Bio2.Patterns in NatureU

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Preliminary Biology Topic 2
PATTERNS in NATURE
What is this topic about?
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. LIVING CELLS & THEIR STRUCTURE
2. CHEMICALS MOVE IN & OUT THROUGH MEMBRANES
3. NUTRITION IN PLANTS & ANIMALS
4. GAS EXCHANGE & INTERNAL TRANSPORT
5. CELL DIVISION FOR GROWTH & REPAIR
but first, an introduction...

Organization of a
Multicellular Organism
Cells
All living things are composed of microscopic
lumps called cells.
A building is not just a pile of bricks, and an

army is not just a rabble of soldiers. Each has a
structure, and levels of organization so
everything works together.
Some organisms are composed of just a single cell.

All familiar organisms are made of many cells; for
example, your body is composed of approximately
300 billion cells... you are multicellular.
Similarly, your body is not just a big heap of

cells. It has levels of organization...
a
Each cell is a tiny sac of protoplasm... water with

a complex mixture of chemicals dissolved in it,
plus many structures called organelles (little
organs).
CELL is the basic unit of any living thing.

A number of similar cells working together is a...
TISSUE. (e.g. muscle tissue, bone tissue.)
GENERALIZED DIAGRAM OF A LIVING CELL
Various tissues are combined to make an...
Organelles
ORGAN. (e.g. heart, kidney, liver.)

A number of organs work together for a specific
purpose. This forms a...
SYSTEM.
(e.g. digestive system.)
Finally, all the body systems working together

form...
YOU - a functioning, multicellular organism.
Membrane on the outside

contains the cell , and
controls what
goes in or out
Cytoplasm is a
jelly-llike liquid
which fills the
cell
Cell
&
Chemistry
Plants and animals have cells with a few

important differences. Organisms such as fungi
are different again, while bacteria have a totally
different cell structure.
Preliminary Biology Topic 2 Patterns in Nature
copyright 2005-2
2008 keep it simple science
www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
In this topic you will study the basics

of the structure and functioning
of living things.
structure
Vital
Body
Systems
Cell
Division
CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorising the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember
the concepts and important facts. As you proceed through the topic,
come back to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the whole.
At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this Mind Map to practise on.
Cell
Chemicals
Cell
Organelles
Cell
Theory
Structure
of
Membranes
Plant &
Animal
Cells
Living Cells
&
Their Structure
Diffusion
&
Osmosis
Surface Area
to
Volume Ratio
Chemicals
Move In & Out
Through
Membranes
Photosynthesis
&
Respiration
Nutrition
in
Plants & Animals
PATTERNS
in
NATURE
Structure &
Function of
Leaf
Digestion
in
Animals
Gas Exchange
&
Internal Transport
Cell Division
for
Growth & Repair
Reasons for
Cell Division
Gas
Exchange
in
Animals
Mitosis

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Gas
Exchange &
Transport in
Plants
Circulation
in Animals
1. LIVING CELLS & THEIR STRUCTURE

The Cell Theory
History of Our Knowledge of Cells
The Cell Theory is one of the fundamental

concepts in Biology. It simply states:
Robert Hooke, 1665

Hooke is credited with being the first person to
see cells and
name them.
Using a
Sketch of
primitive
Hookes
microscope, he
microscope
looked at a
piece of cork
(dead tree bark)
and saw tiny
boxes like the
rooms and
compartments
of a gaol or
monastery.
(hence cells)
All living organisms are composed of cells

or are the product of cells. (e.g. viruses)
All cells are produced from pre-existing cells.
The evidence supporting the Cell Theory has come
almost entirely from the use of microscopes to
examine living things.
Our knowledge of cell structure and function has
developed as the technology of microscopes
advanced over the last 300 years or so.
Initially, only light microscopes were available, but
since the 1930s electron microscopes have
revealed more detail of cell structure and function.
Comparison: Light & Electron Scopes

Light
Microscope
Electron
Microscope
How the
image
is formed
beam of light
focused by
glass lenses
beam of electrons
focused by magnetic
fields
Magnification
generally about up to 1,000,000 X

500 X.
(500 times more
Maximum
powerful)
about 2,000 X
Resolution
(ability to see
fine details)
about 0.2 m
m)
micrometres (
Anton van Leeuwenhoek, 1676

van Leeuwenhoek used a very simple microscope,
but it was equipped with an excellent lens, through
which he saw living micro-organisms swimming
around in a drop of water.
Over the next 150 years, microscopes improved,
and it was suspected that cells were present in all
living things.
Robert Brown, 1827
Brown was the first to discover structures inside
cells. He discovered and described the nucleus
inside plant cells.
about 0.0002 m
(1,000 times better
detail)
By about 1840, the Cell Theory was becoming

accepted by most biologists, because cells were
observed in every organism studied. Louis
Pasteurs discoveries showed that infectious
diseases were caused by germs, which were
microscopic, cellular organisms.
1 m = 0.000001(10-6)metre.
1 micrometre is 1/1000 of a millimetre
How Big Are Cells Anyway?

Typical Plant Cell
50-100 m
Rudolf Virchow, 1859

and Walther Flemming, 1879
Between them, these two German scientists
clarified the process of cell division, by which cells
produce more cells. This established the principle
that all cells come from pre-existing cells.
Typical Animal Cell

5 - 20 m
Bacterial Cells
1 - 5 m
In the 20th century, the electron microscope

opened up our knowledge of the fine detail of cell
structures and their functions.
SCALE:
100 m
(0.1 mm)

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Cell Organelles Visible with a Light Microscope

You may have done practical work in class to use a light microscope to view cells in living things.
Generalized
ANIMAL CELL
Generalized
PLANT CELL
NUCLEUS
Small
Vacuoles
(if any at all)
CELL WALL
(outside of membrane)
Large
VACUOLE
CYTOPLASM
There are probably no actual

cells which looks just like these.
Real shapes vary greatly.
CELL
MEMBRANE
CHLOROPLASTS
(green colour)
The Major Differences Between Plant & Animal Cells

Plant cells have a tough CELL WALL on the outside of their cell membrane.
Many plant cells contain a large VACUOLE.
Animal cells rarely have vacuoles, and if present they are small.
Many plant cells contain CHLOROPLASTS.
These are green in colour because they contain the pigment chlorophyll.
Chloroplasts are the sites of PHOTOSYNTHESIS, where plants make food.
Note: not all plant cells have chloroplasts... for example, cells in the underground roots cannot
photosynthesise, so do not contain any chloroplasts.
What the Electron Microscope Reveals

The superior magnifying power and resolution of the electron microscope has given us a much
more detailed knowledge of the cell and its organelles. The diagram below is a sketch of a plant
cell similar to the one above, but with the added details that the electron microscope has revealed.
The extra organelles shown are generally NOT visible with a light microscope.
Golgi apparatus
Cell Wall
Cell Membrane
Endoplasmic Reticulum
A network of membrane
structures connected to
nucleus & extending
throughout the cytoplasm
Vacuole
Nucleus
Extra detail revealed
The tiny Ribosomes are

often attached to the E.R.
Chloroplast
internal structure
Mitochondrion.
Site of cellular
respiration
Stacks of flat membranes

(grana) contain the
chlorophyll
Lysosomes
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The Organelles... Structure & Function

The Nucleus
NUCLEUS
This is the control centre of the cell.

Inside the nucleus are the chromosomes
containing DNA, the genetic material.
There is often a nucleolus present. This is
the site for production of RNA, a
messenger chemical which leaves the
nucleus carrying instructions to other
organelles. The nuclear membrane has
holes or pores to allow RNA to exit.
Nucleolus
RNA
manufacture
Nuclear membrane
with pores, for
RNA exit
Nuclear material
chromatin.
(Chromosomes
unwound and
spread out)
The Cell Membrane

Mitochondria
This is not only the boundary of the cell, but also

controls what goes in or out of the cell. This is
studied in more detail in the next section.
(singular: mitochondrion)
This is where cellular respiration occurs

Glucose + Oxygen
(sugar)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.)
Carbon + Water + ATP

Dioxide
E.R. is a network of membranes which form

channels and compartments throughout the
cytoplasm of the cell. Its function can be compared to
the internal walls of an office building which divide the
building into rooms where different operations can
be kept separate so that each does not interfere with
others.
The ATP produced by respiration carries

chemical energy all over the cell to power all
the processes of life. The mitochondria are
therefore, the power stations of the cell,
converting the energy of food into the readily
usable form of ATP.
ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM
MITOCHONDRION
Outer
membrane
Inner
membrane
folded into
cristae
with
respiration
enzymes
attached
Membranes enclose
channels and rooms
RIBOSOMES
attached to membranes
The E.R. structure provides channels for chemicals

and messengers to travel accurately to the
correct locations, and for chemical production to
occur in isolation from other operations.
Inside a mitochondrion is a folded membrane

with many projections (cristae). This
structure provides a greater surface area,
where the enzymes (control chemicals) for
respiration are attached in correct sequence
for the steps of the process.
This structure helps cells function

Often found attached to the E.R. are the tiny
Ribosomes. These are the sites of production
of proteins, the main structural and functional
chemicals of living cells. RNA messengers from
the nucleus attach to a ribosome to make the
specific proteins that the cell needs.
This structure helps the organelle

do its job more efficiently.
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Membranes
Chloroplasts
The Golgi Apparatus is a semi-circular
arrangement of membranes which are
concerned with packaging chemicals into
small membrane sacs (vesicles) for
storage or secretion.
Curved
GOLGI BODY
Chloroplasts are found only in

photosynthetic plant cells. The electron
microscope has revealed that the
chloroplast is not just a bag of chlorophyll,
but has an organized internal structure
which makes its functioning more
efficient.
CHLOROPLAST
membrane
sacs
Stroma
zone
Vesicles pinch-o
off
for storage or
secretion
Membrane stacks
(grana)
containing chlorophyll
Lysosomes
form this
way
One type of vesicle produced by a Golgi

Body is the Lysosome. These membrane
sacs contain digestive enzymes which can
destroy any foreign proteins which enter
the cell.
Double
membrane
envelope
The grana are stacked membrane sacs

containing chlorophyll, which absorbs the
light energy for photosynthesis. This lightcapturing step is kept separate from the
stroma zone, where the chemical
reactions to make food are completed.
Lysosome enzymes also rapidly digest the

contents of a cell which has died, so that
your body can clean up the remains and
replace the dead cell.
The Importance of Membranes

Except for the tiny ribosomes, all the cell organelles are built from,
and surrounded by, membranes.
The membranes provide: the infrastructure of the cell.
channels for chemicals to move through.
packaging for chemicals which need to be stored.
points of attachment for chemicals (enzymes).
control over what moves in or out of each
organelle, and in or out of the entire cell.
The membrane-bound organelles help the cells various functions
to be carried out with greater efficiency.
Having these membrane-based organelles is the defining characteristic of
the Eucaryotic group of organisms, which includes all plants and animals.
Bacterial cells do NOT have all the membrane-type organelles,
and can only operate efficiently by being very small.
copyright 2005-2
List 5 additional organelles normally only

visible with an electron microscope.
(p)........................................
q).........................................
r)..........................................
s)..........................................
(t).........................................
Worksheet 1
Cell Theory & Cell Structure
Fill in the blank spaces and diagram labels.
The
Cell
Theory
states
that
(a)................................ are composed of
cells, and that all cells are produced from
(b)......................................................
Complete these lists to describe the

functions of the organelles.
Function
Organelle
Cell membrane
(u)
Our knowledge of cells is due mainly to the

technology of (c)..............................................
The (d)....................................... of a
microscope refers to its ability to
distinguish
fine
details.
The
(e)................................. scope is far superior
in both (d) and (f)...................................
(v)
Partitions cell into

channels &
compartments
Golgi apparatus
(w)
The man credited with being the first to see

cells was (g).....................................................
(x)
Cellular respiration.
(y)
Photosynthesis
Cell wall
(z)
Label the parts of this plant cell seen with a

simple light microscope.
(h).................................
(i).................................
(m).........................
(j).................................
(k).................................
Which TWO parts of this plant cell would

definitely never be seen in an animal cell?
(inside (k)
WHEN COMPLETED,
WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
(n)........................................ and
Practice Questions for this section

are included in Worksheet 3
(o)..................................

copyright 2005-2
(l).................................
2. CHEMICALS MOVE IN & OUT THROUGH MEMBRANES
The Chemicals
That Cells Are Made From
INORGANIC CHEMICALS
These include small simple
molecules like water (H2O) and
carbon dioxide (CO2), as well as
mineral ions such as calcium,
nitrate, phosphate, chloride, etc.
Although these are often
considered of lesser importance,
you should remember that all living
things are 75%- 95% water.
ORGANIC CHEMICALS
Organic chemicals are based on the element
carbon, which can form chains, rings and
networks and so build the very complex
molecules needed to make a living cell.
Many are polymers made by joining together
many smaller molecules.
There are four main categories to know about...
LIPIDS
are the fats and oils.

All cell membranes are built from
lipid & protein.
CARBOHYDRATES
include the sugars and starch.
Lipids are used as a way to store

excess energy food.
Carbohydrates can be converted
to fat for storage.
monosaccharides
(mono = one)
are simple sugars such as glucose C6H12O6
disaccharides (di = two)

are sugars made from TWO monosaccharides
joined together, such as table sugar (sucrose).
polysaccharides
(poly = many)
are huge molecules made from thousands of
sugar molecules joined in chains or networks.
Examples are:
Starch... made by plants, to store excess sugar.
Glycogen... made by animals, to store sugar.
Cellulose... made by plants as a structural
chemical. The CELL WALL of a plant cell is made
from cellulose.
Disaccharide
Monosaccharide
sugar
molecules
PROTEINS
are the main structural chemicals of
organelles, cells, bone, skin & hair.
Life is built from protein.
Proteins are polymers, made from amino
acid molecules joined in chains.
sugar
Amino acid
molecules
Polysaccharide.
Small part of a
Starch
molecule
Part of a protein molecule...

a chain of amino acids
Uses of Carbohydrates
Sugars are energy chemicals. Glucose is made by
plants in photosynthesis, and is the fuel for
cellular respiration to make ATP to power all cells.
Starch & Glycogen are polymer molecules used to
store sugars as a food reserve. Starch is the main
nutrient chemical in the plant foods we eat.
Cellulose & Lignin are polymers of sugar used by
plants structurally. Cellulose makes the tough cell
wall of all plant cells. Lignin is a strong material
used to reinforce the walls of veins in plants.
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NUCLEIC ACIDS
(DNA & RNA)
are the most complex of all.

DNA is the genetic information of every cell.
RNA is the messenger sent out from the nucleus
to control all cell
activities.
DNA is a huge
polymer of sugars,
phosphate and
bases coiled in a
double helix shape.
8
Identifying Chemicals in Tissues
The Structure of the Cell Membrane
You may have done laboratory work to learn some

simple chemical tests which identify important
substances. These tests all rely on a reagent
which changes colour.
The electron microscope and other modern

analysis methods have revealed the structure of the
membranes which surround a cell and form most of
the cell organelles.
To keep it simple (K.I.S.S.), learn these:
The membrane is extremely thin; just two molecules

thick. The basic chemical unit is a phospholipid
molecule; a lipid (fat) with phosphate groups attached.
Each molecule has two distinct ends; one which is
attracted to water molecules (hydrophilic) and the
other is repelled by water (hydrophobic).
Hydro=water. philic=to like. phobic=hate / fear.
Cell
Chemical
Glucose
Starch
Protein
Test
Colour in
Reagent Pure water
Benedicts
solution
Iodine
solution
Biuret
Positive
Result
pale blue
yellow or
orange
yellow
brown
dark blue
or black
blue
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
One phospholipid
Outside of cell
hydro-p
philic
-p
phobic
purple
You will have used one or more tests on living

tissue and examined the cells with a microscope.
Inside of cell
For Example: if tissue scraped from a fresh potato

is mounted on a slide with a simple contrast
stain (like methylene blue) the cells look like this:
Double layer of
phospholipid molecules
POTATO CELLS
Two layers of phospholipids form each membrane.

The molecules cling to each other, and line up with
their hydrophilic ends outwards. The water-loving
ends are attracted to the watery environment both
inside and outside the cell.
Organelles
faintly
visible
Cell walls
Their hydrophobic ends are repelled from the

watery surroundings, and cling together inside the
membrane itself.
If a drop of iodine solution is added, the same cells

change as shown:
It is like a thin layer of oil floating on water. It is fluid

and flexible, but clings together forming an
unbroken skin on the surface.
POTATO CELLS
WITH IODINE
Organelles turn black
Other molecules are embedded in the phospholipid

bilayer. They are mostly proteins, many with
carbohydrates attached.
This indicates the

presence of starch
inside the organelles
(these are storage
vacuoles)
Membrane proteins
Once you have an understanding of the main

chemicals that cells are made from, you need to
realize that all of these substances, or their raw
materials or waste products, are constantly
moving in or out of a living cell.
These other molecules

have various functions:
TO DO THIS
CHEMICALS MUST CROSS
THE CELL MEMBRANE
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receptors for messenger chemicals.

identification markers, so your body knows its own
cells from any foreign invaders.
to help chemicals get through the membrane.
9
How Chemicals Pass Through Membranes

The cell membrane as the boundary of a cell is a bit like growing a plant hedge as
the boundary of a field. It stops the cows and horses getting out, but a mouse,
or a lizard, can easily crawl through it.
Similarly, a membrane is semi-permeable; it prevents most (especially large)
molecules getting through, but allows others to pass through easily. Small
molecules like water (H2O), oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) pass freely
through the membrane like a lizard through a hedge.
To understand how this happens, you must learn about the processes of
DIFFUSION & OSMOSIS.
Diffusion
Diffusion occurs in every liquid or gas
because the atoms and molecules are
constantly moving. The particles jiggle
about at random in what is called
Brownian motion. (Named for its
discoverer Robert Brown, the same man
who discovered the cell nucleus.)
In a living cell, there is often a

concentration gradient from the
outside to the inside of the cell.
For example, because a cell keeps
consuming
oxygen
for
cellular
respiration, the inside of the cell usually
has a low concentration of O2 dissolved
in the water of the cytoplasm. On the
outside, there may be a lot of O2.
Imagine a water solution containing a

dissolved chemical, but it is NOT evenly
distributed... it is more concentrated in one
place than elsewhere. As the molecules
jiggle about at random, they will
automatically spread out to make the
concentration even out. This process is
called DIFFUSION.
High
concentration
DIFFUSION of SMALL
MOLECULES into a CELL
If the molecules can cross the membrane,
diffusion will cause them to move from
higher to lower concentration.
Higher
concentration
outside cell
To start with, the

dissolved material is
not evenly
distributed.
Lower
concentration
inside
Lower
concentration
Diffusion causes the
dissolved solute to
spread out
uniformly.
DIFFUSION DRIVES MOLECULES

THROUGH THE MEMBRANES
along the concentration gradient.
Equal concentration
throughout

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10
Osmosis
Osmosis is a special case of diffusion, which occurs when the concentration
gradient involves dissolved molecules or ions which CANNOT
get through the membrane.
For example, consider a cell which is
The opposite situation can also happen.
surrounded by a solution containing a lot
A cells cytoplasm contains many
of dissolved sugar. The sugar cannot
dissolved chemicals. If the outside
diffuse through the membrane to equalize
environment around the cell is more
the concentrations. In such a situation,
watery (less concentrated in dissolved
water (which can go through the
substances) then osmosis will cause
membrane) will diffuse toward the high
water to diffuse inwards.
H2O
Dissolved chemicals
sugar concentration, as if attempting to
H2O
cannot diffuse out...
equalize by diluting the sugar.
OSMOSIS
High
concentration
of sugar
outside cell
Water diffuses
OUT of cell
H2O
H2O
H2O
Sugar cannot get
in through the
membrane
...so water diffuses into

the cell.
H2O
This is how plants absorb water into their

roots, even when the soil seems almost dry.
In this case, the cell will lose water and

might shrink and shrivel up. This can be
a problem for animals living in salt
water.
This can cause cells to pump up with

water and helps maintain their shape. It
can also cause problems for organisms
living in fresh water environments.
Comparison of Diffusion and Osmosis

Diffusion is the movement of dissolved chemicals from an area of higher
concentration toward a lower concentration area. The movement follows the
concentration gradient of the molecules in question.
Osmosis is a special case of diffusion. It is the diffusion of WATER
through a semi-permeable membrane, against the concentration gradient of solutes.
It occurs when the solutes cannot penetrate the membrane, but the water can.
Other Ways Substances Get Through Membranes
Diffusion and Osmosis are vitally important for many
chemicals (especially water) to get in and out of cells.
Diffusion and osmosis happen automatically and
without the cell having to use any energy. We say
these are passive transport processes.
Cells have other ways to deliberately move

substances across the membrane apart from
diffusion and osmosis. One such process
involves the membrane proteins carrying things.
These other ways to transport materials across
membranes require the cell to use energy (ATP
from cellular respiration) to move substances. We
say these are active transport processes. You
do not need to know the details at this stage.
What about all the other important chemicals which

cannot get through the membrane? Many proteins,
carbohydrates and other molecules regularly move
into or out of cells. How do they get in or out?
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11
The Importance of the Surface Area to Volume Ratio

Why are cells so small?
The answer requires a mathematical study...
Consider this series of cubes of increasing size:
2 unit
sides
1 unit
sides
4 unit
sides
3 unit
sides
Surface Area:
Six squares, each 1x1
Surface Area:
Surface Area:
Surface Area:
SA = 6x1x1
= 6 sq.units
SA = 6x2x2
= 24 sq.units
SA = 6x3x3
= 54 sq.units
SA = 6x4x4
= 96 sq.units
Volume = lxbxh
= 1x1x1
= 1 cu.unit
Volume = lxbxh
= 2x2x2
= 8 cu.unit
Volume = lxbxh
= 3x3x3
= 27 cu.unit
Volume = lxbxh
= 4x4x4
= 64 cu.unit
Ratio of SA to Volume
SA/V = 6 / 1
SA/V = 24 / 8
SA/V = 54 / 27
SA/V = 96 / 64
SA = 6
vol
SA = 3
vol
SA = 2
vol
SA = 1.5
vol
Notice that as the cubes get larger:
But, all cells have to get whatever they

need in through their cell membrane, and
the size of the membrane is all about
surface area.
Surface Area increases, and...

Volume increases, but...
As any cell gets bigger, it becomes more

and more difficult for it to get enough
food, water and oxygen because its
SA/Vol. ratio keeps shrinking. Getting rid
of waste products also becomes more
difficult.
SA / Vol Ratio DECREASES,

because the volume grows faster
than the surface area.
This pattern is the same for any shape...
as any shaped object gets bigger, the
ratio between its Surface Area and its
Volume gets smaller.
Large cells are impossible... all singlecelled organisms are microscopic, and all
larger organisms are multi-cellular. The
only way to be big is to have lots of small
cells.
Whats this got to do with cells?

The amount of food, oxygen or other
substances a cell needs depends on its
volume... the bigger the cell, the more it
needs according to its volume.

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Cells must feed their Volume,

through their Surface Area
12
Worksheet 2
Chemicals & The Cell Membrane
Fill in the blank spaces.

The cell membrane is made from a
double layer of (o)......................................
molecules, with various proteins
embedded.
Simple, small molecules and ions (e.g.

water,
nitrate)
are
known
as
(a)........................
compounds,
as
opposed to organic compounds which
are based on the element (b)................,
and include:-
The membrane is said to be semi(p)........................................
(c)............................... which are

polymers of amino acids
Diffusion is a process where molecules

move
from
a
place
of
(q)............................
concentration,
towards a (r)...................... concentration.
Lipids, which are found structurally in

the cell (d)...................................... and
are also used as (e)................................
..........................................
Osmosis
is
the
diffusion
of
(s).......................... molecules only,
against the solute concentration
(t)........................., when the solute is
unable to get through a membrane.
(f)......................................... which
include the sugars & starches.
One of this group, glucose, has chemical
formula (g).............................. and is the
food made during the process of
(h)................................... It is also the fuel
for (i)..................................... (organelle) to
make ATP.
Diffusion & Osmosis are both examples

of (u)................................. transport,
because the cell does not need to use
(v).............................. to make things
move.
Nucleic acids, of which (j)....................

is the best known.
As any shape gets larger, its

(w)......................................... ratio gets
smaller. This is why all cells are small. A
large cell needs chemicals in proportion
to its x)..............................................
However, it must get substances in
through its y)............................................,
the size of which is measured by its
z)............................ .....................................
If Benedicts solution turns from blue to

yellow,
this
proves
that
(k)....................................... is present.
Protein
can
be
identified
by
(l).................................... reagent, and if
starch is present iodine solution will turn
from (m) .................... to (n).......................
The only way for living things to be

large, is to have aa)....................................
cells, NOT by having ab)............................
cells.
WHEN COMPLETED,
WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES

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13
Worksheet 3 Practice Questions (Sections 1 & 2)

8. A food substance, which may be a mixture of
various organic chemicals, was tested with the
following results:
Iodine solution gave a yellow, brown colour.
Biuret reagent gave a purple colour.
Benedicts reagent resulted in a pale blue colour.
Multiple Choice
1. The man credited with the discovery of the
cell nucleus was:
A.Robert Hooke.
B. Anton van Leeuwenhoek.
C. Robert Brown.
D. Louise Pasteur.
From these results you would conclude that the

food contains:
A. protein, but no starch or sugar.
B. starch, but no protein or sugar.
C. sugar and protein, but no starch.
D. sugar and starch, but no protein.
2. The organelle least likely to be seen with a

light microscope is:
A. Mitochondrion.
B. Vacuole.
C. Nucleus.
D. Chloroplast.
Longer Response Questions
3. The cell structure never found in an animal

cell is:
A. cell membrane.
B. cell wall.
C. endoplasmic reticulum.
D. golgi body.
Mark values given are suggestions only, and are

to give you an idea of how detailed an answer is
appropriate.
9. (3 marks)
Compare the light microscope to the electron
microscope in terms of how each forms an
image, the magnification, and the resolution of
each.
4. The function of the ribosomes can be

described as:
A. storage of genetic information.
B production of ATP.
C. packaging of substances for secretion.
D. manufacture of proteins.
10. (2 marks)
Using either the nucleus or mitochondrion as
your example, discuss the way that the
structure of the organelle relates to its function.
5. Starch, glycogen and cellulose are all:

A. proteins, composed of amino acids.
B. nucleic acids, related to DNA & RNA.
C. sugars, of the carbohydrate group.
D. polymers of glucose.
11. (4 marks)
Using examples, discuss the difference between the
organic & inorganic chemicals found in living
cells.
6. The diagram shows a

cell surrounded by a
solution which has a high
concentration of large
molecules.
12 (2 marks)
The cell membrane is described as being semipermeable. Explain what this means.
You might expect:

A. solute molecules to diffuse into the cell.
B. water to diffuse into the cell.
C. water to diffuse out of the cell.
D. solute molecules to diffuse out of the cell.
13. (4 marks)
Compare the processes of diffusion and
osmosis, identifying what substances are
involved and the direction of movement
(compared to any concentration gradient)
7. A brick was smashed into smaller pieces with

a hammer. It would be true to say that all the
brick pieces, when compared to the original
brick, have:
A. larger total volume.
B. larger SA/Vol ratio.
C. smaller total surface area.
D. smaller SA/Vol ratio.
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14. (4 marks)
Explain why all living cells have to be very small in size.
14
3. NUTRITION IN PLANTS & ANIMALS

Autotrophs & Heterotrophs
Photosynthesis & Cellular Respiration
An autotroph is an organism that makes its own

food. All plants are autotrophic, making their own
food by photosynthesis.
You will have noticed that these two vital

processes, when written as summary equations,
are exact opposites.
Light energy
Any organism that cannot make its own food must

be a heterotroph. All animals are heterotrophic, and
so are the fungi and most bacteria.
A heterotrophic animal eats plants or other animals
which have eaten plants, and so on according to
the food chain involved.
CARBON
DIOXIDE
Photosynthesis in Plants
All plants make their own food from the simple,

low-energy raw materials water (H2O) and
carbon dioxide (CO2) using the energy of
sunlight, to make the high-energy sugar glucose
(C6H12O6), with oxygen gas (O2) as a by-product.
green pigment
in chloroplasts
of plant cells
ligh
te
ner
gy
WATER + CARBON
DIOXIDE
from
soil
6H2O
from
air
6CO2
chlorophyll
WATER
ATP
C6H12O6
to
air
6O2
MITOCHONDRIA - site of
cellular respiration
Photosynthesis makes all the food on Earth, for all

the food chains. It also makes all the oxygen in the
atmosphere for us animals to breathe.
For these two reasons, photosynthesis has to be the
most important biological process on the planet.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS in the CHLOROPLAST

Phase 2
In the
stroma, a
cycle of
reactions
builds
glucose
from CO2
and the
hydrogen
from water

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OXYGEN
The Most Important Process on Earth
There are 2 main stages, which take place in

different parts of the chloroplast, as summarized
below.
Phase 1
In the grana,
chlorophyll
absorbs light
energy and uses
it to split water
into hydrogen and
oxygen
As you learned in Topic 1, in all ecosystems there

is a constant input and flow of energy via the food
chains, while the chemicals such as H2O, O2, and
CO2 simply get re-cycled over and over.
This brief summary equation is very deceptive.

Photosynthesis actually occurs as a complex
series of chemical steps inside the chloroplast.
ligh
t
GLUCOSE
What is really happening is ENERGY FLOW through

the food chains of an ecosystem. Photosynthesis
captures the energy of light and stores it in a high
energy food compound like glucose. Cellular
respiration releases that stored energy in the form of
ATP which can power all cellular and life activities...
growing, moving, keeping warm etc.
GLUCOSE + OXYGEN
highenergy
sugar (food)
CHLOROPLAST - site
of photosynthesis
15
Glucose can also be converted chemically into

lipids... fats and oils, since they contain exactly the
same chemical elements (carbon, hydrogen &
oxygen only - CHO).
What Happens to Glucose in a Plant?

If photosynthesis only makes glucose, where do all the
other biological chemicals in a plant come from?
Glucose is a monosaccharide sugar, a member of the
carbohydrate group. It is easy for a plant to convert
glucose into other types of carbohydrate.
GLUCOSE
molecules
GLUCOSE
LIPIDS (oils)
Making proteins and nucleic acids is more difficult,

since these contain additional chemical elements,
especially nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur.
Other sugars,
such as sucrose
joined in pairs
s
00 n)
10 tio
in risa
ed e
in m
jo oly
(p
This is where the minerals such as nitrate,

phosphate and sulfate come in. Soil minerals are
often called plant nutrients, and a gardener may
say he/she is feeding the plants when applying
fertilizer, but these minerals are NOT food.
They are the essential ingredients needed so plants
can make proteins and DNA etc, from the real
food... glucose.
CELLULOSE
for building new
cell walls
STARCH
for storage of food
Soil minerals
nitrate, sulfate etc
In fact, plants convert glucose to STARCH so

rapidly that the chloroplasts in a plant leaf
become packed with starch grains
when it is photosynthesising.
THIS IS THE BASIS OF EXPERIMENTS
YOU MAY HAVE DONE
GLUCOSE
chemical
conversion
Amino
acids
PROTEIN
Polymerisation
Experiments with Photosynthesis

The classic experiment you have probably done, is to partly cover a leaf with
light-proof aluminium foil, and then expose it to light for several days.
The aim is to prove that light is necessary for photosynthesis.
Lig
ht
No light,
no starch
Experimental
Set-u
up
Alu
min
ium
foil
Result
Iodine test
shows lots of
starch here
After several days, the leaf is decolourized (so

the test can be seen more easily) and then
tested with IODINE solution.
Sure enough, you probably found that any part

of the leaf exposed to light turned black when
soaked in iodine, while parts under the foil did
not go black.
Why Iodine? It detects STARCH, not glucose.

This proves that any part of a leaf allowed to
photosynthesise will build up a store of starch
from the glucose it makes. The first product of
photosynthesis is glucose, but it is rapidly
converted to other things.
As explained above, the glucose produced by

photosynthesis is immediately converted to
starch. The iodine test is used because it is the
test for starch.
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16
Structure & Function... How Plants Get Water & Carbon Dioxide
In order to photosynthesise, plants must collect water and carbon dioxide. In a land plant, water is
collected by the roots from the soil, and carbon dioxide is collected from the air into the leaves.
Both roots and leaves require special structures to gather these vital chemicals.
Plants Absorb Water through special
outgrowths on the roots called root hairs.
The actual absorption of water is achieved by

osmosis. The cell cytoplasm has a higher solute
concentration than the water solution in the soil, so
water diffuses into the cell through the cell membrane
of the root hair cells.
Each root hair is part of one, very elongated cell.

Root hairs help absorption of water by greatly
increasing the surface area of the root in contact
with the soil.
Once absorbed into the root hair cells, water diffuses

from cell to cell towards the central xylem tubes which
carry the water (and dissolved minerals) upwards to
the leaves. This upward flow is achieved by the plant
constantly allowing water vapour to evaporate from
each leaf (Transpiration). This creates a suction at
the top of the xylem tube, rather like drinking through
a straw.
MICROSCOPIC VIEW NEAR A ROOT TIP

LONGITUDINAL
TRANSVERSE
SECTION
SECTION
XYLEM TUBES
Phloem
tubes
ROOT HAIRS
Alongside the xylem tubes are the phloem tubes

which carry food from the leaves to any part of the
plant which cannot photosynthesize... especially
down to the roots.
Together the xylem and phloem tubes form the
veins in a plant. They not only carry substances
around the plant, but are important as reinforcement
and support structures.
Epidermis layer
Outgrowths from
epidermis cells
The Importance of Surface Area

It is generally true of many processes such as absorption and chemical reactions,
that the greater the surface area, the faster the rate of the process.
You may have done a simple experiment similar to this:Same quantity
of solid calcium
carbonate on
each spoon
Lumps
Powder
Both lumps and
powder react with
acid in exactly the
same way, but you
would observe that
the powder reacts
faster.
Same quantity of same strength acid
The more finely divided a solid is, the greater its surface area,
so the powder has more surface area than the lumps.
This experiment demonstrates the principle that things happen faster
when more surface area is available for reaction or absorption.

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17
The Structure of the Leaf

A plant leaf is a factory for photosynthesis. A typical leaf is built so that every part of its design is suited
to the achievement of that one objective... making food. It is a classic case of Structure matches Function.
The veins contain xylem tubes for
carrying water and minerals up from
the roots, and phloem tubes for
carrying manufactured food away.
Being specially reinforced with
tough lignin, the veins also
support the flimsy leaf, and keep it
in shape and positioned to catch
maximum light.
A leaf is generally broad, flat and

thin. This gives it maximum
surface area for absorbing light
and carbon dioxide from the air.
A leaf is thin enough that light
penetrates to reach each layer of
cells within, for maximum
photosynthesis.
The Palisade Layer of

cells are tightly packed in
an orderly row
immediately under the top
epidermis where there is
maximum light. Each cell
contains many
chloroplasts. This is the
engine room for
photosynthesis.
The cuticle is a layer of clear,

waxy material. It allows light
through, but is waterproof to
prevent excessive water loss.
MICROSCOPIC
CROSS SECTION
THROUGH A
LEAF
The epidermis
layer of cells is
transparent like a
window, to let
light through to
the cells
underneath.
Veins run throughout
each leaf. The xylem tubes
bring water and minerals
from the roots and release
them into the spongy layer.
From there, some diffuses
into the cells for
photosynthesis, while the
rest evaporates through the
stomates.
The Spongy Layer has

very loosely packed
cells, with lots of
spaces around them.
This allows gases (CO2
& O2) and water to
easily move around by
diffusion.
The lower leaf surface has many openings, called
stomates. These allow:
water to evaporate from the leaf (Transpiration).
This ensures that water and minerals continue to be
sucked up from the roots.
magnified
and
rotated to
surface
view
CO2 to diffuse into the leaf for photosynthesis.

O2 to diffuse out of the leaf into the air.
A magnified surface view of a stomate is shown.
There are phloem tubes as

well, which collect the food
manufactured in the leaf
cells and carry it away to
feed other parts of the
plant, such as roots, stem
and flowers which might
not be able to
photosynthesise.
Veins also act as
reinforcing, helping to keep
the flimsy leaf deployed to
catch maximum light.
Each stomate pore is an opening

formed between two special guard
cells. These cells can change shape
to open the pore, or close it up to
minimize water loss in dry
conditions. The guard cells change
shape by using osmosis to either
pump-up full of water (pore open), or
deflate and shrivel (pore closed).

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Pore
opening
SURFACE VIEW
OF A STOMATE
18
Nutrition in Animals
Animals are Heterotrophs.
They must eat energy-rich food made by other organisms, either plants or other animals.
Starch
molecule
The food an animal eats is composed largely of

complex carbohydrates, proteins and fats which
must be digested before being absorbed into
the body and used by the cells.
Digestion involves chemically breaking large
molecules down into smaller units which can
be carried around the body and transported
across cell membranes.
ENZYME
Sugar
molecules
ENZYME
Protein
molecule
Amino acid
molecules
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Salivary Glands.
An enzyme in saliva begins
digesting starch.
Chewing the food begins the

digestion process.
Chewing breaks food into
smaller pieces with greater
surface area, so digestive
enzymes can attack it faster.
Oesophagus
carries food to the stomach.
Liver
receives and
processes digested
nutrients after they
are absorbed into
blood stream.
Stomach
churns food with acid.
Enzymes digest
proteins in food
Gall bladder adds bile to

dissolve fats so enzymes
can digest them.
Pancreas
adds a cocktail of
enzymes to futher
digest food
Small Intestine
completes digestion with a
cocktail of enzymes, then
absorbs nutrients into the
blood stream.
Inside, it has many folds or
villi which increase surface
area for absorption.
Large Intestine
absorbs water, vitamins &
minerals into blood stream.
Rectum stores undigested

wastes (faeces) for later
elimination.
Caecum & Appendix

have no special functions
in humans
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19
Different Animals Have Different Systems

The digestive systems of different animals are often quite similar, but certainly not identical.
Once again, the principle of structure matches function can be noticed.
Digestion in Herbivores
Digestion in Carnivores
Plant-eaters face a problem... a lot of plant material

has a low nutrient value and contains a lot of
fibrous matter which is difficult to digest. The fibre
is mostly the plant cell walls, made of cellulose... a
polymer of glucose, but animals lack the necessary
digestive enzymes to break the cellulose down.
Flesh eaters dont need such huge digestive

systems. Their food is much more concentrated
in its nutritional value, and relatively easy to
digest.
Carnivores usually have: sharp, tearing teeth to
cut flesh into chunks for
swallowing... chewing is
not so important.
Herbivores usually have: flat, grinding teeth to chew the food thoroughly to
increase the surface area exposed to enzymes.
relatively long intestines and caecum, for more
surface area and longer time available for
digestion.
bacteria living in their gut which have enzymes to
digest cellulose.
This is an example of mutualism.
relatively short
intestines.
a highly elastic stomach,
which allows them to
swallow a large meal.
The stomach acid and
enzymes are vital for
digesting their high protein
meat diet.
Huge Caecum
Grinding
teeth
Stomach
Long Small
Intestine
Long Large Intestine
Digestion in a Nectar Feeder

Some animals eat a diet that requires very little digestion at all.
Many birds (eg honey-eaters, humming birds) and insects (eg butterflies)
feed largely on the sugary nectar of flowers.
Sugar does not require any digestion at all, so their digestive system
can be very short and simple.
A short-lived butterfly only needs nectar for the energy its sugar supplies,
but a bird needs more nutrients. Most eat the plant pollen which is rich in
protein and oil. Therefore, their short little digestive system does
need to do some work, apart from simply absorbing sugar.
Nectar & Pollen feeding
lorikeet

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20
Tearing
teeth
Stomach
more
important
Shorter
intestines
Worksheet 4
Nutrition in Plants
Amino acids can then be joined

together to form (p)..................................
Fill in the blanks.

(a)....................................... (e.g. plants) are
organisms that can make their own food,
while (b)................................ (such as
animals) cannot.
The structures mainly responsible for

absorbing water into a plant are the
(q)....................................... which are
outgrowths of root cells and greatly
increase the (r)........................................
of the roots. Water is absorbed by the
process of (s)............................................
then transported up to the leaves
through (t).................................. tubes.
The process of photosynthesis can be

summarized as
(c)................. + (d)....................................
(e).................. + (f).....................
In a leaf, there are many examples of

structure matching function, such as:
The shape of the leaf gives maximum
surface area for (u)....................................
Photosynthesis
occurs
in
the
(g)................................ (organelle) in plant
cells. The green pigment (h)....................
absorbs (i)...................... energy for the
process. This energy is stored as
chemical
energy
in
the
(j)................................. molecules produced.
The (v)................................................
layer of cells, packed together & full of
chloroplasts for maximum photosynthesis.
Thousands of glucose molecules can be

joined together by the process of
(k)..................... to form (l)..........................
(used for storage) or cellulose which is
used to build (m).....................................
The spongy layer of loosely packed

cells to allow (w)........................................
The (x)..................................... which
can open and close and allow water to
evaporate (called (y)............................)
and to let the gas (z)..................................
in for photosynthesis.
Glucose can also be chemically converted

into (n).................................. To convert
sugar to amino acids, the plant needs a
supply of (o)...........................................
Worksheet 5 Nutrition in Animals
Digested nutrients are absorbed into the

blood stream from the (f).........................,
then carried in the blood to the
(g)........................... for processing.
Fill in the blanks

Animals have to digest the food they
eat. This is carried out by digestive
(a)............................ which, for example,
break starch into (b)........................... and
proteins into (c)........................................
Herbivorous animals usually have:

(h)...................... teeth to chew thoroughly
relatively (i)........... intestines and caecum
mutualistic (j).................... living in their
gut to help them digest (k)...........................
which is a major part of their diet.
There are 4 organs in the mammal

digestive system that produce digestive
enzymes.
Name
them
all.
(d)........................., ................................
........................... and ...............................
Compared to them, carnivores usually

have (l).......................... teeth and
relatively (m)............................ intestines
Digestion begins with chewing food

which increases the (e).............................
of the food, so enzymes can attack it
faster.
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Nectar feeders, such as (n).......................

have digestive systems which are very
(o).......................... and .........................
21
Worksheet 6 Practice Questions (Section 3)

Multiple Choice
1. The chemical raw materials needed for

photosynthesis are:
A. glucose and oxygen.
B. water and carbon dioxide.
C. carbon dioxide and oxygen.
D. water and glucose.

appropriate. Answer in the spaces provided.
8. (2 marks)
Differentiate between autotrophs & heterotrophs,
including examples in your answer.
2. The chemical ATP is best described as:

A. the carrier of genetic information.
B. the product of cellular respiration.
C. the absorber of light for photosynthesis.
D. a waste product from the mitochondria.
9. (5 marks)
a) Summarize the process of photosynthesis by
a word equation, including the energy source.
The following sketch shows a cross-section

through a leaf. Use the diagram for Q. 3 & 4
P
Q
b) Give two reasons why photosynthesis can be

considered the most important biological
process on Earth.
R
T
3. A structural feature which helps the

functioning of the leaf is that the cells at P:
A. are transparent
B. are loosely packed
C. contain many chloroplasts
D. open up to let gases in/out
10. ( 5 marks)
In experiments on photosynthesis, the presence
of starch in leaves is often taken as proof that
photosynthesis has taken place.
a) Explain why it is starch, not glucose, that the
leaves are tested for.
4. The guard cells are labeled

A. Q
B. R
C. S
D. T
b) Outline the method of testing for starch in a
leaf, including any preliminary treatment(s).
5. Soil minerals such as nitrates, phosphates and

sulfates are essential to a plant for which purpose?
A. To provide energy.
B. To make starch from glucose.
C. As raw materials for photosynthesis.
D. To make proteins from glucose.
11. (4 marks)
Discuss the relationship between structure and
function shown by the leaf cell layers known as
the palisade layer & the spongy layer.
6. In a mammalian digestive system, the main

chemical digestion in the stomach involves the
breakdown of:
A. starch.
B. protein.
C. lipids.
D. sugars.
12. (3 marks)
Briefly outline how the length and complexity of an
animals digestive system is related to its diet.
Refer to 3 different types of diets in your answer.
7. An animal with large, flat, grinding teeth and a

very large caecum (a blind pocket of the
intestine) probably eats mainly:
A. nectar, pollen and flowers.
B. the flesh of other animals.
C. plant leaves and grass.
D. fish & other seafood.
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22
4. GAS EXCHANGE & INTERNAL TRANSPORT

Organisms Need What Cells Need
Gas Exchange in Animals
Every living cell, plant or animal, has certain

requirements:-
There are many ways that animals carry out gas

exchange. This section will compare four different
systems... mammal, frog, fish and insect.
FOOD in
WATER in
OXYGEN in
Lungs in a Mammal
Using the human as a typical example:
HUMAN
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
Lungs
are not
hollow, but
sponge-llike
Trachea
(Windpipe)
WASTE PRODUCTS such as CO2 must be excreted
A single-celled organism exchanges these chemicals

with the environment directly through its cell
membrane. However, in all multicellular organisms
most of the cells are located deep within the body.
There have to be body systems to: absorb nutrients, water and oxygen
excrete wastes
transport all these chemicals between
the cells and the environment.
Each bronchus
sub-d
divides
into
Bronchioles
Each bronchiole
ends in a cluster
of tiny air sacs...
the Alveoli
Each Alveolus has a wall

just 1 cell thick, and the
internal surface is
kept moist
In animals the body systems involved are:

Digestive system absorbs nutrients and water.
Respiratory system (e.g. lungs) exchanges gases,
absorbing oxygen, and excreting carbon dioxide.
Excretory system (kidneys) removes other wastes
such as urea.
Circulatory system (blood, heart, veins etc)
transports all these things around the body.
Blood flow
Blood
capillary
AIR flows
in and out
Bronchiole
Plants also have systems for exchanging gases,

and for transporting substances around their
bodies.
O2
CO2
The lung is not just

a hollow space
like a balloon.
If it was, the surface area for
gas exchange would be about the size of this
page. By dividing into millions of alveoli, the total
surface area inside your lungs is about the same
size as a tennis court!
Requirements for Gas Exchange

Plant or animal, large or small, all organisms need
to exchange gases with their environment.
Efficient gas exchange requires: a large surface area
in contact with the environment.
The inside surface is always moist, for gases to

dissolve and diffuse, and each alveolus is in
intimate contact with a blood capillary to
transport the gases to and from the body cells.
a moist gas exchange membrane

because the gases must dissolve in water before
passing through the membrane by diffusion.
close contact with the blood supply
(or other transport system) to carry gases
between cells and the gas exchange organs.
copyright 2005-2
Bronchi
(sing: bronchus)
carry air to
each lung
The requirements for efficient gas

exchange have been met.
23
Gas Exchange in a Frog
Gas Exchange in a Fish
Amphibians hatch from their

egg as tadpoles which live
in water and breathe with gills.
Later they undergo
metamorphosis and develop into the adult form
which breathes with lungs.
Land-dwelling, air-breathing animals always must

have their gas exchange organs inside their bodies so
the moist membranes wont dry out. In water this cant
happen, so a fishs gills are exposed to the water
environment, but shielded by a tough gill cover to
protect the delicate breathing organs.
Gases are
dissolved in
the water
However, a frogs lungs are much simpler than a

mammals, and dont have as many alveoli.
Gills
under gill cover
The gills are a series of feather-like plates around

which the water flows. Each gill plate consists of
thousands of tiny filaments each one a thin leafshaped structure packed with blood capillaries.
FROG RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
WATER FLOW
BLOOD FLOW IN CAPILLARIES
Mouth and
throat cavity
are moist &
lined with
blood
vessels
Simple Lung
Water
out
Water
in
Doesnt this mean less surface area and less

efficiency? Yes, but a cold-blooded frog doesnt
need to carry out cellular respiration just to make
body heat the way mammals do. So the need for O2
intake is a lot less. Also, the frog doesnt just do
gas exchange in its lungs...
FISH BREATHE WITH GILLS
Moist Skin
also acts as a gas
exchange surface
Blood
flow
The frog makes up for its inefficient lungs by

carrying out gas exchange through other body
surfaces which are kept moist and are lined with
blood vessels... its mouth and throat cavity and the
skin all over its body.
WATER FLOWS
ACROSS & BETWEEN
FILAMENTS
GILL FILAMENTS
Gills have to be highly efficient, because remember

from Topic 1, that the level of oxygen dissolved in
aquatic environments is much lower than the
concentration in air.
Gas Exchange in an Insect

Insects dont have lungs or gills. Along the sides of
their bodies is a series of holes called spiracles. Each
spiracle allows air to move into a network of tubes
(trachea) which infiltrate their whole body.
This system is quite efficient in a small animal, but

rapidly becomes inadequate as the animal grows
larger, because the Surface Area to Volume Ratio
gets smaller.
Spiracles
Thats why theres no such thing as a really big bug!

Hollywood fantasies cannot actually happen.
Study each system again... mammal, frog, insect, fish
and note of how each system achieves the three
essential features of any gas exchange system...
Trachea
The trachea tubes are moist inside
for gas exchange. Gases diffuse
directly to the body cells, which are
never far from a trachea tube.
The network of tubes increases the
surface area for gas exchange.

copyright 2005-2
LARGE SURFACE AREA

MOIST MEMBRANE SURFACE for diffusion
CLOSE CONTACT WITH BLOOD STREAM
or body cells.
24
Internal Transport in Animals
Open Circulation Systems
Once nutrients and gases have been absorbed into

the body, they need to be transported to every body
cell. In animals this is the job of the Circulatory
System, consisting of the heart, blood vessels and
the blood itself.
Invertebrate animals (including insects, worms

& snails) have much simpler circulatory systems
in which the blood (or a fluid doing the same
job) does not always stay inside a blood vessel.
OPEN CIRCULATION IN AN INSECT
Schematic diagram
Once again, different types of animals have all

sorts of variations, but in this section only a broad
comparison between two general types of system
will be made.
Arteries
Closed Circulation Systems

All vertebrate animals (fish, amphibians, reptiles,
birds and mammals) have a blood system that is
closed... the blood is always flowing inside a
blood vessel, pumped around by the heart.
Heart
pumps
blood
fluid
CLOSED CIRCULATION IN A MAMMAL

Schematic Diagram
CO2
O2
Veins
Artery
Capillary
network
in Lungs
Blood fluid flows

directly among
body cells
Veins
Vein
Fluid slowly collects back into veins.

Wastes (but not CO2) are taken away for
excretion, and blood returns to the heart.
HEART
pumps blood
The open system is not very efficient, because

the blood is not forced to keep flowing through
blood vessels as in a closed system.
Arteries
Alveoli (air
sacs)
in lungs
Circulatory fluid
flows out of
blood vessels
However, in a small insect, with its separate gas

exchange system which is not dependent on
blood flow, this is obviously quite adequate...
after all, insects are the most numerous animals
on the planet!
Capillary
network in body
Body cells
receive O2 & nutrients,
and get rid of CO2 & other wastes
This system is highly efficient because the blood

can be kept flowing within the vessels,
guaranteeing a steady flow of nutrients, gases and
wastes between body cells and the outside
environment. This efficiency allows vertebrates to
grow very large and still function perfectly despite
the poor SA/Vol ratio of a large body.
Be aware that fish, amphibians and most reptiles
do not have a system quite the same as a mammal,
but in all cases the system is closed.
copyright 2005-2
25
Internal Transport in Plants

Plants have two separate systems for transporting substances inside their bodies...
Xylem
Phloem
tubes carry water and dissolved

minerals from the roots to the leaves.
Plants have a separate set of tubes for transporting

sugars and other food nutrients; the phloem tubes.
Hollow, dead
cells, joined
end-tto-e
end
forming a
tube
While the xylem tubes are formed from dead cells, the
phloem are living cells joined end-to-end. The ends of
each cell are perforated (sieve plates) so each cell is
open into the next so they form a continuous tube.
The movement of food via the phloem is called
Translocation.
Cell walls
re-iinforced
with rings
and spirals
of lignin
It is an active transport
operation, meaning that the
plant has to use energy to
cause the material to flow.
sugars are actively

transported in the
cytoplasm of the
cells
PHLOEM CELL
alive and filled with

cytoplasm.
Movement of
cytoplasm carries
sugars through
each cell
The upward movement of water in xylem tubes

happens without any effort by the plant... it is
passive transport. The evaporation of water from
the leaves through the stomates, (Transpiration)
causes a suction effect at the top of each xylem
tube. This draws more water from the roots.
Sieve plate
between cells
Rate of Transpiration
You may have done experiments on transpiration
to measure it, and the factors which affect its rate.
A common way to do this is with a potometer:-
Companion
cell
has many
mitochondria to
provide ATP to
the phloem cell
POTOMETER METHOD FOR

MEASURING TRANSPIRATION
The flow of
liquid is caused
by differences in
osmotic
pressure
Fresh plant
shoots
Ruler measures movement of air

bubble in tube
Glass tube filled with water.

As Transpiration occurs from the leaves and
sucks water up from below, an air bubble is
sucked in at the end of the tube. A ruler
gives a scale to measure rates of
transpiration under different conditions.
A companion cell beside the phloem cell

supplies ATP from cellular respiration to power the
active transport in the phloem tube.
Rubber tube
(filled with water)
connects glass tube
to live plant shoot
While the xylem is a one-way flow system, the

phloem system can carry food (especially sugars)
in either direction.
Typically it is found that the rate of transpiration is

increased by higher temperatures, air flow (wind), low
humidity and increased light.
(The effect of light is because when lit, most plants
open their stomates to get CO2 in for photosynthesis.
The open stomates then allow more transpiration.)
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26
If a lot of photosynthesis is occurring, the phloem

will carry sugar to storage sites in roots or stem.
If photosynthesis is not possible for an extended
time, then the phloem will carry sugars back from
the storage sites to feed the leaf cells, or supply a
growing flower or fruit.
The Use of Radio-isotopes

to Study Transport Systems
Gas Exchange in Plants

The structure and functioning of the leaf
stomates was covered earlier.
The atoms of each chemical element are not all

exactly the same. They have the same number of
protons & electrons (thats what makes them
that element), but the number of neutrons in the
atom may vary. Such atoms of the same
element, but with a different number of
neutrons, are called isotopes. Some isotopes
are radioactive and give off nuclear
radiations... hence radio-isotopes.
What about other parts of a plant?
Lenticels
are simple structures on the stems and trucks of
plants which allow gas exchange to the cells by
simple diffusion from the air.
Tightly packed
stem cells
The radiation they give off can be detected by

photographic paper or special instruments such
as the Geiger counter. If a radio-isotope is
introduced into a plant or animal, its transport
through the body can be followed by monitoring
the radiation the isotope emits.
Surface cells
Lenticel opening
This tracer technique is one of the more

important methods used to study the movement
of substances in living things. This is how a lot
of our knowledge of transport systems has been
discovered.
Loosely packed
cells allow gases
to diffuse
in and out
For example:
If a leaf is exposed to CO2 containing carbon-14
(a radio-active isotope of carbon):
Root Hairs were covered earlier in connection
Radioactive CO2 absorbed by leaf
with water absorption.

Because they increase the surface area of the
roots, root hairs are important for gas exchange
as well as water absorption. Oxygen in soil
spaces, or dissolved in soil water simply
diffuses into the root hair cells, and spreads to
other root cells by further diffusion.
Soon, radiation is
detected in starch
grains in leaf
cells.
Next,
radiation
is found in
sugars in
phloem tubes
Later, its here
From studies like

this we learn the
details of the
chemistry and
transport systems
inside living
things
Later still, the

radiation is
detected in starch
stored here

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27
Worksheet 7
Gas Exchange & Transport in Animals

Insects have a series of holes called
(k).................................. along their body
which lead into a network of tubes
called (l)................................ This works
OK for small insects, but means no
insect can ever be really large because
its (m)........................................... ratio
would be too small for sufficient gas
exchange.
Fill in the blank spaces & diagram labels.

The 3 requirements for an efficient Gas
Exchange system are:
large (a)...................................................
gas exchange membrane which is kept
(b)..............................
close contact with (c)....................... ......
In a fishs (n)........... there are thousands

of leaf-shaped (o)..................... around
which water flows. In each filament are
blood capillaries in which blood always
flows (p)............................ to the water
flow. This (q)......................................
current flow is much more efficient.
In any gas exchange system, the gases

move across the membrane by the
process of (d)...........................................
(e).............................
In a (r).................................... circulatory
system the blood is always inside
blood vessels, and kept circulating by
the
pumping
of
the
(s)......................................
(g).....................................
..
(h)........................
(microscopic
air sacs)
(f)
............................
(t)......................................... animals have

open circulatory systems in which the
blood leaves the blood vessels and
flows directly in contact with the body
cells.
Compared to a mammals lung, the lung

of a frog is (i)......................... Frogs
exchange
gases
through
their
(j)......................... and ...............................
as well as lungs.
Worksheet 8
Gas Exchange & Transport in Plants
Fill in the blanks

It is increased by factors such as
(h)........................... and (i)........................
Gases exchange in a plant occurs

through the (a).................................... of
the
leaves,
and
via
the
(b).............................. of stems, and the
(c)............................. in the roots.
Food nutrients are carried by the

(j)......................................... tubes. This
transport is called (k)................................
and is considered active transport
because (l).................................................
..............................
In contrast, xylem transport is
(m)..................................................
Xylem tubes carry (d)................................

and ........................ from (e).......................
to (f)..............................
The evaporation of water from the
leaves is called (g)....................................
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28
Worksheet 9 Practice Questions (Section 4)

6.(3 marks)
Explain the roles of the respiratory, excretory
and circulatory systems of a mammal, and any
connection between them.
Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following is NOT an essential
feature of a gas exchange system?
A. Close contact with the blood supply.
B. Large surface area.
C. Strong protective shielding.
D. Moist membrane.
2. An animals respiratory system consists of a
series of holes along the body which allow air to
circulate into a network of tiny tubes throughout
the tissues. This animal is probably a/an:
A. insect.
B. frog.
C. fish.
D. reptile.
7. (4 marks)
One of the main features of any respiratory
system is a large surface area for gas exchange.
Outline how a large surface is achieved in a
a) mammal
b) frog
3. A plant would probably show the lowest rate

of transpiration under conditions of:
A. hot & windy.
B. bright light & low humidity.
C. hot & bright light.
D. high humidity & cool.
c) fish
d) insect
4. Which of the following correctly gives a structural

feature and a functional feature of xylem tubes?
A. living cells which transport water
B. reinforced with lignin, carry out passive transport
C. dead, hollow cells, carrying food nutrients
D. cells filled with cytoplasm, carrying out active
transport
8. (4 marks)
Using simple schematic diagrams, contrast the
circulatory systems of vertebrate and
invertebrate animals. Answer on reverse.
9. (4 marks)
a) Identify THREE structures in a plant which are
involved in gas exchange.

b) Choose ONE of the structures listed in part (a)

and describe one feature of it which aids gas
exchange in the plant.
5. (6 marks)
Contrast the processes of Transpiration and
Translocation in a plant, including
a) the substances transported
10. (4 marks)
Outline the way in which technology, such as
radio-isotope tracing is used to study the path
of elements through a living plant or animal.
b) the plant tissues involved
c) the basic mechanism of transport involved.

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29
5. CELL DIVISION FOR GROWTH & REPAIR

The Need For Cell Division
Mitosis Through the Microscope
Single-celled organisms reproduce by simply

dividing in two.
You may have done a laboratory practical in which you

used a microscope to examine a prepared slide of
cells undergoing cell division. Commonly the root tip
of a plant seedling is viewed. This sketch shows
roughly what the cells may look like...
In a multicellular plant or animal cell division is vital

for growth. Remember that individual cells cannot
grow large because as they do, their SA/Vol ratio
gets smaller, and they cannot get materials in and
out through their cell membrane fast enough to
survive. So, the only way to grow larger is to
produce many small cells.
Most cells look like this one.

No chromosomes visible,
but DNA is being copied
ready for mitosis to start.
Chromosomes
just becoming
visible.
Mitosis is
under way.
Cell division is also used to replace damaged or

worn out cells in the body. For example, your
body is constantly producing new blood cells to
replace those that wear out.
The Process of Cell Division
Chromosomes
have lined up
in the middle
of the cell.
Cell division occurs as a sequence of steps or

phases as summarized by this schematic diagram.
THIS IS MITOSIS... THE DIVISION OF THE CELL NUCLEUS
Steps
Original parent
cell makes a copy
of its genetic
information
The chromosomes
condense together
and become
visible.
They line up in the
middle of the cell,
then separate into
2 identical groups
...more information
Chromosomes
being pulled
apart into 2
identical
groups.
Genetic information is
stored in the cell
nucleus, as DNA.
The DNA is contained
in thread-llike
chromosomes which
are not normally
visible.
These have just

finished
Cytokinesis.
The nuclear membrane

dissolves so
chromosomes can move
right across the cell.
They are moved by
threads called the
spindle which act like
fishing lines, reeling
them to opposite sides
of the cell
These have just

finished dividing
the nucleus.
Chromosomes become
visible after copying.
Chromosomes lined
up in middle of cell.
Once separated, each

set of chromosomes
forms a new nucleus
Finally, the cell

membrane grows
to divide the cell in
2 parts, with a
share of cytoplasm
and organelles in
each
Chromosomes being
pulled apart.
These 3 lower diagrams show how mitosis is

often drawn in textbooks, in a stylized way.
If you need to sketch them, do it like this for
greater clarity
This final division

is called
CYTOKINESIS

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30
The Results of Cell Division
Mitosis in Other Organisms
One parent cell divides to form 2 daughter cells.
A human baby is more or less the same shape

as an adult, and simply grows bigger,
proportionally all over, to become an adult. In
other organisms though, cell division occurs
only in certain parts of the body, and growth is
not proportional.
Each daughter cell is genetically identical to the

other, and to the parent cell. This is because the
original DNA was first duplicated (replicated) then
divided into twoduplicate sets by mitosis.
The daughter cells are not necessarily identical in
size, but each gets a share of cytoplasm,
mitochondria, ribosomes and all other organelles.
Plants
Each daughter cell can then make more

organelles, and grow in size, until it is full size.
Each may then undergo cell division again. This
endless repetition of cell growth and cell division is
called the cell cycle.
at the root tip.

at the buds where shoots & flowers grow.
in the cambium layer, between xylem & phloem.
(cambium growth is how the stem/trunk gets larger)
grow only at certain places

meristems. These are located:
known
as
Insects
You began as a single cell. It divided by mitosis, then

divided again and again, until today you are a complex
organism of about 300 billion cells. Each of your cells
is genetically identical to every other, and to that
original cell you came from.
grow differently in two distinct stages.

Most insects hatch from their egg as a larva...
a caterpillar, grub or maggot. The larva does not
undergo cell division at all, but grows rapidly by
increasing the size of each cell. (within the limits
imposed by the SA/Vol ratio, of course)
Even when you have finished growing, mitosis will

continue in many parts of your body:
Next, the insect larva undergoes metamorphosis

and totally changes its body plan. This is
achieved by special disks of cells which begin
mitosis in particular directions, each forming a
different body part such as a wing, leg or vein.
These disks correspond to the meristems of a
plant, as special sites of mitosis.
skin, to replace the layers that constantly flake off.

hair and finger-nails, which grow all your life.
bone marrow, where blood cells are constantly
being produced to replace those that wear out.
anywhere else where injury or cell death requires
replacement.
A Final Note...
The main store of genetic material is the DNA in the nucleus, but thats not the only place in a cell where
DNA is found. DNA is also located in the mitochondria, and in chloroplasts in plant cells. These
organelles are able to reproduce themselves (at least in part) in mini-versions of cell division.
Nuclear DNA
Chloroplast DNA
Mitochondrial DNA
This occurrence of DNA in these two important organelles (both concerned with food & energy,
and its flow in ecosystems) will be dealt with in a later topic. The evidence points to a very
interesting evolutionary origin for these organelles...

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31
Worksheet 10
Cell Division
Each group of chromosomes forms a new
(j)........................................................
then
cytokinesis divides the cell itself.
Fill in the blank spaces

In a multicellular organism, cell division is
necessary for (a).................................. and to
replace damaged or worn out cells.
The results of cell division include that the

daughter
cells
are
genetically
(k)......................................, and identical to the
(l).......................... cell.
Mitosis refers to the division of the

(b)............................., while the division of
cytoplasm
into
2
cells
is
called
(c)............................................................
Apart from the nucleus, 2 other organelles

contain DNA. These are the (m)..........................
and .....................................
Before mitosis becomes visible in a cell the

genetic information (d).............................. ...........
Sites of mitosis in a plant are called

(n)................... located at (o)........................, and
(p)................................ as well as the cambium
layer in the stem.
The genetic information is contained in the

chemical (e).................... which is built into
thread-like structures called (f).............................
Most insects hatch from their egg as a

q)................. which grows by cell r)......................,
without cell s).............................. Later, they
undergo t)......................................... in which their
body tissues totally u)..........................................
and are re-built to form the totally different adult.
During this process, cell division occurs only in
special v)......................................... of cells.
The visible sequence of mitosis is:

chromosomes thicken, become visible, and the
nuclear membrane (g)....................
chromosomes (h).................................... in the
middle of the cell
chromosomes move to opposite ends of the
cell, pulled by the threads of the
(i)............................................
Worksheet 11
Practice Questions (Section 5)

Multiple Choice

1. The sketch shows some plant cells which are

undergoing cell division.
2. (6 marks)
Describe the sequence of steps that occur in the
processes of mitosis & cytokinesis.
The correct sequence of cell division is shown by the

cells
A. SPQTR
B. RSPTQ
P
C. RQPTS
D. PQTSR
Q
3. (4 marks)
a) Identify the parts of a plant where cell division
occurs.

copyright 2005-2
b) Contrast the general pattern of growth of a

plant with that of a vertebrate animal such as a
mammal.
32
CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorising the OUTLINE of a topic
helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts.
Practise on this blank version.
PATTERNS
in
NATURE

copyright 2005-2
33
11. Organic chemicals are mainly complex

molecules, often polymers, based on the
element carbon.
e.g. carbohydrates, proteins, lipids & nucleic acids.
Inorganic chemicals in living cells are small,
simple molecules or mineral ions e.g. water,
oxygen, nitrate & chloride ions.
Answer Section
Worksheet 1
Cell Structure
a) all living things.... b) ...pre-existing cells

c) microscopes
d) resolution
e) electron
f) magnification
g) Robert Hooke
h) cytoplasm
i) nucleus
j) chloroplast
k) cell wall
l) cell membrane
m) vacuole
n) cell wall & (o) chloroplast
(p)-(t) (any order) golgi body, endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes
(u) controls substances going in/out of cell
v) Endoplasmic reticulum
w) packaging substances for storage or secretion
x) mitochondria
y) chloroplast
z) strength/ rigidity/ protection on outside of
plant cell
Worksheet 2
12. Semi-permeable means that some

chemicals can diffuse through it easily, while
others cannot get through .
13. Diffusion is the movement of any solute,
solvent or gas along the concentration
gradient.
Osmosis is the diffusion of WATER, against the
concentration gradient, through a semipermeable membrane.
14. As any object gets larger, its SA/Vol ratio
gets smaller. A cell needs nutrients, oxygen, etc
in proportion to its volume, but must get these
substances in through its cell membrane, the
size of which is its surface area.
Chem & Membrane
a) inorganic
b) carbon
c) proteins
d) membrane
e) energy storage compoundsf) carbohydrates
g) C6H12O6
h) photosynthesis
i) cellular respiration j) DNA
k) sugar (glucose)
l) Biuret reagent
m)yellow/brown
n) black/dark blue
o) phospholipid
p) permeable
q) high(er)
r) lower
s) water
t) gradient
u) passive
v) energy or ATP
w) Surface area / Volume
x) volume
y) cell membrane
z) surface area
aa) many
ab) large
Therefore, a large cell (with a smaller SA/Vol

ratio) would not be able to take in necessary
substances fast enough to survive.
Worksheet 4
Worksheet 3
1. C 2. A 3. B 4. D 5. D 6. B 7. B 8. A
9. The light scope forms images by focusing
light beams with glass lenses. Electron scopes
focus beams of electrons using magnetic fields.
Light scopes achieve magnifications around
500X and resolution of about 0.2 um. Electron
scopes are 500-1,000 times better in each
department.
Worksheet 5
Animal Nutrition
a) enzymes
b) sugars
c) amino acids
d) salivary glands, stomach, pancreas & small intestine
e) surface area
f) small intestine
g) liver
h) large & flat
i) long
j) bacteria
k) cellulose
l) sharp, tearing
m) short
n) hummingbirds
o) short & simple
10. Nucleus- membrane has pores to allow RNA

messengers to go out into the cell.
OR
Mitochondrion- inner membrane is highly
folded for more surface area. The enzymes of
cellular respiration are arranged on these
membranes for greater efficiency.

copyright 2005-2
Plant Nutrition
a) Autotrophs
b) heterotrophs
c) carbon dioxide
d) water
e) glucose
f) oxygen
g) chloroplasts
h) chlorophyll
i) light
j) glucose
k) polymerization
l) starch
m) cell walls
n) lipids
o) minerals (inorganic ions) p) proteins
q) root hairs
r) surface area
s) osmosis
t) xylem
u) light absorption
v) palisade
w) circulation of water & gases throughout the leaf
x) stomates
y) transpiration
z) carbon dioxide
34
Worksheet 6
Worksheet 7
1. B 2. B 3. A 4. D 5. D 6. B 7. C
a) surface area
c) blood supply
e) trachea
g) bronchioles
i) simple/ less S.A.
k) spiracles
m) SA/Vol
o) filaments
q) counters) heart
8.Autotrophs are organisms that can make their

own food. example: Plants
Heterotrophs have to eat food made by other
organisms. example: animals.
9.
light energy
a)
Carbon dioxide + water
Glucose+ Oxygen
b) 1. It makes all the food, and is the basis of all

the food chains
2. It makes all the oxygen in the atmosphere.
Worksheet 8
Plants
a) stomates
b) lenticels
c) root hairs
d) water & minerals
e) roots
f) leaves
g) transpiration
h)& i) temperature/wind/humidity/light
j) phloem
k)translocation
l) the plant must expend energy
m) passive
10.
a) Although glucose is the immediate product of
photosynthesis, it is rapidly polymerised to form
starch. Therefore, starch is found in large
quantities in a photosynthesising leaf, but very
little glucose could be detected.
b) First the leaf is boiled, then washed in hot
alcohol to decolourise it, so colour tests can be
seen. Then it can be soaked in iodine solution
to test for starch. A black colour indicates the
presence of starch.
Worksheet 9
1. C 2. A 3. D 4. B
5.
a)
b)
c)
11.
Palisade layer: composed of cells neatly and tightly
packed together under the upper epidermis where
there is maximum light. Each cell is packed with
chloroplasts. These features all help the palisade
layer carry out maximum photosynthesis.
Transpiration
water
xylem
passive
Translocation
food nutrients (sugar)
phloem
active
6. Respiratory system: carries out gas

exchange.
Excretory system: removal of wastes.
Circulatory system: transports substances
around the body, including gases and wastes...
therefore connects with respiratory and
excretory systems.
Spongy layer: composed of cells that are very

loosely packed. This allows spaces for water &
gases to more easily diffuse to/from stomates &
veins and so helps supply photosynthesising cells.
7.
a) Mammals lungs have millions of tiny air sacs
(alveoli).
b) Frog has very simple lungs, but increases
respiratory surface by using skin, mouth and
throat membranes for gas exchange as well.
c) Fishs gills are made up of thousands of leafshaped filaments. Each is flat & thin, giving large
contact area with water flowing past.
d) Insects have microscopic, branched air tubes
(trachea) that penetrate throughout their body.
This gives a large area of contact with air for gas
exchange.
12.
Grazing herbivores need very long intestines &
large caecum, so food has more time in the gut
while mutualistic bacteria digest the cellulose.
Meat-eating carnivores do not need such long
intestines because meat is easier to digest and
more nutritious. They have shorter intestines
but a stomach that can take in a large meal, less
often, and digest the high protein meat.
Nectar feeders (e.g. honey-eater birds) eat a diet
high in sugar which needs no digesting at all.
They have very simple, short systems since they
only need to absorb the sugar into their
bloodstream.

copyright 2005-2
Animals
b) moist
d) diffusion
f) bronchi
h) alveoli
j) skin & mouth/throat cavity
l) trachea
n) gills
p) in opposite direction
r) closed
t) invertebrate
8.
The main thing is to show that vertebrates have
a closed system (blood is always inside a
blood vessel) while many invertebrates have
open systems, where the blood leaves blood
vessels and bathes the cells at some part of
the circulation.
35
Worksheet 9 (cont)
Worksheet 11
9.
a) stomates, lenticels & root hairs
b) Root hairs: these microscopic outgrowths
from root cells increase the surface area
available. This helps gas exchange (as well as
water absorption).
1. C
2.
Genetic information (DNA) is replicated.
Chromosomes become visible in the nucleus.
Nuclear membrane dissolves.
Chromosomes line up in centre of cell. Spindle forms.
Chromosomes pulled apart into 2 identical groups.
Each group forms a new, identical nucleus.
Cytokinesis now divides the cytoplasm &
organelles into 2 separate cells.
10.
Chemicals containing radio-active tracers are
introduced into living things, and any movement
is tracked by detecting the radiation produced
by the radio-isotope. For example, CO2 gas,
containing radio-active carbon-14, is absorbed
by a plant leaf, converted to sugar and
transported to storage in the roots. This
movement can be studied and tracked by the
radiations from the carbon-14.
Worksheet 10
3.
a) Meristems located at root tips, buds and
cambium.
b) Plants grow only at the meristems, and
usually grow dis-proportionally in different parts
of their body. This means they may drastically
change their shape & proportions as they grow.
In contrast, mammals grow fairly evenly in every
body part and stay more or less in proportion all
their life.
Cell Division
a) growth
b) nucleus
c) cytokinesis
d) is copied/duplicated/replicated
e) DNA
f) chromosomes
g) dissolves
h) line up
i) spindle
j) nucleus
k) identical
l) parent
m) mitochondria & chloroplast
n) meristems
o) root tips
p) shoot tips (buds) q) larva
r) enlargement
s) division
t) metamorphosis
u) break down / change
v) disks
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Bio2.Patterns in NatureU

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Preliminary Biology Topic 2

but first, an introduction...

A building is not just a pile of bricks, and an

Some organisms are composed of just a single cell.

Similarly, your body is not just a big heap of

Each cell is a tiny sac of protoplasm... water with

CELL is the basic unit of any living thing.

TISSUE. (e.g. muscle tissue, bone tissue.)

GENERALIZED DIAGRAM OF A LIVING CELL

Various tissues are combined to make an...

ORGAN. (e.g. heart, kidney, liver.)

(e.g. digestive system.)

Finally, all the body systems working together

Membrane on the outside

Plants and animals have cells with a few

In this topic you will study the basics

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CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Preliminary Biology Topic 2 Patterns in Nature

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1. LIVING CELLS & THEIR STRUCTURE

History of Our Knowledge of Cells

The Cell Theory is one of the fundamental

Robert Hooke, 1665

All living organisms are composed of cells

Comparison: Light & Electron Scopes

generally about up to 1,000,000 X

Anton van Leeuwenhoek, 1676

By about 1840, the Cell Theory was becoming

1 micrometre is 1/1000 of a millimetre

How Big Are Cells Anyway?

Rudolf Virchow, 1859

Typical Animal Cell

In the 20th century, the electron microscope

Preliminary Biology Topic 2 Patterns in Nature

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Cell Organelles Visible with a Light Microscope

There are probably no actual

The Major Differences Between Plant & Animal Cells

What the Electron Microscope Reveals

The tiny Ribosomes are

Stacks of flat membranes

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The Organelles... Structure & Function

This is the control centre of the cell.

The Cell Membrane

This is not only the boundary of the cell, but also

This is where cellular respiration occurs

Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.)

Carbon + Water + ATP

E.R. is a network of membranes which form

The ATP produced by respiration carries

The E.R. structure provides channels for chemicals

Inside a mitochondrion is a folded membrane

This structure helps cells function

This structure helps the organelle

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