Net Electronics (Physics)

1
CHAPTER 1: NETWORK THEORY

Basic Circuit Analysis and KVL/KCL
Resistance: It is the property of a resistor to oppose current.
Case-I:
Case-II:
R
+V
Conventional current flow from high to low potential.
Electron current flow from low to high potential
In both case I and case II: V iR

Where resistance of Resistor: R
l
A
where l = length of conductor, A = Area of conductor, = resistivity of conductor..

So
RA
l
and conductivity =
1
Resistivity
Current:
The phenomenon of transferring charge from one point in a circuit to another is described by the term
electric current.
An electric current may be defined as the time rate of net motion of electric charge across a cross
sectional boundary i
dq
dt
q = Coulombs, t = sec, i = Amp
Voltage:
To move the electrons from one point to other point in particular direction external force is required.
In analytical circuit external force is provided by emf and it is given by

V
dW
dq
where a differential amount of charge dq is given a differential increase in energy dW.

Voltage = Energy per unit charge = Work per unit charge
A voltage can exist between a pair of electrical terminal whether a current is flowing or not. An
automobile battery, for example, has a voltage of 12V across its terminals even if nothing whatsoever
is connected to the terminal.
Ohms Law:
At constant temperature, the potential difference V across the terminals of a resistor R as show below,
is directly proportional to the current i flowing through it. That is
V i
V iR
R
V
Ohms law can also be expressed in terms of conductance G as

i GV
1
R
G = Conductance [mho or Siemens]
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2
Field Interpretation of Ohms Law:
At constant temperature current density is directly proportional to electric field intensity.
a
l
J E
J E J ........... Current density (A/m2),
........... Conductivity [( m) 1 ]
E ........... Electric field intensity (V/m)

Linearly test of Resistor:
When resistive element obeys ohms law then the element is called as linear resistor otherwise it is
a non-linear resistor.
Power Dissipation in a Resistor:
P Vi (iR )i i 2 R
V2
I2
V 2G
R
G
Practical Voltage Sources: It delivers energy at specified (V) which depends on current delivers by
sources.
i
I
V
Rs
Rs
V(t)
Vs
V (t ) Vs IRs
Vs(t)
AC
DC
Current Sources: Ideal current source delivers energy at a specified (I), which is independent on voltage
across the source. Internal resistance of ideal current source = .
i(t)
I
Is
Is(t)
V
ideal
AC
DC
Practical Current Sources: Practical current sources delivers energy at specified current I, which is dependent
on voltage across the source. In real time system current source does not exist.
I
i(t)
+
I
Is
R1
Is(t)
V
DC
AC
3
Capacitance: It is the property of capacitor to hold charge q to confined electric field.
+
EA
C
d
1
idt
C
d = distance between plates, A = Area of cross section of each conducting plates

Note: When the capacitance of capacitor is independent of current is called as linear capacitor.
Q
Q
V |Constant
ic
V
dV
dt
So under steady state i.e. at t
dV
dt
i0
Capacitor acts as open circuit:

Inductance:
If the current i flowing in an element of figure below changes with time, the magnetic flux
produced by the current also changed which causes a voltage to be induced in the circuit, equal to
the rate of flux linkage that is
V
d
dt
dt
dt
i.e.
V L
di
dt
where, L is constant of proportionality and is called self inductance.

+
i(t)
i(t)
(t)
v(t)
AB
(a)
Inductive circuit
(b)
Mutually coupled circuit
Therefore, there is an induced emf in coil B, which is equal to

d
eN
dt
or
di
e L
dt
As (di/dt) is directly proportional to ( d / dt ) . Comparison of these two equation gives
N Li
4
From above it may noted that an inductor is a device, while inductance is the quantity L.
L
N
i
As V L
di
, so in steady state i.e. t
dt
V 0
And circuit behaves like shots circuit.

Active Element: When an element is capable of delivering energy for infinite period of time is called as active
element.
Example: Voltage, source, current source.
Passive Element: When an element is not able to deliver energy for infinite time period is called as passive
element.
Example: Resistor, inductor and capacitor
Active Elements:
Voltage Source: Ideal voltage source delivers energy at a specified V. Internal resistance of ideal voltage
source is zero.
Voltage Divider Rule:
V1 R1
R1
V1 Vs
,
R1 R2
R2
V2 Vs
R1 R2
Vs ~
V2 R2
Current Division Rule:

I
I1
I2
R1
R2
1
1
1
R eq R1 R 2
R2
R1
I1
I , I2
I
R1 R2
R1 R2
Same for Inductor:

I
I1
I2
L1
L2
1
1 1

Leq L1 L2
L2
L1
I1
I; I2
I
L1 L2
L1 L2
For capacitor:
I
I1
I2
C1
C2
I1
Ceq C1 C2
C1
C2
I , I2
I
C1 C2
C1 C2
Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL):

It states that algebraic sum of all voltages in a closed loop is equal to zero. It is based on conservation
of energy.
R1
+ V1
I
Vs1 +
+ V
s2
V2
+ R2
Applying KVL:
Vs1 V2 V1 Vs 2
Vs1 V2 V1 Vs 2 0
Q.
Calculate values of V1 and V2 across 4 and 5 resistor by KVL.
5V
1V
3V
4
+ V1
6V
2V
5
+ V2
Soln. Applying KVL

6 + 3 + 1 5 4I 2I 2 5I = 0
3 = 11I, I
3
Amp
11
V1 = 4I = 4
3
11
V2 = 5I = 5
Q.
12
11
volt
3
15
=
volt
11
11
Calculate VAB in the given circuit

2
5V
I1
10V
2V
2
X
I2
6
Soln. KVL at loop 1: (Left loop)
4I1 2I1 + 5 = 0, I1 = 5/6 Amp
KVL at loop 2: (Right loop)
10 2I2 5I2 = 0
10
Amp, VAB = VAX + VXY + VYB
7
I2 =
Q.
5
10
20
20
32
= 4 2 2
= 2
=
6
7
6
7
21
The value of I1 in the circuit is
VAB 1.53Volt
3A
5A
8V +
2V +
I1
Soln. The circuit can be redrawn in the form of voltage source as [Current voltage source]
7
15V
45V
+
9
+
2V
8V +
I1
Applying KVL
8 7I 15 5I + 45 9I 2V = 0
53 17 21 I = 0, I =
36
21
I 1.71
Kirchoff Current Law (KCL)

(i)
KCL states that algebraic sum of all current meeting at a point is equal to zero.
(ii)
KCL worked on principle of law of conservation of charge.

I1
I5
I2
I3
I4
I1 + I2 + I3 I4 I5 = 0
I1 +I 2 +I3 =I4 +I5
7
Q.
Calculate the values of V1 and V2 by KCL:

V1
V2
6A
Soln. Applying KCL at node 1: 6 =

KCL at node (2) :
3V
V1 V1 V2
1
2
... (1)
3 V2 V2 V2 V1

1
3
2
... (2)
By solving equation (1) and (2);

We get V1 = 5V and V2 = 3V
Limitations of KVL and KCL:
KCL and KVL will fail for the high frequency circuit.
KVL and KCL will fail in distributed elements since in distributed element it is not possible to separate
effect of R, L, C.
Source Transformation:
V
R
I
V/R
Series Combination of Batteries:

R
2R
R
V2
V1 V2
V1
Parallel combination of current sources:
R1
I1
Q.
R2
I2
I1+I2
R1 || R2
Obtain single current source for network shown

A
Soln.
18V +
+ 10V
3A
2A
5A
2.73
8
Q.
Convert given circuit into a single voltage source

X
8A
12A
6
Y
X
Soln.
10
4
+ 32V
+ 104V
6
+ 72V
Linear and non-linear Elements:

A linear network shows linear characteristics of voltage versus current. For a non-linear element the
current passing through it does not change linearly with the linear change in applied voltage at a
particular frequency. Semiconductor devices are usually examples of non-linear element.
In V.I. relation if output is zero for zero input and relation is linear then it is called linear network or
element obeys ohms law.
V = ki linear
V = ki 2 Non-linear
V = 2i + 3 Non-linear
V = in Non-linear
V
I
Linear
i
Non-Linear
Simple resistors inductors and print at end capacitors are linear elements and their resistance inductance
and capacitances do not change with a change in applied voltage on the circuit current .
Active and Passive Elements:
If a circuit element has the capability of enhancing the energy level of a signal passing through it then
it is called an active element. Vacuum tubes and semiconductor devices are active elements on the
other hand resistors, inductors, capacitors, thermistors etc. are passive elements as they do not have
any intrinsic mean of signal boosting.
In V-I relation if any portion has V-I value as negative then it is active network.
Bilateral and Unilateral Element:
If the magnitude of the current passing through an element is affected due to change in polarity of
polarity of the applied voltage then element is called unilateral element. On the other hand if current
magnitude remains the same even if the applied voltages polarity is changed then it is called a bilateral
elements.
If by changing variable relation between both dependent variable and independent variable remains
same then it is called bilateral network otherwise unilateral network.
9
Mesh Analysis:
Mesh is a property of a planner circuit and is undefined for a non-planner circuit.
We define a mesh as A loop that does not contain any other loops within it.
Fig. (a)
[Planner]
Fig. (b)
[Non-Planner]
No branch passes over or under any other branch

Network Theorem:
Superposition Theorem:
The statement of superposition theorem follows as below:
In any linear bilateral network having more than one source, response in any one of the branches
is equal to algebraic sum of the response caused by individual source while rest of the sources are
replaced by their internal impedances.
Note:
The principle of superposition is useful for linearly test of the system.
This is not valid for power relationship.
Sources can be made inoperative by
(a) Shot circuiting the voltage sources

(b) Open circuiting the current sources
A linear network comprises independent sources, linear dependent source and linear passive elements
like resistor, inductor, capacitor and transformer. Moreover, the components may either be time
varying or time invariant.
Other Definition: The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) on element
in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltage across (or current through) that element due to
each independent source acting alone.
Q.
Calculate value of V for the given circuit by using superposition theorem.
8
6V +
+
4 V
Soln. At one time only effect of one source is considered. Voltage source is short circuited and current
source is open circuited.
Since there are two sources, So, V = V 1 + V2
10
Let V1 is the voltage across 4 ohm due to 6V voltage source alone (in this case current source is
open circuited).
8
+
4 V1
6V +
V1
6
4,
84
V1
6
4 2V
12
Let V2 is the voltage due to 3A current source alone (in this case voltage source is short circuited).
8
+
4 V2
Q.
3A
3=
V2 V2
,
4 8
3=
V2
{2 1}
8
V2 8 volts
So total voltage V is V = V1 + V2 = 2 + 8 = 10 volt

Calculate the value of V0 by use of superposition theorem.
3
+
V0 2
+ 20V
8A
Soln. Since there are two sources so total voltage due to both sources will be V0 V1 V2
Let V1 is the voltage only due to 8A current source, (In this case 20V source is short circuited)
3
+
V1 2
i1
3
+
V0 2
8A
+ 20V
8 5
4 A , V = 2 4 = 8 volt
1
3 2 5
Let V2 is voltage due to 20V source alone

V2
20
2 , V = 4 volt, V = V + V = 8 + 4 V0 12 volt
2
0
1
2
10
Thevenins Theorem:
Any two terminal linear bilateral network can be replaced by a voltage source in series with impedance.
Zth
A
N/W
B
+ V
th
B
11
Calculation of Thevenins equivalent for independent source:
For Calculation of Rth: All independent current sources are open circuited and all independent voltage
sources are short circuited.
For Calculation of Vth: Voltage across open circuit terminal.
Calculation of Thevenins equivalent for dependent source:
For calculation of Vth: Voltage is calculated across open circuited terminal by assuming current zero in that
terminal.
For calculation of Rth: First Ise is calculated by assuming short-circuited terminal and then Rth is calculated
by
Q.
RTh VTh / I Sc
For the given circuit calculate the power loss in the 1 ohm resistor by use of thevenins theorem.
X
1
10
2A
+ 10V
Soln. For calculation of Vth branch XY terminal is assumed as open circuited and let voltage is Vth-
2A
I1
10
X Vx
+ 10V
2 = I1 + I2 , 2 =
I2
+ Y V
y
3
Vx 10 Vx
1 1
, 2 = Vx 1 , Vx 3
10
10
5
10 5
Vx 10 Volts , Vx V y 5 2 10
VTh 10 Volt
For Calculation of RTh: (If dependent source is present) 2A current source is open circuited and 10V
source is short circuited and let resistance is RTh :
10
ITh
Q.
RTh
RTh
10 5
10
3.3 ,
, RTh
10 5
3
VTh
10
2.31A
RTh RL 3.33 I
Find the current through the 5 resistor in the circuit by use of Thevenins theorem.
2
2A
+ 5V
12
Soln. For calculation of VTh = 5 ohm resistor is open circuited and so current in 5 ohm will be zero.
VTh Vab 5V
2
a
2A
+ 5V
For Calculating RTh: 2A current source is open circuited and 5V source is short circuited.
2
a
1
RTh =
VTh
5
03
1A
0 , IL
RTh RL 5 10
3 0
Nortons Theorem: Any two terminal linear bilateral network containing active and passive element can be
replaced by an equivalent current source in parallel to an equivalent impedance current source.
A
A
N/W
ZN
IN
Z N ZTh
B
Note:
RTh
IN
RN
+ VTh
(a) Thevenin's equivalent circuit
(b) Norton's equivalent circuit
Both of the above circuits are convertible to each other with the relations given as below:
RTh RN , VTh I N RN I N RTh

Q.
Find the Nortons equivalent circuit across a-b for the network shown in figure:
a
5
5A
2V
5
5A
Soln.
Isc
2V
13
2 + 5(5 + Isc) = 0, Isc =
2 5 10

25 7
RTh
Q.
2
5 = 0.4 5
5
I sc 4.6 A
RTh 1.43
Find Nortons equivalent to the right of a-b terminal (across 3V source)

a
10
+ 3V
i0 = 1A
Soln. The equivalent circuit after shorting ab terminal.

10
Isc
10
V
+ i0 = 1A
5
i1
(b)
[To calculate RTh]
(a)
i0 = i1 + Isc, I = i1 +
V
10
V V
3V
10
1
,I=
,V=
and Isc =
= 0.33A RTh 10 5 15
5 10
10
3
3
Reciprocity Theorem:
A linear network is said to be reciprocal or bilateral if it remains invariant due to the interchange of
position of cause and effect in the network.

For verification of the reciprocity theorem following conditions must be satisfied.
Circuit should consist of linear, time-invariant bilateral element.
Circuit should consist of only a single independent sources.
When circuit consist dependent source, reciprocity theorem can not be verified.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem: Maximum power transferred from source to load is only possible
when
(i) Source impedance = Load impedance
(ii) Thevenin impedance = Load impedance
For DC Circuits:
I=
X
RTh
X I
DC
Source
Network
RL
+ V
Th
RL
(Load connected to the do source network)
(Equivalent source network and load)
14
I
VTh
RTh RL
while the power delivered to the resistance load is

2
V0
PL I RL
RL
RTh RL
2
.... (i)
Differentiating equation (i) with respect to RL and equating to zero. We get RL RTh
Hence, it has been provided that power transfer from a dc source network to a resistance network
is maximum when the internal resistance of the dc source network is equal to the load resistance.
Again value of that maximum power is,
Pmax
VTh2 RTh
VTh2
( RTh RTh )2 4 RTh
Pmax
or
The total power supplied is thus: P 2
VTh2
4 RL
VTh2
4 RTh
[ RTh R2 ]
VTh2
2 RTh
During maximum power transfer the efficiency becomes,
Pmax
100%
P
VTh2
4R
2Th 100%
VTh
2 RTh
50%
So that efficiency in this case is 50% i.e. half of the total power is transferred to the load RL.
[Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for ac circuits]
Consider the Thevenins equivalent circuit for an ac network as shown below:
ZTh
VTh ~
ZL
, Z R JX
Here, ZTh RTh JX

Th
L
L
L
Now let us consider different cases for maximum power transfer.
Case-1: Both RL and XL are variable

When both RL and XL are variable then maximum power from source to load will be transferred if
load impedances is complex conjugate of internal impedance of the network.

*
i.e. Z L ZTh
In this case maximum power (active) will be calculated as Pmax
VTh2
4 RL
15
Also during maximum power transfer efficiency will be 50%.

Case-2: RL is variable but XL is constant.
|
In this case maximum power will be transferred when, RL | ZTh JX
L
or RL RTh2 ( X Th X L )2
RL
Efficiency can be calculated as R R 100 %

Th
L
Efficiency comes out to be greater than 50% 50%
Case-3: Load impedance is purely resistive.
In this case maximum power will be transferred when, RL | ZTh |
Efficiency comes out to be greater than 50%.
Case-4: RL and XL are variable but the impedance angle is constant i.e.
X
Q tan 1 L
and
Z L RL JX
L
R
Constant
In this case maximum power will be transferred when, Z L ZTh

Q.
Calculate value of R in circuit such that maximum power transfer takes place and also calculate
amount of this power.
1
4V +
6V
+
RTh
Soln.
Above circuit can be solved by Thevenins theorem: VTh
To find RTh
To find VTh open load R 4V +
RTh (2 ||1) 5 ||1
RTh
RTh 0.85
VTh
VTh 6.4V
16
VTh2
(6.4) 2
12W
Maximum Power =
4 RTh 4 0.85
Q.
Assuming maximum power transfer from source to load R calculate the value of R and maximum
value of power transferred.
50V
1
+
Soln. VTh across XY =
Pmax
10
R
Y
100
25
V, RTh across XY =
3
3
VTh2
(100 / 3)2 100
=
Watt
25
4 RTh
3
4
3
17
Assignment - Network Theory
1.
A segment of a circuit is shown in figure VR = 5V, VC = 4 sin 2t. The voltage VL is given by
Q
+
1A 5 VR
2A
+
2H VL
2.
1F
+V
c
(a) 3 8 cos 2t
(b) 32 sin 2t
(c) 16 sin 2t
(d) 16 cos 2t
In the circuit of figure, the magnitudes of VL and VC are twice that of VR. Given that f = 50 Hz, the
inductance of coil is
VR
5
5<0
3.
(a) 2.14 mH
In the figure value of R is
C VC
(b) 5.30 H
VL
(c) 31.8 mH
(d) 1.32 H
R
14
10A
5A
2
100V +
4.
+ 40V
(a) 10
(b) 18
(c) 24
In figure, the potential difference between points P and Q is
(d) 12
2A
P
R
10V
(a) 12V
(b) 10V
In figure, the value of resistance R in is
10
100V +
(a) 10
(b) 20
5.
(c) 6V
(d) 8V
2A
R
10
(c) 30
(d) 40
18
6.
The RMS value of the voltage u(t) = 3 + 4 cos (3t)

(a)
7.
17 V
(b) 5V
(c) 7V
(d) (3 2 2)V
Assuming ideal element in the circuit shown below, the voltage Vab will be
a
+ 5V
Vab
1A
i
b
8.
(a) 3V
(b) 0V
(c) 3V
The current through the 2k resistance in the circuit shown is
1k
(d) 5V
C 1k
2k
D 1k
1k
6V
9.
(a) 0mA
(b) 1mA
The time constant for the given circuit will be
1F
1F
10.
(c) 2ma
(d) 6mA
3
3A
1F
(a) 1/gs
(b) 1/4s
(c) 4s
(d) gs
In the circuit given below, the value of R required for the transfer of maximum power to the load
having a resistance of 3 is
R
10V
11.
Load
(a) 0
(b) 3
(c) 6
The r.m.s. value of the current i(t) in the circuit shown below is
1F
(d)
1H
1
i(t)
7
~
(1 sin t) v
(a)
1
A
2
(b)
1
A
2
(c) 1A
(d)
2A
19
12.
In the given figure, the Thevenins equivalent pair (voltage, impedance), as seen at the terminals P
Q, is given by
(a) (2V,5)
13.
10
10
4V
20
Unknown
Network
(b) (3V,5)
(c) (4V,5)
(d) (2V, 7.5)
In the circuit shown, the power supplied by the voltage source is

1
+ 10V
1A
2A
1
1
14.
(a) 0W
(b) 5W
The voltage e0 in the figure is:
(c) 10W
(d) 100W
15.
16V
6
10
8A
12
+
e0
(a) 48V
(b) 24V
(c) 36V
In the circuit of figure, the value of the voltage source E is
(d) 28V
0V
+
+
2V 1V
E
+ +
V1 4V
10V
V2
16.
(a) 16V
(b) 4V
The voltage V in figure is equal to:
(c) 6V
(d) 16V
4V
5V +
+ 4V
2
3
+V
17.
(a) 3V
The voltage in figure is
(b) 3V
+
V
(c) 5V
(d) None of these
3
+ 10V
2A
(a) 10V
(b) 15V
(c) 5V
(d) None of these
20
18.
What is the value of R required for maximum power transfer in network shown above?
4
5
20
25V
19.
3A
(a) 2
(b) 4
The voltage across the terminal a and b in figure is:
a
(c) 8
1V
(d) 16
3A
b
20.
21.
(a) 0.5V
(b) 3.0V
The nodal method of circuit analysis is based on
(a) KVL and ohms law
(c) KCL and KVL
The current i4 in the current of figure is equal to:
(c) 3.5V
(d) 4.0V
(b) KCL and Ohms law

(d) KCL, KVL and Ohms law
5A
3A
7A
i4
22.
i3 = 4A
(a) 12A
(b) 12A
(c) 4A
(d) None of these
Thevenin equivalent voltage VAB and resistance RTh across the terminals AB in the above circuit are
3
2
10V
3
(a) 6V,5
23.
(b) 4V, 5
(c) 2V, 2.4
(d) 2V, 2.5
The differential equation for the current i(t) in the circuit of the figure is
+
sin t
(a) 2
d 2i
di
2 i (t ) sin t
2
dt
dt
d 2i
di
(c) 2 2 2 i (t ) cos t
dt
dt
i(+) 2
2H
1F
(b)
d 2i
di
2 2i (t ) cos t
2
dt
dt
d 2i
di
(d) 2 2 2i(t ) sin t
dt
dt
21
24.
The RC circuit shown in the figure is

C
Vi
V0
25.
(a) a low-pass filter

(b) a high-pass filter
(c) a band-pass filter
(d) a band-regeat filter
In the circuit shown below, the value of RL such that the power transferred to RL is maximum.
10
10
10
+ 5V
26.
1A
(a) 5
(b) 10
(c) 15
Find the value of C to deliver the maximum power to load.
+ 2 2 sin 2t
J2
29.
J2
(b) (2 J 2)
ZL
(c) ( J 2 )
(d) 2
The voltage across a capacitor is triangular in waveform. The waveform of current is

(a) triangular
(b) trapezoidal
(c) Sinusoidal
(d) Rectangular
The value of Rin of the network
1
1
Rin
1
1
1
1
1
1
(d)
3
2
The maximum power that can be distributed in the load in the circuit shown is
(a) 1.62
30.
(d) 4
J2
+
Vs ~
28.
4 Load
(a) 0.125F
(b) 0.5F
(c) 2F
Find ZL such that maximum power is transferred to it.
(a) (2 J 2)
(d) 20
1H
27.
RL
+ 2V
(b) 2
(c)
1
6
9V
RL
10
(a) 0.396 W
(b) 6W
(c) 6.75W
(d) 13.5W
22
31.
Find Vx from the given circuit.

5
+
Vx 10
10A
32.
50
(a) 42.2 V
(b) 83.3 V
5
If Vc(f) = 4 cos (10 t)V in the circuit, find Vs.
(c) 97.3V
(d) 103V
2mH
+
80nF Vc
Vs +
33.
(a) 6.4 cos 105 t V

(b) 2.4 cos 105 t V
(c) 6.4 cos 105 t V
(d) 2.4 cos 105 t V
Determine the current through the branch AB of network shown below.
A
J5
5<A
J5
+ 10V
J10
B
34.
(a) 3.5 + J 1.5

(b) 3.5 J 1.5
Thevenin equivalent circuit is given by
2
4V +
(c) 1.5 + J 3.5

3
(d) 1.5 J 3.5
Vx/4000
Vx
35.
(a) 4V and 10K

(b) 4V and 6K
(c) 8V and 10K (d) 8V and 6K
What is the ratio of currents in the circuit due to 3A and 2A source? Current is taken through R.
100
3A
(a)
3
2
(b)
100
100= R
2
3
2A
(c)
9
4
(d)
4
9
23
ANSWER KEY
1.
(b)
2. (c)
3. (d)
4. (c)
5. (b)
6.
(a)
7. (a)
8. (a)
9. (c)
10. (a)
11.
(b)
12. (a)
13. (a)
14. (d)
15. (a)
16.
(a)
17. (a)
18. (c)
19. (c)
20. (b)
21.
(b)
22. (b)
23. (c)
24. (c)
25. (c)
26.
(a)
27. (d)
28. (d)
29. (a)
30. (a)
31.
(b)
32. (d)
33. (a)
34. (c)
35. (a)

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1

CHAPTER 1: NETWORK THEORY

Conventional current flow from high to low potential.

Electron current flow from low to high potential

In both case I and case II: V iR

where l = length of conductor, A = Area of conductor, = resistivity of conductor..

q = Coulombs, t = sec, i = Amp

In analytical circuit external force is provided by emf and it is given by

where a differential amount of charge dq is given a differential increase in energy dW.

is directly proportional to the current i flowing through it. That is

Ohms law can also be expressed in terms of conductance G as

G = Conductance [mho or Siemens]

J E J ........... Current density (A/m2),

E ........... Electric field intensity (V/m)

d = distance between plates, A = Area of cross section of each conducting plates

So under steady state i.e. at t

Capacitor acts as open circuit:

where, L is constant of proportionality and is called self inductance.

Therefore, there is an induced emf in coil B, which is equal to

As (di/dt) is directly proportional to ( d / dt ) . Comparison of these two equation gives

And circuit behaves like shots circuit.

Voltage Divider Rule:

Current Division Rule:

Same for Inductor:

Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL):

Calculate values of V1 and V2 across 4 and 5 resistor by KVL.

Soln. Applying KVL

Calculate VAB in the given circuit

Kirchoff Current Law (KCL)

KCL worked on principle of law of conservation of charge.

I1 +I 2 +I3 =I4 +I5

Calculate the values of V1 and V2 by KCL:

Soln. Applying KCL at node 1: 6 =

By solving equation (1) and (2);

Series Combination of Batteries:

Parallel combination of current sources:

Obtain single current source for network shown

Convert given circuit into a single voltage source

Linear and non-linear Elements:

No branch passes over or under any other branch

This is not valid for power relationship.

Sources can be made inoperative by

(a) Shot circuiting the voltage sources

So total voltage V is V = V1 + V2 = 2 + 8 = 10 volt

Let V2 is voltage due to 20V source alone

(a) Thevenin's equivalent circuit

(b) Norton's equivalent circuit

RTh RN , VTh I N RN I N RTh

Find Nortons equivalent to the right of a-b terminal (across 3V source)

Soln. The equivalent circuit after shorting ab terminal.

position of cause and effect in the network.

Circuit should consist of linear, time-invariant bilateral element.

Circuit should consist of only a single independent sources.

(Load connected to the do source network)

(Equivalent source network and load)

while the power delivered to the resistance load is

( RTh RTh )2 4 RTh

The total power supplied is thus: P 2

During maximum power transfer the efficiency becomes,

Here, ZTh RTh JX

Case-1: Both RL and XL are variable

load impedances is complex conjugate of internal impedance of the network.

In this case maximum power (active) will be calculated as Pmax

Also during maximum power transfer efficiency will be 50%.