EEET 201 - Chapter 13

Basic Op-Amp Circuits

CHAPTER 13
BASIC OP-AMP CIRCUITS
13-1 COMPARATORS
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Operational amplifiers are often used as comparators to compare the amplitude of one voltage with
another.
In this application, op-amps are used in the open-loop configuration.
Due to high open-loop gain, an op-amp can detect very tiny differences at the input.
The input voltage is applied to one terminal while a reference voltage on the other terminal.
A comparator is a special op-amp circuit that compares the two input voltages and produces output
that is always at either one of the two states, indicating the greater or less than relationship
between inputs.
Comparators are much faster than op-amps.
Op-amps can be used as comparators but comparators cannot be used as op-amps.

13.1.1 Zero-Level Detection

-

Figure 1(a) shows an op-amp circuit to detect when a signal crosses zero. This is called a zero-level
detector.
Notice that inverting input is grounded to produce a zero level and the input signal is applied to the
noninverting terminal.
Because of high open-loop gain, small difference voltage between the inputs drives the op-amp into
saturation.
Figure 1(b) shows the result of a sinusoidal input voltage applied to the noninverting input of the zerolevel detector.
When the sine wave is positive, the output is maximum positive level.
When the sine wave is negative, the output is maximum negative level.
The change from positive to negative or negative to positive always occurs when the wave crosses
zero.

Figure 1 Op-amp as a zero-level detector

Prepared By: Syed Muhammad Asad Semester 112

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13.1.2 Nonzero-Level Detector

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The zero-level detector of Figure 1 can be modified to detect positive and negative voltage levels by
connecting a fixed reference voltage source at the inverting input as shown in Figure 2(a).
A more practical arrangement is shown in Figure 2(b) using voltage divider to set the reference, VREF as

The circuit in Figure 2(c) uses a zener diode to set the reference voltage (
).
As long as the input signal Vin remains less then VREF, the output remains at the maximum negative
level.
When the input voltage crosses the reference voltage, the output goes to its maximum positive
voltage as shown in Figure 2(d).

Figure 2 Nonzero-level detectors

NOTE: REFER EXAMPLE 13-1 PAGE 670

13.1.3 Effect of Input Noise on

Comparator Operation
-

In practical situations, noise

appears on the input signal. This
noise voltage disturbs the input
voltage as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3 Sine wave with noise

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Basic Op-Amp Circuits

In order to understand its effects, consider a zero-level detector and a sinusoidal voltage input at the
noninverting input of the comparator as shown in Figure 4(a).
Figure 4(b) shows the input sine wave and the resulting output voltage.
When the input voltage reaches zero, the disturbance due to noise may cause the input to fluctuate
about the zero voltage value many times and thus producing an output that is not the desired one.

Figure 4 Effects of noise on comparator output

Reducing Noise Effects with Hysteresis

The output as seen in Figure 4(b) is because whenever the input signal hovers around the reference
voltage, any small disturbance like noise will produce such
output.
To reduce this noise effect, a technique called hysteresis is
used.
This requires the comparator to be used with positive
feedback.
The idea is to have 2 references voltages. One reference is
higher and the other is lower.
The higher reference is for when the input signal goes from
lower voltage to higher one and the lower reference is for
Figure 5 Comparator with positive feedback for
when the input signal goes from higher to lower voltage.
hysteresis
The two references are called upper trigger point (UTP) and lower trigger point (LTP).
This two-level hysteresis is established with a positive feedback as shown in Figure 5.
Notice that the noninverting end is connected to a resistive voltage divider such that a portion of the
output voltage is fed back to the input.
The input signal is applied to the inverting input in this case.

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Basic Op-Amp Circuits

The basic operation of the comparator with hysteresis is shown in Figure 6.

Assume the output voltage is at its positive maximum, +Vout(max).

The voltage fed back to the noninverting input is VUTP and is given as

When Vin exceeds VUTP, the output voltage drops to its negative maximum, -Vout(max), as shown in
Figure 6(a). The voltage fed back to the noninverting input is VLTP and is given as

The input voltage must now fall below VTLP as shown in Figure 6(b) before the device will switch from
maximum negative voltage to maximum positive voltage.
This means that a small amount of noise voltage has no effect on the output as shown in Figure 6(c).
The comparator with built-in hysteresis is sometimes known as a Schmitt trigger.
The amount of hysteresis is defined as the difference of the two trigger levels.

Figure 6 Operation of comparator with hysteresis

NOTE: REFER EXAMPLE 13-2 PAGE 673

13.1.4 Output Bounding

-

Sometimes it is necessary to limit the output

voltage level of a comparator to a value less than
that provided by saturation.
Zener diode can be used to achieve such a limit on
the output as shown in Figure 7.
In this way the output will be zener voltage is one
direction and forward diode voltage drop in the other.

Prepared By: Syed Muhammad Asad Semester 112

Figure 7 Comparator with output bounding

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Basic Op-Amp Circuits

The operation is as follows

o The anode is connected to the inverting input which is at virtual ground.
o When the output voltage reaches a positive value equal to zener voltage, it limits at that value
as shown in Figure 8(a).
o When the output switches negative, zener acts as a regular diode and becomes forward biased
at 0.7V and limiting the negative output voltage to this value as shown in Figure 8(b).
o Turning the zener diode around limits the output voltage in the opposite direction.

Figure 8 Operation of a bounded comparator

Two-zener diode arranged as in Figure 9 limit the output voltage to the zener voltage plus the forward
voltage drop 0.7V.

Figure 9 Double-bounded comparator

NOTE: REFER EXAMPLE 13-3 PAGE 674

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EEET 201 - Chapter 13

Basic Op-Amp Circuits

13-2 SUMMING AMPLIFIER

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Summing amplifier is an application of inverting op-amp amplifier.

13.2.1 Summing Amplifier with Unity Gain

-

A summing amplifier has two or

more inputs and its output is the
negative algebraic sum of its
input voltages.
A two-input summing amplifier
is shown in Figure 10.
Notice that both the input
voltages are applied to the
inverting input.
The output voltage for the
amplifier can be written as

Figure 10 Two-input summing amplifier

If all the resistances are equal (

The previous equation shows that the output voltage has the same magnitude as the sum of the two
input voltages but with negative sign.
A general expression for a unity-gain summing amplifier with inputs as shown in Figure 11 where all
resistances are equal is given by

), then

Figure 11 Summing amplifier with

inputs

NOTE: REFER EXAMPLE 13-5 PAGE 680

13.2.2 Summing Amplifier with Gain Greater Than Unity

-

When is larger than the input resistors, the amplifier has gain of
equal-value input resistance.

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where

is the value of each

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The general expression for the output voltage is

NOTE: REFER EXAMPLE 13-6 PAGE 681

13.2.3 Averaging Amplifier

-

A summing amplifier can be made an averaging amplifier by setting the ratio

reciprocal of the number of inputs

equal to the

NOTE: REFER EXAMPLE 13-7 PAGE 682

13.2.4 Scaling Adder

-

Different weights can be assigned to each input of the summing amplifier by simply adjusting the
values of the input resistors.

NOTE: REFER EXAMPLE 13-8 PAGE 683

13-3 INTEGRATORS AND DIFFERENTIATORS

-

An op-amp integrator simulates mathematical integration which is basically a summing process.

An op-amp differentiator simulates mathematical differentiation which is the process of determining
the instantaneous rate of change of a function.
Ideal integrator and differentiator is used to show basic principle.
Practical integrator and differentiator contain an extra resistor in parallel with the feedback capacitor
to prevent saturation.

13.3.1 The Op-Amp Integrator

The Ideal Integrator

An ideal integrator is shown in Figure 12.

Notice the feedback element is a capacitor that forms an
RC circuit with the input resistor.
In order to understand how the circuit works, it is
necessary to review how a capacitor charges.

How a Capacitor Charges

- The charge on a capacitor is proportional to the charging
current and the time

Or in terms of voltage it becomes

From these two relationships the capacitor voltage can be expressed as

This equation is a form of equation of line with slope

linearly with time.

Prepared By: Syed Muhammad Asad Semester 112

Figure 12 An op-amp integrator

. This shows that the capacitor voltage increases

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- In reality this is not true because capacitor charging rate changes exponentially rather than linearly in RC
circuits.
- For the charging to be linear, the current should be constant and the op-amp makes sure that it is constant.
- In Figure 13, inverting input of the op-amp is at virtual ground (0V), so the voltage across equals .
Therefore the input current is

If
is constant then
is also constant.
As input impedance of the op-amp is very high,
all the input current goes through the capacitor
to charge it, that is,

The Capacitor Voltage

- The constant charges the capacitor linearly
and produce a linear voltage across the
capacitor.
- The positive side of capacitor is at 0V.
- The voltage on the negative side which
is the op-amp output voltage decreases
linearly from zero as the capacitor
charges as shown in Figure 14.
- This voltage is called negative ramp.

Figure 13 Current in integrator

The Output Voltage

is the same as the voltage on the
negative side of the capacitor.
- When a step input is applied, the output
saturates to its maximum negative level as shown in Figure 15.

Figure 14 Linear ramp voltage across capacitor

Rate of Change of the Output Voltage

- The rate at which the capacitor
charges and therefore the slope of the
output ramp is set by the ratio
.
- Since
, the rate of change
or slope of the integrators output
voltage is

Figure 15 Ramp output with constant input voltage

NOTE: REFER EXAMPLE 13-10 PAGE 689

The Practical Integrator

The ideal integrator uses a capacitor in the feedback which is open to DC.
This implies that for DC voltage the capacitor becomes open and the op-amp becomes open-loop.

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Any DC offset voltage due to offset error would cause

the output to produce a ramp even when there is no
input.
The simplest solution available to avoid this situation is
to use a resistor is parallel with the feedback capacitor
as shown in Figure 16.
should be large as compared to .
can be added
to the noninverting input to compensate for the bias
currents.

13.3.2 The Op-Amp Differentiator

The Ideal Differentiator

The ideal differentiator is shown in Figure 17.

The placement of the capacitor and resistor are reversed as
compared to an integrator.
A differentiator produces an output that is
proportional to the rate of change of the input
voltage.

How Differentiator Works

- Apply a positive ramp voltage to the input as shown in
Figure 18.
- In this case
and the voltage across the
capacitor is equal to
at all times
.
- From the basic formula
, the capacitor
current is

Figure 16 Practical integrator

Figure 17 An op-amp differentiator

The current in the inverting input is

nearly zero so
Both currents are constant because
the slope
is constant.
The output voltage is also constant
and equal to voltage across .

The output is negative when the

input is positive going ramp and positive when input is negative ramp. Figure 18 Differentiator with ramp input
This is shown in Figure 19.

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Figure 19 Output of differentiator with positive and negative ramp

During the positive ramp input, capacitor is charging from input and constant current flows through the
feedback resistor in the direction shown.
During the negative ramp input, the current is in the opposite direction because the capacitor is discharging.
Notice from the equation of
that the term
is the slope of the input. If the slope increases,
increases. If slope decreases,
decreases.
This means the output voltage is proportional to the slope (rate of change) of the input. This is the basic
requirement of a differentiator.

NOTE: REFER EXAMPLE 13-11 PAGE 692

The Practical Differentiator

The ideal differentiator uses a capacitor in series with the inverting input.
Because the capacitor impedance is low at high frequencies, the combination of
and from a very
high gain amplifier at high frequencies.
The solution is to add a resistor
in series with the capacitor to reduce the gain at high
frequencies.
The resistor should be small as compared to feedback resistor.
A bias compensating resistor can be added to the noninverting input.

Figure 20 Practical differentiator

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