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Wednesday, 24 October 2012

How Translucent Concrete Works
by Chris Opfer
Source: http://home.howstuffworks.com/homeimprovement/construction/materials/translucent-concrete.htm

Browse the article How Translucent Concrete Works

Image Gallery: Home Construction

Translucent concrete lines this interior of the Bank of Georgia building in Tbilisi,
Georgia. Though the lights are off, the room still appears luminous. See more home
construction pictures.
LUCEM
How Translucent Concrete Works
No sun will shine in my day today;
The high yellow moon won't come out to play:
I said darkness has covered my light,
And has changed my day into night, yeah
Bob Marley, "Concrete Jungle"
Slum life, political strife, an absentee father; there's little that could keep reggae
superstar and eternal optimist Bob Marley down. That is, of course, except for a lack
of sunlight. While Marley's short stint as a factory worker yielded this gloomy look at
life surrounded by concrete, the traditionally dim building blocks are getting a
makeover designed to finally let some light shine in.
Translucent concrete isn't exactly "see-through," but the new building material
draws on optical fibers to transmit light through it while retaining the density that

has literally made concrete the cornerstone of buildings around the world [source:
Litracon].
The fiber strands, which attract and transmit both natural and artificial light, make
up about 5 percent of a translucent concrete block's surface volume. The fibers are
mixed with traditional concrete components -- water, sand and cement -- and are
distributed evenly throughout the surface. Through the resulting translucent panels,
a viewer can clearly see the outline of an object on the opposite side of the
concrete. Despite this clarity, however, translucent concrete retains its stout, crack
resistant, load-bearing quality [sources: Kim, Portland Cement Association]
The light transmitting material is largely believed to have been invented by
Hungarian architect Aron Losonczi, who began developing pre-fabricated
translucent concrete blocks he called LiTraCon (light transmitting concrete) in 2004,
just three years after graduating from Budapest's Technical University. Here, the
manufacturer hand-molds large pieces of concrete, embedding thousands of strands
of optic fiber in the material at the same time. The concrete is then cut into
individual blocks (the smallest are about 48 x 14 inches, or 1.22 x .35 meters). The
parallel fiber strands create two distinct grain-type surfaces: one bright and the
other dark [sources: Litracon, Graydon, Hanlon].
Now you know what translucent concrete is, but how -- exactly -- is it used? Read on
to find out.

Another example of translucent concrete.

LUCEM
How is Translucent Concrete Used?
Drab, dull and depressing, concrete has long been associated with penitentiary-like
office buildings, ugly patios and unfinished basements. With its light-transmitting
properties, however, translucent concrete has the power to potentially transform

the interior of concrete buildings, making them appear fresh, open and spacious.
While the glass and plastic fibers imbedded in the material make it cost-prohibitive
in many large-scale construction projects, LiTraCon and other types of light
transmitting concrete are finding their way into a smattering of structures around
the globe [sources: Inventables, Hanlon].
Since its development, translucent concrete has been used to create partition walls,
stairs, decorative tiles and even lamps. One of LiTraCon's first public uses, for
example, was in a public square in Stockholm, Sweden. By day, the square's
sidewalk looks as though it were made of ordinary concrete, but the translucent
surface lights up at night when the colored lights beneath the surface illuminate
[sources: Inventables, Portland Cement Association]. Meanwhile over in eastern
Europe, the newly renovated Bank of Georgia headquarters building features almost
300 square meters (3,229 square feet) of translucent concrete made by German
manufacturer LUCEM, including LED-lit wall panels [sources: Lucem, Kim].
While translucent concrete is one of the most interesting new takes on the
historically stiff and uninspiring building material, it's not the only one. In 2005,
Michigan's Department of Transportation used "bendable" concrete to retrofit a
bridge in Ypsilanti. Featuring coated fibers that slide within the cement, this
reinforced building material is 500 times more resistant to cracks and about 40
percent lighter than traditional concrete. At the same time, manufacturers have also
developed "self-reinforcing" concrete, which draws on steel fibers to make the
material more resistant to cracks and bridge those that occur [sources: Hanlon,
Rao].
Concrete: It bends, fixes its own breaks and now it even lets some light in. Check
out the links on the next page for more information on concrete, how it works and
how it can be used.
Author's Note
It's no small miracle that in my 30-plus years on this planet I've yet to walk into a
closed glass or screen door. I am, according to many who know me, a "dreamer." Or,
according to some of the women I've dated, "aloof." Either way, I'm often lost in my
own thoughts, whether it be walking down the street without a clue of my original
destination or at a candle-lit dinner vaguely suspecting that the person across from
me just said something deep and compelling, but having not the faintest idea as to
what it was. So while I enjoy a hearty laugh at any unsuspecting dufus who -- so
excited about being the first person to the barbecue -- doesn't realize that semitransparent door in front of him is closed before walking into it, I also realize that it
is only a matter of time until I am that dufus. Now that we have translucent
concrete to look forward to, my oblivion may be a bit more painful.
Related Articles

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Sources
Graydon, Oliver. "Concrete casts new light in dull rooms." Optics.org. March 11,
2004 (April 6, 2012) http://optics.org/article/19184
Hanlon, Mike. "Bendable Concrete." Gizmag. May 6, 2005. (April 6, 2012)
http://www.gizmag.com/go/4019/
Hanlon, Mike. "Heavyweight transparency - Light Transmitting Concrete." Gizmag.
Jan. 26, 2005. (April 6, 2012) http://www.gizmag.com/go/5093/
Inventables. "Translucent Concrete." (April 6, 2012)
https://www.inventables.com/technologies/translucent-concrete
Kim, Sun Joo. "Concrete you can see through." SmartPlanet. Oct. 24, 2011 (April 6,
2012)
http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/design-architecture/concrete-you-can-seethrough/1366?tag=content;siu-container
Kim, Sun Joo. "The Bank of Georgia's translucent concrete lined headquarters."
SmartPlanet. Feb. 22, 2012 (April 6, 2012).
http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/design-architecture/the-bank-of-georgiastranslucent-concrete-lined-headquarters/4385
Litracon. "LiTraCon." (April 6, 2012) http://www.litracon.hu/product.php?id=7
Lucem. "Nbank of Beorgia, Tbilisi." (April 6, 2012) http://www.lucem.de/index.php?
id=215&L=1
Portland Cement Association. "Casting Concrete in a Decorative Light." (April 6,
2012)
http://www.cement.org/decorative/translucent.asp

Rao, B. Krishna. "Steel Fiber Reinforced Self-Compacting Concrete Incorporating

Class F Fly Ash." International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology. 2010
(April 6, 2012) http://www.ijest.info/docs/IJEST10-02-09-85.pdf

Posted by Syazli Fathi at 21:32 2 comments:

NEW MATERIALS IN CONSTRUCTION (CONCRETE)
Sunday, 19 February 2012
Source: http://constructionduniya.blogspot.com/2012/02/new-materials-inconstruction-concrete.html
The development and application of new materials in construction continually adds
to the choices and decisions facing clients, designers and all responsible for building
and construction. They continually seek greater and more reliable information about
the serviceability in order that they meet more stringent design, safety and
economic criteria.
Ever since Thomas Edison patented portland cement in 1907, it has been used for a
variety of different uses. Sidewalks, buildings, sinks, and furniture are but a few of
the products made from cement in the form of concrete. Cement is the dry powder
that when mixed with other additives and water makes concrete. Over the past
decade, new types of concrete and cement have been formulated that do
everything from bend, to grow plants, and let light through.
In 2005, researchers at the University of Michigan created a bendable form of
concrete that is "500 times more resistant to cracking and 40 percent lighter in
weight." This new type of concrete has substituted the gross aggregate normally
used in the making of concrete, for thin fibers. Projects in Japan, Korea, Switzerland,
and Australia have already used this new bendable concrete. Unfortunately, the
country in which it was created has been slow to adopt its use.
BETO ORGNICO was created in 2005 by "Lisbon-based architects and designers
e-studio." This organic concrete blends organic and inorganic material together to
create a living surface. Concrete retains water, as such the concrete is used as a
"battery" to provide water during dry spells for the plant life growing on it. Rather
than having grass growing between concrete slabs, it is now possible to have the
grass grow on the concrete slabs. These slabs could be added to outside walls to
create living siding and provide plants to soak up CO2.
LiTraCon is a Hungarian concrete product developed seven years ago by architect
Ron Losonczi. By impregnating the concrete with optical glass fibers, light can be
transmitted from the outside in or inside out. This concrete has the same strength

as regular concrete and will continue to transmit light through walls up to twenty
meters (twenty-two feet) thick.
Finally, Tececo has developed an eco-cement that absorbs CO2 from the
environment. By adding reactive magnesia to the cement, water and CO2 are
absorbed and harden. Other waste products, such as "fly and bottom ash, slags,
plastics, paper glass etc" can also be added to the cement without affecting the
CO2 absorption.
These new types of cement and concrete give architects and designers more
choices for creating truly different looks. Normally, you think of ugly concrete walls
or slabs. Now concrete can not only be bent, but used as a basis for plants and light
effects.

Development of new types of concrete with improved performance is a very

important issue for the whole building industry. This development is based on the
optimisation of the concrete mix design, with an emphasis not only to the
workability and mechanical properties but also to the durability and the reliability of
the concrete structures in general. Appearance of the new types of concrete
requires a revision and improvement of existing structural systems and actual
building technologies. The economical aspect are of importance as well.

BASIC CONCEPT ABOUT CONCRETE

Concrete is a construction material composed of cement (commonly Portland
cement) as well as other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement,
aggregate (generally a coarse aggregate such as gravel limestone or granite, plus a
fine aggregate such as sand), water, and chemical admixtures. The word concrete
comes from the Latin word "concretus", which means "hardened" or "hard".
Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and placement due to a
chemical process known as hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which
bonds the other components together, eventually creating a stone-like material.
Concrete is used to make pavements, architectural structures, foundations,
motorways/roads, bridges/overpasses, parking structures, brick/block walls and
footings for gates, fences and poles.
More concrete is used than any other man-made material in the world.[1] As of
2006, about 7 cubic kilometres of concrete are made each yearmore than one
cubic metre for every person on Earth.[2] Concrete powers a $US 35-billion industry
which employs more than two million workers in the United States alone.[citation
needed] More than 55,000 miles (89,000 km) of highways in America are paved

with this material. The People's Republic of China currently consumes 40% of the
world's cement/concrete production.

A superplasticizer is one of a class of admixtures called water-reducers that are

used to lower the mix water requirement of concrete. Normal water-reducers based
on lignosulphonic acids, hydroxycarboxylic acids or processed carbohydrates are
capable of reducing water requirements by about 10 to 15 per cent. Incorporating
larger amounts to produce higher water reductions results in undesirable effects on
setting, air content, bleeding, segregation and hardening characteristics.
Superplasticizers are chemically different from normal water-reducers, and are
capable of reducing water contents by about 30 per cent. They are variously known
as superplasticizers, superfluidizers, superfluidifiers, super water-reducers or high
range water-reducers. Since they were first introduced in Japan about 15 years ago
they have been used to produce several million cubic metres of concrete; in the
construction of the Olympic stadium in Montreal alone, 5000 precast concrete units
were produced utilizing superplasticizers.
The basic advantages of superplasticizers include, (1) high workability of concrete,
resulting in easy placement without reduction in cement content and strength; (2)
high strength concrete with normal workability but lower water content; and (3) a
concrete mix with less cement but normal strength and workability.
Superplasticizers are broadly classified in four groups, viz, sulphonated melamineformaldehyde condensates (SMF), sulphonated naphthalene-formaldehyde
condensates (SNF), modified lignosulphonates (MLS), and others including sulphonic
acid esters, carbohydrate esters, etc. variations exist in each of these classes and
some formulations may contain a second ingredient. Most available data, however,
pertain to SMF- and SNF-based admixtures. They are supplied either as solids or as
aqueous solutions. In this Digest the dosage refers to the solid as a percentage of
the weight of cement.

TYPES OF CONCRETE

Ever since Thomas Edison patented Portland cement in 1907, it has been used for a
variety of different uses. Sidewalks, buildings, sinks, and furniture are but a few of
the products made from cement in the form of concrete. Cement is the dry powder
that when mixed with other additives and water makes concrete. Over the past
decade, new types of concrete and cement have been formulated that do
everything from bend, to grow plants, and let light through.

BENDABLE CONCRETE :

The new concrete is 500 times more resistant to cracking and 40 percent
lighter in weight. The materials in the concrete itself are designed for maximum
flexibility. The Engineered Cement Composites technology has been used already on
projects in Japan, Korea, Switzerland and Australia, but has had slow adoption in the
US. Traditional concrete presents many problems: lack of durability and
sustainability, failure under severe loading, and the resulting expenses of repair.
ECC should address most of those problems. The ductile, or bendable, concrete is
made mainly of the same ingredients in regular concrete minus the coarse
aggregate. It looks exactly like regular concrete, but under excessive strain, the ECC
concrete gives because the network of fibers veining the cement is allowed to slide
within the cement, thus avoiding the inflexibility that causes brittleness and
breakage.
The Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT) used the ECC to
replace part of a bridge that crosses Interstate 94. The slab eliminated the need for
expansion joints, which are moveable steel teeth that separate sections of regular
concrete. With the ECC, a longer continuous slab is possible.
The Mihara Bridge, a new structure in Hokkaido, Japan, has a deck of ECC
that is a mere 2 inches (5 centimeters) thick.
Studies suggest ECC should last twice as long as regular concrete, but the
researchers said more tests are needed to confirm that claim. Professor Victor Li
estimates that over the course of 60 years, with servicing and replacement costs
considered, a bridge made of ECC could be cost 37 percent less than a traditional
span.

LITRACON :

LiTraCon ("light transmitting concrete") is a translucent concrete building

material made of fine concrete embedded with 5% by weight of optical glass fibers.
It was developed in 2001 by Hungarian architect Aron Losonczi working with
scientists at the Technical University of Budapest.
The days of dull, grey concrete could be about to end. The Hungarian
architect has combined the world's most popular building material with optical fibre
from Schott to create a new type of concrete that transmits light.
A wall made of "LitraCon" allegedly has the strength of traditional
concrete and an embedded array of glass fibers that can display a view of the
outside world, such as the silhouette of a tree, for example. Thousands of optical
glass fibres form a matrix and run parallel to each other between the two main
surfaces of every block. Shadows on the lighter side will appear with sharp outlines
on the darker one. Even the colours remain the same. This special effect creates the
general impression that the thickness and weight of a concrete wall will disappear.
The hope is that the new material will transform the interior appearance of concrete
buildings by making them feel light and airy rather than dark and heavy.
In theory, a wall structure built out of the light-transmitting concrete can be
a couple of meters thick as the fibers work without any loss in light up to 20 m.
Load-bearing structures can also be built from the blocks as glass fibers do not have
a negative effect on the well-known high compressive strength of concrete. The
blocks can be produced in various sizes with embedded heat isolation too.
Thousands of optical glass fibers form a matrix and run parallel to each other

between the two main surfaces of each block. The proportion of the fibers is very
small (4%) compared to the total volume of the blocks. Moreover, these fibres
mingle in the concrete because of their insignificant size, and they become a
structural component as a kind of modest aggregate. Therefore, the surface of
blocks remains homogeneous concrete. It can be produced as prefabricated building
blocks and panels. Due to the small size of the fibers, they blend into concrete
becoming a component of the material like small pieces of aggregates. In this
manner, the result is not only two materials- glass in concrete- mixed, but a third
new material which is homogeneous in its inner structure and on its main surfaces
as well.
The glass fibers lead light by points between the two sides of the blocks.
Because of their parallel position, the light-information on the brighter side of such a
wall appears unchanged on the darker side. The most interesting form of this
phenomenon is probably the sharp display of shadows on the opposing side of the
wall.
If more and more buildings begin using this technology, more natural light
can be used to light offices and stores. This could lead to huge drops in the amount
of electricity used to light buildings, since they'd be naturally lit during the day. Also,
people who get exposure to the sun are generally happier and more productive, so
that is another reason for businesses to use this light-transmitting concrete.

TECECO (porecocrete porous concrete) :

One particular eco-friendly product that is generating much attention is Porecocrete Porous Concrete from Asset Rehabilitation / TecEco. By adding reactive
magnesia to the cement, water and CO2 are absorbed and harden. Other waste
products, such as "fly and bottom ash, slag, plastics, paper glass etc" can also be
added to the cement without affecting the CO2 absorption. TecEco porecocretes
represent a large-scale market for eco-cement. Porecocrete porous pavements
mimic nature. Eco-cement sets by absorbing carbon dioxide, as by design it allows
the entry of abundant quantities of the gas through what is an open pore structure.
Using recycled aggregates, concrete cannot get much more sustainable. The main
potential use for porecocretes is to make porous pavement in cities so that people
are less affected by drought. These are pavements with lots of holes in them, and
with subsurface drainage and usually a capacity to store water underneath or in a
reservoir. Surface runoff water either soaks into an aquifer in suitable terrain or is
captured above an impervious layer and drained preferably to underground storage
for further use. Before infiltrating into the subsoil or sub-surface drainage the
process improves water quality by providing surface area and aerobic conditions for
cleansing. Some of the main advantages of Porecocrete Porous Concrete are that
water penetrates through quickly leaving drier and safer surfaces with no standing
water, and a reduction in noise pollution as porous pavements also absorb noise.
Then it leads to less maintenance on nearby buildings and superstructure, as
aquifers would be more regularly replenished resulting in less variable ground
moisture content, reduced ground movement with wet dry cycles. Porous
pavements made with TecEco Eco-Cements would not be attacked by salts and
would last considerably longer than conventional binders such as bitumen (or
asphalt) and Portland cement.

Heat is absorbed by pavements during hot, sunny days and due to the fact that we
have paved all the ground, large cities just get hotter and hotter. The solution is to
let the ground breathe and porous pavements do just that.
In Australia, some parts of the US and several other places in the world, it has been
noted that subdivisions made with porous pavements that also have street trees
can be several degrees cooler than surrounding suburbs.
How do Eco-Cements Work?
Eco-Cements are made by blending reactive magnesia with conventional hydraulic
cements like Portland cement. It is not recommended that large amounts of
pozzolan are added to an Eco-Cement as the pozzolan will compete with the
carbonation reaction of lime and tend to block the carbonation affect slowing it
down. Eco-Cements are environmentally friendly because in permeable substrates
the magnesium oxide will first hydrate using mix water and then carbonate forming
significant amounts of strength giving minerals in a low alkali matrix. Many different
wastes can be used as aggregates and fillers without reaction problems. The
reactive magnesium oxide used in Eco-Cements is currently made from magnesite
(a carbonate compound of magnesium) found in abundance. In future TecEco hope
to make it from abundant magnesium in sea water using the Greensols process.
When added to concrete magnesia hydrates to magnesium hydroxide, but only in
permeable materials like bricks, blocks, pavers and pervious pavements will it
absorb CO2 and carbonate. The greater proportion of the elongated minerals that
form is water and carbon dioxide. These minerals bond aggregates such as sand
and gravel and wastes such as saw dust, slag, bottom ash, plastics, paper etc. EcoCement can include more waste than other hydraulic cements like Portland cement
because it is much less alkaline, reducing the incidence of delayed reactions that
would reduce the strength of the concrete. Portland cement concretes on the other
hand can't include large amounts of waste because the alkaline lime that forms
causes delayed and disruptive reactions
Eco-Cement Carbonation
The more magnesia added to Eco-Cement and the more permeable it is, the more
CO2 that is absorbed. The rate of absorption of CO2 varies with the degree of
permeability. Carbonation occurs quickly at first and more slowly towards
completion. A typical Eco-Cement concrete block would be expected to fully
carbonate within a year. Eco-Cement also has the ability to be almost fully recycled
back into cement, should the concrete structure become obsolete. .
Steps involved in making Eco-Cement
1. Magnesite (a compound of magnesium) is heated in a kiln to around 600 to 750
degrees C.

The lower firing temperature of the Tec-Kiln makes it easier to use free energy such
as wind or solar or even waste energy and TecEco plan to make a kiln that does not
use fossil fuels and in which the CO2 gases produced from the magnesium
carbonate as it decomposes is captured and contained for further use or safe
disposal.
2. Grinding in the hot area of the Tec-Kiln will result in increased efficiency.
3. The heating process produces reactive magnesium oxide (magnesia).
4. The reactive magnesia powder is added to a pre-determined, but variable
amount of hydraulic cement such as Portland cement, and if desired, supplementary
cementitious materials like fly ash.
5. The resulting blended powder is Eco-Cement.
6. When mixed with water and aggregates such as sand, gravel and wastes, EcoCement concretes are ready for pouring into concrete, pressing into blocks or other
uses.
BETAO ORGANICO :
This type of concrete was created in 2005 by "Lisbon-based architects and
designers e-studio." This organic concrete blends organic and inorganic material
together to create a living surface. Concrete retains water, as such the concrete is
used as a "battery" to provide water during dry spells for the plant life growing on
it. Rather than having grass growing between concrete slabs, it is now possible to
have the grass grow on the concrete slabs. These slabs could be added to outside
walls to create living siding and provide plants to soak up CO2.

SPRAYED CONCRETE :
The technique of sprayed concrete has been in use for over 50 years in
construction, structural repairs and a variety of other applications. The use of
properly applied sprayed concrete is now recognised as being a technically sound
and economic method of applying concrete both for effective repairs and for new
constructions. The sprayed concrete forms and excellent bond with itself, concrete
and masonry. The material is compacted onto the substrate under its own
momentum, resulting in a strong, dense product with good resistance to abrasion
and weathering. Sprayed concrete is extremely versatile and as a free forming
material lends itself to use in the construction industry. This imperviousness and low
water cement ratio gives a durable concrete with a host of proven applications. In
many cases sprayed concrete will out-perform traditional concrete both in strength
and permeability. The elimination of form work, the speed of application, the small
access required and the ability to have the spraying machine and materials over
200 metres from the point of application, result in a large cost saving over other
techniques. With the ever-increasing structural loadings, the technique has proven
particularly suitable for the strengthening of bridges, tunnels and culverts.

The Phaeno Science Center, designed by Zaha Hadid, is the largest building in
Europe constructed from self-consolidating concrete, which requires no vibration to
eliminate air pockets and even out distribution of aggregates. SCC can be placed at
a faster rate with no mechanical vibration and less screeding, allows shorter

construction periods, permits structural and architectural shapes and surface, not
achievable with conventional concrete.

Emmanuel Combarel and Dominique Marrec, two French architects, used Ductal, a
high-performance concrete created by Lafarge in 2001, to build the RATP Bus Center
in Thiais,

HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE:

It is a relatively new term used to describe concrete that conforms to a set of
standards above those of the most common applications, but not limited to
strength. While all high-strength concrete is also high-performance, not all highperformance concrete is high-strength. Some examples of such standards currently
used in relation to HPC are:
Ease of placement
Compaction without segregation
Early age strength
Long-term mechanical properties
Permeability
Density
Heat of hydration
Toughness
Volume stability
Long life in severe environments

SHOTCRETE :
Shotcrete uses compressed air to shoot (cast) concrete onto (or into) a frame
or structure. Shotcrete is frequently used against vertical soil or rock surfaces, as it
eliminates the need for formwork. It is sometimes used for rock support, especially
in tunnelling. Today there are two application methods for shotcrete: the dry-mix
and the wet-mix procedure. In dry-mix the dry mixture of cement and aggregates is
filled into the machine and conveyed with compressed air through the hoses. The
water needed for the hydration is added at the nozzle. In wet-mix, the mixes are
prepared with all necessary water for hydration. The mixes are pumped through the
hoses. At the nozzle compressed air is added for spraying. For both methods
additives such as accelerators and fiber reinforcement may be used.
The term Gunite is occasionally used for shotcrete, but properly refers only to drymix shotcrete, and once was a proprietary name.

PERVIOUS CONCRETE:
Pervious concrete is sometimes specified by engineers and architects
when porosity is required to allow some air movement or to facillitate the drainage
and flow of water through structures. Pervious concrete is referred to as "no fines"
concrete because it is manufactured by leaving out the sand or "fine aggregate". A
pervious concrete mixture contains little or no sand (fines), creating a substantial
void content. Using sufficient paste to coat and bind the aggregate particles
together creates a system of highly permeable, interconnected voids that drains
quickly. Typically, between 15% and 25% voids are achieved in the hardened
concrete, and flow rates for water through pervious concrete are typically around
480 in./hr (0.34 cm/s, which is 5 gal/ft/ min or 200 L/m/min), although they can be
much higher.

Both the low mortar content and high porosity also reduce strength compared to
conventional concrete mixtures, but sufficient strength for many applications is
readily achieved. Pervious concrete pavement is a unique and effective means to
address important environmental issues and support sustainable growth. By
capturing rainwater and allowing it to seep into the ground, porous concrete is
instrumental in recharging groundwater, reducing stormwater runoff, and meeting
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) stormwater regulations. The use of
pervious concrete is among the Best Management Practices (BMPs) recommended
by the EPA, and by other agencies and geotechnical engineers across the country,
for the management of stormwater runoff on a regional and local basis. This
pavement technology creates more efficient land use by eliminating the need for
retention ponds, swales, and other stormwater management devices. In doing so,
pervious concrete has the ability to lower overall project costs on a first-cost basis.
ROLLER-COMPACTED CONCRETE :
It is sometimes called rollcrete, is a low-cement-content stiff concrete placed using
techniques borrowed from earthmoving and paving work. The concrete is placed on
the surface to be covered, and is compacted in place using large heavy rollers
typically used in earthwork. The concrete mix achieves a high density and cures
over time into a strong monolithic block. Roller-compacted concrete is typically used
for concrete pavement, but has also been used to build concrete dams, as the low
cement content causes less heat to be generated while curing than typical for

conventionally placed massive concrete pours.

GLASS CONCRETE:
The use of recycled glass as aggregate in concrete has become popular in modern
times, with large scale research being carried out at Columbia University in New
York. This greatly enhances the aesthetic appeal of the concrete.

ASPHALT CONCRETE
Strictly speaking, asphalt is a form of concrete as well, with bituminous
materials replacing cement as the binder.

Base layer of asphalt concrete in a road under construction

RAPID STRENGTH CONCRETE

This type of concrete is able to develop high resistance within few hours after
been manufactured. This feature has advantages such as removing the formwork
early and to move forward in the building process at record time, repair road
surfaces that become fully operational in just few hours.
RUBBERIZED CONCRETE
While " rubberised concrete" is common, rubberized Portland cement concrete
("rubberized PCC") is still undergoing experimental tests, as of 2007 .

POLYMER CONCRETE
Polymer concrete is concrete which uses polymers to bind the aggregate.
Polymer concrete can gain a lot of strength in a short amount of time. For example,
a polymer mix may reach 5000 psi in only four hours. Polymer concrete is generally
more expensive than conventional concretes.

Polymer concrete coating

High-Strength Concrete

A concrete of high strength can be made without admixtures provided it is mixed

with low amounts of water and has desirable workability characteristics. At low
water. cement ratios however, it is not easy to achieve good workability. As water
reductions of about 25 to 30 per cent can be achieved by using superplasticizers
without loss in workability characteristics, significantly higher initial and ultimate
strengths are realized. Although high cement content may also be used to obtain
high initial strengths in concrete, the higher heat developed by the chemical
reactions produces undesirable cracks and shrinkage.
High early strength development, a characteristic of concrete made using
superplasticizers at low water:cement ratios, is particularly advantageous in the
production of precast units. For prestressed beams and units, which need overnight
heat-curing, use of superplasticizers allows reduction in curing time and curing
temperatures. High early strengths are particularly useful for placing concrete in
traffic areas such as city roads and airport runways. Pumping at reduced water
content is also facilitated by the use of superplasticizers.

In the early 1970s, experts predicted that the practical limit of ready-mixed
concrete would be unlikely to exceed a compressive strength greater than 11,000
psi (76 MPa). Over the past two decades, the development of high-strength concrete
has enabled builders to easily meet and surpass this estimate. Two buildings in
Seattle, Washington, contain concrete with a compressive strength of 19,000 psi
(131 MPa).
The primary difference between high-strength concrete and normal-strength
concrete relates to the compressive strength that refers to the maximum resistance
of a concrete sample to applied pressure. Although there is no precise point of
separation between high-strength concrete and normal-strength concrete, the
American Concrete Institute defines high-strength concrete as concrete with a
compressive strength greater than 6000 psi (41 MPa).
Manufacture of high-strength concrete involves making optimal use of the basic
ingredients that constitute normal-strength concrete. Producers of high-strength
concrete know what factors affect compressive strength and know how to
manipulate those factors to achieve the required strength. In addition to selecting a
high-quality portland cement, producers optimize aggregates, then optimize the
combination of materials by varying the proportions of cement, water, aggregates,
and admixtures.
When selecting aggregates for high-strength concrete, producers consider the
strength of the aggregate, the optimum size of the aggregate, the bond between
the cement paste and the aggregate, and the surface characteristics of the
aggregate. Any of these properties could limit the ultimate strength of high-strength
concrete.

Admixtures
Pozzolans, such as fly ash and silica fume, are the most commonly used mineral
admixtures in high-strength concrete. These materials impart additional strength to
the concrete by reacting with portland cement hydration products to create
additional C-S-H gel, the part of the paste responsible for concrete strength.
It would be difficult to produce high-strength concrete mixtures without using
chemical admixtures. A common practice is to use a superplasticizer in combination
with a water-reducing retarder. The superplasticizer gives the concrete adequate
workability at low water-cement ratios, leading to concrete with greater strength.
The water-reducing retarder slows the hydration of the cement and allows workers
more time to place the concrete.
High-strength concrete is specified where reduced weight is important or where
architectural considerations call for small support elements. By carrying loads more
efficiently than normal-strength concrete, high-strength concrete also reduces the
total amount of material placed and lowers the overall cost of the structure.

The most common use of high-strength concrete is for

construction of high-rise buildings. At 969 ft (295 m), Chicago's 311 South Wacker
Drive uses concrete with compressive strengths up to 12,000 psi (83 MPa) and is
the tallest concrete building in the United States.

HIGH SRENGTH LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE

Lightweight concrete has been used successfully for many years for structural
members in high-rise buildings. In addition to its lighter weight, which permits
saving in dead load and this concrete provides better heat insulation than normal
weight concrete. In recent years, the applications of high-strength concrete have
increased, and high-strength concrete has now been used in many part of the world.
However, not enough significant data of high-strength lightweight concrete with
compressive strength in excess of 60 N/mm2 have been obtained. This report
summarizes results of an experimental study of the properties of hardened highstrength lightweight concrete such as strength, drying shrinkage, durability and
porosity, and provides important new information on the mix proportion and curing
method of this concrete. These results are as follows; (a) In regard to porosity of
lightweight aggregate, it was observed the tendency that expanded shale type has
a lager radius than that of sintered fly ash type, it depends on aggregate
characteristics, surface texture and void connection. (b) Different water content of
lightweight aggregate gives influence to porosity of mortar matrix under drying
condition. (c) Resistance of freezing and thawing or fire of light weight aggregate
concrete is not necessary to advance under moisture condition, because of light
weight aggregates, due to their cellular structure, capable of containing more water
than normal weight aggregate. (d) As the consideration of the porosities and water
content of hardened concrete, it was evaluated the properties of high-strength
lightweight concrete. (author abst.)

Part of the results of an ongoing laboratory work carried out to design a structural
lightweight high strength concrete ( SLWHSC ) made with and without mineral
admixtures is presented. Basaltic-pumice ( scoria ) was used as lightweight
aggregate.
A control lightweight concrete mixture made with lightweight basaltic-pumice
(scoria) containing normal Portland cement as the binder was prepared. The control
lightweight concrete mixture was modified by replacing 20% of the cement with fly
ash and by replacing 10% of the cement with silica fume. A ternary lightweight
concrete mixture was also prepared modifying the control lightweight concrete by
replacing 20% of cement with fly ash and 10% of cement with silica fume. Two
normal weight concretes (NWC) were also prepared for comparison purpose.
Fly ash and silica fume are used for economical and environmental concerns.
Cylinder specimens were cast from the fresh mixtures to measure compressive and
flexural tensile strength. The concrete samples were cured at 65% relative humidity
with 20 C temperature. The density and slump workability of fresh concrete
mixtures were also measured.

Laboratory test results showed that structural lightweight concrete (SLWC) can be
produced by the use of scoria. However, the use of mineral additives seems to be
mandatory for production of SLWHSC. The use of ternary mixture was recommended
due to its satisfactory strength development and environmental friendliness.

Future construction of concrete floating platforms for offshore oil exploration off the
east coast of Canada will lead to a substantial increase in the use of high-strength
lightweight (HSLW) concrete. HSLW concrete has been extensively used in Norway
and other parts of Europe. HSLW concrete with its high durability and lightweight
characteristics is a very much sought after material in the construction of concrete
floating platforms.

SELF CONSOLIDATING CONCRETE

Self-consolidating concrete, also known as self-compacting concrete and SCC, is a
highly flowable, non-segregating concrete that can spread into place, fill formwork
and encapsulate even the most congested reinforcement, all without any
mechanical vibration. As a high-performance concrete, SCC delivers these attractive
benefits while maintaining all of concrete's customary mechanical properties and
durability characteristics.

SCC is defined as a concrete mixture that can be placed purely by means of its
own weight, with little or no vibration. Adjustments to traditional mix designs and
the use of superplasticizers creates flowing concrete that meets tough performance
requirements. If needed, low dosages of viscosity modifier can be used to eliminate
unwanted bleeding and segregation.

Since its inception in the 1980s, the use of SCC has grown tremendously. The
development of high performance polycarboxylate polymers and viscosity modifiers
have made it possible to create "flowing" concrete without compromising durability,
cohesiveness, or compressive strength. The flowability of SCC is measured in terms
of spread when using a modified version of the slump test (ASTM C 143). The spread
(slump flow) of SCC typically ranges from 18 to 32 inches (455 to 810 mm)
depending on the requirements for the project. The viscosity, as visually observed
by the rate at which concrete spreads, is an important characteristic of plastic SCC
and can be controlled when designing the mix to suit the type of application being
constructed.

SCC's unique properties give it significant economic, constructability, aesthetic

and engineering advantages. SCC is an increasingly attractive choice for optimizing
site manpower (through reduction of labor and possibly skill level), lowering noise
levels, and allowing for a safer working environment. SCC allows easier pumping
(even from bottom up), flows into complex shapes, transitions through inaccessible
spots, and minimizes voids around embedded items to produce a high degree of
homogeneity and uniformity. That's why SCC allows for denser reinforcement,
optimized concrete sections and shapes, and greater freedom of design while
producing superior surface finishes and textures.

HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE

In recent years, the terminology "High-Performance Concrete" has been introduced
into the construction industry. This edition of Technical Talk explains highperformance concrete and how it differs from conventional concrete.
The American Concrete Institute (ACI) defines high-performance concrete as
concrete meeting special combinations of performance and uniformity requirements
that cannot always be achieved routinely when using conventional constituents and
normal mixing, placing and curing practices. A commentary to the definition states
that a high-performance concrete is one in which certain characteristics are
developed for a particular application and environment. Examples of characteristics
that may be considered critical for an application are:
* Ease of placement
* Compaction without segregation
* Early age strength
* Long-term mechanical properties
* Permeability
* Density
* Heat of hydration
* Toughness
* Volume stability
* Long life in severe environments

Because many characteristics of high-performance concrete are interrelated, a

change in one usually results in changes in one or more of the other characteristics.
Consequently, if several characteristics have to be taken into account in producing a
concrete for the intended application, each must be clearly specified in the contract
documents.
A high-performance concrete is something more than is achieved on a routine basis
and involves a specification that often requires the concrete to meet several
criteria. For example, on the Lacey V. Murrow floating bridge in Washington State,
the concrete was specified to meet compressive strength, shrinkage and
permeability requirements. The latter two requirements controlled the mix
proportions so that the actual strength was well in excess of the specified strength.
This occurred because of the interrelation between the three characteristics. Other
recent commercial examples where more than one characteristic was required are
given in Table 1.
High-strength concrete A high-strength concrete is always a high-performance
concrete, but a high-performance concrete is not always a high-strength concrete.
ACI defines a high-strength concrete as concrete that has a specified compressive
strength for design of 6,000 psi (41 MPa) or greater. According to a paper(1) by Paul
Zia of North Carolina State University, other countries use a higher compressive
strength in their definitions of high-strength concrete with 7,000 psi (48 MPa)
minimum. Other countries also specify a maximum compressive strength, whereas
the ACI definition is open-ended.
The specification of high-strength concrete generally results in a true performance
specification in which the performance is specified for the intended application, and
the performance can be measured using a well-accepted standard test procedure.
The same is not always true for a concrete whose primary requirement is durability.
Durable concrete Specifying a high-strength concrete does not ensure that a
durable concrete will be achieved. In addition to requiring a minimum strength,
concrete that needs to be durable must have other characteristics specified to
ensure durability. In the past, durable concrete was obtained by specifying air
content, minimum cement content and maximum water-cement ratio. Today,
performance characteristics may include permeability, deicer scaling resistance,
freeze-thaw resistance, abrasion resistance or any combination of these
characteristics. Given that the required durability characteristics are more difficult
to define than strength characteristics, specifications often use a combination of
performance and prescriptive requirements, such as permeability and a maximum
water-cementitious material ratio to achieve a durable concrete. The end result may
be a high-strength concrete, but this only comes as a by-product of requiring a
durable concrete.

Concrete materials Most high-performance concretes produced today contain

materials in addition to portland cement to help achieve the compressive strength
or durability performance. These materials include fly ash, silica fume and groundgranulated blast furnace slag used separately or in combination. At the same time,
chemical admixtures such as high-range water-reducers are needed to ensure that
the concrete is easy to transport, place and finish. For high-strength concretes, a
combination of mineral and chemical admixtures is nearly always essential to
ensure achievement of the required strength. Examples of concrete mixes for
durable and high-strength concrete are shown in Table 2.
Most high-performance concretes have a high cementitious content and a watercementitious material ratio of 0.40 or less. However, the proportions of the
individual constituents vary depending on local preferences and local materials. Mix
proportions developed in one part of the country do not necessarily work in a
different location. Many trial batches are usually necessary before a successful mix
is developed.
High-performance concretes are also more sensitive to changes in constituent
material properties than conventional concretes. Variations in the chemical and
physical properties of the cementitious materials and chemical admixtures need to
be carefully monitored. Substitutions of alternate materials can result in changes in
the performance characteristics that may not be acceptable for high-performance
concrete. This means that a greater degree of quality control is required for the
successful production of high-performance concrete.

HIGH VOLUME FLY ASH CONCRETE

What is fly ash?

Fly ash is a by-product from coal-fired electricity generating power plants. The coal
used in these power plants is mainly composed of combustible elements such as
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (nitrogen and sulfur being minor elements), and noncombustible impurities (10 to 40%) usually present in the form of clay, shale,
quartz, feldspar and limestone. As the coal travels through the high-temperature
zone in the furnace, the combustible elements of the coal are burnt off, whereas the
mineral impurities of the coal fuse and chemically recombine to produce various
crystalline phases of the molten ash. The molten ash is entrained in the flue gas and
cools rapidly, when leaving the combustion zone (e.g. from 1500C to 200C in few
seconds), into spherical, glassy particles. Most of these particles fly out with the flue

gas stream and are therefore called fly ash. The fly ash is then collected in
electrostatic precipitators or bag houses and the fineness of the fly ash can be
controlled by how and where the particles are collected.
Top
The use of fly ash in concrete
Fly ash can be used in concrete as a partial replacement for ordinary portland
cement (opc). Fly ash can be introduced in concrete directly, as a separate
ingredient at the concrete batch plant or, can be blended with the opc to produce
blended cement, usually called portland-pozzolana cement (ppc) in India. Fly ash
blended cements are produced by several cement companies in India.
Generally speaking, currently in the concrete industry, the percentage of fly ash as
part of the total cementing materials in concrete normally ranges from 15 to 25%,
although it can go up to 30-35% in some applications. The use of fly ash in concrete
will improve some aspects of the performance of the concrete provided the concrete
is properly designed. The main aspects of the concrete performance that will be
improved by the use of fly ash are increased long-term strength and reduced
permeability of the concrete resulting in potentially better durability. The use of fly
ash in concrete can also address some specific durability issues such as sulphate
attack and alkali silica reaction. However, a few additional precautions have to be
taken to insure that the fly ash concrete will meet all the performance criteria.
The table given below is a paper presented by Dr Wilbert Langley and Dr Gordon
Leaman at the sixth CANMET/ ACI / JCI International Conference, held May 31 - June
5, 1998. These are the actual mixes used in demonstration projects throughout
Canada to prove the practicality of using high-volume fly ash concrete for a variety
of projects. The Parklane Development in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada is a seven
story structure and was built with 55% high-volume fly ash concrete (high strength
mix given in the table below) . Cast-in-place columns and beams were poured with
concrete specified to meet design strengths of between 4,350 psi at 28 days and
7,250 psi at 120 days. Actual strengths developed exceeded required strengths by
30%-40% on an average

HIGH VOLUME FLY ASH CONCRETE

All mixes contained air entraining admixtures and superplasticizers
Convention Low
Medium
High
al Mix
Strength Strength Strength
55%
55%
55%
Replaceme Replaceme Replaceme

Total Cementitious Content

(c+fa)
(lb/cu.yd)

483

nt

nt

nt

374

566

660

Cement (lb)

483

166

250

300

Class F Fly Ash (lb)

208

316

360

Sand (lb)

1334

1467

1250

1266

Stone (lb)

1700

1834

1834

1850

220

185

198

185

0.49

0.35

0.28

Water (lb)
Water to Cement Ratio

0.46

Compressive Strength (psi)

3 day

4,600

1,250

2,320

3,190

7 day

5,000

1,750

3,040

4,900

28 day

6,500

3,350

5,500

8,300

91 day

7,100

4,050

7,700

10,900

365 day

7,550

7,400

10,000

Initial

6:25

8:25

5:35

Final

7:50

11:15

7:40

Set Time (hours:minutes)

In the US, the State of Wisconsin has been using a 60% Class F fly ash in concrete
mix since 1989. HVFA concrete has now found a commercial niche in the Sydney
construction market and is being trialed for the Sydney Olympic facilities. For the
Crown Casino project, Connell Wagner required highly durable and low drying
shrinkage concrete for the construction of the 55,000 square meter basement that
was located below the water table

Another benefit of using fly ash in concrete is that fly ash makes beautiful,
"architectural" concrete. Fly ash of today is light in color and its extreme workability
ensures smoother finishes. That most famous of architecturally exposed concrete
buildings, the Jonas Salk Institute, was built with fly ash concrete. I have seen the
NCCBM building located at Ballabhgarh & it still looks beautiful even after having
weathered so many years.
Addition of fly ash in plaster virtually eliminates defects like crazing, map cracking,
drying shrinkage cracks, debonding, grinning, expansion & popping.

SHRINKAGE COMPENSATION CONCRETE

Use of Shrinkage Compensating Concrete (SCC) In Pre-Stressed Concrete

PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE:
There are characteristics of shrinkage compensating concrete (SCC) that are similar
to the objectives and methodology behind pre-stressed concrete. Pre-stressed
concrete is defined as a concrete member with a pre-determined compressive force,
or moment, built into the member so that the internal stresses, designed as a result
of the members intended use, will be equal to or less then the pre-stressing stresses
built into the member. Post-tensioning and pre-tensioning are methods of achieving
pre-stressed concrete.
The objectives and methodology of using SCC to enhance the properties of concrete
is very similar to the objectives and methodology of using pre-stressed to
accommodate structural loadings. Shrinkage cracking control, combined with the
other inherent advantages of SCC, make SCC a better material for pre-stressed
concrete members.
SHRINKAGE COMPENSATING COMPONENT
ACI recognizes two methods of achieving SCC, ettringite crystal development or
calcium hydroxide platelet crystal development. The inherent characteristics of the
calcium hydroxide platelet system, developed by the use of CONEX, is the better
system of the two due to its inherent likeness of chemical action during hydration of
the cement in use. The advantages of the platelet SCC method makes it well suited
for use in pre-stressed concrete in general and in post-tensioned concrete in
particular.
DESIGN CRITERIA:

The primary design objective of pre-stressed concrete is to place a compressive

force in the concrete member that would prevent the concrete from going into
tension and failing under design load conditions. Failure usually being defined as
tension or stress cracking occurring in the concrete member. The primary objective
for using pre-stressed concrete is economic. This is due to the fact that a prestressed member, of the same physical dimensions as a conventional reinforced
concrete member, will have a greater load carrying capability. Conversely, for a
given design loading, a pre-stressed member will be smaller in dimension and
weight then a conventional concrete reinforced member.
SCC - HOW IT WORKS:
Shrinkage compensating concrete (SCC) has a case history of placements free of
shrinkage cracks due to the "pre-stressing" action (restrained expansion or RE)
created within the concrete during hydration and curing. During this period several
phenomena are taking place simultaneously within the concrete. The most
important being expansion of the concrete matrix due to the chemical reaction of
CONEX creating development of calcium hydroxide crystals, and bonding of the
concrete to the reinforcing. While this is occurring, the RE created causes the
concrete to go into compression. The calcium hydroxide system of expansion, that is
the formation of the platelets that create the expansion, is approximately at the
same rate as the curing of the concrete. As long as compressive stresses within the
concrete are greater then the tensile stresses the concrete will remain in
compression, and tension cracks will not appear. This characteristic is taken
advantage of by using SCC in the construction of cast in place slabs on grade
(warehouse floors, pavements, secondary containment structures for hazardous
materials) and structural members (bridge decks, primary containment structures,
buildings, etc.). The benefit of SCC in slabs on grade is the ability to place larger
sections (i.e. 20,000 ft2 / 2,000 m2) without contraction joints and with a reduction,
and often elimination, of edge curling. The advantage of using SCC in bridge deck
and containment structures is the increase in imperviousness of the concrete as
well as the lack of shrinkage cracking.
SCC AS APPLIED TO PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE:
Currently the use of SCC is expanding into the pre-cast industry and also into prestressed concrete applications. While there are examples of cast in place prestressed applications of SCC, it is still a long way off from being in general use. This
is perhaps due to the lack of published data detailing the use of SCC in posttensioned applications. Tests should be done to establish the required expansion for
desired results. These tests would establish the amount of compressive stress in the
member resulting from different dosages of CONEX and related degrees of posttensioning. This would allow other member characteristics to be adjusted

accordingly. An obvious goal of using CONEX is to increase the quality of an existing

concrete product and/or reduce the production cost of that concrete product. The
addition of CONEX will increase the internal compressive stresses in the posttensioned concrete member(s) if the proper restraint is provided. How this will
impact the member design and/or production methods will need to be developed,
but it presents a different look at the potential of shrinkage compensation in prestressed concrete.

In general, CONEX SCC is similar to and compatible with pre-stressed concrete, and
acts interdependently with the cement in use, developing the following advantages:
1. A pre-stressed member with a higher degree of internal compression to assure
greater crack control.
2. More impermeable concrete.
3. Better edge finishing.
4. Possibly a way to reduce production costs through less breakage and discard.

FIBER REINFORCEMENTS

NON-STEEL REINFORCEMENT :

Some construction cannot tolerate the use of steel. For example, MRI machines
have huge magnets, and require nonmagnetic buildings. Another example are tollbooths that read radio tags, and need reinforced concrete that is transparent to
radio.
In some instances, the lifetime of the concrete structure is more important than its
strength. Since corrosion is the main cause of failure of reinforced concrete, a
corrosion-proof reinforcement can extend a structure's life substantially.
For these purposes some structures have been constructed using fiber-reinforced
plastic rebar, grids or fibers. The "plastic" reinforcement can be as strong as steel.
Because it resists corrosion, it does not need a protective concrete cover of 30 to 50
mm or more as steel reinforcement does. This means that FRP-reinforced structures

can be lighter, have longer lifetime and for some applications be price-competitive
to steel-reinforced concrete.
The main barrier to use of FRP reinforcement is the fact that it is neither ductile nor
fire resistant. Structures employing FRP rebars may therefore exhibit a less ductile
structural response, and decreased fire resistance.
However, the addition of short monofilament polypropylene fibers to the concrete
during mixing may have the beneficial effect of reducing spalling during a fire. In a
severe fire, such as the Channel Tunnel fire, conventionally reinforced concrete can
suffer severe spalling leading to failure. This is in part due to the pore water
remaining within the concrete boiling explosively; the steam pressure then causes
the spalling

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE:
The concept of using fibers as reinforcement is not new. Fibers have been used as
reinforcement since ancient times. Historically, horsehair was used in mortar and
straw in mud bricks. In the early 1900s, asbestos fibers were used in concrete, and
in the 1950s the concept of composite materials came into being and fiber
reinforced concrete was one of the topics of interest. There was a need to find a
replacement for the asbestos used in concrete and other building materials once
the health risks associated with the substance were discovered. By the 1960s, steel,
glass (GFRC), and synthetic fibers such as polypropylene fibers were used in
concrete, and research into new fiber reinforced concretes continues today.

EFFECTS OF FIBER IN CONCRETE:

Fibers are usually used in concrete to control plastic shrinkage cracking and drying
shrinkage cracking. They also lower the permeability of concrete and thus reduce
bleeding of water. Some types of fibers produce greater impact, abrasion and
shatter resistance in concrete. Generally fibers do not increase the flexural strength
of concrete, so it can not replace moment resisting or structural steel reinforcement.
Some fibers reduce the strength of concrete.

The amount of fibers added to a concrete mix is measured as a percentage of the

total volume of the composite (concrete and fibers) termed volume fraction (Vf). Vf
typically ranges from 0.1 to 3%. Aspect ratio (l/d) is calculated by dividing fiber
length (l) by its diameter (d). Fibers with a non-circular cross section use an
equivalent diameter for the calculation of aspect ratio. If the modulus of elasticity of
the fiber is higher than the matrix (concrete or mortar binder), they help to carry
the load by increasing the tensile strength of the material. Increase in the aspect
ratio of the fiber usually segments the flexural strength and toughness of the
matrix. However, fibers which are too long tend to "ball" in the mix and create
workability problems.
Some recent research indicated that using fibers in concrete has limited effect on
the impact resistance of concrete materials. This finding is very important since
traditionally people think the ductility increases when concrete is reinforced with
fibers. The results also pointed out that the micro fibers is better in impact
resistance compared with the longer fibers.

The High Speed tunnel linings incorporated concrete containing 1 kg/m of

polypropylene fibers, of diameter 18 & 32 m, giving the benefits noted below.
Polypropylene fibers can:
Improve mix cohesion, improving pumpability over long distances
Improve freeze-thaw resistance
Improve resistance to explosive spalling in case of a severe fire
Improve impact resistance
Increase resistance to plastic

DEVELOPMENTS IN FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE:

A new kind of natural fiber reinforced concrete (NFRC) made of cellulose fibers
processed from genetically modified slash pine trees is giving good results. The
cellulose fibers are longer and greater in diameter than other timber sources. Some
studies were performed using waste carpet fibers in concrete as an environmentally
friendly use of recycled carpet waste. A carpet typically consists of two layers of
backing (usually fabric from polypropylene tape yarns), joined by CaCO3 filled

styrene-butadiene latex rubber (SBR), and face fibers (majority being nylon 6 and
nylon 66 textured yarns). Such nylon and polypropylene fibers can be used for
concrete reinforcement

High performance fiber reinforced cementitious composites (HPFRCCs):

This particular class of concrete was developed with the goal of solving the
structural problems inherent with today's typical concrete, such as its tendency to
fail in a brittle manner under excessive loading and its lack of long term durability.
The two important properties of HPFRCC's are

The remarkable ability to strain harden under excessive loading.

In layman's terms, this means they have the ability to flex or deform
before
fracturing, a behavior similar to that exhibited by most metals
under tensile or bending stresses. Because of this capability, HPFRCCs are more
resistant to cracking and last considerably longer than normal concrete.
Their low density.
A less dense, and hence lighter material means that HPFRCCs could eventually
require much less energy to produce and handle, deeming them a more economic
building material. Because of HPFRCCs' lightweight composition and ability to strain
harden, it has been proposed that they could eventually become a more durable
and efficient alternative to typical concrete.

HPFRCCs include the following ingredients: fine aggregates, a superplasticizer,

polymeric or metallic fibers, cement, and water. Thus the principal difference
between HPFRCC and typical concrete composition lies in HPFRCCs' lack of coarse
aggregates. Typically, a fine aggregate such as silica sand is used in HPFRCCs.
One aspect of HPFRCC design involves preventing crack propagation, or the
tendency of a crack to increase in length, ultimately leading to material fracture.
This occurrence is hindered by the presence of fiber bridging, a property that most
HPFRCCs are specifically designed to possess. Fiber bridging is the act of several
fibers exerting a force across the width of a crack in an attempt to prevent the crack
from developing further. This capability is what gives bendable concrete its ductile
properties.

Proposed uses for HPFRCCs include bridge decks, concrete pipes, roads, structures
subjected to seismic and non-seismic loads, and other applications where a
lightweight, strong and durable building material is desired. Though HPFRCCs have
been tested extensively in the lab and been employed in a few commercial building
projects, further long term research and real world application is needed to prove
the true benefits of this material.
The newly developed fiber reinforced concrete is named as Engineered
Cementitious Composite (ECC).

It is 500 times more resistant to cracking

It is 40 percent lighter than traditional concrete
It can sustain strain-hardening up to several percent strain, resulting in a material
ductility of at least two orders of magnitude higher when compared to normal
concrete.
It has unique cracking behavior . When loaded to beyond the elastic range, ECC
maintains crack width to below 100 m, even when deformed to several percent
tensile strains.

The basic mechanical properties of ECC are :

ECC Material Properties

Ultimate Tensile Strength ( CU )

4.6 MPa

Ultimate Strain ( CU )

5.6 %

First Crack Stress ( fc )

2.5 MPa

First Crack Strain ( fc )

.021 %

Modulus of Elasticity ( E )

22 GPa

ECC's tensile strain hardening behavior has a capacity in the range of 3-7%,which
means that unlike common concrete, which is brittle and breaks under that amount
of strain, ECC will bend under the same stress, like a piece of sheet metal. The high
ductility is achieved by optimizing the microstructure of the composite employing
micromechanical models. ECC looks exactly like regular concrete, but under
excessive strain, the ECC concrete bends because the distinctively coated matrix of
fibers in the cement is allowed to slide within the cement. ECC is made using the
same ingredients of regular concrete but without the use of coarse aggregate.

ECC has already been used by the Michigan Department of Transportation to patch
a portion of the Grove Street Bridge deck over Interstate 94. The ECC patch was
used as a replacement to the previously existent expansion joint that linked two
deck slabs. Expansion joints, commonly used in bridges to allow for the seasonal
expansion and contraction of the concrete decks, are an example of a ubiquitous
construction practice that could eventually be eliminated through the use of
bendable concrete. Other existent structures composed of ECC, include the Curtis
Road Bridge in Ann Arbor, MI and the Mihara Bridge in Hokkaido, Japan. The deck of
the Mihara Bridge, composed of bendable concrete, is only five centimeters thick
and has an expected lifetime of one-hundred years.

Comparison to other composite materials:

Properties

FRC

Common HPFRCC

ECC

Design
Methodolog
y

N.A.

Use high Vf

Micromechanics
based, minimize Vf for
cost and processibility

Fiber

Any type, Vf usually

less than 2%; df for
steel ~ 500
micrometer

Mostly steel, Vf
usually > 5%; df ~
150 micrometer

Tailored, polymer
fibers, Vf usually less
than 2%; df < 50
micrometer

Fine aggregates

Controlled for matrix

toughness, flaw size;
fine sand

Matrix

Coarse aggregates

Interface

Not controlled

Not controlled

Chemical and
frictional bonds
controlled for bridging
properties

Mechanical
Properties

Strain-softening:

Strain-hardening:

Strain-hardening:

Tensile
strain

0.1%

<1.5%

>3% (typical); 8%
max

Unlimited

Typically several
hundred
micrometers,
unlimited beyond
1.5% strain

Typically < 100

micrometers during
strain-hardening[1]

Crack width

Note: FRC=Fiber-Reinforced Cement. HPFRCC=High-Performance Fiber Reinforced

Cementitious Composites
NANOMATERIALS

NANOTUBES AND NANOWIRES AS REINFORCEMENT:

In developing nano-composite materials, nanotubes and nanowires are

expected to greatly improve the properties of the composites. Silicon carbide
nanowires have been regarded as an excellent reinforcement for composites due to
the high intrinsic strength of the materials. However, the silicon carbide nanowires
have a smooth surface and are easily pulled out when the composites break

because of the weak adhesion between the nanowires and the matrix. Therefore, we
need to fabricate a contoured surface of the silicon carbide nanowires in order to
improve the adhesion.
This led to the invention of a new type of silicon carbide nanowires
periodically twinned SiC nanowires, which have a contoured surface on the
nanoscale. The nanowires with a hexagonal cross section, a diameter of 50300
nm and a length of tens to hundreds of micrometers feature a zigzag arrangement
of periodically twinned segments with a uniform thickness along the entire growth
length. Computer simulation demonstrates that the zigzag columnar structure is
formed by the stacking of hexagonal discs of {111} planes of SiC. A minimum
surface energy and strain energy argument explain the formation of periodic twins
in the SiC nanowires.
The twinning structure has made the nanowires exhibit different luminescence and
chemical stability. A Chinese group showed that the silicon carbide nanowires with
beaded morphology can greatly enhance the tensile strength of an epoxy
composite. Therefore, the new type of twinned SiC nanowires is expected to find
important applications in nano-composites.

MODIFICATION OF GLASSS FIBER USING PLAZMA POLYMERIZATION TECHNIQUE :

The plasma treated E-glass fiber improves the mechanical properties of

acrylic resin denture base material, polymethylmethacrlyate (PMMA). Plasma
surface treatment of fibers is used as reinforcement in composite materials to
modify the chemical and physical properties of their surfaces with tailored fiber
matrix bonding strength.
Three different types of monomer 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA),
triethyleneglycoldimethylether (TEGDME) and ethylenediamine (EDA) were used in
the plasma polymerization modification of glass fibers. A radiofrequency generator
was used to sustain plasma in a glass vacuum chamber. Glass fibers were modified
at the same glow-discharge power of 25W and exposure time of 30min for each
monomer. Fibers were incorporated into the acrylic with 1% (w/w) loading except
control group. Specimens were prepared using a standard mould of
3cm0.5cm0.8cm in dimension with eight specimens in each group. Samples
were subjected to a flexural strength test set up at a crosshead speed of 5mm/min.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to examine the microstructure and Xray photoelectron

Concluding Remarks
It has long been a concrete technologist's dream to discover a method of making
concrete at the lowest possible water: cement ratio while maintaining high
workability. To a considerable extent this dream may be fulfilled with the advent of
superplasticizers. They have added a new dimension to the application of
admixtures, and have made it possible to produce concrete with compressive
strength of the order of 90 MPa.

Superplasticizers have other possible applications. Energy conservation and

diminishing supplies of high quality raw materials will increasingly necessitate the
use of marginal quality cements and aggregates. In such instances the use of
superplasticizers may permit production of concrete at low water:cement ratios that
will be strong enough to meet normal performance requirements. There are literally
countless possible applications of superplasticizers, for example, in the production
of fly ash concrete, blast furnace slag cement concrete, composites with various
types of fibres and lightweight concrete. In addition, the dispersing effect of
superplasticizers is not limited to portland cement and may find application in other
cementitious systems.

The fact that superplasticizers show remarkable advantages in producing concrete

should not imply that there are no problems associated with their use. A satisfactory
solution to the high rate of slump loss in superplasticized concrete is yet to be found
and the relative effects of materials, production methods and external conditions
that influence this phenomenon are not completely understood. Further study will
be necessary of the compatibility of other admixtures such as retarders,
accelerators and air-entraining agents in combination with superplasticizers. Though
surface area, tricalcium aluminate, and sulphate contents seem to influence slump,
no definite trend has been established.

Most available data on superplasticized concrete have been obtained using SMFand SNF-based superplasticizers. Even within a single type, variations in behaviour
have occurred, possibly because of the differences in molecular weight and in the
type of cation associated with the superplasticizer. Consequently it is difficult to
predict exactly the properties and behaviour of superplasticized concrete. As more
data become available, especially on the long-term behaviour of these concretes, it
will be possible to formulate standards and codes of practice. The future use of
superplasticizers will, however, be dictated by cost factors (of admixture and
operating costs) and by acceptance by industry

Posted by The Civil Engineer at 20:38

Posted by Syazli Fathi at 21:29 2 comments:

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Research Area Definition
Research will involve the whole life-cycle of the wide range of infrastructure e.g.
buildings, bridges, dams, underground constructions, offshore platform, pipelines
and ocean structures, which covers the planning, design, construction,
performance, maintenance and assessment. The aim of the group is to conduct
research and developments on the most advanced technologies for analyzing,
predicting and optimizing infrastructure performance. The main gaps to be filled are
those between researchers and practitioners in maintenance, management and lifecycle performance of infrastructure systems, and those between professionals
working on the different types of infrastructures.

Table of Contents
implementation Paper (1)
Megazine Article (1)
Review Paper (1)
Stratergy Paper (1)

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