Ion

Channeling
Ion Channeling

AAcourse
courseof
ofprofessor
professorMcHargue
McHargue
Presented
Presentedby
byYounes
YounesSina
Sina

Introduction

Ion
aa powerful
Ion channeling
channeling is
is
powerful tool
tool for
for
characterization
characterization of
of crystalline
crystalline solids.
solids. The
The
method
method is
is based
based on
on the
the channeling
channeling effect.
effect.

Introduction
++
When
the
He
When the He ion
ion beam
beam is
is properly
properly
aligned
aligned with
with the
the crystalline
crystalline axis
axis of
of aa
single
crystal
sample,
the
single
crystal
sample,
the
backscattering
signal
drops
backscattering
signal
drops
dramatically.
dramatically.
IfIf the
the crystal
crystal contains
contains defects
defects
involving
involving atoms
atoms that
that are
are displaced
displaced
from
from the
the atomic
atomic rows,
rows, closecloseencounter
encounter collisions
collisions with
with these
these
displacements
displacements will
will increase
increase the
the yield.
yield.
The
The yield
yield can
can be
be used
used to
to precisely
precisely
calculate
calculate the
the defect
defect densities
densities in
in
imperfect
imperfect crystals.
crystals.

Introduction

Technique

Yield

Channeling Rutherford
backscattering
(RBS)

Light particles
backscattered from heavy
atoms

Channeling elastic recoil

detection analysis
(ERD)

Forwarded-scattered light
target atom

Channeling-induced X-ray
emission spectroscopy
(PIXE)

X-rays emitted by the

deexcitation of target
atom

Channeling nuclear reaction

analysis
(NRA)

Emitted gamma radiation

or charged particles from
excited nuclei

Theory of Channeling

An
An energetic
energetic ion
ion that
that is
is directed
directed at
at aa
small
small angle,,
angle,, to
to close-packed
close-packed rows
rows or
or
planes
planes of
of atoms
atoms in
in aa crystal
crystal is
is steered
steered
by
by aa series
series of
of gentle
gentle collisions
collisions with
with the
the
atoms
atoms so
so that
that itit is
is channeled
channeled into
into the
the
regions
regions between
between these
these rows
rows or
or plans.
plans.

 Steering of the ions through the open channels can

result in ranges several times the maximum range in
no-steering directions or in amorphous materials.
Electronic losses determine the range and there is
very little straggling.
When a low-energy ion goes into a channel, its energy
losses are mainly due to the electronic contributions.
This implies that a channeled ion transfers its energy
mainly to electrons rather than to the nuclei in the
lattice.

Theory of Channeling
Basic assumption for ion
channeling

The
The scattering
scattering angles
angles are
are small
small

successive
successive collisions
collisions are
are strongly
strongly
correlated
correlated (because
(because ions
ions passing
passing close
close to
to
an
an atom
atom in
in aa string
string must
must also
also come
come close
close
to
to the
the next
next atom.)
atom.)

The
The collisions
collisions are
are elastic
elastic two-body
two-body
encounters.
encounters.

AA real
real crystal
crystal can
can be
be approximated
approximated by
by
perfect
perfect strings
strings of
of atoms
atoms in
in which
which the
the
atomic
atomic spacing
spacing ,, d,
d, is
is uniform.
uniform.

Atomic configuration in the diamond cubic

The ion can be considered to move in a transverse

potential, VT.

1
VT ( )
d

V [( 2 x 2 )1/ 2 ]dx

Distance
Distancetraveled
traveledalong
alongthe
the
string
string
Distance
of
the
ion
from
the
string
of
Distance of the ion from the string of
atoms
atoms

IfIf the
the string
string consists
consists of
of different
different atomic
atomic
species,
species, the
the potentials
potentials for
for each
each atom
atom are
are
different,
different, and
and an
an average
average potential
potential is
is used.
used.

Two-body
Two-body potential
potential V(r)
V(r) is
is generally
generally taken
taken to
to
have
have the
the Tomas-Fermi
Tomas-Fermi form:
form:
Electronic
Electroniccharge
charge

Z1 Z 2 e
V (r )
(r / a)
r
Nuclear
Nuclearseparation
separation
distance
distance
Atomic
Atomicnumbers
numbersof
ofions
ionsat
atthe
the
string
string

Tomas-Fermi
Tomas-Fermiscreening
screening
function
function

Molire
Molireapproximation
approximationfor
for
Tomas-Fermi
Tomas-Fermiscreening
screening
function
function

constant
constant
ss

(r / a ) i exp( i r / a )
i 1

a 0.8853a0 ( Z
a0 5.292 10

1/ 2
1

11

1/ 2 2 / 3
2

m (Bohr radius)

String
String
potential
potential

2 Z1 Z 2 e
VT ( )
f ( / a)
d

Modified
ModifiedBessel
Besselfunction
function

Molire
Molirescreening
screeningfunction
function

constant
constant
ss

f M ( / a) ai K 0 ( i / a)
i 1

fM

1/ 2

FRS

Lindhard
Lindhardscreening
screeningfunction
function

f L ( / a ) 0.5 ln[ 3( a / ) 1]
2

Example
Example11

44
+
Calculation
of
f
and
f
for
He
Calculation of fLL and fMM for He+ incident
incident
along
along aa <110>
<110> channel
channel in
in Si.
Si.

ZZ11=2
=2
ZZ22=14
=14

1/ 2

a 0.8853a0 ( Z1

a0 5.292 10

11

1/ 2

Z2

) 2 / 3

m (Bohr radius)

f L ( / a ) 0.5 ln[ 3(a / ) 1]

2

a=0.0157
a=0.0157
nm
nm

f L ( / a ) 0.69
f L ( / a ) 0.28

f L ( / a ) 0.086

/ a 1
/a 2
/a 3

AAplot
plotof
ofFRS(x)
FRS(x)versus
versusx,
x,where
whereFRS(x)
FRS(x)isis
the
the square
square root
root of
of the
the Molire
Molire string
string
potential
fM
and
x
=
1.2u1/a
potential fM and x = 1.2u1/a

22
ffMM=(F
)
=(FRS
RS)

/ a 1
/a 2
/a 3

f M ( / a ) 0.66
f M ( / a ) 0.31
f M ( / a ) 0.12

2 Z1 Z 2 e
VT ( )
f ( / a)
d
1
d 0.5431
0.384 nm
2

2 Z1 Z 2 e
VT ( )
f ( / a)
d
1
d 0.5431
0.384 nm
2
Z1 2
Z 2 14
e 2 1.44 10 13 MeV

VT ( ) 210 f ( / a )

2 Z1 Z 2 e 1 / 2
i (
)
Ed
Incident
Incident energy
energy

Example2:
Calculation of for 2 MeV 4He+
along a <110> channel in Si
Z1 2
Z 2 14
e 2 1.44 10 13 MeV
E 2 MeV
d 0.384 nm

2 Z1 Z 2 e 1 / 2
i (
)
Ed

i 0.0102 rad 0.584

For
For mixed
mixed strings
strings of
of different
different atoms,
atoms, ZZ22 is
is an
an
arithmetic
arithmetic average
average of
of the
the atomic
atomic numbers
numbers of
of
the
the atoms
atoms in
in the
the string.
string.
Example3:
Calculation of interatomic spacing d and
interplanar spacing dp for GaP(zinc blende
structure)

Z 2 (Z Ga Z p )/2 (15 31)/2 23

Z 2 (Z Ga Z p )/2 (15 31)/2 23

d 0 0.545 nm (Table A17.4, Appendix 17)

3 3 3
(

)
4
111 axis : d d 0 4
2
0.472 nm (Table A17.2, Appendix 17)
1
{110} plane : d p d 0
0.193 nm
2 2

IfIf the
the crystal
crystal contains
contains defects,
defects, even
even
slightly
slightly displaced
displaced from
from atomic
atomic rows,
rows, the
the
string
string potential
potential is
is disturbed,
disturbed, and
and ions
ions
will
will be
be dechanneled
dechanneled..

IfIf aa near
near surface
surface layer
layer of
of the
the crystal
crystal is
is
completely
completely
disordered(amorphized),backscattering
disordered(amorphized),backscattering
yield
yield are
are significantly
significantly enhanced,
enhanced, and
and the
the
close-encounter
close-encounter probability
probability becomes
becomes equal
equal
to
to that
that obtained
obtained in
in the
the non-channeling
non-channeling
mode.
mode.

Normalization was achieved by

dividing the aligned yields by the
random yield.

Notation for normalized yield at channeling

= normalized yield= (aligned yield)/(random

yield)
h = normalized yield from host atoms
s = normalized yield from solute atoms
h <uvw> ,s <uvw> , = normalized yields from host
and solute atoms, respectively for alignment
along <uvw> axial channels
h {uvw} ,s {uvw} = normalized yields for host and
solute atoms, respectively, for alignment along
{hkl} planar channels

<uvw>
The
normalized
yield

The normalized yield hh<uvw>,, for

for
alignment
alignment along
along an
an axial
axial
channel<uvw>,
channel<uvw>, according
according to
to the
the
a 0.8853a ( Z Z
Screening
continuum
(Lindhard):
Screening
continuum model
model
(Lindhard):
length:
0

uvw

length:

1/ 2
1

1 / 2 2 / 3
2

Nd (u 2 a )
2

Atomic
Atomicdensity
density

u 2 : Two dimentiona l viberatio n amplitude

u 2 1.414u1
u1 : one dimentional viberation amplitude

The
experimental
h<uvw>value
is
increased appreciably if the divergence
of the ion beam exceeds 0.1 or if
oxides or other impurities are present
on the surface of the crystal.

The half-with of the channeling dip,1/2,

defined as the angle at which the
normalized yield from host atoms h,
reaches a value halfway between its
minimum value and the random value.

 1/ 2 C 1
1/ 2 0.83FRS ( ) 1
0.85u 2 / a
Given in Fig.A17.2
u 2 : Two dimentiona l viberatio n amplitude

Unchanneled ion

Channeled
ion

1=c

Reason for difference of

calculated and experimental
data above 1/2:

That
That ions
ions that
that are
are incident
incident at
at angles
angles slightly
slightly
larger
larger than
than
,have
,have aa higher
higher thanthan- average
average
probability
probability of
of collision
collision with
with atoms
atoms in
in the
the
Calculated
data
-------Calculated
data
-------string.
string.
Experimental data
Experimental data

Flux distribution and trajectories of channeled

ions
Because of the steering action of channeling, ions
are directed toward the center of a channel,
resulting in an enhanced ion flux there. In order to
calculate ion trajectories and, thus, the spatial
distributions of channeled ions within a given
channel, it is usually assumed that the transverse
component E, of the ion energy is conserved
(energy
loss are neglected).
Ion
transverse
Initial incident angle when the ions strike the
energy

crystal
Distance between the atomic row and
the initial striking position
in

E E VT ( )
2

In
In analytical
analytical calculations,
calculations, itit is
is assumed
assumed that
that ions
ions are
are
uniformly
uniformly distributed
distributed within
within an
an accessible
accessible area
area
specified
2the equation:
specified by
by the
equation:
E E VT ( in )

T
A

E V ( )

The ions are excluded from an area 2 close to the

string.
A

Fj

A0

A0
dA
ln
A
Aj

Cross-sectional area of the

channel

=0

Normalized flux at the jth potential

contour
Accessible area at the potential lower than
that of the jth potential contour

Equipotential contours (eV) for He+ ions in Al

for one-quarter of a <110> channel
Cell of string

14 string of
atoms
First cell
second
cell

Example 4:
Calculation of Fj

Fj

A0

dA
A0
ln
A
Aj

Aj

A0
1
F j ln
ln
0.7
Aj
0.6

Aj

The
The areas
areas outside
outside the
the
strings
strings enclosed
enclosed by
by the
the 20
20
eV
eV potential
potential contours
contours are
are
0.6
the
.. lower than
Accessible
at total
the
potential
0.6 of
ofarea
the
total
that of the jth potential contour

Equiflux contours for 1 MeV He+ ions

in Al at 30K for one-quarter of a
<110> channel
Analytical calculation
Monte Carlo simulation ---------

The
The ion
ion flux
flux not
not only
only varies
varies across
across aa channel
channel
but
but also
also exhibits
exhibits strong
strong depth
depth oscillation.
oscillation. This
This
occurs
occurs because
because of
of the
the rather
rather regular
regular
movement
movement of
of channeled
channeled ions
ions from
from one
one side
side of
of
channel
channel to
to the
the other.
other. Thus,
Thus, peaks
peaks in
in the
the midmidchannel
channel flux
flux (and
(and minima
minima in
in the
the flux
flux at
at the
the
channel
channel walls)
walls) occur
occur at
at /4
/4
is the wavelength of
the channel ions path
Unchanneled ion

/4

Channeled
ion

wavelength of the channel ions path

Constant taken as
31/2

Lindhard characteristic
angle

4ch 2 /(3n) Ca 1
1/ 2

Number of atomic strings bordering the

channel
Distance from a string to the center
of the
channel
Unchanneled
Unchanneled
ion
ion

Channeled
Channeled
ion

Depth variation of the calculated midchannel flux of 1 MeV He+ ions in a <100>
axial channel of Cu
No multiple scattering
included

multiple scattering,
energy losses,
thermal
vibration(T=273K),
and beam divergence
of 0.06 included
multiple scattering,
energy losses,
thermal
vibration(T=273K),
and beam divergence
of 0.23 included

The depth oscillations are less

regular for axial channels than for
planar channels, because axially
channeled ions can move to
neighboring channels more easily
than planar channeled ions can.

planar

axial
Rando

Picture of different types of lattice defects

, a) Interstitial impurity atom

b) Edge dislocation
,c) Self interstitial atom
d) Vacancy
e) Precipitate of impurity atoms
, f) Vacancy type dislocation loop
g) Interstitial type dislocation loop
h) Substitutional impurity atom

Damage to a crystal involves displaced lattice

atoms:
Strain
Point defects
Dislocations
Stacking faults
Twins
Defect clusters
Small precipitates
Amorphous regions
Damage produced by ion beam :
Frenkel pairs(a vacant lattice site+ the selfinterstitial atom rejected from the site)
Clusters of vacancies and self-interstitials
Voids or dislocation loops
Amorphous regions

Displaced atoms can effect channeling in two

qualitative ways:
By dechanneling (gradual deflection of the
channeled ions out of channels)
By direct backscattering of channeled ions
----------------------------------------------------------------In practice, a combination of these two
process
Limitingusually
cases: occurs.
Distortion-type defects
Obstruction-type (amorphous region)

Limiting cases:
Distortion-type defects
-Because they involve small displacements of
host atoms into the channels
-Lattice vibrations can be considered to be
another example of distortion-type defects
Obstruction-type (amorphous region)
Because they occupy central positions in the
channels

The effect of lattice defects on channeling can

be described most simply by considering that
the ion beam consists of a channeled fraction
that is backscattered only from displaced
atoms

and
a
dechanneled
fraction
that
is
backscattered from all atoms in the same way
as randomly directed.

Channeled
ions
gradually
become
dechanneled (deflected out of the channel) by
multiple collisions with electrons and with
displaced atoms, including thermally vibrating
atoms and lattice defects.

In backscattering geometry, the normalized

yield,h, is equal to the dechanneled fraction
of the beam plus the yield arising from the
backscattering of the channeled ions from
displaced atoms

hh ::

+
+

Normalized ion flux for

site i

uvw

hD

uvw

Dechanneled fraction of
ions

(1 hD

uvw

) Chi g i

uvw

Fi

uvw

Geometric factor for

site i
Displaced atom for
site i

Channeled fraction of
ions

Because of the lack of knowledge about a

stable configuration of displacements, it is
usually assumed that, for single, randomly
displaced atoms, the defect scattering factor
is given by: uvw uvw

gi

Fi

Defect density at the depth of x

Calculated by hD
Therefore

nD ( x )
h ( x) hD ( x) [1 hD ( x)]
n
Total atomic density

Dechanneling by point defects

As
As ion
ion penetrate
penetrate aa crystal
crystal their
their transverse
transverse
energy
energy component,
component, EE,, gradually
gradually increases
increases
because
because of
of multiple
multiple collisions
collisions with
with electrons
electrons
and
and displaced
displaced atoms.
atoms. This
This effect
effect eventually
eventually
causes
causes ions
ions to
to be
be deflected
deflected out
out of
of channels
channels
( (dechanneled)
,producing
an
increase
ininthe
dechanneled)
,producing
an
increase
the
<uvw>
yield,

,and
a
decrease
in
the
channel
<uvw>
h
yield, h
,and a decrease in the channel
half-with,
half-with,1/21/2, ,as
asthe
theions
ionspenetrate
penetratedeeper
deeperinin
to
tothe
thematerial.
material.

For shallow depth, where <0.2 ,

dechanneling is caused mainly by nuclear
multiple collisions with thermally vibrating
atoms and with lattice defects, whereas
multiple electronic collisions become
increasingly important at greater depths.

Defect
density

d (1 hD )
(1 hD )( nd d Pth )
dx
Effective defect cross
section for
dechanneling
Effect of thermal
vibration

d (1 hD )
(1 hD )( nd d Pth )
dx

d (1

hD

) [(1 hD )( nd d Pth )]dx

hD ( x) 1 [1 v ( x )] exp nd d dx

0

Value for undamaged
crystal

An ion is assumed to be dechanneling

when its transverse energy exceeds a
critical value, EC.

hD ( x) hD (0)

g
(
E
,
x
)
dE

Distribution of transverse
ion energy as a function of
depth

Cross section for dechanneling by point

defects

d
D ( 1 )
d
1 d
Cross section for
dechanneling by point
defects

Critical
angle

Dechanneling by dislocation loops

Under the condition that direct scattering is
negligible:

h hD

1 v ( x)
1 d
nD ( x )
[ln
]
d dx 1 D ( x)
Defect
density
Cross section for
dischanneling

Dechanneling by dislocation loops

Magnitude of the Burgers

vector of the dislocation
loop

Eb
2
cZ1Z 2 e N p

Planar dechanneling cross

section per unit dislocation
length

Atomic density in the

plane
A constant dependent on
the dislocation orientation
and type

Cross section for

dischanneling

Defect
density

1 d
1 v ( x)
nD ( x )
[ln
]
d dx 1 D ( x)

Planar dechanneling cross

section per unit dislocation
length

If
d=p

Eb
2
cZ1Z 2 e N p

nD:
Total projected length of
dislocation lines per unit volume

Dechanneling by dislocation loops

Analysis of phosphorous-diffused by
Si
A misfit dislocation network
is observed at a depth of
450 nm
Backscattering
spectra for 2.5 MeV
He+ along
{110}planar and
<111> axial
channels

nD ( x )

TEM

Energy dependence
of planar
dechanneling

d
1 v ( x)
[ln
]
dx
1 D ( x)

dE/dx=n

Energy dependence of
dechanneling
Dechanneling can be used to identify the type of
defects, because it has an energy dependence
behaviors.

Expected energy dependence:

E0 for stacking faults
E1/2 for dislocations
E-1 to E-2 for point defects and defect
clusters

Dechanneling by heavily damaged

regions
Channeling is commonly used to measure the epitaxial
regrowth of materials that are amorphized by ion
implantation.
Si implanted by Si in order to
amorphize the surface layer
without introducing foreign
atoms.
Implantation energy=50-250
keV
Depth of amorphization=460
nm
He+ energy = 2 MeV

Epitaxial growth
is linear with time

Regrowth rate is
lower and
nonlinear

Energy loss of channeled and

random
ions
The
energy
loss of channeled ions and random ions
can be significantly different.
Channeled ions with a typical ion flux distribution
peaked in the middle of channel, have small
probability of a close encounter with atom rows and,
consequently, have reduced interactions with innershell electrons of target atoms. Therefore,
channeled ions usually have a stopping power less
than that of random ions.
Unchanneled ion

Energy loss of channeled and

random ions

Energy loss of He+

as a function of
the incident ion
energy for
<100>,<111>,
and<110>
channeling
directions of
silicon.

dE
E 1/ 2 ln( 2.71828 E )

dx 0 1 E 1/ 4 2 E 1/ 2 3 E 4 E 3 / 2

Energy loss of channeled and

random ions

and are fitting parameters

E is the ion energy

dE
E ln( 2.71828 E )

1/ 4
1/ 2
3/ 2
dx 0 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E
1/ 2

Reduction in stopping power for channeled ions is a

phenomenon that depends on ion penetration
depth. For shallow penetration depth (a few
hundred nanometers), the stopping power is close
to the random stopping power because of a nearly
uniform ion flux distribution. At deep depth, the
stopping power approaches the random value as a

Data Analysis
Channel-energy
conversion

Silicon(ntype)

Typical detector used

in RBS analysis

An evaporated thin layer of

gold

The number of
electron- hole
pairs created in
the depletion
region is
proportional to
the particle
energy loss in
this region.

A diode whose
depletion region
increases with
bias voltage

Data Analysis

E
E c
n
n

Channel
number

The created electrons and holes

cause a pulse of charge. The
height of the pulse can be
converted to channel number
after amplifying and analyzing.
E

Energy of the
particle

c and E/n can be determined by

linear fitting of the equation using a
calibration sample that contains at
least 2 different elements on the
surface.
Kinematic factor for the calibration
elements

E2
E1
n
n1

n2

E1=k1E01
E2=k2E02

Data Analysis

Energy-depth conversion
t

Incident particle
E0

Et

Assumption :
dE
constant
dx

2
E1

final energy

E (t ) k

t
E0
cos 1

dE

dx

t

cos 2
E0

dE

dX

E1

Data Analysis
Separation of dechanneling
fraction

To analyze displacement profiles

quantitavely, the backscattering of channeled
particles from displaced atoms needs to be
separated from the backscattering of
dechanned particles from lattice atoms.
There are 3 approaches for this separations:
1.Line approximation
2.Iterative procedure
3.Double- iteration procedure

Data Analysis
Separation of dechanneling
fraction
1. Line approximation

The easiest way to separate the dechanneling

component. The line connects 2 points corresponding
to
1. A minimum yield after the surface damage peak
2. A minimum yield after the damage peak

Data Analysis
Separation of dechanneling
fraction

2. Iterative procedure

In a standard iterative procedure, the substrate is

divided into multiple layers. The analysis starts from
the surface layer by assuming hD(x)=0 in the
following Equation:
Density of displaced atoms

nD ( x )
h ( x) hD ( x) [1 hD ( x)]
n

Total atomic density

In the first layer, nD is calculated fist. Then, the amount

of dechanneling in the next layer is calculated by the
following equation and then used in the above
equation to obtain the number of defects in the second
layer.
x

hD ( x ) 1 [1 v ( x )] exp nd d dx
Aligned yield at depth x for a virgin crystal

Iterative procedure

nD

The disorder profiles of H ion implanted Si obtained

after different times of iterative processes. The
profile from the line approximation is also
compared.

Data Analysis

2. Iterative procedure

Separation of dechanneling
fraction

This iterative procedure

requires that the
dechanneling cross
section, D, must first be
known.

d
D ( 1 )
d
1 d
The calculation did not consider the lattice
distortions around defects. The strain relaxation
around defects can enhance dechanneling
significantly.

Double-iteration procedure

This method requires no knowledge about D. The

double-iteration approach requires selecting a point
at depth x1 giving nD(x1)=0. x1 can be any point
beyond which direct backscattering centers diminish
to zero.

h ( x) hD ( x)
h ( x1 ) v ( x1 ) [1 v ( x1 )] {1 exp[ D
n]}
hD ( x)
0
x1

For any point

x<x1
x1

h D ( x) v ( x) [1 v ( x)] {1 exp[ D
m 1

h ( x) hD ( x)

Where m represents the number of cycles of the iterative

calculation.

hD ( x)
m

n]}

Data Analysis

3. Double-iteration procedure

This result is used, in turn, to calculate the additional

amount of dechanneling in the next layer . The
procedure is continued until the defect density drops
to zero at a depth beyond the disordered region.

The channeling RBS spectra in comparison with

the calculated dechanneling component after
different times of iterative processes.

Analytical versus Monte Carlo

analysis

1. Angular scan
2. Statistical equilibrium approximation
for the ion flux
3. Analytical calculation with multistring
Moliere-type potentials to calculate
equipotential contours and ion fluxes

Fj

A0

A0
dA
ln
A
Aj

Numerical method to calculate angular

scans

The angular dependence of backscattering yields can be

calculated numerically by using continuum approximation:
1. The transverse potential as a function of location across the
channel
2. The probability distribution of the transverse energy of the
ions
3. The ion flux across the channel
4. Angular distribution of the backscattering yields
2

2 Z1 Z 2 e
VT ( )
f ( / a)
d
Fj

A0

dA
A0
ln
A
Aj

Transverse potential

The axial channel can be divided into tiny square

regions of area A. The potential for each square is
calculated by adding potential contributions from
multi-atom rows. Considering periodic boundary
conditions, an appropriate unit cell should be
selected.

A group of 12-atom rows with a square unit

cell is appropriate for the calculations
associated with displacements close to the
channel center.
A group of 9-atom rows with a circular unit cell
is appropriate for the problems associated with
the small displacements from the atom row.

The potential for each small

area A is calculated and
listed in a table in order from
the smallest to largest.

u1

E,1
m1A

ui

uh

..

E,i

..

E,h

miA

..

mhA

ui

potential energy

E,I

transverse energy

uL

..

E,L

mi
number of areas A that have the same
potential energy

mLA

Probability distribution of transverse

energy

For an ion hitting an area with a potential of ui,

the transverse energy is given by E,i=E2+ui.
Therefore, the possibility of obtaining the value
E,i is given by:

mi A
mi
g ( E , i )

A0
N
A0 NA

Ion flux distribution

The allowed area for channeled ions with

transverse energy E,i, is the area having a
potential equal to or less than E,i.
Accessible
area

A( E,i ) (m1 m2 .... mh )

E , i u h
Aj

Ions are allowed to be uniformly distributed

over the accessible area, the ion density at
rh(the position corresponding to potential uh) is
given by:

1
f E ,i (rh )
m1 m2 ..... mh
Ion flux at rh is contributed by only
those ions with Euh

Under the condition that:

E,i=E2+ui=uh
Ion flux is given by:

F (rh )

f (r ) g ( E )dE

E u h

j h

mj
1
(m1 m2 .... m j ) N

Angular
distribution

When ions are incident with an angle of

, the yield of close encounters is given
by:

( ) F (r )dP (r )
Displacement
probability

Selecting =0,0.1,., the angular distribution is

obtained by repeating the above calculation
procedure. The angular distribution can be
normalized by the yield with 5 1.

Surface studies
Basic
consideration

In a good channeling direction, a clearly resolvable

surface peak in the backscattering yield can be
observed because the ion beam is scattered from
the exposed surface atoms with the same intensity
as from a random array of atoms, that is, the
surface atoms are not shadowed.

Shadow
Shadow
cone

Surface
studies
Radius
cone

Rc 2( Z1Z 2 e d / E )
2

Example:
The shadow cone radius for a Au layer on
Ag:
For a 1 MeV He beam on Au, Z1=2, Z2=79,
d<110>=0.288 nm, e2=1.4410-13 cm, E=1
MeV
u 2 : Two dimentiona l viberatio n amplitude
Thus, Rc=0.0162 nm, which can be
u2 1.414u1
compared with u2=0.012 nm.

u1 : one dimentional viberation amplitude

Lattice sites of solute

atoms

One of the most frequently used applications of

channeling has been to determine lattice sites
of impurity atoms in crystals.
Impurity atoms that project into axial or planar
channels are seen by the ion beam, causing
an increased backscattering yield from the
solute atoms, s, as compared to that from the
host atoms, h.

Lattice sites of solute

atoms

s<100> >1

s<110> 1

s<111>
=h<111>

Lattice sites of solute

atoms

Angular scans of backscattering

Unchanneled
ion

The numbers on the curves are

the displacement value in
angstroms.

Channeled
ion

1 MeV He+ in a <110>

channel of Al at 30 K at
the depth of 100 nm
(beam
divergence=0.048)
Calculated yields in a <110>axial channel for atoms displaced
along the <100> direction as a function of the incident angle ,
normalized to the Linhard characteristic angle 1.

Solute atoms associated with point

defects

The Al- 0.02 at% In

sample was irradiated
with 1 MeV He + at 35 K
and then annealed for
600 s at 220 K before
each of the angular
scans.
The
yields
measured at 35 K for a
depth interval of 50-280
nm from the surface.

<100> angular scans for irradiated Al-0.02

at.% In

Surface
studies

Channeling can be used to measure lateral

reconstruction, surface relaxation, vibration
amplitudes, and premelting of atoms in the surface
and near surface planes.

Schematic illustration of measurements of channeling surface peaks to study displacements of

surface atoms

Surface
studies

Channeling can also be used to measure:

Surface relaxation
Surface impurities
Interface structures

Surface
relaxation

An illustration of the method to study surface

relaxation experimentally, based on channeling and
blocking.

The scattering plane coincides with the

crystallographic plane. A displacement
of the first layer results in different
angular position of the blocking cone for
surface and bulk atoms.

An energy scan of backscattered

ions detected at an angle by
means of an electrostatic energy
analyzer.

Angular
scans
of
backscattered
intensities from surface and bulk atoms.
The displacement caused by the
relaxation effect causes a shift, , in the
surface blocking minimum.

Blocking minimum for 0.1 MeV

protons scattered from bulk and
surface Ni atoms for a
clean(110) surface and for an
oxygen coverage of one-third of
a monolayer. The Ni yield was
normalized by the Rutherford
cross section, R.

Interface
structures

Measured densities of Si and O atoms for a Si(110) surface that was

covered by oxides of varying thickness. The straight line corresponds to
stoichiometric SiO2 plus 8.61015 atoms cm-2 of excess Si. A contribution of
6.41015 unshadowed Si atoms per cm2 from the Si substrate is indicated.

Epitaxial layer and

strain

The quality of epitaxial layers and the strain in

such layer or in multilayers can be determined by
channeling measurement at normal incidence or
at oblique angles.
In general, good epitaxy can be achieved only
when the lattice parameters of the substrate and
overlayer are almost the same. For a small latticeparameter mismatch, perfect epitaxy can be
accommodated by vertical elastic strain in the
overlayer. When the stress in the strained epilayer
exceeds the elastic modulus, the strain is
accommodated by the reaction of misfit

The
channeling
directions
[100] and
[110] are shown. The
displacements, xn, of
the Ge atoms from the
substitutional sites are
indicated.

Schematic diagram of the structure of a strained

epitaxial film of Ge capped with the substrate
material, Si.

Channeling angular scan of Ge/Si structure, using 1.8

MeV He+

Scan through the [1-10] axial direction in

the (100) plane for an epitaxial structure
consisting
of
Si(100)/Ge[6
monolayer]Si(20 nm)

Scan through the [110] axial direction in

the (100) plane for an epitaxial structure
consisting
of
Si(100)/Ge[6
monolayer]Si(20 nm)

Channeling angular scan of Ge/Si structure, using 1.8

MeV He+

Scan
through
the
[100](crystal
normal) channeling direction in the
(100) plane for an epitaxial structure
consisting
of
Si(100)/Ge[6
monolayer]Si(20 nm)

Scan through the [110] channeling direction

in a sample of Si(100)/Si0.99Ge0.01(100
monolayer) /Si(13.6nm) Si(100)/Ge[6
monolayer]Si(20 nm)

Experimental
methods
Channeling
equipment
AAbeam
beamdivergence
divergenceof
of0.1
0.1or
or
less
less

Rotation about the crystal

normal

Two-axis
goniometer

180-150=30

Ultrahigh-vacuum
Ultrahigh-vacuum
Rotation about the vertical

0.3-2.5
0.3-2.5 MeV
MeVlight
lightion
ion
from
fromelectrostatic
electrostatic
accelerator
accelerator

Comparison of RBS, PIXE, and NRA

methods
For lattice site measurements, careful attention must be paid to the
cross section for a particular reaction and the depth information of the
element (that is suppose to be analyzed).
For

Best choice

Channeling studies of crystal

perfection

RBS

Surface studies involving some

elements that are difficult for
RBS

Combination of
RBS and NRA

Surface coverage of O
using the
16
O(d,p)17Oreaction

Lattice location of impurities

RBS

Lattice position of
As in Si, Ag in Zr

Light impurity element in a

heavy-element host lattice

NRA and
characteristic Xray

H to S in a heavier
lattice

Intermediate mass impurities in

heavy host lattice

Characteristic Xray

(the impurity mass>host atom

mass)

Example

choice of ion species and

energy

For most channeling applications, the use

of 4He+ beams (at 1-2 MeV) is suitable
because of the moderate mass resolution,
beam damage, channel width, and depth
resolution.
If one desires to probe more deeply into
the sample, 1H+ beams are suitable for
probing the distribution of deep damage,
such as that caused by high energy
implantations to ~1m.

choice of ion species and

energy

Use of heavier ions such as C increases

the mass resolution and the sensitivity for
detection of small quantities of heavy
elements in a light-element host material.
However, the depth resolution is not
improved
when
surface-barrier
Si
detectors are used because of the
decrease in detector resolution. In
addition, the damage introduced by
heavier ions is much greater .

choice of ion species and

energy

The choice of ion energy is determined by

consideration of cross section and mass
resolution.
The
cross
section
for
backscattering generally decreases with
increasing energy. However at higher
energies (e.g., above 2 MeV 4He+ on light
element such as O, N, and C), the cross
section for backscattering can increase by a
factor of up to 10 because of non-Rutherford
behavior. In addition, several resonances in
(,) reaction occur at higher He energies.

Ion
damage

The damage caused by energetic ions is

mainly due to elastic collisions with target
atoms. Damage from the analyzing beam can
interfere with the results of channeling
analysis, especially for studies of low levels of
implantation damage or lattice location
studies of low concentrations of impurities.
Methods for minimizing damage:
Increasing the detector solid angle
Analyzing only near channeling
direction
Moving the analyzing spot frequently
Using high-energy and low-mass

Ion
damage

The simplest ways to increase detector solid angle are

to use larger detectors and to move the detector
closer to the target.
Disadvantages of these methods:

Loss of depth resolution

Loss of mass resolution
Methods of reducing that loss:
Using multiple detectors or specially constructed
detectors
Using coincident techniques (suitable only for lowmass elements and uniform thin foil target)
Note:
At coincident technique energies of the scattered ion

Obtaining channeling
spectra
Stereographic
projection

{100} poles of a cubic

crystal

The stereographic projection provides an

accurate representation of the angles
between the planes and axes of a crystal.

Obtaining channeling
spectra
Stereographic
projection

AAbeam
beamdivergence
divergenceof
of0.1
0.1or
or
less
less

Rotation about the crystal

normal

Two-axis
goniometer

180-150=30

Ultrahigh-vacuum
Ultrahigh-vacuum
Rotation about the vertical

0.3-2.5
0.3-2.5 MeV
MeVlight
lightion
ion
from
fromelectrostatic
electrostatic
accelerator
accelerator

Scattering yield (counts)

random

aligned

Alignment of a Si (110) crystal for

channeling

RBS spectra for a randomly oriented

crystal
and aligned crystal

Yield
(counts)103

Alignment of a Si (110) crystal for

channeling

RBS yield as a function of azimuthal angle

for a tilt angle of 6

Yield
(counts)103

Polar plot of the planar minima

from panel of yield- azimuth
angle

Precise determination of the value of

for
<110> alignment, with set at
60

Theta scan of my sample in

AAMURI

Thank
you

Tomb of Diako (the king of Madia) about

1000 B.C