Reservoir Pressures and Temperatures

2
Reservoir Pressures and Temperatures
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
2 ABNORMAL PRESSURES
3 FLUID PRESSURES IN HYDROCARBON
SYSTEMS
4 PRESSURE GRADIENTS AROUND WATER-OIL
CONTACT
5. TECHNIQUES FOR PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT
6. RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Having worked through this chapter the Student will be able to:
Having worked through this chapter the student will be able to:
Define the terms; lithostatic pressure, hydrostatic pressure and hydrodynamic

pressure.
Draw the normal hydrostatic pressure gradient for water systems.
Define normal pressured reservoirs, overpressured reservoirs and

underpressured reservoirs
Describe briefly and sketch the pressure gradients associated with

overpressured and underpressured reservoirs.
Describe briefly , sketch and present equations for the pressures in a water
supported oil and gas bearing formation.
Illustrate how a downhole formation pressure device can be used to discriminate

permeability layers after production has commenced.
Comment briefly what geothermal gradient is in a reservoir where flow

processes occur at constant reservoir temperature.
1. INTRODUCTION
Determining the magnitude and variation of pressures in a reservoir is an important
aspect in understanding various aspects of the reservoir, both during the exploration
phase but also once production has commenced.
Oil and gas accumulations are found at a range of sub-surface depths. At these depths
pressure exists as a result of the depositional process and from the fluids contained
within the prous media. These pressures are called lithostatic pressures and fluid
pressures. These pressures are illustrated in figure 1.
The lithostatic pressure is caused by the pressure of rock which is transmitted through
the sub-surface by grain-to grain contacts. This lithostatic or sometimes called
geostatic or overburden pressure is of the order of 1 psi/ft. The lithostatic pressure
gradient varies according to depth, the density of the overburden, and the extent to
which the rocks are supported by water pressure. If we use this geostatic pressure
gradient of 1 psi/ft. then the geostatic pressure Pov, in psig at a depth of D feet is
pov = 1.0D
(1)
The geostatic pressure is balanced in part by the pressure of the fluid within the pore
space, the pore pressure, and also by the grains of rock under compaction. In
unconsolidated sands, loose sands, the overburden pressure is totally supported by the
fluid and the fluid pressure Pf is equal to the overburden pressure Pov . In deposited
formations like reservoir rocks the fluid pressure is not supporting the rocks above but
arises from the continuity of the aqueous phase from the surface to the depth D in the
reservoir. This fluid pressure is called the hydrostatic pressure. The hydrostatic
pressure is imposed by a column of fluid at rest. Its value depends on the density of
the water w, which is affected by salinity. In a sedimentary basin, where sediment
has settled in a region of water and hydrocarbons have been generated and trapped,
we can expect a hydrostatic pressure. For a column of fresh water the hydrostatic
pressure is 0.433 psi/ft. For water with 55,000 ppm of dissolved salts the gradient is
0.45 psi/ft; for 88,000 ppm of dissolved salts the gradient is about 0.465 psi/ft.
Its variation with depth is given by the equation.
Pf = wDg
(2)
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

There is another fluid pressure which arises as a result of fluid movement and that is
called the hydrodynamic pressure. This is the fluid potential pressure gradient which
is caused by fluid flow. This however does not contribute to in-situ pressures at rest.
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University
Depth (Ft.)
14.7
0
Pressure (psia)
FP
GP
Overpressure
Underpressure
Overburden
Pressure (OP)
Figure 1
Gives the relationship
between the lithostatic
pressure and the
1
hydrostatic pressure.
Normal
(FP = Fluid Pressure, GP = Grain Pressure)
Fluid pressure in hydrocarbon accumulations are dictated by the prevailing water

pressure in the vicinity of the reservoir. In a normal situation the water pressure at any
depth is:
dP
Pw =
x D + 14.7psia
dD water
(3)
where dP/dD is the hydrostatic pressure gradient

This equation assumes continuity of water pressure from the surface and constant
salinity. In most cases even though the water bearing sands are divided between
impermeable shales, any break of such sealing systems will lead to hydrostatic
pressure continuity, but the salinity can vary with depth.
Reservoirs whose water pressure gradient when extrapolated to zero depth give an
absolute pressure equivalent to atmospheric pressure are called normal pressured
reservoirs.
EXERSICE 1
If the average pressure gradient in a region is 0.47 psi/ft, calculate the pore
pressure in a normally pressurised formation at 7400ft. Convert the pressure from
psi to KPa, then express the pressure in MPa. What is the pressure gradient in
KPa/m?
2. ABNORMAL PRESSURE
Under certain conditions, fluid pressures may depart substantially from the normal
pressure. Overpressured reservoirs are those where the hydrostatic pressure is greater
than the normal pressure and underpressured reservoirs are below normal pressure.
4
Figure 1. They are called abnormal pressured reservoirs and can be defined by the
equation:
dP
Pw =
x D + 14.7 psia + C
dD water
(4)
where C is a constant, being positive for overpressured and negative for an

underpressured system.
For abnormally pressured reservoirs, the sand is sealed off from the surrounding strata
so that there is not hydrostatic pressure continuity to the surface.
Conditions which cause abnormal fluid pressure in water bearing sands have been
identified by Bradley 2 and include (Figure 2):
FP-Too High
Upthrust
(a)
Original Deposition
(b)
Dense Shale
Shale deposited too

quickly to allow
fluid equilbrium
Reservoir
North Sea
Figure 2
Causes of overpressurring
Glacier
(c)
Normal Surface
Greenland 3 km thick
1300 psi/1000 m ice
Thermal effects, causing expansion or contraction of water which is unable to

escape ; an increase in temperature of 1F can cause an increase of 125 psi in a sealed
fresh water system.
Rapid burial of sediments consisting of layers of sand and clay. Speed of burial does
not allow fluids to escape from pore space.
Geological changes such as uplifting of the reservoir, or surface erosion both of
which result in the water pressure being too high for the depth of the burial. The
opposite occurs in a down thrown reservoir.
Osmosis between waters having different salinity, the sealing shale acting as a
semi-permeable membrane. If the water within the seal is more saline than the
surrounding water, the osmosis will cause a high pressure and vice versa.
Overpressured reservoirs are common in Tertiary deltaic deposits such as the North
Sea, Niger delta and the Gulf Coast of Texas. In the North Sea one mechanism for
overpressure is the inability to expel water from a system of rapidly compacted shales.
With abnormally pressured reservoirs a permeability barrier must exist, which inhibit
pressure release. These may be lithological or structural. Common lithological
barriers are evaporates and shales. Less common are the impermeable carbonates and
sandstones. Structure permeability barriers may result from faults which, in some
cases, seal. The subject on of abnormal pressures is covered more fully in the Geology
Module
If reservoirs are all normal pressured systems then the pressure gradient for these
reservoirs would be virtually all the same,other than from the influence of salinity. The
figure below shows the water pressure gradients for a number of reservoirs in the
North Sea and indicates the significant overpressuring in this region. Often these
overpressuring show regional trends. For example the fields depicted in figure 3 show
an increase in abnormal pressure in the south east direction. Clearly if all these
reservoirs were normally pressurred then the pressure depths values would lie on the
same gradient line with a zero depth pressure value of atmospheric pressure.
8,000
Statfjord OWC
Brent OWC
9,000
Thistle OWC
Cormorant
OWC
Subsea Depth (Feet)
10,000
11,000
Ninian
OWC
Heather
OWC
3
Lyell
5
12,000
Alwyn
N.W. Alwyn
S.W> Ninian
13,000
Note:
5000
Water gradient lines drawn

through known or projected
oil/water contacts
6000
7000
8000
Pressure, psig
9000
10,000
Figure 3
Examples of overpressured
3
reservoirs in the North Sea
3. FLUID PRESSURES IN HYDROCARBON SYSTEMS

Pressure gradients in hydrocarbon systems are different from those of water systems
and are determined by the oil and gas phase in-situ specific gravities, o and g of each
fluid.
The pressure gradients are a function of gas and oil composition but typically are:
dP
= (0.45 psi / ft)
dD water
(5)
dP = (0.35 psi / ft)

dD oil
(6)
dP
= (0.08 psi / ft)
dD gas
(7)
For a reservoir containing both oil and a free gas cap a pressure distribution results,
as in the Figure 4 As can be seen, the composition of the respective fluids gives rise
to different pressure gradients indicated above. These gradients will be determined by
the density of the fluids which result from the specific composition of the fluids.
Depth (Ft.)
13
8500
12
11
10
9
Gas-Oil Contact
8600
0.17 psi/ft
f = 0.39 gm/cc
8
7
Depth (Ft.)
0.29 psi/ft
f = 0.67 gm/cc
5
8700
Oil-Water Contact
4
0.47 psi/ft
f = 1.09 gm/cc
3
Figure 4
Pressure distribution for an
oil reservoir with a gas cap
and an oil-water contact.
2
8800
4000
1
4050
4100
4150
Formation Pressure (PSI)
The nature of the pressure regime and the position and recognition of fluid contacts
are very important to the reservoir engineer in evaluating reserves, and determining
depletion policy.
The data used for these fluid contacts comes from:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
Pressure surveys
Equilibrium pressures from well tests
Flow of fluid from particular minimum and maximum depth
Fluid densities from reservoir samples
Saturation data from wireline logs
Capillary pressure data from cores
Fluid saturation from cores
EXERCISE 2
If the presure in a reservoir at the OWC is 3625 psi, calculate the pressure at the top
if there is a 600ft continuous oil column. If a normal pressure gradient exists outwith
the reservoir, calculate the pressure differential at the top of the reservoir. Redo the
calculations for a similar field, but this time containing gas.
4. PRESSURE GRADIENTS AROUND THE WATER-OIL CONTACT

Water is always present in reservoir rocks and the pressure in the water phase Pw and
the pressure in the hyrocarbon phase Po are different . If P is the pressure at the oil/water
contact where the water saturation is 100%, then the pressure above this contact for
the hydrocarbon and water are :
Po = P - ogh
(8)
Pw = P - wgh
(9)
The difference between these two pressures is the capillary pressure Pc: see Chapter 8.
In a homogenous water-wet reservoir with an oil-water contact the variation of
saturation and phase pressure from the water zone through the capillary transition zone
into the oil is shown in Figure 5). In the transition zone the phase pressure difference
is given by the capillary pressure which is a function of the wetting phase saturation.
(Chapter 8).
Oil Zone
Vertical
Depth
D
Oil Gradient
Capilliary
Transition
Zone
pc
Sw
h=
Oil Phase Pressure

po = pFWL - ogh
pc (Sw)
g
WOC
Water Gradient
FWL
(pc = o)
Water Phase Pressure
pw = pFWL - wgh
Water Zone
0
Swc
Water Saturation, Sw
pFWL
Pressure, P
Figure 5
Pressure Gradients around
the Water-Oil Contact
Pc = Po - Pw
(10)
at hydrostatic equilibrium
Pc(Sw) = gh
= w-o
h = height above free water level
The free water level, FWL, is not coincident with the oil-water contact OWC. The
water contact corresponds to the depth at which the oil saturation starts to increase
from water zone. The free water level is the depth at which the capillary pressure is zero.
The difference in depth between the oil-water contact and the free water level depends
on the capillary pressure which in turn is a function of permeability, grain size etc.
Providing the phase is continuous the pressures in the respective phases are:
Po = PFWL - ogh
Pw = PFWL - wgh
(11)
(12)
On the depth-pressure diagram the intersection of the continuous phase pressure line
occurs at the free water level.
5. TECHNIQUES FOR PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Earlier tests for vertical pressure logging have been replaced by open-hole testing
devices that measure the vertical pressure distribution in the well, and recover
formation samples.
One such device which was introduced in the mid seventies which has established
itself in reservoir evaluation is the repeat formation tester RFT (Schlumberger trade
name). It was initially developed as a device to take samples. Over the years however
its main application is to provide pressure -depth profiles over reservoir intervals. The
device places a probe through the well mud cake and allows small volumes of fluid
to be taken and pressure measurements to be made (Figure 6). It can only be operated
therefore in an open hole environment. The unit can be set at different locations in the
well and the pressure gradient thereby obtained. This device has been superceded by
different tools provided by a number of wireline service providers. The principle is the
same of measuring with a probe in open hole the pressure depth profile.
Packer
Mud Cake
Packer
Filter
Flow Line
Piston
Formation
Pressure Guage
Equalising Valve
(To Mud Column)
Flow Line
Chamber 1
Probe Closed
Chamber 2
Seal Valve
to Upper Chamber
Seal Valve
to Upper Chamber
Probe Open and

Sampling
These open hole pressure measurements have proved valuable at both the appraisal
stage and can be used to establish fluid contacts. It has also proved particularly
valuable during the development stage in accessing some of the dynamic characteristics of the reservoir. The pressure changes in different reservoir layers resulting from
production reveal the amount of interlayer communication and these pressure measurements can be a powerful tool in understanding the characteristics of the reservoir
formation.
By comparing current pressure information with those obtained prior to production,
important reservoir description can be obtained which will aid reservoir depletion,
completion decisions and reservoir simulation.
In 1980 Amoco3 published a paper with respect to the Montrose Field in The North
Sea which illustrates the application of pressure-depth surveys. Figure 7 shows the
pressure depth survey in 1978 of a well after production since mid 1976. Only the top
45ft of the 75ft oil column had been perforated. The initial pressure gradient indicates
the oil and water gradients at the condition of hydrosttic equilibrium. The second
survey shows a survey after a period of high production rate, and reveals the reservoir
behaviour under dynamic conditions. The various changes in slope in the pressure
profile reveal the partial restricted flow in certain layers. Similar surveys in each new
development wells (Figure 8) show the similar profiles and enable the detailed layered
structure of the reservoir to be characterised which is important for reservoir
simulation purposes.
10
Figure 6
Original Schematic of the
RFT Tool
Gr%
0 100
Sw%
100 0
Reservoir pressure - psig
%
0 50
2500
3000
3500
4000
Top paleocene
Perforations
Layer 1
8200
Layer 3
8300
2550
8400
Layer 4
8500
2600
8600
Layer 5
2650
8700
True vertical subsea depth - feet
True vertical subsea depth - metres
8100
Layer 2
2500
Figure7
RFT Pressure Survey in
Development Well of
Montrose Field 3.
Original
pressure
gradient
8800
14
24
18
22
16
20
Reservoir pressure - MPa
26
11
Reservoir pressure - psig

3000
3400
3200
8000
A6
A15 A11
A17
A18
A8
Original
pressure
gradient
8100
8200
2500
8300
2550
8400
8500
2600
8600
2650
8700
symbol
2700
18
Well number
22/17-A6
A8
A11
A15
A17
A18
20
Date
05/04/77
27/01/78
20/12/77
15/08/78
02/11/78
28/03/79
26
22
24
Reservoir pressure - MPa
8800
True vertical subsea depth - feet
True vertical subsea depth - metres
2450
8900
28
9000
6. RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE
The temperature of the earth increases from the surface to centre. The heat flow
outwards through the Earths crust generates a geothermal gradient, gc. This
temperature variation conforms to both a local and regional geothermal gradient,
resulting from the thermal characteristics of the lithology and more massive phenomenon associated with the thickness of the earths crust along ridges, rifts and plate
boundaries.
In most petroleum basins the geothermal gradient is of the order of 1.6F/100 ft. (0.029
K/m) The thermal characteristics of the reservoir rock and overburden give rise to
large thermal capacity and with a large surface area in the porous reservoir one can
assume that flow processes in a reservoir occur at constant reservoir temperature. The
local geothermal gradient will be influenced by associated geological features like
volcanic intrusions etc. The local geothermal gradient can be deduced from wellbore
temperature surveys . However they have to be made under stablisied conditions since
they can be influenced by transient cooling effects of circulating and injected fluids.
During drilling the local thermal gradient can be disturbed and by analysis of the
variation of temperature with time using a bottom hole temperature (BHT) gauge the
local undisturbed temperature can be obtained.
Without temperature surveys the temperature at a vertical depth can be estimated
using a surface temerature of 15 oC (60 oF) at a depth D.
T(D) = 288.2 + gcD
(K)
12
Figure 8
RFT Pressure Syrveys on a
number of Montrose
Wells3.
Solutions to Exercises
EXERCISE 1
If the average pressure gradient in a region is 0.47 psi/ft, calculate the pore pressure
in a normally pressurised formation at 7400ft. Convert the pressure from psi to KPa,
then express the pressure in MPa. What is the pressure gradient in KPa/m?
Multiply KPa by 0.145 to get psi.
1 US foot = 0.3048m.
SOLUTION
Pressure in formation = 0.47 * 7400 = 3478 psi
Converting to KPa = 3478 / 0.145 = 23986 Kpa
Converting to MPa = 23986 / 1000 = 23.99 MPa
Pressure gradient
= 0.47 psi/ft = (0.47 / 0.145) KPa/ft = 3.2414 KPa/ft

= (3.2414 /0.3048) KPa/m
= 10.63 KPa/M
EXERCISE 2
If the presure in a reservoir at the OWC is 3625 psi, calculate the pressure at the top
if there is a 600ft continuous oil column. If a normal pressure gradient exists outwith
the reservoir, calculate the pressure differential at the top of the reservoir. Redo the
calculations for a similar field, but this time containing gas.
SOLUTION
Typical pressure gradients are (psi/ft):
Water
Oil
Gas
0.45
0.35
0.08
Pressure at seal = 3625 - (600*0.35) = 3415 psi

To calculate the pressure differential across seal, look at fluid gradient differential
from OWC to seal 600ft above
Differential = (0.45-0.35) * 600 = 60 psi
If the reservoir is gas then the differential becomes
(0.45 0.08) * 600 = 222 psi higher in the reservoir than surrounding area
13
REFERENCES
1.
Dake,L.P. Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering. Elsevier 1986
2.
Bradley,J.S. Abnormal Formation Pressure. The American Assocaition of

Petroleum Geologists Bulletin. Vol 59, No6, June 1975
3.
Bishlawi,M and Moore,RL: Montrose Field Reservoir Management. SPE

Europec Conference, London,(EUR166) Oct.1980
14

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