.
) ab; )

F,

A, G H.
,
AG = DE.
,
GH = EF.
AB AG
,

BC GH

ABC,

1
P (ABC ) .
4

2.

3.
) 5, ) 7

D, E
AB DE
.

BC EF
.

.
; )

a : b.

a b
a
a
b
a b
; )
; )
; )
; )
.
ab
b
a b
a b
a b
a

96

:
5.

DC || AB

6.

ABC

14.2.

h:

OA' k OA, k R\{0}.

A = h(A).
k

,
k<0

k>0

.
h

1.
AB

AB
(

2.
14.2.1.
:
OC),

CA.

k = 2.
k(C,r).
.

(C,2r),

,
AB = kAB;
.

k
k

k
OC : OC = CA : CT,

OC = 2OC (C

OC' 2 OC

CA ||

k.

97

:
(k > 0)
(k < 0)

14.2.2.
ABC

ABC.

1
, k , ABC.
2

k = 0,5

A, B

AOA OA = 2OA,
BOB OB = 2OB
COC OC = 2OC.
ABC
ABC
1
1
OA' OA, OB' OB
2
2

k = 0,5
14.2.3.
1.

3
2
) k ; ) k .
2
3

2.

7
5
: ) k ; ) k .
3
3

30

1
OC' OC .
2

ABC

15, 9

3.
45.
4.

5.

6.

14.3.

,
.

14.3.1.

(A, B ) AB = kAB,

f:
A = f(A), B = f(B), k > 0.

98

:
(

')

I
A, B

'
f ( A) f ( B) k AB .

k
(

.
,

14.3.2.

,
1. (

.
:

2. ( )
3. (

4. (

.
.
.
.

3.

,
BC : BC = AC : AC
A = A
ADC
ABC
, ABC ~ ABC

BC < AC,
,

B = B.

14.3.3.
:

ABC

tc = CD

99

:
ABC

tc,

.
,

. AB || AB.

ABC
AD (
C
D
(
)
tc = CD.
AB
A
AC B
BC.
2. ( ) ABC ~ ABC.
,

14.3.4.

ABC.
.

AB),
D

ABC

AA CC
AD CE.
.

AD
H.
2.( )
AOT ~ AHT
OT : TH = AT : TA = 1 : 2.
,
OT : TH = 1 : 2.
p

p
H
.

OT : TH = 1 : 2,

14.3.5.
1.
2. (

.
.

2. ( ).

AD CE
H

TH = TH, .
H

CD

.
ABC
ABC.

100

:
3.

.
:

ABC
a

b.

C
h
CD
AD = p DB = q
AB = c.

1)
ACD CBD (
2. )
p:h=h:q
. 2)
CBD ~ ABC
a : q = c : a,
ACD ~
ABC
b : p = c : b,
. 3)
,
a2 =
cq b2 = cp
a 2 + b2 = cq + cp = c(q + p) = c2.
,
a 2 + b2 = c2,
ABC
C.
B
CB = CB = a ACB = 90.
a 2 + b2 = d2,
d = AB.

,
2
2
2
a +b =c
d = c.
(
)
ABC
ABC,
ACB = ACB = 90.
14.3.6.

(
AD = a, DB = b

AB.

14.3.7.

:
CDP
P.
A C
,

k
,

b.

10.3.2.).
ADB (a + b = AB)
.

CD

OA = OB.
C
ABC
a

CD
b.

ABP

BD
ADP ~ CBP,
AP : DP = CP : BP.
APBP = CPDP
.

14.3.8.
p2 = PAPB = PCPD.

101

:
14.3.9.

6, 7

1.
)
)
2.

3.
)

ABC
C; )

4.

A B
) C.

ABC

AB,
5.

6.
) 15 ; ) 10 ; )
7.
)

13?

7; )

a, b, c

d.

a b ; ) a bc ; )
2

5.

a b ; ) ab cd .
2

13, 14

8.
9.

10.

15.

15.

.
.

.
,

k,

15.1.
AB, .

1.
AB:AF = AF:FB.
:

AB = a,

102

k1(O, a/2)
BC = a, BCAB,
A-D-O-E,
D, E k1,
k2(A,
AD), AD = x = AF, F AB.
F
AB
.
.
: ABO,
ABO = 90
AB
BAO = 30.
k1(O,
).
2
A-D-O-E,
D, E k1.
k2(A, AD). k2 AB = {F}.
F
AB
.
:
A
k1
ADAE = AB2.
x2 a 2 ax , . x2 a (a x) ,
x2 ax a 2 ,
x (x a) a 2 ,
(
,
12.2.4.).
a : x x : (a x) ,
6

2.

ABC.

1,

.
:

D, E

2,

BC, CA, AB
1,

2,

3.

BC, AC AB,
.
O2AC
= 3, CAO = 2, OAB = 1, OBC = 1.
1,

ADC ~ BEC,

ACB.
2 1,
O1C O2C,
3
OO2 AC
2
AC.

2.
,

BC
.
1

3,

a
7

1,

3,

2,

A, B, C

3,

2.

3.

AB.

.
a'

0.

, 172.
, 171.

103

:
b,
B = b a'
A a.

a'

a
.
C

b
4.
(

ABC

b a'
,
C 90).
C
b a'.
ba

a
ba
b a,
b || a' ,

A B,
0
.
ba

a.
(

)
:

21

)
21
.

AA1

..
,

BB1

1.
A1B1
.
T BB1 BT : B1T = 2 : 1,
CT : C1T = 2 : 1,
1/2

AB
CC1

CC1

,
T
.

5.
.
:

,
AE BE CE

DB = q,

q
pq
.
2
CD pq

pq
.
2

pq ,

, ABC
CD

AB

AE
CDE

CD < CE .

pq
pq
,
2

AD = p

p = q.

104

:
6.

I
.

A, B C
C
C.

AB

A B

ACt = , BCt , CBA = , AC = x, BC = y,

Q.
d

D AB

A B
C.
,

= .
ACD ~ CQB
d : q = x : y.
, BDC ~ CPA
p : d = x : y.
d : q = p : d, .
d2 = pq,

15.2.
1.
.)
[

c, tc

tb tc,

AC
c
5
t c c .]
4
4

tc.
2.

A B
.
[

8
9

A B

, 170.
, 171.

AD : BD = m : n.
,
m=n

AC

BC

m
.
n
9
?

D
.]

105

:
10

3.

M, N P
,
.

ABC

M, N P.
4.

ABC
ABC
11

ABC.
5.

.
a 2 + b2 = c2,
a b c 2 .

a, b, c
.

a, b
.

6.
.

12

(
.

.]

10
11
12

, 16.
, 171.
, 173.

106

V
.

,
,

.
.

,
(ax = b),
bx + c 0)

(x2 + y2 = z2).

(ax2 +

(
,
10 70. .)
(

,
210 20. .)

(al-Khwarizmi,
780
840. .)
(Omar
Khayyam, 1048 1131.)
(
)
(Ab Km,
850 30.).
x + y + z = 10, x2 + y2 = z2

xz = y2.

(Leonardo Fibonacci, 1170 1250.)

x3 + 2x2 + cx = d,
(Scipione del Ferro, 1465 1526.),
(Niccol Fontana Tartaglia, 1500 1557.)
(Gerolamo Cardano,
1501 1576.).
(Lodovico Ferrari, 1522 1565.)
,
1.
(Niels Henrik Abel, 1802 1829.)
(Evariste Galois, 1811 1832.)
.

107

:
,

16.

(Ren Descartes, 1596 1650.)

I
.

(Carl Friedrich Gauss, 1777 1855.),

.
Cauchy, 1789 1857.),
(Sophus Lie, 1842 1899.).

(Arthur Cayley, 1821 1895.)

(Augustin

(William Rowan Hamilton, 1805

,
.
(Hermann Grassmann, 1809 1877.)
(Josiah Willard Gibbs, 1839 1903.)
.
,

1865.)
.

(George Boole, 1815 1864.)

.

16.

.
,

,
5x + 7 = 22,
x

.
(

3.
.

= 3)
.

.
,
|x + 2| + |x 3| = 5
(

)
x [-2, 3],
,

)
. x + 1 = x + 2.
,

2x 6
2,
x3

3.

108

x 1 =0

x2 1 = 0
{1},
.

{1, -1}.

5x + 7 = 22, / -7
5x + 7 7 = 22 7,
5x = 15, /:5
5 x 15
,
5
5
x = 3.

1510. 1558.).

14x + 15 = 71,

16.1.1.
:

.
8x 5 = 2x + 7

,
je
82 5 = 22 + 7 ?
16 5 = 4 + 7
11 = 11
T

8x 5 = 2x + 7 , /+5
8x = 2x + 12 , /-2x
6x = 12 , /:6
x = 2.

16.1.2.
(F)

(C)
212F.

1557.

(Robert Recorde,

16.1.

F = 1,8C + 32.

: 212 = 1,8C + 32 212 32 = 18C 18C = 180 C = 100.

30%

16.1.3.
:

21).

.
x

21

+ 21.

30
( x 21) , . 10 x 3x 63 ,
100

.
x = 30%(x +
.

109

:
16.1.4.
).

&6.2. (

&6.3. (

16.1.5.

:
2x + 5y = 11,
y = 3x + 2.

.
1
.
x
17

(
)
2x + 5(3x + 2) = 11,
37
1
, y 3 2 , . y
.
17
17

16.1.6.

(
2

)
2,
10x + 6y = 8,
21x 6y = 9.
17
.
31x = 17,
x
31

13
.
31

16.1.7.

17
13
2 3,
31
31

a(x + y) + b(x y) = a,
a(x y) b(x + y) = b.

(a + b)x + (a b)y = a

(a b)y = b.
( a b) y

3.

17
13
3 4
31
31

:
a b
.
2

(
a = -b 0,
b)

1
37
5
11 ,
17
17

5x + 3y = 4,
7x 2y = 3.

(a + b)x
a b
( a b) x
2

0x = 0, 0y = 0, .

a= b=0
a = b 0,

).
xR
x

1
.
2

1
2

y R.
(a

1
1
, y .
2
2

110

k, n

y = kx + n,

y = 2x 3
x
-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ...
y = -7, -5, -3, -1,
+1, ... .

( , )
(-2, -7), (-1,
-5), (0, -3), (1, -1), (2, 1), ...,
.

.
,

k 0,
X
.
Y
.

k0

.
k

16.1.8.

k 0

5x + 3y = 4,
7x 2y = 3.
:
7
5
4
3
y x , y x .
2
3
3
2

(17/31, 13/31)
.

(1)

,
.
(2)

?
16.1.9.
1.
) 3 2(4 3(5 4(6 x))) = 20x + 127;
5 x 2 x 2 x 3x
) 3 5 6 x 43 ;
5 3
4
2
)
1
2
3
4 7
1
x x x x x ;
2
3
4
5 12
5
2.
x,
y
) a (ax 1) 2(2 x 1) ;

:
) x 5(x 4(x 3(2x 1))) = 4x 140;
4 x 3x 5 x 2 x
) 5 3 4 x 37 ;
4 2
5
3
)
1 12 34 5
3
5
1 x x .
3 23 45 6
7
16
a, b, p,
) b y 4 b( y 4) ;

111

:
)

ay ay
2ay
;

2
b a a b a b2

3.
) |2x 1| + |x + 2| = -3x 1;
) |x + 1| + |x| + |x 1| = x + 1;
4.

145

.
7

6.
35
3
7.
)

.
30

1
2
y 3x 2 y 2 x 3 y ,
2
3
9 x 23 y 621 ;

5x 3 y 3 4 x 7 y 1

4,
6
9
7 x 3 y 5 5x 2 y 1

3;
12
14

3
5x 3 y 1 3x 5 y ,
3
5
15x 11y 195 ;

3x 2 y 2 5 x 6 y 2

2;
10
12
6x 2 y 2 4x 3 y 2

3;
15
21

7x + 4y = 27,
6y + 7z = 9,
4z + 6x = 42.

5x 3 y 1
2x 7 y 3
2
1 ,
3
x + 5y + 1 = -6y;

9.
) y = 2x 3 y = -x + 3;
) 3x 5y = -1 2x + 3y = 12;
10.

5x + 3y = 1,
2y + 5z = 14,
3z + 2x = 16;
8.
)

2 x p x q 3 px ( p q) 2
.

q
p
pq

:
) |3x + 2| |2x 1| = 5x + 1;
) |x 2| |x| + |x + 2| = x + 4.

5.

4x 2 y 1
5x 3 y 1
3
1,
7
10x 7y + 2 = 21 9x;

:
) y = 0,5x 1 y = -1,5x + 3;
) 5x + 2y = 3 -7x + 3y = 19.
m
112

:
)

)
-3x + (m+ 1)y = 3,
(m+ 1)x 3y = 3;

)
)
11.
)

-2x + (m -1)y = 5,
(m + 1)x 4y = 5;

|x + 1| + |y 2| = 3,
2|x + 1| = 3y 1;

12.
) y = |2x 1| + 3;
) y = |3x 1| + 2x 5;

|x + y| + |x y| = 5,
3|x y| = 2x + 1.

) y = |2x + 1| 3;
) y = -0,5|x + 2| + 1,5(x 1).

13.
)

16.2.
,

a11x1 a12 x2 b1
a 21x1 a 22 x2 b2 ,
)

x1
, 1

x2
2

.
x1 1 , x2 2 ,

a11 a12
a11a 22 a12 a 21 ,
a 21 a 22

b1
b2
a11

a12
b1a 22 a12b2 ,
a 22
b1

a 21 b2

a11b2 b1 a 21 .

113

I
1

.
2

x1.

x2.
(
(

)
).

16.2.1.

a11x1 a12 x2 b1
a 21x1 a 22 x2 b2 ,
.

a 22
a 12
.
x2
(a11a 22 a 21a12 ) x1 b1a 22 b2 a12 , .
.
,
x1 1
a 21
a 11
.
x1
,
(a11a 22 a 21a12 ) x2 b1a 21 b2 a11 , . x2 2 .
.
,

16.2.2.

m m

x my = m,
x + ny = n.

mn (mn) 2mn

n
n
x x, y y,

1 m
1

n m,

1 m
1 n

n m.

(n m) x 2mn ,
(n m) y n m .
(n + m 0),
, .
n = -m 0,

, .
n = m = 0,
x = 0, y
.

.
,

114

(n + m 0)

nm
2mn
, y
nm
nm

m n.
.

a11x1 a12 x2 a13 x3 b1 ,

a 21x1 a 22 x2 a 23 x3 b2 ,
a 31x1 a 32 x2 a 33 x3 b3 ,
x1 , x2 x3 ,
(
x1 1 , x2 2 , x3 3 ,
.
,

a 11 a 12 a 13

, .

b1
1 b2

a 12
a 22

b3

a 32

a 21 a 22
a 31 a 32
,

a 11 b1
a 13
a 23 , 2 a 21 b2
a 31 b3
a 33

, 1 , 2

a 23 ,
a 33
,

a 11 a 12
a 13
a 23 , 3 a 21 a 22
a 31 a 32
a 33

b1
b2 .
b3
.

a11

a 12

a 21 a 22
a 31 a 32

a 13 a11

a12

a 23 a 21 a 22 =
a 33 a 31 a 32

= a11a 22a 33 a12a 23a 31 a13a 21a 32 ( a 31a 22a13 a 32a 23a11 a 33a 21a12 ).
16.2.3.

2 x 3 y z 9

5 x y 2 z 12
x 2 y 3z 1.

115

2 3

1 2 3

5 1 2 5 1 = -6 + 6 10 (1 + 8 + 45) = -64.
1 2 3 1 2

9 3 1 9 3

x 12
1

1 2 12
2 3 1

2 9

y 5 12
1 1

1 = 27 + 6 24 (1 36 + 108) = -64,
2

1 2 9

2 5 12 = -72 + 18 + 5 (12 4 + 135) = -192,

3 1 1

2 3 9 2 3

z 5 1 12 5 1 = 2 36 + 90 (-9 48 15) = 128.

1 2 1 1 2
x x , y y, z z ,
-64x = -64, -64y = -192, -64z = 128, .
x = 1, y = 3, z = -2.

,
: 21 33 + 1(-2) = - (
!).

1(

), 51 + 13 2(-2) 12 (

),

a 11

a 12

a 21 a 22
a 31 a 32

a
a 23 a11 22
a 32
a 33

.
-

a 13

), 1 6 + 6

,
(

a 23
a
a 23
a
a 22
a12 21
a13 21
a 33
a 31 a 33
a 31 a 32

a11 (a 22a 33 a 23a 32 ) a12 (a 21a 33 a 23a 31 ) a13 (a 21a 32 a 22a 31 ) ,

16.2.4.

116

1 2 1
x y z 8

4 3 5
13
x y z
7 4 5 21.
y z x

1
1
1
u , v , w,
x
z
y
u + 2v + w = 8 4u 3v + 5w = 13 -5u + 7v + 4w = 21.
(
)
1
2 1
4 5
3 5
4 3
4 3 5 = 1
2
1
= -116.
7 4
5 4
5 7
5 7 4
(
)
u, v w

8
2 1
13 3
8 2
8 2
u 13 3 5 =
= 1
= -116,
5
4
21 7
21 7
13 3
21 7 4

v 4 13 5
5 21 4

1
w 4

2 8
3 13
5 7 21

u = 1, v = 2, w = 3.
1 2
1

8 (
1 1/ 2 1/ 3
!).

13 5
21 4
2

7 21

4
3

21 4
1

2.
)

5 21

13 5

13

= -232,

5 7

= -348.

-116u = -116, -116v = -232, -116w = -348,

1
1
x = 1, y , z .

2
3
7
4 5
4
3
5
),
),

21 (

13 (
1/ 2 1/ 3 1
1 1/ 2 1/ 3

16.2.5.
1.
)

.
:

2 x 3 y 12

3x 5 y 1;

2 x 3 y 17

5 x y 10.

117

:
3x 7 y 11

9 x 21y 22;

3.
)

4x 6 y 8

6 x 9 y 12.

:
)

x ay 5

3x ay 6;

4.
)

2 x 3 y 4 z 3

x y z 4
3x 2 y z 6;

5.

x y 1

2
x a y a.

x y 2z 1

x 2y z 9
2 x y z 6.

4 x 8 y 4 z 2

3x 6 y 3z 1
x 2 y z 1.

16.3.
,

16.3.1.

7.2. (

16.3.2.

7.3. (

16.3.3.

).
).

1
1
a,

x y x y
1
1

b.
x y x y

1
1
, v
x y
x y
u + v = a u v = b.
,
a b
a b
u
v
,
2
2
:

x y

2
2
x y
.
a b
a b
2a

x 2
a b2

118

:
y

2b
.
a b2

a = b.

, .

16.3.4.

1.

9
1
) a ;
4
2
2
) x + 4x 60;
) 2u2 31u + 42;

4
1
) b ;
9
3
2
) y 28y + 180;
) 3v2 + 43v 30.

2.
)

y y 1
x4 2 x2 9
;
) 4
;
x 4 x3 10 x2 12 x 9
y 4 3 y 2 1 2 y3 2 y
9
4
1 2
1 2
a 3
x2
a
x
:
:
;
)
;
8 15 a 5
1 6 x3
1 2
1 2
a a
x x
2
z4 z2 2z 1
z2 1 z2 z2 2z

;
2
:
2
z 4 2 z 3 z 2 1 z 3 1
z 1 z 2
a 1 b 1 c 1

3abc
a
b
c .

1 1 1
bc ac ab

a b c

3.

1
1
1 a 5 5 1;
a
a
x y z
) a b c 1 a 2 b 2 c 2 1 xy + xz + yz = 0;
a b c

) a

[ .
2,

4.

5.

1/a = b,
a 2 + b2 = (a + b)2 2ab = -1 a 3 + b3 = (a + b)(a 2 ab + b2) = 5
2
2
a + b = (a + b )(a 3 + b3) a 2b2(a + b) = 1. .
(a + b + c)2 = a 2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab
x y z 1
+ 2ac + 2bc,
a kx , b ky , c kz .]
a b c k
5

35

2
1,89

10

6, 10,

15
6 500

10

?
.

15

119

:
84450

6.

3
21
4
)
;

2
14 2 x 49 x
14 2 x
x
x2 ;
) 2
x
1
1 x

)
)

10.

x 0

x m,

11.

7
7
2
;

2
3x 9 3x 9 x 6 x 9
3
5

5
) x3 x3 ;
5
3
14

x3 x3

2x b
x 2
x a
;
2
2
2
x 3x x 3x x 9
x a xb xc
1 1 1
)

2 .
bc
ac
ab
a b c

mx n
mx n
2mx 4
2
2
2
x mx x mx x m2
m n
.

m2 x 2 x 2
1 x 1

1
mx
x
2
m
m Z , m 0.

5
4

2,
x 2 y 2x y
4
5
41
;

x 2 y 2 x y 20
3
2
11
2
,
) 2
2
2
65
x y
x y
2
3
49
2

;
2
2
2
65
x y
x y
)

x2 4 x 4 x2 1 2 x 4 4 x x2 .

ax
bx
)

a b;
a x xb
x ab x ac x bc
)

a bc;
a b
a c
bc

9.

x2 4 x 4 x2 6 x 9 x2 2 x 1 ;

7.

8.

4
1
1,

x y 1 x y 1
18
2,5

1;
x y 1 x y 1
)
x2 15 4 y 2 5

3.
y 2 4 3x2 20
)

120

:
)

x y
a
,

x y b c
xc a b
;

yb a c

a
b
1,

x y x y

a2
b2
a b
;

2
x y x y
mZ

12.

2m
1
1,

x my x my
10m
3
1,

x my x my
.

17.
17.1

a 2x + b2,

,
x
a 1x + b1 > a 2x + b2,
a 1x + b1 < a 2x + b2,
a 1x + b1 a 2x + b2,
a 1, b1, a 2 b2
,

,
a 1x + b1
,

.
,

.
2 x 1 3x 1
x 1
.

1
3
2
6

17.1.1.
:

5+x

)
2(2x 1) 3(3x + 1) 6 (x 1),
-5x 5 7 x.
,
-4x 12,
-4 (
,
x -3.
x [-3, + ).
-x < 3
{<, >, , }.

x > -3,

121

,
17.1.2.

mx > 3m.

:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

m>0
m=0
m<0

m
, 0x > 30

x < 3.

x2 + x 2 4.

17.1.3.
:

x > 3;

x x6 0,
(x + 3)(x 2) 0.

, x + 3 0 x 2 0,
x -3 x 2, . x
x + 3 0 x 2 0,
x -3 x 2, . x (-, -3.
x (-, -3 [2, +.
2

,
[2, +;
,
17.1.4.
:

3 4x
x.
x2

3 4x
x 0,
x2
x2 2 x 3
0,
x2
x2 2 x 3
0, .
x2
( x 1)( x 3)
0,
x2
( x 3)( x 1)( x 2) 0 .

!
f(x) = (x +
3)(x 1)(x 2)
.
, x {-3, 1, 2
,
x = -10 f(-10) = (-7)(-11)(-12) < 0.
f(x) < 0
x
< -3,
f(x) > 0
-3 < x 1,
f(x) < 0
1 x 2,
f(x) > 0
2 x < +.
,
(-, -3) (1,
2).
.
)

122

:
17.1.5.

1.

i. 2x + 5 -3;
2.
i. 3x m -mx + 3;

3.
i. |2x 5| < 7;

ii. 3

1
x 5;
2

iii.

2x 3
3x 1 .
4

ii. 5x a > -ax + 5;

iii. kx + 1 < x + k2.

ii. |3x 1| > 2;

iii. |x 1| + |x + 1| 2.

4.
i.

3x 5 0
2x 3 0;

5.
i.

ii.

2x 5 0
3x 13 < 0;

iii.
-x + 7 < 0
5x + 15 0.

iv.

2x 3
1;
x5

ii.

3 2x
1;
3x 2

iii.

x + x -2x 0;

v.

x + 2x x 2;

vi.

mx y 3

x my 5;
(x, y)

ii.

6.
i.

17.2.

a
a
a
a
a

,
<b
<b
<b
<b
<b

,
17.2.1.

(
)
b > a;
a + c < b + c, a a > b
c<d
a + c < b + d;
m>0
am < bm;
m<0
am > bm.

x3 +3x2 -4x > 12.

kx y 1

x ky k;
x + y > 1?

x 2 3x
0.
x 2

a, b

px y p

x py 1.

iii.

a, b, c, d

a + c > b + c;

|a + b| |a| + |b|.

123

:
,

b
a

.
17.2.2.

|a b| ||a| |b||.

|a| = |a b + b| |a b| + |b|
|a b| |a| - |b|,
|b| = |b a + a| |b a| + |a|
|b a| |b| |a|.
|a b| = |b a|,
|a| - |b| |b| |a|.

:
|a b|

17.2.3. (xR) x2 0.
,

.
17.2.4.
i. x x 1 0 ;
ii. x2 xy + y2 0;
iii. x2 y2 z 2 xy yz zx 0 .

, y, z

1
3

x x 1 x ,
2
4

: (i)

1
3

x2 xy y 2 x y y 2 ; (iii)
2
4

(ii)

1
x y2 y z2 z x2 0 .
2

17.2.5.

x2 y2 z 2 xy yz zx =

a, b 0

, .

ab

( a b)2 0

2 ab a b ,

17.2.6.
i.

a 2 ab b 0 ,
2

ab

a 2 b2
,
2

a b
.
2
.

a b 2 ab ,
.

b.

124

:
a

ii.

1
2,
a

a.

: (i)

b2,

a2
a

(ii)

1/a.

17.2.7.

a, b, c 0

, .

abc

abc

b3

a bc
.
3

17.2.4.iii. a 2 b 2 c 2 ab bc ca 0 .
a+ b+ c
a 3 + b3 + c3 3abc 0, .

a 3 b3 c3
,
3
y, c 3 z

a 3 x,

x = a 3, y = b3, z = c3.

17.2.8.

x, y z
x y z2
x y z.
2

1.

(w 1)2.]

[
2.

x + y > 0,

x y3
x y
.

2
2
[
3

3.

a, b

c
[

4.

[
5.

,
ab + bc + ca 3abc.
ab abc

0 ( x y)( x y) 2 .]

a, b c

ab bc ca

a bc.
c
a
b
ab
bc
17.2.5.
,
c
a

a, b, c 0

(a b c)( a b c ) 9abc .
[

.]

17.2.7.

a, b, c,

.]

.]

125

6.

a, b

7.

1 1

a b

.
.

a 2 b2
.
2

a, b

23, 40

8.
< 40?

31.
[30 < x < 40]

9.
km/h.

20

30

15

[25 km/h]

17.3.

,
1957.)

,
,

(136.)
, 1912 1986.)
(George Bernard Dantzig, 1914 2005.)

.
Koopmans, 1910 1985.)

17.3.1.
1
2.
2
.
:

1
2

155.
.

147.

(John von Neumann, 1903

(
(13.).
(Tjalling Charles

175.
.

),
135.

1 2
2
4
1, 500

300

1
2

2,

.
.

F(x1,x2) = 300x1 + 500x2.

126

2 x1 4 x2 24

4 x1 2 x2 24,

(1)

(2)

(0,6)

(12,0)

x1 0

x2 0.
,

,
(0,0)

(0,12) (6,0),

(0,0).
(4,4).

, (0,0), (6,0), (4,4), (0,6),

0, 1800, 3200, 3000.
,

3200

1,

F(x1,x2)

2.

(4,4).

F = ax + by + cz + ... ,
(

Ax + By + Cz + ... N,
,

Ax + By + Cz + ... N.
,

F
x, y, z, ...

17.3.2.
:

2x 3y 6.
,

(x, y)

127

,
,

2x 3y = 6,

(0, 0)
20 30 6),

.
17.3.3.

2 x 3 y 6,

x 2 y 3,
x 1.

2x 3y = 6, x + 2y = 3
.
,
.

x=1

(1, -4/3), (3, 0), (1, 1).

17.3.4.

2 x 3 y 6,

x 2 y 3,
x 1.

3x + 4y = 6
(0 1,5)

(2, 0),

.
6
.

,
,

F = 3x + 4y,

-7/3

3x + 4y = -7/3

F
F

F
F
(1, -4/3).

,
,

,
F = -7/3.

128

:
17.3.5.

1.
120

10

12
.

780
$1,00

$1,20

.
,

.
/
/
(

10
5
1,20

.
)

12
3
1,00

F = 1,2x + 1,0y
5x + 3y 780 (
),
)
(

2.
) x < 3;

) 3x y 2;

3.
)

3x y 2

2 x y 5;

4. )

5. )

. )

1920
789
10x + 12y 1920
)

.]
) 2x + y 5.

2 x 3 y 5

3x 2 y 1;

x 2 y 5

x y 1
x y 4.

. )

x 2y 3

4 x 3 y 2.

F = 2x + y

F = 100 2x y

0 x 4, 0 y 4

x y 6

x 4 y 8.

129

VI
,
,

).

.
,

(384 322. . . . .)
(1.
)

(Isaac Newton, 1643 1727.)

1818),
(Jean Robert Argand, 1768 1822),
1855)
,
1837.
1843.
Hamilton, 1805 1865).
1850(Peter Guthrie Tait, 1831 1901)
.
,
1809 1877) 1832.

(Ausdehnungslehre),
.

(1687.

1.
.
(Caspar Wessel, 1745
(Carl Friedrich Gauss, 1777
(William Rowan
(Hermann Grassmann,

1844.

(James Clerk Maxwell, 1831 1879)

.
(William Kingdon Clifford, 1845 1879)
(1878.),
(J. Willard Gibbs, 1839
(Oliver Heaviside, 1850 1925).

1903)

18.
18.1.

16.1.

,
.
18.1.2.
.

,
.

.
AB,

AB

AB CD
AB = CD.
,

|AB|

,
.

EF

GH
EF = -GH.

130

AB ,

AB
a,

a.

18.1.3.

V.

:
. (a V) a = a;
. (a, b V) a = b b = a;
. (a, b, c V) a = b b = c a = c,

18.1.4.

AB

AC, . AB +

BC

BC = AC.
,
.

b
b:

a
b, .

a b a (b) .
18.1.5.

ABCD
AB, BC, CD

MN

18.1.6.

1.
2.
3.
4.

M, N, P Q
MNPQ

MN PQ

1
1
1
1
AB BC , QP CD DA.
2
2
2
2

1
AB BC CD DA 0 , . MN QP ,
2
.
,

DA.

MN QP
.

MNPQ

(a, b, c V):
: a + b = b + a;
: (a + b) + c = a + (a + b) = a + b + c.
(k, m R):

k(ma) = (km)a;
(k + m)a = k a + m a;
k(a + b) = k a + k b;
1a = a.

18.1.7. (
A A1,

)
B B1
C

AB
CA CB
.

A1 B1 CA1 CB1

q
a

a
b,

131

:
:

AB

A1 B1

AB k A1 B1 ,

),

AB
| k | .
A1 B1

ABC

AB CB CA

A1B1C

A1 B1 CB1 CA1 .

CB CA k CB1 CA1 ,

CB k CB1 CA k CA1 .
,
,
AB
CA CB

,
| k |

A1 B1
CA1 CB1

CA k CA1 ,
18.1.8.

1.

18.1.9.
AB CD

2.
)

AC

AB

a
.
|a|

BD
AD

ABCD
AB.
AD, BC
AB, BC CD.

AD .
BD .

AB
AC
AD

60
M, N P

BC
CD

3.
AB AD
a
AB , BC , AD , AM , AN ,

NM .

CA u

4.
D,

CB 2v .
DE E.
) AB ; ) AE ; ) CE .
[ 2v u ;

5.

CB k CB1

ABCD.

b.

AP , NP , MP

AC BD .

)
3.

a0

AB

1
1
3
1
v u ; u v]
2
4
4
2

132

:
6.

7.

AB CD AD CB .

A, B, C, D

8.

TA TB TC 0 .

ABC,

18.2.
,

(3,2), (-3,1),
(1,5-4)
(
)
,
(
),

(
.

3,

3
,
2

3
,
1
,
.

1,5

4

(z
,

).

(3,2), (-3,1), (1,5;-4),

,
A = (3,2), B = (-3,1), C =
(1,5;-4),
A(3,2), B(-3,1),
C(1,5;-4).
(

)
OA 3i 2 j ,

OB 3i j , OC 1,5i 4 j ,
i, j ( k )
(
.

).

133

:
,

(
.
Ren Descartes,
.
Renatus Cartesius, 1596
1650.)
(La Gomtrie,

1637.)
.

,
.
,
.

18.2.1.

A(3,2), B(-3,1)
18,25 ,
.

13 , 10
,
P1 ( x1 , y1 )

P2 ( x2 , y2 ) ,

x x2 x1 , y y2 y1 .

P1 P2T ,
P1 P2 ( x2 x1 ) 2 ( y2 y1 ) 2 .
(0,0),

C(1,5;-4)

P1 P2 x2 y 2 , .

OA x y .
2

OA 32 2 2 , . OA 13 .

( , )
,

A(3,2)

134

,
(

).
,

(16.1.6.)

18.2.2.

,
.

P2 ( x2 , y2 ) ,

P1 ( x1 , y1 )
.

OP2

OP1

OP1

OP2
T ( x1 x2 , y1 y2 ) .
OT .

, .
( x1 , y1 ) ( x2 , y2 ) ( x1 x2 , y1 y2 ) .
18.2.3.
P0
:

P 1P 2

P1 ( x1 , y1 )
a:b.

P2 ( x2 , y2 ) .

P 1P 0 : P 0P 2 = a : b.

( x0 x1 ) : ( x2 x0 ) a : b ( y0 y1 ) : ( y2 y0 ) a : b .
,
by ay2
bx1 ax2
,
y0 1
x0
a b
a b
OP0 .
,
a : b = 1 : 1,
P0 (

x1 x2 y1 y2
,
)
2
2

P 1P 2.

k1, k2, ..., kn

,

18.2.4.

x1, x2, ..., xn

k1x1 + k2x2 + ... + knxn,
, n = 1, 2, 3, ... .
k1, k2, ..., kn
k1x1 + k2x2 + ... + knxn = 0,
x1, x2, ..., xn
k1 = k2 = ... = kn = 0 ,
.

.
x1, x2, ..., xn

135

:
18.2.5.
= 3i 2j, y = j 3k, z = 3i 6k

i, j, k

I
,

:
,
3i 6k = a(3i 2j) + b(j 3k),
+ (-6 + 3b)k = 0,
a = 1, b = 2.

z = ax + by.
(3 3a)i + (2a b)j

.

ax + by ,

V2

2b

OX OY,

3-

x, y z
ax + by + cz ,

a, b

.
j.
V3

c
OX, OY OZ

i,

j k.
18.2.6.

v V3

V3,

x, y, z
a, b, c

v = ax

+ by + cz.
:
a 2, b2, c2

0, c2 c1 = 0, .

v
v = a 1x + b1y + c1z = a 2x + b2y + c2z,
(a 2 a 1)x + (b2 b1)y + (c2 c1)z = 0.

a 1, b1, c1
x, y, z
a 2 a 1 = 0, b2 b1 =

a 2 = a 1, b2 = b1, c2 = c1.

18.2.7.
1.
A(3,1) B(-1,3).
) 5 OA 3 OB ; ) i ; ) j ; ) OC ,
2.
A(-2,3) B(1,2).
) 2:3; ) 3:4; ) 5:1; ) 4:5.
3.
) (7, -5, 1), (4, 2, 3)
,
4.
)
)
)

OA
C(5,4).

AB

OC

(-13, -11, -2); ) (-1, 5, 2), 2, 1, -3)

.

A(-1, -3), B(5, 1), C(-2, 2).

ABC.
ABC.
OA,

OB

AB,

(3, -2, -4);

t A.

136

, B, C, D

5.
)
)

AC BD
AC BD

P n(xn, yn), n = 1, 2, 3, 4.
n, n.

6.
u(2,-1) v(1,3).
) (4,5); ) (-3,2); ) (7,-1); ) (-2,-5).

18.3.
p
,
P
,
x x2 y1 y2
,
P 1
.
2
2
1
OP OA1 A1 A2 .
2
P
12,
OP OA1 A1 A2 , R.
.
18.3.1.

r
(

,
A1 A2 ,

18.3.2.
(a 1, a 2) B(b1, b2) :

1(x1, y1) 2(x2, y2)

,
.
.

12,

r a b , R,

a OA
.

).

),

(18.3.1.)

b
x a1
1
y a 2
b2
( R)

,
,

x a1 b1
.

y a 2 b2

x a1 b1 ,

y a 2 b2 .

137

x y

18.3.3.
(
(a 1, a 2) B(b1, b2) :

x
r .
y
y a2
, .

b2

x a1
b1

x a1 y a 2
.

b1
b2

18.3.4.

2 3
r t ,
1 4

t=0

1

0

B (5, 5),
.

3
AB .
4

b1b2
ax + by = c.

0

1
t

1
.

A = (2, 1),

) x y = 3;

A(2, 1),
.

A
) A(-1, 2), v = 3i + j;

3.
)
)
)

32 4 2 = 5

) 2x + 3y = 5.

2.
v:
) A(2, 3), v = 5i 4j;

3
AB =
4

B(5, 5)
18.3.5.
1.
) x + y = 5;

b2x b1y = a 1b2 a 2b1,

) A(2, -3), v = -2i -3j.

2 3
, R.
r
1 4
r a b ;

138

:
4.
)

v1 = 2i + 3j + (i + 2j),
v2 = 5i 2j + (2i + j);

v1

v1 = (3, 5) + (-2, 1),

v2 = (4, -3) + (-2, -5);

5
3
r
4
2

5.
6.
a)
)
)
)

(-35, 23)

7.
(

A
B

)
)

x = 4 3t, y = -4 + 2t.

1000
1030

5 3
,
v1
4
3 2
.
v2
4 3

x4 y 2
.

3
5

(-47, 30);

v2:
)

A B

, rA = 7i + 2j, vA = 3i + 2j,
, rB = 8i + 5j, vB = 4i j.
,

,
B

19.

18.

1.

. Leontief model);

19.1.
a j1

,
, a j2

.
a j3

j (j = 1, 2)
:
139

1
2

a 11
a 21

a 13
a 23.

a 12
a 22

a13
.
a 23

a
a
11 12
a 21 a 22

23,
. 3)

2
2,3.

3).

19.1.1.

A = ||a jk||
mn

2 3.

,
(

B = ||bjk||
mn,
A= B
a jk = bjk (j = 1, 2, ..., m; k = 1, 2, ..., n).
A B,

40 35 280

A
50 42 320

38 32 175
,
B
46 38 316

40 38 35 32 280 175 78 67 455

=
.
A B
50 46 42 38 320 316 96 80 636

19.1.2.
,
A = ||a jk||
C = A + B = ||cjk||

B = ||bjk||

mn,
cjk = a jk + bjk (j = 1, 2, ..., m; k = 1, 2, ...,

n).
,

140

I
,

,
R

a11 a12
a 21 a 22

a13 a11 a12 a13

.
=
a 23 a 21 a 22 a 23

19.1.3.
.
,

R,

A = ||a jk||

||a jk||.
,

19.1.4.

2 7 2 9
7 3 1
3 2 1

1 9 = 9 8 .
9 = 5 4
. 5 1 4
0 13 12 6 0 (12) 13 (6) 12 19

.
19.1.5.
1.
2.
3.
4.

(A,B,C) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (
(A,B) A + B = B + A (
)
(1)() + = + = (
(A)(A) A + A = A + A = O (

)
)
).

.
,
P

.
p1, p2

p3

141

p1

P = p2 .
p
3

a
a
M P = 11 12
a 21 a 22
M2,3 P3,1 = T2,1 .

p1
a 13 a11 p1 a12 p 2 a13 p3
p2 =
= T.
a 23 a 21 p1 a 22 p 2 a 23 p3
p3
,

T2,1
,

q1

Q = q2 ,
q
3
M Q.

p1

S = || P Q || = p 2
p
3

a1 b1

a 2 b2

p1
c1
p2
c 2
p3

q1

q2 ,
q3

,MS=

q1
a p b p c p
q 2 = 1 1 1 2 1 3
a p b2 p 2 c2 p3
q3 2 1

a1q1 b1 q 2 c1q3
.
a 2 q1 b2 q 2 c2 q3

Am,n Bn,p = Cm,p.

19.1.6.
m n n p (m, n, p N)
j(j = 1, 2, ..., m)
k- (k = 1, 2, ..., p)
,
n
j, k-

n
.

142

A = ||a jk||

mn

B = ||bjk||

c jk a ji bik .

np,

C = AB = ||cjk||
,

Am,n
cjk = a jibik
(

mp,

i 1

Bn,p

Cm,p
i = 1, 2, ..., n.

).

,
.

,
19.1.7.
A(BC) = (AB)C
A(B + C) = AB + AC
(A + B)C = AC + BC

A, B C

;
;
.
.

19.1.8.
20%

P1 P2
30%

x y

,
x1 = 0,8x + 0,3y,
y1 = 0,2x + 0,7y.
0,8 0,3 x x1
,

0,2 0,7 y y1

P1

P2

MX = X1.

x2 = 0,8x1 + 0,3y1,
y2 = 0,2x1 + 0,7y1.
0,8 0,3 x1 x2
,

MX1 = X2, M2X = X2,
y
y
0
,
2
0
,
7
1 2

0,8 0,3 0,8 0,3

.

,
M2 = MM =
0,2 0,7 0,2 0,7
0,8 0,8 0,3 0,2 0,8 0,3 0,3 0.7 0,70 0,45
=
.
M2 =
0,2 0,8 0,7 0,2 0,2 0,3 0,7 0,7 0,30 0,55
M3 = M2M, M4 = M3M, ..., Mn = Mn-1M,
n = 1, 2, 3, ... .
,

n-

(n = 1, 2, 3, ...),
xn = 0,8xn-1 + 0,3yn-1,

143

yn = 0,2xn-1 + 0,7yn-1.
0,8 0,3 xn xn 1
,

MXn-1 = Xn,

0,2 0,7 yn yn 1
19.1.9.
1.

MnX = Xn.

11 3

5 3 2
2 5 12
, B 8 17 , C
.
A
13
1
4

4 7 6

9 1

2B, A + C, 3A 2C, A B, B A.

2.

a 21 b 4b 5c
.

5
1 a b
c

3 7a 2b 4b 5c
;

5 9a 3a 0
8
1 2 4 3 3 6 18
.

x
1 2 5 5 6 7 30

2
) x
5
1
) x2
2

3.

4.

1 2

A
4 1
32n 0

A2 n
2n
0 3

A A = A2, A2 A = A3
.

1 0

A
1 1

5.

A3 A = A4.

1 0
,
An
n 1

n
1.1.7.

6.
3
7.
3.

P1

2 ?

,
10
4, 5

P2

1, 7
2
4
1, 7
.

3.
8
,

3.
[

1, 2
3.
1, 8
2 10
1, 2
3
3, 116, ]

144

:
8.

A, B C

A
B
C
)

P
2
4
2

5, 10

Q
3
2
4

P, Q

R.

R
1
5
2
100

)
)

P, Q

200

[(800, 900, 800); (45, 65, 60); 34000]

19.2.
,

.
m=n

A = ||a jk||
,

An.

a 12
a
,
(a 11), 11
a 21 a 22

a 12 a 12

a 21 a 22
a
31 a 32

a 13

a 23 , ...,
a 33

a 11 a 12

a 21 a 22
... ...

a
n1 a n 2

.
(

) mn

... a 1n

... a 2 n
,
... ...

... a nn

1, 2, 3, ... , n.
a ii (i = 1, 2, ..., n).
AB BA

A B
.

I = ||jk||,

jk

1,
0,

jk =

j k.
1 0
.
I 2
0 1

,
A

145

AI = IA = A.

AX = XA = In
A-1.

a b

A
c d

19.2.1.

X
A1

1 d b
.

ad bc c a

0
1 ad bc
1 a b d b

=
= I.

ad bc
ad bc c d c a ad bc 0
0
1 ad bc
1 d b a b
=
= I.

A1 A
ad bc
ad bc c a c d ad bc 0

: AA1

A
(1.2.1.)
det A =
.

)
det A 0
(1.2.1.).

19.2.2.

det A.

ad bc ,

c d

A-1

det A = 0

2x y 7

5 x 3 y 6.

:
2 1 x 7
.

5 3 y 6
1

B,

AX = B, .
2 1
3 1
.
det A =
= 1, A-1 =
5 3
5 2
A-1
A-1(AX) = A-1B, (A-1A)X = A-1
-1
IX = A B, . X = A B.
,
x 3 1 7 21 6 27
= .
=
X = =
y 5 2 6 35 12 47
x = 27, y = 47.
227 47 = 7 (
), -527 + 347 6 (
!).
2.

3.

3.

2.

146

1 4 7
1 2 3

4 5 6 2 5 8 .
3 6 9
7 8 9

,
A = ||a jk||
bjk = a kj (j = 1, 2, ..., n; k = 1, 2, ..., m)
T,
A.

a jk
j-

19.2.3.

mn,

B = ||bjk||

(
16.2.4.).
A = ||a jk||
Ajk = (-1)j+ kDjk,
Djk
k.
||Ajk||T
n

adj A.
det A 0,

A1

nm,

n
det A

adj A
.
det A

19.2.4.
1.
)

2.
)

3.
)

3 1
;

5 2

3
k
;

2 k 1

i. A(a)A(b);
5.

m 5 2

;
m
3

4x 5y =2
3x + y = 6;

4.

4 2
;

5 3

1
n
.

1 n 1

)
7x + 3y = 10
6x 5y = 4;

x 1
2 x
, x R.
A( x)
2(1 x) 2 x 1
ii. A2(a);

2 6
.

1 3

-9x + 6y = 15
6x 4y = -10;
:

iii. An(a), n N.

3
4
1
2
2
1

.

5 1
1 3 3 4

147

6.

1 2
1 5
X
.

1 2
1 5
2a 1 2b 5
, a
[
b
a

7.

8.
)

a b 2
, a = -bc]
[
c a

x y z 1

x y z 1
x y z 1.

[(1, -2, -1);

9.
1. AX = B, 2. XA = B,
1

A 1
2

10.

1, 2

( 1)(1,1,1)
]
( 1)( 2)

3. AX = BA-1B, 4. XA = BA-1B,
2 1
1 1 1

1 0 , B 0 0 0 .
0 0 0
0 1

1,

3.

1
2
1
3

1
2
3

10 x 9 z 19

8 x y 10
y 12 z 10;

2
3
1
2

3
3
4
2
1
2, 13

2, 3

19.3.

(
,

.
19.3.1.

A B

mn

16
4]

R),
,
R.

, R,
148

( + )A = A + A,
(A + B) = A + B,
()A = (A),
1A = A.

A1, A2, ..., Ak

(mn)

(18.2.4.)

1 A1 2 A2 ... k Ak r Ar ,
k

r 1

1, 2, ..., k R.

mn.

1 2 3 1 7 1
,

1 1 2 1 1 2

.
A, B, C

In = (jk)n
,
,
(AB)C

3 1 1 2 4 5
.

2 1 1 1 1 5

, .

A(BC)

19.3.2.
A = (a jk)m,n , B = (bjk)n,p , C = (cjk)p,q
(AB)C = A(BC).
: (AB)C = (djk)m,pC =

a ji bik c kr =

k 1 i 1

p
a ji b jk c kr = A(ejr )n,q = A(BC).

i 1

k 1

R.

a ji b jk ckr =
p

k 1 i 1

a
n

i 1 k 1

ji

b jk c kr =

1.3.1.
19.3.3.

A, B, C, D,

mn

R,

C(A + B) = CA + CB,
(A + B)C = AC + BC,
(AB) = (A)B = A(B).

AA, A = AA2, A4 = AA3,

3

19.3.4.

n.
.
(5.1.2.)

s+1

= AA ,

A0 = In, A1 = A, A2 =
.
.
r

149

1. Ar As = Ar+ s,
2. (Ar )s = Ars.
19.3.5.

P(A) = I

Q(A) = A2

+ A + I.
: P(A)Q(A) = (A I)(A2 + A + I) = A3 + A2 + A A2 A I = A3 I.
,
,

.
,

1. ab = ba;
2. ab = 0 a = 0 b = 0;
3. (ab = ac a 0) b = c.
19.3.5.

1 1 1 1 0 0
.

1
1
1
1
0
0

3.

1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 0

A 1 1 0 , B 1 1 1 , C 1 1 1 ,
2 2 2
1 4 0
1 1 1

3 4 1

AB AC 2 3 2 .
3 2 7

, AB = AC

A 0

B = C.

,
19.3.6.

AB
T T

BA
:

.
T T
BA

.
T T

(AB) = B A .

(AB)m,p
(AB)T

pm, BT je
pm.

A = (a jk) B = (bjk)
pn, AT
nm,
T
(AB) BTAT

mn

np
.

150

(AB)j,k , .
(k, j)

1.

19.3.7.
a b

A
c d

2.

f
1 1

n
1 0
f n1

bik a ji , .
n

i 1

a
n

i 1

i. AX = XA.

A = 0.
f n 1
,
fn
f n 2
f-1 = 0, f0 = 1, fn = fn-1 + fn-2.

AC = CB.
Bn = C-1AnC]

x y
a b
,
.
X
A
u v
c d
AX = XA = 0, (A + X)2 = A2 + X2?

ii. AX = XAT.
[(ii)

y
x
c
d a
X
y
x
b
b

b .

ji ik

4
7
2 1
1 1
, C
,
, B
A
9 5
3 2
0 1
Bn, n
.
[ B = C-1AC
B2 = C-1A2C,

4.

(AB)T.

(k, j)

A2 = 0.

6.
Ak.

i 1

ji ik

A2 (a + d)A + (ad bc)I = 0.

A = 0 (k N)

5.

BTAT

i.
ii.

3.

;
y

1 0 0

A 1 0 1
0 1 0

AkX = X(AT)k?
b = c = 0, a = d

b0
b
a d

y v y
c0

ad
X c
c

y
v

b
c

v
x
x

a d . ,
a d
X

c x b v
v

a d

a d

.]

An = An-2 + A2 + I, n N.

I + A + A2 + ... + Ak = 0,

A
[

Ak+1 = I,

A-1 =
.]

151

:
7.

k
,
Ak = 0
-1
2
k-1
(I A) = I + A + A + ... + A .
[ (Ak Ik) = (A I)(Ak-1 + Ak-2 + ... + A + I).]

152

VII
, x2 3xy

.
2
x 3xy y 3
5

2 2
y
5

1, 17x3y, 25x 3y,

.

(4

4xy + 3),
3xy-2,
,

(x + y ),
2

1
,
x 2

15.

7
xy ay 2 bxyz , x4 2x3y + 3x2y2 4xy3, ...
13
,
,
,
.

(5

),

),
,

(x 2y + 3),

(5x

x + y, ...,
,

2.
. . .
(, . Jzng Suns)
,
5x + 4y + z = 37.

(Scipione del Ferro, 1465-1526.)

37

(Nicolas Chuquet, 1445 1500?)

.
1515.
,

.
1484.

153

:
.

(Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia,

(Girolamo Cardan, 1501-1576.)
.

1500?-1557.)

16.
(The Whetstone of Witte, 1557.)
(Robert Recorde,
1510 1558.)
+

integra, 1544.)
(La geometric, 1637)
,
(x, y, z, ...)
,

(Arithmetica
(Michael Stifel, 1487 1567.).
,
(a, b, c, ...)
,
(
. 2).

20.
20.1.

20.1.1.

,
fa (x) = a 0 + a 1x + a 2x + ... + a mxm,
a = (a 0, a 1, a 2, ..., a m)
m
,m
,a
m+1- ,

a k (k = 0, 1, 2, ..., m)
(

.
x

fa (x) = 0

ak 0

k = 0, 1, 2, ..., m.

a k 0.
a n 0.
fa (x) = a 0 + a 1x + a 2x + ... + a nxn.
ak
ak

,
k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n-1.
nk
x
x

|xn-k| |x|,
17.2.1.)

an

a kxk

20.1.2.
:

,
a 1 , a 2, ..., a m
,

, fa

|x| 1,

a0
a
a
1
n11 n22 ... a n a 0 a1 a 2 ... a n .
n
x
x
x
x
1
a 0 a1 a 2 ... a n1 ,
x
an

a0
a
a
n11 ... n 1 .
n
x
x
x

a
a

a
f a ( x) xn 0n n11 n22 ... a n ,
x
x

154

fa (x) 0,
.

fa ( x) fb ( x)
, . a = b.

20.1.3.
:

,
b, . a k = bk

k = 0, 1, 2, ..., m.
(20.1.2.)
c

fc(x) = 0
,

a=

k.
,

.
x 1.

c = a b, . ck = a k bk

20.1.4.
:

p(x) = x3 2x2 + 3x 4

f(x) = b0 + b1(x 1) + b2(x 1)2 + b3(x 1)3 =

b0 + b1(x 1) + b2(x2 2x + 1) + b3(x3 3x2 + 3x 1) =
b3x3 + (b2 3b3)x2 + (b1 2b2 + 3b3)x + (b0 b1 + b2 b3).
b3 = 1, b2 3b3 = -2, b1 2b2 + 3b3 = 3, b0 b1 + b2 b3 = -4,
b3 = 1, b2 = 1, b1 = 2, b0 = -2.
,
2
p(x) = -2 + 2(x 1) + (x 1) + (x 1)3.

20.1.5.
1.
) (x 1)3 + (x 2)(x2 + 3x + 4);

) (x + 1)3 (x + 2)(x2 2x 3).

2.
) p(x) = 3x3 4x2 5x + 2
q(x) = (x 2)(ax2 + bx + c);

p(x) q(x)

) p(x) = -2x3 + 3x2 + 4x + 15

q(x) = (x 3)(ax2 + bx + c).

3.
) x 1;
4.
r(x)/q(x):
) (6x2 + 13x 5)/(3x 1);

p(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 4
) x + 1.

r(x) = p(x)q(x),
) (10x2 + 3x 12)/(2x 3).

p(x) = q(x)(x c) + r,
q(x)
r
,

) (2x2 3x + 1)/(x 2);

) (3x2 +2x 1)/(x + 2).
2
[a 2x 3x + 1 r = (ax + b)(x 2) ..., a = 2, b = 1, r = 3; 3, -4, 7]

5.

155

20.2.
(

p(x)

r 1(x) 0
q(x)
, p(x) = x2 4, q(x) = x 2

r 1(x).
q(x).

5.2.3.)

q(x)

q1(x)
p(x)
q1(x) = x + 2

r 1(x) = 0:

(x2 4):(x 2) = x + 2 .
x2 2x /2x 4
2x 4 /0

r 1(x) 0
q2(x)
2
q2(x) = x 4x + 1

.
r 2(x).
r 2(x) = 2:

q(x) r 1(x)
x3 3x2 + 5x 3

(x3 5x2 + 5x 3):(x 1) = x2 4x + 1.

x3 x2 /-4x2 + 5x 3
-4x2 + 4x /x3
x 1 /2
,

k = 1, 2, 3, ...
r k-1(x).
,
p(x) = q(x)q1(x) + r 1(x),
q(x) = r 1(x)q2(x) + r 2(x),
r 1(x) = r 2(x)q3(x) + r 3(x),
...
r k-2(x) = r k-1(x)qk(x) + r k(x),
r k-1(x) = r k(x)qk+1(x).

r k(x)

20.2.1.

p(x)
r(x)

20.2.1.

1
.

r(x) | q(x),

20.2.3.
p(x)

NZD,
r(x)

q(x)
p(x)

r(x) | p(x) ( . r
p(x) q(x).

q(x)

p(x)

D(x)
D(x) | p(x)
q(x)

p)

q(x),
,

D(x) | q(x)
D(x).
.

156

:
20.2.4.

I
p(x)

q(x)

NZD.

(nzd)

.
299 = 1323 360 = 1320, 23 20
nzd(260, 39) = 13,
299 260 = 39.
( m = 7 n = -8)

, nzd(299, 260) = 13
.

(
5.2.5.),
m299 + n360.
20.2.5.

D(x)
p(x)

(NZD)
q(x)
D(x) = p(x)f(x) + q(x)g(x).

f(x)

13 =

g(x)

r 1(x) = f(x) q1(x)g(x),

r 2(x) = -q2(x)f(x) + (1 + q1(x)q2(x))g(x),
r 3(x) = (1 + q2(x)q3(x))f(x) (q1(x) + q3(x) + q1(x)q2(x)q3(x))g(x),
...
D(x) = r k(x) = p(x)f(x) + q(x)g(x).
)

20.2.6.

2322

2322 = 6543 + 360

654 = 3601 + 294
360 = 2941 + 66
294 = 664 + 30
66 = 302 + 6
30 = 65
, nzd(2322, 654) = 6.

nzd(2322, 654) = nzd(654, 360)

nzd(654, 360) = nzd(360, 294)
nzd(360, 294) = nzd(294, 66)
nzd(294, 66) = nzd(66, 30)
nzd(66, 30) = nzd(30, 6)
nzd(30, 6) = 6

20.2.7.
f(x) = x4 + 3x3 x2 4x 3
:

3f(x)

nzd (

654.

NZD
g(x) = 3x + 10x2 + 2x 3.
3

g(x):

1
(3x4 + 9x3 3x2 12x 9):(3x3 + 10x2 + 2x 3) = x ,
3
4
3
2
3x + 10x + 2x 3x /-x3 5x2 9x 9
10
2
x3 x2 x 1 /3
3

157

5
25
x2
x 10
3
3
5
25
5
1
q1(x) = x
r 1(x) = x2
x 10 = x2 5 x 6 .
3
3
3
3
,

NZD

g(x) q1(x), .
(3x3 + 10x2 + 2x 3):(x2 + 5x + 6) = 3x 5.
3x3 + 15x2 + 18x /-5x 16x 3
-5x 25x 30 /9x + 27
x2 + 5x + 6 9x + 27,
x + 3.
x+2
, x+3
f(x) g(x).

.
1)(x + 3),
,

f(x) g(x)
,
NZD
f(x) g(x)
f(x) = (x3 x 1)(x + 3)
x3 x 1 3x2 + x 1
,
x+3

,
.

g(x) = (3x2 + x

(NZD).
20.2.8.
1.

) 5x2 + 5y2 + 8xy + 2y 2x + 2;

) 4x2 + 4y2 6xy 4x + 4y + 4;
2
2
) 6x + 6y + 8xy 10x 10y + 1;
) 6x2 + 6y2 8xy + 10x 10y + 1.
[4(x + y)2 + (x 1)2 + (y + 1)2; 3(x y)2 + (x 2)2 + (y + 2)2;
5(x + y 1)2 + (x y)2 + 1; 5(x y + 1)2 + (x + y)2 + 1.]
2.
) x4 + 3x2 + 4;
) x4 +x2y2 + y4;

:
) x4 + 4y4;
) x8 + x4 +1.
[(x2 x + 2)(x2 + x +2); (x2 + 2y2 2xy)(x2 + 2y2 + 2xy);
2
2
(x + y xy)(x2 + y2 + xy); (x2 + 1 x)(x2 + 1 + x)(x4 + 1 x2).]

3.
) (x + y + z)3 x3 y3 z3;
) (x y)3 + (y z)3 + (z x)3;

) x2(y z) + y2(z x) + z2(x y);

) (x + y + z)(xy + yz + zx) xyz.13
[3(x + y)(y + z)(z + x); (y z)(x y)(x z)]

) x3 6x2 x + 30 x3 19x 30;

) x3 + 13x2 + 47x + 35

4.
NZD
) x3 7x + 6 x3 + 2x2 5x 6;
) x3 + 10x2 + 31x + 30
13

1.

, 15.

1980.

158

:
2x3 + 9x2 7x 6;
5.
) 2322

3x3 + 23x2 + 19x 7.

nzd
763

) 37

654

) 1735

635.

6.
) (3x3 4x +5):(x + 2);
) (2x4 + 3x3 4x + 5):(x2 + x + 1);

) (4x + x 1):(x 2);

) (3x4 2x2 + 4x 5):(x2 x + 1).

7.
NZD
) 2x3 x2 2x + 1 2x2 + 3x + 1;
) x4 x3 2x2 + x 2 x3 x2 x 2;

) 2x3 x2 2x + 1 2x2 x 1;
) x4 + x3 2x2 + x + 2 x3 + x2 x + 2.

8.
)

NZD
)

3x3 10 x2 2 x 3
;
x 4 3 x3 x 2 4 x 3

3x3 10 x2 4 x 3
;
x 4 3 x3 x 2 2 x 3

x 2x 2x 1
;
4
x 2 x3 3 x 2 2 x 1
3

x3 2 x 2 2 x 1
.
x 4 2 x3 3 x 2 2 x 1

20.3.
(
20.3.1.
q(x) r(x)
g(x).

5.2.3.).

f(x) g(x)
f(x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x),

r(x)

f(x) = a 0 + a 1x + a 2x + ... + a mxm, g(x) = b0 + b1x + b2x + ... + bnxn mn

0.
n
(&5.1.)
m. m < n

(q 0, r f).
,

f(x)
m0 n.
m = m0,
a
f1 ( x) f ( x) m xmn g ( x)
m,
xm
.
bn
q1(x) r(x)
f1(x) = g(x)q1(x) +
a
q( x) m xmn q1 ( x) .
r(x).

,
f(x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x),
bn
:

, f(x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x),

f(x)

q(x)

r(x)
g(x)

159

,
f(x) = x3 + 1
q(x) = x + 1
, . r(x) 0,

g(x) = x2 x + 1
(f)

(g).
20.3.2. (

f(x)
(20.3.1.)

x=

20.3.3.
x3 + kx2 7x + 6

x-

f(x) = (x - )q(x) + c,
f() = c.

k
g(x) = x 2

:
f(2).

f(2) 3
f(x)

f(x) =
x 2
k = .

f(a) = 0.

20.3.4.

1, 2

(j = 0, 1, 2, ..., m)

,
3.

f(x)

. f(1) =

f a 0 ,

(20.3.4.)

20.1.1.

(20.3.2.)

aj

20.3.5.
g(x)

f(x)

x {1, 2, -3},
f(x)
,

|a 0 |a m.

x3 7x + 6.

:
f(x) = x3 7x + 6
0, f(2) = 0 f(-3) = 0.
,
x 1, x 2 x + 3.
f(x)
, . f(x) = x3 7x + 6 = (x 1)(x 2)(x + 3).

3.

f(x)
8 + 4k 14 + 6 = 3,

a
(x a).
f(a) 0

f().

, Z

g(x),
f(x).
(20.3.1.)

160

20.3.6.
g(x) = x 1.

f(x) = 1 + x3 + x10 + x101

(20.3.1.)

= ax + b
= ((+1)2 1)0 + a(+1) + b
+ b, . a = b = 2.

f(x) = (x2 1)q(x) + r(x),

2.
, x = 1
2
f(-1) = ((-1) 1)0 + a(-1) + b,
,
r(x) = 2x + 2.
,

20.3.7.

r(x)
f(+1)
4 a + b, 0 = -a

mN

f(x)

f(x) = a(x x1)(x x2)...(x xm),

a 0,

,
,

1.
) x3 2x2 + 3x + 4 x 2;
) x2 3x + 4 2x + 3;

4.

a b ?

x8 + 3x3 + ax + b

x2 1

x3 + ax2 + x + b

x2 + x 2

5.
+ 2,

x3 + 2x2 + ax + b
7x + 7,

3.

x,

3x

b.

6.

14

f(x) = x4 + ax3 + 3x2 3x + 2

g(x) = x 1.
2

) x3 + 2x2 3x 4 x + 2;
) x2 + 2x 3 3x 2.

) x + x 17x + 15;
) x4 + 2x3 3x2 4x + 4;
) 2x4 + 3x3 10x2 5x 6.

2.
) x3 + 9x2 + 23x + 15;
) x4 2x3 3x2 + 4x + 4;
) 2x4 3x3 10x2 + 5x 6;
3.14

x1, x2 , ..., xm

x1, x2 , ..., xm,

.

20.3.8.

x2 x 2

3a + 3b ?

10.

20010.

161

7.

x2008 + x1007 + 1

x2 + 1.

8.

x2004 x2000 + x

x2 1.

9.
x+1

f(x)
-1.

x1

x5 3x4 + ax3 + x2 + b

10.

21.

1,
f(x)

x2 1.

(x 2)2,

a 2 b2.

21.1.
21.1.1.

210.

5, 6 7.
..., -3, -2, -1, ..., 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ...

210 2357 = 567.

.

210, . x3 x = 210.
,
216) (x 6) = 0, (x 6)(x2 + 6x + 36) (x 6) = 0,
0.
x 6 0,
x2 + 6x + 35 0.
5, 6 7.
x2 + 6x + 35 = 0
26 = 0
.
21.1.2.

x = 6,

,
(x + 3)2 +
729 m3.

x + 2.
:

a = x + 2.
x + 2 = 9, x = 7 m.

(x + 2) ,
21.1.3.

66 m .
:
,
x2 + 5x 66 = 0.
x(x + 11) 6(x + 11) = 0,
:

+ 5,

66.

(x + 11)(x 6) = 0.
x = -11,
-6,
.
x = 6 m,
11 m.

21.1.4.
1.
) 156;

(x 1)x(x + 1) =
(x3
2
(x 6)(x + 6x + 35) =

) 210.

V = a 3,

x+5

.
729 =

x(x + 5) = 66,
x2 + 11x 6x 66 = 0,
,

162

I
.

2.

3.

7.

3.

30.

.
3.
) S = t2 15t + 5036;
4.

) m = 4, p = 30;

t
) S = t2 16t + 5060.
5000?

) m = 3, p = 14.
[3, 10; 2, 7 m]

5.

6.

24

24 m

2 cm

.
.

70 m2.

107 m2]

[145,

21.2.

.
3
,
5

21.2.1.
7
.
9

3 x 7
.
5 x 9

21.2.2.

/3 + /8 1,

21.2.3.

3
1/3,

24/11

= 4.
,

1/8.

.
,

163

:
:

6 + x,

4
4
1,
6 x x

I
4

x,

12

.
6

21.2.4.
2
.
3

4
,
9

1.

[6]
25
.
6

2.

[
3.
12

10

1
4

6]

,
[5,5 min]

4.

[3

5.

[6

21.3.
f(x) = a 0 + a 1x + a 2x + ... + a mxm
m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... .
,
f3 ( x)

12.3.1.
1 3
x
2

f 4 ( x)

m,
,

m
.

f0(x) = 2, f1(x) = 2x, f2(x) = x2,

1 4
x .
2

:
x
f0
f1

.
-2
2
-4

-1
2
-2

0
2
0

1
2
2

2
2
4

164

:
4
-4
8

f2
f3
f4

1
-0,5
0,5

I
0
0
0

1
0,5
0,5

4
4
8

f0

)
)
.

12.3.2.
x.
i.

(
ab
,

(0, 0) (1, 2).

(0, 0),
) 4.
- .

2.
f2
(

f1
)
-

)
,

a = 50 cm, b = 40 cm.

165

:
ii.
iii.

I
?

.
(i.)
V = (a 2x)(b 2x)x = 4x(25 x)(20 x) cm2.
(ii.)

, 0 < 20 cm.

a, b.
(iii.)
,
0, b/2

a/2

,
,
,
a < b.
,
20

25 (

0,

).
,
(

7,4 cm)

.
(
12.3.3.

m-

(m = 0, 1, 2, ...)

m+1-

166

(-1, 0), (0, -3), (3, 0).

2.

y = ax2 + bx + c,

a(-1)2 + b(-1) + c = 0,
a02 + b0 + c = -3,
a32 + b3 + c = 0.
a = 1, b = -2, c = -3.
y = x2 2x 3.
12.3.4.
1.

2.

3.

4.

y = -1, y = 3

.
.
.

1.

2.

y = x + 1.
)

(-1, -3)
)

(2, 3).

(-1, 3), (1, 1), (3, 7)

167

5.
t

1.

250

.
(

100 ML

)
.

V(t) = -t3 + 30t2 131t +

.

168

6.

64

40

cm
cm
.

.
[Vmax(8) = 4608 cm3]

169

VIII
. trgnon

, metron -

100-1600. . . .)
.

430. . . .).
, 140. . . .)
,
100. . ).

1650. . . .),

)
.

, IV

).

II

,
,

(De triangulis omni modis, 1464.)

.
(De revolutionibus orbium coelestium,
(Opus palatinum de trianulis, 1596.)
,

1543.)

22.

22.1.
(C1 = C = 90),
(1 = ).

(
B

A1B1C1

ABC

180,

(1 = ).

0.

170

:
, .

.
22.1.1 sin

a
b
a
b
, cos , tg = , ctg = ,
c
c
b
a
1
1
, csc
.
sec
cos
sin

sin

b
b
a
a
, cos , tg = , ctg = .
c
c
a
b

22.1.2. i. sin 2 cos 2 1 ; ii. 1 + tan2 = sec2 ; iii. 1 + ctg2 = csc2.

a 2 b2
a b
: ) sin cos

c2
c c
2

c2
1 .
c2

22.1.3. i. tg =
: tg =

cos
sin
; ii. ctg =
.
cos
sin

a a / c sin
.

b b / c cos

22.1.4. tg ctg .= 1.
: tg ctg .=
.

a b
1 .
b a
,

171

22.1.5. + = 90 sin cos tg = ctg .

.

22.1.6. sin

cos

1 t2

sin
cos
2
2
2
t (1 sin ) sin .
(1 t 2 ) sin 2 t 2 ,
t cos sin
2

.
22.1.2.)

) 7, 24, 25;
) 2,8; 4,5; 5,3.

) 5, 12, 13;
) 1,2; 3,5; 3,7;
) cos = 0,96;
1
) cos
;
1 a 2

1 (sin x cos x)
;
cos 2 x
2

(1 t 2 ) cos 2 1

2.
) sin = 0,6;
2a
) sin 2
;
a 1

4.

t = tg .

t 2 cos 2 sin 2 ,

22.1.7.
1.
) 3, 4, 5;
) 2,0; 2,1; 29;

1 t 2

t = tg =

3.

:
)

1 tg 2
;
1 ctg 2

) ctg

1 a 2
.
a

csc 2 sin 2
;
tg 2
[2tgx; tg2; ctg4]

) ctg2 = cos2 + (ctg cos )2;

1
) sec 2 csc 2
.
2
sin cos 2

) ctg sec = csc ;

6.
) tg2 sin 2 tg2 sin 2 ;

) tg = 2,4;

) sin215 + cos225 + cos265 + sin275 = 2;

) tg 1 tg 2 tg 3 ... tg 89 = ctg 45.

5.
) tg + ctg = sec csc ;

sin
1 cos

;
1 cos
sin

172

sin 3 x cos 3 x
sin x cos x ;
1 sin x cos x

tg x

sin x 2 cos x
)
5;
3 sin x 4 cos x

1
1 ctg 2 x
.

sin 2 x cos 2 x 1 ctg 2 x

3 sin x 2 cos x
4.
5 sin x cos x

7.

8.
sin x, cos x, tg x ctg x
) 3 sin x + 4 cos x = 5;

) 5 sin x + 12 cos x = 13.

22.2.
30, 45

60,
22.2.1.

30

sin
1
2

cos
3
2
2
2
1
2

2
2
3
2

45
60

tg
3
3

ABC
CD

AC =
= h.

ACD,

3a 2
a
,
h a =
4
2
2

a 3
.
2
1
a /2
h
= , cos 30
sin 30
a
2
a

3
2

tg 30

1
a/2
=
=
h
3

3.

ACD

173

3
a/2
1
h
=
, cos 60
=
a
a
2
2
h
tg 60 =
,
3.
a /2
MNPQ
s
d,
.
MNP
sin 60

d MP =

sin 45

s2 s2 = s 2 .

2
2
s
s
=
, cos 45 =
d
d
2
2

(
,

1,
)

tg 45

s
= 1.
s

0,001
0.

22.2.2.

sin
0
1

0
90

cos
1
0

tg
0

ctg

22.2.3.

1.

2
2
2
) cos 30 + sin 45 + ctg 60;
sin 60 tg 30
)
;
ctg 45 cos 60

) sin2 60 cos2 45 + tg2 30;

cos 30 ctg 60
)
.
tg 45 sin 30
10 cm.

2.
3.

30

.
5

4.
45
5.

6.
7.

60.
AC

2 cm.

+ = 90 sin + cos = 1,
< 45,

10 cm.

3,
BAC

ABCDE

174

a) 2sin(45 ) 5cos(45 + ) + 1 = 0;
) tg( + 30) = 4 3ctg(60 - ).

8.

) sin cos ;
2
2 2

) tg ctg .
2
2 2

22.3.
ABCD

a b
AD,

P 1 = ab.

1
a
P2 ab .
2
CDA
a = AD.

,
ABC

CDA,
a CD = b

ABCD

P 3 = ah.

DD1C
A1BCD1

AA1B,

.
,

AC

ABC CDA,
,
ABC
ABCD.
1
h P3 ah .
2

,
CDA
a
b

P4

22.3.1.

a b
h.
2

ab
sin .
2

h P 4 = mh,
a b
m
2
.
,

ABCD
ABC

AC
1
1
ah
bh
2
2

ACD

.
a

C,

175

:
h = BD
CDB.

= ACB,

ABC,

22.3.2. (

a
b
c

2r ,
sin sin sin
a, b c
:

ABD

, r

:
sin

c
2r

a bc
2

, r

ABC
. AD
ABD = 90.
, ADB = ACB = ,
c
AB
, .
sin
2r .
AD
sin
A B
P

22.3.3.

b = AC,

a = BC

,
h = asin .
ah
P
2
ab
P
sin .
2

22.3.4.

abc
,
4r

a, b

k(O, r),

c
.

ab
sin
2

(22.3.1.)

(22.3.2.).

P s ,

176

:
:

k(O, ),

ABC

ABO, BCO CAO

c a
b
,
2
2
2

a bc
.
2

22.3.5. (
s

a bc
2

P s(s a )(s b)(s c) ,

a, b, c

.
ABC

CD
p + q = c.
h2 = a 2 q2 = b2
p2,
a 2 b2 = q2 p2 = (q p)(q +
p) = (q p)c.
q+ p
2
2
= c, q p = (a b )/c,
c2 a 2 b2
c2 a 2 b2
, p
.
q
2c
2c

c 2 a 2 b 2
c2 a 2 b2
=
a
h2 = a 2 q2 = (a q)(a + q) = a
2c
2c

2ac c 2 a 2 b 2 2ac c 2 a 2 b 2
b 2 (a c) 2 (a c) 2 b 2
=
=

2c
2c
4c 2
[b (a c)][b (a c)][(a c) b][(a c) b]
=
4c 2
(b a c)(b a c)(a c b)(a c b)
2( s a ) 2( s c) 2( s b) 2s
=
.
2
4c
4c 2
hc
4s( s a )(s b)(s c)
hc 2 s(s a )(s b)(s c) .
, P
=
h2
2
2
c
s(s a )(s b)(s c) .
22.3.6.

12

1.
30.
2.

42,

23,

60.

177

:
3.

12,

4.

5.
6.

10

12,

24

10,

7, 24

7.
) = 45, = 60, a = 4;

8.

I
5

3.

45.
13

15.

25.

) = 30, = 45, c = 6.

) = 60, a = 3, b = 2.
3 3 2
[ 2(3 3 ) ; 9( 3 1) ;
]
2

a, b

[2(a 2 + ab + b2)]

a 2 b2
,
4

9.
.

[ P

10.

a 2 b2
a 2 b2
ab sin
=
sin =
1,
2ab
4
2
sin = 1.
= 90 (a b)2 = 0]
ta , tb tc ?
4
[
t (t t a )(t t b )(t t c ) , 2t t a t b t c ]
3

23.

,
.

(
i.

)
.

).
.

.
178

:
ii.

I
.

0).

i.

ii.
iii.

180,

).

iv.

.
,

23.1.
1.

ABC.

CD

ABC
h
ADC :
h = bsin (
sin
b
h
h = asin .
CDB :
sin
a
a
b
.
bsin = asin , .

sin sin

ADC

sin(180-) = sin )

ABC

b
c
.

sin sin

(22.3.2.)

CDB.

a
b
c
.

sin sin sin

179

:
2.

, ABC, BC = 6 cm, A = 44

3.

AC

C = 45.
AB
19
,

sin 45 sin 25
31,78999 cm,
AB 31,8 cm
(
).

sin 59
BC 7,40364
sin 44
.

(
),

AC
BC
,

sin B sin A

AC 7,40 cm
(

sin B

12
sin 22
9

23.1.7.
ABC, BC = 8 cm, A = 46

B.
AB1C

B2,
12
12
9
.

sin B1 sin B2 sin 22

(&11.).

, ABC, A = 22, BC = 9 cm, AC = 12 cm.

B1

).

AB.

1.

AC.

B = 25.

A + B + C = 180,
,
sin 45
AB
19
sin 25
5
,
3

,
6.

B = 59.

, ABC, AC = 19 cm, A = 110

4.

5.

: B1 30
B = 58.

AB2C,
AB1 AB2.
,

B2 150.

AC.

180

2.

ABC, AC = 15 cm, A = 105

ABC,

3.
4.

B = 31.

AB.

B = 55, BC = 10 cm, AC = 13 cm.

ABC, A = 25, BC = 8 cm, AC = 11 cm.

5.
4742.

.
A =

AC = 26,6 cm
.

6.

15,5 cm,

5334.

23.2.
,
1. (

)
a, b, c
2
a = b + c 2bccos A,
b2 = c2 + a 2 2cacos B,
c2 = a 2 + b2 2accos C.

.
ABC,

.
,

).

ABC,

CD = h
x,
x c.

AB.

ADC
h2 = b2 x2,

x = AD,
, .

DB

h2 = a 2 (x c)2.

, b2 x2 = a 2 (x c)2 b2 x2 = a 2 (x2 2cx + c2)

a 2 = b2 + c2 2cx.

181

:
x = bcos A,
.
C 0,
2.

a 2 = b2 + c2 2cbcos A.
A

.
.

cos C 0,

ABC, BC = 9 cm, AC = 10 cm

C = 56.

AB A.

c2 = a 2 + b2 2abcos C
c2 = 92 + 102 - 2910cos 56
c = 8,96355 ... .
, AB = 8,96 cm 3

c2,

b2 c2 a 2
= 0,55416...
2bc
A = 56,3,
.
cos A

3.

XYZ, Y = 124, XY = 12 cm

YZ = 21,6 cm.

XZ X.

y2 = z2 + x 2 2zx cos Y
y2 = (12)2 + (21,6)2 -2(12)(21,6)cos 124,
y = 30,00742 ... , .
XZ = 30,0 cm, 3
.

y 2 z 2 x2
= 0,80242
cos X
2 yz
X = 36,6,
0,6
60
X = 3636.

4.

ABC, a = 8, b = 15

c = 12,
(

10.1.7.).

182

,
cos

b = 15.

a 2 c2 b2
= -0,08854... .
2ac
.

= 95,

5.

456.
.

,
a, b
.

cos

,
k
a = 4k.

4k, 5k 6k

b2 c2 a 2
(5k) 2 (6k) 2 (4k) 2
25 36 16
=
=
= 0,75.
2bc
60
2(5k)(6k)
.
41,4062211...
, 8
.

60
,
0,40962211... 60 24,5773266...

60,

.
,1
60
60, . 0,5773266... 60 = 34,639596...
= 41 24 35
.

= 41 24 35

41

1.
2.

24 35
= 41,410,

60 60 2

XYZ, Y = 112, XY = 15,4 cm

4.

5.
135.

ABC, a = 9, b = 17

.
,

23.2.6.
ABC, BC = 21 cm, AC = 18 cm

3.

C = 62.

AB B.

XZ Z.

YZ = 17 cm.

c = 8,

756.
.
32
.

183

I
[ 16 2 2 , 16 2 2 cm]

ABCD, AB = 6 cm, BC = 7 cm, AD = 12 cm, ABC = 120, ACD =

ADC, 3
.

6.
70.

24.

24.1.
,

ABC
D AB,

c
.

ADC BDC.
1 = ACD
c = AB
c1 = AD

= ACB
2 = DCB,
c2 = DB.
,

1 = CDA 2 = BDC.
,

c1 b sin 1

.
c2 a sin 2

24.1.1.

a sin 2

.
c 2 sin 2

c1 sin 1

b sin 1

sin 1 sin 2 ,

.
24.1.2. T
B C.

:
A B

CD

24.1.4.

ACP

1 = 2
QBC

sin 1 = sin 2,
P

je

c1 = c2 bsin 1 = asin 2,
ADC BDC
.

,
24.1.3.

ABC

.
c1 : c2 = b : a.
AB

AP AQ AC

.
BP BQ BC

ABC

184

:
= , PCQ = .

AP
AC sin

BP BC sin( )

ACP = QBC
(24.1.1.)

AQ AC sin( )
,

BQ
BC sin

.
24.1.5.

P 1, P 2, P 3
:

A1A2A3,

A2A3, A3A1, A1A2

P1 A2 P2 A3 P3 A1 sin P1 A1 A2 sin P2 A2 A3 sin P3 A3 A1

.
P1 A3 P2 A1 P3 A2 sin P1 A1 A3 sin P2 A2 A1 sin P3 A3 A2
,

(24.1.1.)
:
P1 A2 A1 A2 sin P1 A1 A2

,
P1 A3 A1 A3 sin P1 A1 A3
P2 A3 A2 A3 sin P2 A2 A3

P2 A1
A1 A2 sin P2 A2 A1
P3 A1
A A sin P3 A3 A1
1 3
.
P3 A2 A2 A3 sin P3 A3 A2
,
.
(A1A2A3)

A1)

24.1.6.

,
,
P1

Q1

A1A2A3.

(A2A3)
(

A2A3

P1 A2 Q1 A2 sin P1 A1 A2 sin Q1 A1 A2

:
:
.
P1 A3 Q1 A3 sin P1 A1 A3 sin Q1 A1 A3
:

(24.1.1.)

P1 A2
A1 A2 sin

P1 A3 A1 A3 sin( )

185

Q1 A2 A1 A2 sin( )
.

Q1 A3
A1 A3 sin
,
P1 A2 Q1 A2
sin( )
sin
.

:
:
P1 A3 Q1 A3 sin( )
sin
.
24.1.7.
A, B, C

A, B, C,

AB A' B' OB OB'

.
:
:

AC A' C ' OC OC'

:
OA'C ' ,

(24.1.1.)
AB
OB sin

AC OC sin( )
A' B'
OB' sin
.

A' C ' OC' sin( )

OAC

24.1.8.
A, B, C, D

A, B, C,

D,
A' C ' B' C '
AC BC
=
.
:
:
A' D' B' D'
AD BD

(24.1.6.),

,
.

186

:
:
OB,
OA.

BC
:
BD
BC
:
BD

,
OAD
OBD

(24.1.7.)
AC A' C ' OC OC'
=
=
:
:
AD A' D' OD OD'
AC A' C '
B' C '
,
=
:
AD A' D'
B' D'
A' C ' B' C '
B' C '
AC BC
,
=
.
:
:
A' D' B' D'
B' D'
AD BD
24.1.9.
,

(A, B; C, D) =

. cross-ratio)
( . double ratio),
A-B-C-D,

AC BC
AC BD
=
.
:
AD BD
BC AD

(24.1.8.)

,
24.1.10.

(24.1.8.)
.

, .

A, B, C, D

3, 1 2
.
(A, B; C, D) =
AC AD
4 6
=
= : = 2.

,
:
BC BD
1 3
2 1
CD CB
= :
= -1.
(C, A; D, B) =
:
6 3
AD AB
(24.1.8.)

.
24.1.11.

,
.
,

.
,

187

!
24.1.12.

.
2 3
AC AD
4
= : = .
(A, B; C, D) =
:
1 2
BC BD
3
,
=

A, B, C, D,

(A, B; C, D) =

AC AD
:
BC BD

20 12
5
4
12 8 12 8 4
=
= .
,
:

8 24
84
4
3
8
12, 8 4
!
,
AC AD 12 4 12 4 2 16 6
4
=
=
= .
(A, B; C, D) =
:
:

4
BC BD
4 18 3
42
,
12, 4 2
!

24.2.
.

24.2.1.
OAOA = r 2.

k(O, r).

, A, O
.

k(O, r)

A.
k.
OA

A.

,
k(O, r)
P

Q.

PQ

k
OA

A.

OAOA = r ,
2

)
,

OAP, PAA OPA

.
OP:OA = OA:OP
.

24.2.2.

188

:
i.

I
,

ii.

iii.
24.2.3.

.
:

,
.

a
B

O.
OA

A,

A;
a
A, OAB

OAB OBA
,
r = OAOA = OBOB OA:OB =
OB:OA
AOB,
A
OB
B,
B.
2

)
.

24.2.4.

.
(A)

(s)

(k).
(P Q)
(p q).
(a)

.
,
Q,
k,
a
P, Q

B
.
,

24.2.5.

s
A.

189

:
24.2.5.
,
.

15

:
XOY
R
R

,
(24.1.9.).

,P
X Y
OP
R,
OXP ORX
P,
.
XYR
RP,

PQ

ARS.

PS

,
RQ, PRQ

RQ

(24.1.3.),

XY

.
24.2.6.

.
,
QR

Y,

RP SQ

APQ
Z.
24.1.1.

YZ

Y Z

APQ M, ARS N.

MP
AP

MQ
AQ

NR
AR
.

NS
AS
(24.1.1.)
MP ZP sin MZP

MQ ZQ sin MZQ
YQ ZQ sin YZQ
,

YR ZR sin YZR
ZP SP sin QSP

ZR SR sin QSR
YR SR sin PSR
.

YQ SQ sin PSQ

15

,
.
(R. Lachlan: An Elementary Treatise on Modern Pure Geometry,1893.).

190

MP
SP sin PSR
.

MQ
SQ sin QSR
M.
.

24.1.1.

AP
SP sin PSR
,

AQ SQ sin QSR
N.

, MN

24.2.7.
.
24.2.8.
.

191