4

Analog modulation

4.1 Modulation formats

The message waveform is represented by a low-pass real signal m(t) such that
M (f ) = 0

|f | W

where W is the message bandwidth. m(t) is called the modulating signal.

Carrier modulation: Reversible transformation of m(t) into a bandpass signal x(t) centered around
fc  W (fc is the carrier frequency). Demodulation is the inverse transformation of x(t) into m(t).
x(t) is the modulated signal.
x(t) = xI (t) cos 2fc t xQ (t) sin 2fc t
Two types of modulation schemes:
Linear modulation: linear relationship between the modulated signal and the message signal
(ex: AM, DSB-SC, SSB, VSB).
Angle modulation: the angle of the carrier wave is varied according to the message signal
(ex: FM,PM).

4.2 Linear modulation

a) Amplitude modulation AM


x(t) = Ac 1 + ka m(t) cos 2fc t


= Ac 1 + mn (t) cos 2fc t


xQ (t) = 0
xI (t) = Ac 1 + mn (t)
m(t)
mn (t) =
max |m(t)|
ka is the amplitude sensitivity, = ka max |m(t)| is modulation index (factor) (0 1).
Exercise: Plot a graph representing x(t) and identify the message signal m(t).

29

The Fourier transform of x(t) is given by

X(f ) =

 Ac 

Ac 
(f fc ) + Mn (f fc ) +
(f + fc ) + Mn (f + fc )
2
2

where Mn (f ) = F {mn (t)}.

Exercise: Plot X(f ) and find the condition on fc to avoid distortion.

Let W be the bandwidth of M (f ) = F {m(t)} and Mn (f ), then the bandwidth of the modulated signal x(t) is B = 2W .
Generation of AM:

Ac(1 + mn(t))

x(t)

cos(2fct)
Figure 4: Generation of an AM modulated signal

Demodulation of AM:
Synchronous (coherent) detection
Envelope detection
Coherent detection:

30

y(t)

x(t)

u(t)

z(t)

cos(2fct)

LPF

Figure 5: Coherent detection of an AM modulated signal

y(t) = Ac 1 + mn (t) cos2 (2fc t)

Ac
Ac
(1 + mn (t)) cos(4fc t)
1 + mn (t) +
=
2
2


Ac
1 + mn (t) (Output of low pass)
u(t) =
2
Ac
Ac
z(t) =
mn (t) =
ka m(t)
2
2
Exercise: Assume that the local carrier is not synchronized to the signal, show that the output of
the coherent demodulator is distorted.

Envelope detection:
The output of an envelope detector is the natural envelope |
x(t)|. Envelope detection is feasible
since 1 + mn (t) 0.
Draw an example of a RC circuit implementing envelope detection. What conditions on the
resistors and capacitor are necessary to ensure the envelope detector will function properly ?

31

Envelope detection is feasible due to the inclusion of the carrier but the transmission of the
carrier represents a waste of power (contains no information).
b) Double sideband-suppressed carrier: DSB-SC
x(t) = Ac m(t) cos 2fc t
xI (t) = Ac m(t)
xQ (t) = 0
Exercise: Plot x(t) and identify the message signal m(t). What phenomenon characterizes
DSB-SC ?

The Fourier transform of x(t) is given by

X(f ) =

Ac
Ac
M (f fc ) +
M (f + fc )
2
2

where M (f ) = F {m(t)}.
Exercise: Plot X(f ) and find the condition on fc to avoid distortion.

Let W be the bandwidth of M (f ) = F {m(t)}, then the bandwidth of the modulated signal
x(t) is B = 2W .
Generation of DSB-SC:

Draw a block diagram of a DSB-SC modulator.

32

Demodulation of DSB-SC:
Only Synchronous (coherent) detection
Coherent detection: Using a local carrier synchronized to the received signal carrier, draw a block
diagram of a coherent detector for DSB-SC.

Envelope detection:
The output of an envelope detector is the natural envelope |
x(t)| = A c |m(t)| 6= Ac m(t).
AM and DSB-SC are wasting bandwidth, thus filtering of sidebands to reduce bandwidth results in a more bandwidth efficient scheme.
c) Single sideband modulation: SSB
Ac
Ac
m(t) cos 2fc t
m(t)
sin 2fc t
2
2
Ac
Ac
x(t) =
m(t) cos 2fc t +
m(t)
sin 2fc t
2
2
Ac
Ac
xI (t) =
m(t)
xQ (t) = m(t)

2
2
x(t) =

(Upper sideband SSB)

(Lower sideband SSB)

The Fourier transform of x(t) is given by


i
Ac 1
1
1 h

X(f ) =
M (f fc ) M (f + fc )
M (f fc ) + M (f + fc )
2 2
2
2j

Ac


Ac
=
M (f fc ) 1 + sgn(f fc ) +
M (f + fc ) 1 sgn(f + fc )
4
4
where M (f ) = F {m(t)}.

33

Exercise: Plot X(f ).

Let W be the bandwidth of M (f ) = F {m(t)}, then the bandwidth of the modulated signal
x(t) is B = W .
Generation of SSB:
Using a Hilbert transformer (but wideband /2 shifter difficult to implement)

Using sideband filtering (but demands a very sharp filter if M (f ) contains very low frequencies components, hence Vestigial sideband modulation (VSB) is also used)

Demodulation of SSB:
Only Synchronous (coherent) detection
Envelope detection by adding a strong carrier to the SSB signal but not a regular SSB anymore (see VSB subsection)
Coherent detection: Using a local carrier synchronized to the received signal carrier, draw a block
diagram of a coherent detector for SSB.

SSB is difficult to implement if the message signal m(t) has a large bandwidth and it is rich in
34

low frequency components. In this case vestigial sideband modulation is used.

d) Vestigial sideband modulation: VSB
Ac
Ac
Km(t) cos 2fc t
m (t) sin 2fc t
2
2
Ac
Ac
Ac
xI (t) =
Km(t)
xQ (t) =
m (t) =
m(t) h (t)
2
2
2
x(t) =

Rationale (generation of VSB): Assume that a DSB-SC signal is passed through a general bandpass
filter to alter its sidebands (ex. for SSB half of the sidebands filtered out).
The Fourier transforms of the DSB-SC signal y(t) and x(t) are given by

Ac 
M (f fc ) + M (f + fc )
DSB-SC
2

Ac 
X(f ) =
M (f fc ) + M (f + fc ) H(f )
2
Y (f ) =

where M (f ) = F {m(t)}. The filter H(f ) must have spectral characteristics such that the original
message signal m(t) can be recovered from x(t) by coherent detection.
Demodulation of VSB:
Only Synchronous (coherent) detection
Envelope detection by adding a strong carrier to the VSB signal but not a regular VSB
anymore
Coherent detection:

x(t)

v(t)

u(t)
W

LPF

cos(2fct)

Figure 6: Coherent detection of VSB

v(t) = x(t) cos 2fc t

35


1
X(f fc ) + X(f + fc )
2




Ac n
=
M (f 2fc ) + M (f ) H(f fc ) + M (f ) + M (f + 2fc ) H(f + fc )
4


 Ac 
Ac
=
M (f 2fc )H(f fc ) + M (f + 2fc )H(f + fc )
M (f ) H(f fc ) + H(f + fc ) +
4
4

V (f ) =

The output of the lowpass filter is given by

U (f ) =
For distortionless transmission
U (f ) =



Ac
M (f ) H(f fc ) + H(f + fc )
4

Ac
KM (f )
4

i.e. u(t) =

Ac
Km(t)
4

where K is a constant. Thus the filter H(f ) must satisfy the so-called vestigial symmetry condition:
H(f fc ) + H(f + fc ) = K = const.
|f | W

Time domain representation of VSB signals:

1
= x(t) = h(t)
y(t)
2
Since y(t) = Ac cos(2fc t)m(t), its complex envelope is given by
x(t) = h(t) y(t)

y(t) = Ac m(t)

= Y (f ) = Ac M (f )

is
The Fourier transform of h(t)
) = 2H(f + fc ) f > fc
H(f
hence

) = 1 H(f
)Y (f ) = Ac M (f )H(f + fc ) f > fc
X(f
2
The inphase and quadrature components of x(t) are
xI (t) = < {
x(t)} =

1
[
x(t) + x (t)]
2
36

(9)

xQ (t) = = {
x(t)} =

1
[
x(t) x (t)]
2j

their Fourier transform are then given by

XI (f ) =
=
=
=
XQ (f ) =
=
=

i
1h

X(f ) + X (f )
2
Ac
[M (f )H(f + fc ) + M (f )H (f + fc )] from (9)
2
Ac
M (f ) [H(f + fc ) + H(f fc )] (since m(t) and h(t) are real.)
2
Ac
M (f )K from the vestigial symmetry
2
i
1 h
(f )
X(f ) X
2j
Ac
M (f ) [H(f + fc ) H(f fc )]
2j
Ac
M (f )H (f )
2

(10)

(11)

where the filter H (f ) is defined as

H (f ) =

1
[H(f + fc ) H(f fc )]
j

From (10) and (11), the inphase and quadrature components of a VSB signal are given by
Ac
Km(t)
2
Ac
Ac
m(t) h (t) =
m (t)
xQ (t) =
2
2
xI (t) =

Bandwidth of m(t): W
Bandwidth of x(t): W < B < 2W (typically BVSB = 1.25BSSB )
If H (f ) = j sgn(f ), then we obtain the upper sideband SSB.
Envelope detection of SSB and VSB:
We add a strong carrier Ac cos(2fc t) (with Ac  A2c K|m(t)|, A2c |m (t)|) such that the signal
to be demodulated is given by


Ac
Ac
0
x(t) = Ac +
Km(t) cos(2fc t)
m (t) sin(2fc t)
2
2
0

37

= Ac


0
Ac Ac
Ac K
m(t) cos(2fc t)
m (t) sin(2fc t)
1+
2A0c
2 A0c

For simplicity assume K = 1, and let

Ac
0
Ac

= ka


0
Ac
ka
ka m (t) sin(2fc t)
x(t) = Ac 1 + m(t) cos(2fc t)
2
2


ka
0
0 ka
x(t) = Ac 1 + m(t) + jAc m (t) (complex envelope of x(t))
2
2
0

(12)

The output of an envelope detector is the natural envelope of the input, hence the output of the
envelope detector is given by
"

#1/2

2
2
ka
0 2 ka
2
|
x(t)| = Ac 1 + m(t) + Ac m (t)
2
4
#1/2
"


ka2
2
m
(t)
k
0
a

4
= Ac 1 + m(t) 1 +

2
ka
2
1 + 2 m(t)


ka
0
Ac 1 + m(t)
2




since  k2a m(t)  1 and  k2a m (t)  1. This method is used in TV systems. Distortion
k
due to the
a


envelope
k
detection of VSB is reduced by reducing ka ensuring the conditions 2 m(t)  1 and
a
 m (t)  1.
2
02

4.3 Multiplexing

The purpose of multiplexing is to transmit several signals {m 1 (t), . . . , mN (t)} at the same time
by the use of a single communication system. This can be achieved by combining the signals into
one signal s(t) such that each of the signals mk (t) can be extracted from s(t). In this section, we
present two types of multiplexing; quadrature carrier multiplexing and frequency division multiplexing (FDM). A third multiplexing technique called Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) will be
considered in the context of signal sampling.
a) Quadrature carrier multiplexing
Since cos(2fc t) and sin(2fc (t) are orthogonal functions, the principle of quadrature multiplexing of two signals is to transmit one signal using a carrier of the form cos(2f c t) and to transmit
the other signal using a carrier of the form sin(2fc t). Let m1 (t) and m2 (t) be two lowpass signals
with bandwidth W . The schemes of multiplexing and demultiplexing follows:

38

m1(t)
s(t) = m1(t) cos(2fct) + m2(t) sin(2fct)
cos(2fct)
m2(t)

sin(2fct)
Figure 7: Quadrature carrier multiplexing

v1 (t)

m1 (t)

Complete the proof that the scheme of Fig. 8

is a quadrature carrier demultiplexer:
v1 (t) = 2s(t) cos(2fc t)
=
+
{z
}
|{z}
|
lowpass term
bandpass term

s(t)
2 cos(2fc t)

LPF

v2 (t)

m2 (t)

v2 (t) = 2s(t) sin(2fc t)

=
+
|{z}
lowpass term

2 sin(2fc t)

LPF

{z
}
|
bandpass term

Since the bandpass terms are removed by the

lowpass filter, the result follows.
Figure 8: Quadrature carrier demultiplexing

39

b) Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

The principle of frequency division multiplexing is to modulate each signal m 0i (t) using a different
carrier frequency fci such that the spectrum of the modulated signals xi (t) do not overlap. Then a
FDM signal is obtained by adding the modulated signal yielding a signal with a higher bandwidth.
The multiplexed signal can be further modulated before transmission. Hence the modulation of
the signals mi (t) (bandlimited version of m0i (t)) to be multiplexed is called sub-modulation and
the carrier {fci }i=1,...,N are sub-carriers. In a FDM system, the sub-carriers are selected such that
the spectrum of the sub-modulated signals do not overlap. Therefore the original message signals
m0i (t) have to be passed first through a lowpass filter that limit them to a predetermined bandwidth
W . If the original message signals are already bandlimited to W , no lowpass filtering is required.
Let B be the bandwidth of each of the sub-modulated signals x i (t). To avoid overlapping of the
spectrum of the sub-modulated signals (and hence to ensure distortionless demultiplexing), we
must have
|fci fck | B
FDM multipler and demultiplexer follows:

m01 (t)

LPF

m1 (t)

Modulator
fc1

x1 (t)
s(t) =

m0N (t)

LPF

mN (t)

Modulator
fcN

PN

i=1 xi (t)

xN (t)

Figure 9: Frequency Division multiplexing

example of FDM:
s(t) =
s(t) =

N
X

i=1
N
X
i=1

1 + kai mi (t) cos(2fci t) AM sub-modulation (BW of s(t): 2N W )


Ac 
mi (t) cos(2fci t) m
i (t) sin(2fci t)
2

40

SSB sub-modulation (BW of s(t): N W )

BPF 1

s(t)

x1 (t)

Demodulator
fc1

m1 (t)

xN (t) Demodulator
fcN

mN (t)

fc1

BPF N
fcN

Figure 10: Frequency Division demultiplexing

Complete the proof that the scheme of Fig. 10 is a FDM demultiplexer:

s(t) =

+
{z
}
|
bandpass term around fci

{z
}
|
sum of bandpass terms around fcj (j 6= i)

The bandpass filter around fci keeps the bandpass term around fci (namely xi (t)) and removes all
the other bandpass terms. It is seen that non-overlapping of the spectrums of x i (t) is needed to
avoid distortion. Then each xi (t) can be demodulated.
Note that for SSB sub-modulation, since the spectrum of x i (t) contains only one sideband, the
required bandpass filter should pass only one sideband as seen in Fig. 11.

BPF n

fcn

f
fcn + W

Figure 11: Bandpass filter required for upper sideband SSB

41

4.4 Angle modulation

With m(t) the message signal, an angle modulated signal is defined as




x(t) = Ac cos (t) = Ac cos 2fc t + (t)

(13)

where (t) is given by

(t) = K

m( )h(t )d = 2Kf

m( )h(t )d

K
where K = 2Kf is the phase sensitivity (of the modulator) expressed in rd/Volt, K f = 2
is the frequency sensitivity (of the modulator) expressed in Hz/Volt and h(t) is assumed to be
causal. (t) is the phase of x(t) and (t) = 2fc t + (t) is the angle of x(t). The instantaneous
frequency of x(t) is defined as

f (t) =

1 d(t)
1 d(t)
= fc +
2 dt
2 dt

The maximum phase deviation of x(t) is

= max |(t)|
The maximum frequency deviation of x(t) is


 1 d(t) 


f = max |f (t) fc | = max 
2 dt 

The complex envelope of x(t) is given by

x(t) = Ac ej(t)
Phase modulation (PM):
h(t) = (t)
H(f ) = 1

= (t) = Km(t)

The phase of a PM signal is proportional to the message signal.

Frequency modulation (FM):

1,
h(t) = u(t) = 12 ,

0,

t>0
t=0
t<0

= (t) = K

42

m( )d

H(f ) =

1
1
+ (f )
j2f
2

The instantaneous frequency of an FM signal is proportional to the message signal up to a carrier

frequency shift
K
m(t) + fc = Kf m(t) + fc
f (t) =
2
Frequency modulation with pre-emphasis/de-emphasis(FM):
When noise analysis is done for FM, it can be shown that the power spectral density of noise
at the FM receiver output is proportional to f 2 in the frequency-band of the message, thus the
noise power is higher at high frequencies. To increase the overall signal-to-noise ratio, practical
systems use a pre-emphasis filter hpe (t) before frequency modulation. The purpose of hpe (t) is
to artificially increase the high-frequency components of the message signal to compensate for
the high noise level. After FM detection, the recovered emphasized message signal is passed
through a de-emphasis filter hde (t) which must be ideally the inverse filter of the pre-emphasis
filter (i.e. Hde (f ) = Hpe1(f ) ). If pre-emphasis is used, the emphasized message signal is given by
mpe (t) = m(t) hpe (t)
and the FM modulated signal is
Z t
x(t) =
mpe ( )d = mpe (t) u(t) = m(t) hpe (t) u(t)

Therefore (13) corresponds to an FM signal with pre-emphasis when h(t) = h pe (t) u(t). Equivalently in the frequency domain


1
1
Hpe (f )
1
= Hpe (0)(f ) +
H(f ) = Hpe (f )
(f ) +
2
j2f
2
j2f
An example is Hpe (f ) = 1 +

jf
.
c

a) Narrow-band angle modulation

Narrow-band angle modulation: (t)  1
If (t)  1, then

Hence

x(t) = Ac ej(t) Ac (1 + j(t))


x(t) = < x(t)ej2fc t

(complete this line)

Ac cos(2fc t) Ac (t) sin(2fc t)
43

Thus narrow-band angle modulation has similar features to AM.

Bandwidth of narrow-band angle modulation: 2 bandwidth of (t).
Generation of narrow-band angle modulation:
Exercise: Draw a block diagram that generates a narrow-band angle modulated signal.

Detection of narrow-band angle modulation:

Exercise: Draw a block diagram of a system with input x(t) and output A2c (t):

b) Wide-band angle modulation

Wide-band angle modulation: |(t)|  1
x(t) = Ac ej(t)
Generation of wide-band angle modulation using indirect method (Armstrongs method) :
Generates a narrow-band angle modulated signal

Z
x0 (t) = Ac cos 2fc t + K

m( )h(t )d

 R



t
with K m( )h(t )d   1.

Pass x0 (t) through a Frequency multiplier by N whose block diagram is illustrated in Fig. 12.
The output to the frequency multiplier by N is then


Z t
x(t) = Ac cos 2N fc t + N K
h(t )m( )d

44

x0 (t)

( )

xN
0 (t)

BPF

x(t)

N fc
Figure 12: frequency multiplier by N

If N  1 we have a wide-band angle-modulated signal around a carrier at N f c .

Analysis of a frequency multiplier by N :


Z t
1
N
m( )h(t )d
y(t) = (x0 (t)) = N 1 cos 2N fc t + N K
2

+ other terms like cos(2nfc t + . . .) with n < N

since
(cos )2n
(cos )2n1

" n1
 #


1 X n
2n
= 2n
2
cos 2(n k) +
k
2
n
k=0
" n1 
 #
X 2n 1 


1
2n
= 2n2
cos (2n 2k 1) +
2
k
n
k=0

The other terms are removed by the bandpass filter yielding x(t) as output.
Generation of any FM modulation using direct method; use of Voltage-Controlled-Oscillator (VCO):
Vc (t)

VCO

x(t)

Figure 13: Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

If the input of a VCO is a voltage Vc (t) then the output of a VCO with unmodulated frequency
of oscillation fc has an instantaneous frequency given by
f (t) = fc + Kf Vc (t)

45

Thus its output is


Z
x(t) = Ac cos 2fc t + K

see for example Hartley oscillator .

Vc ( )d

d) Tone modulation
Tone modulation corresponds to a sinusoidal message signal. Let m(t) = A m cos(2fc t) (Am
0) applied at some time t0 such that t0  t. Let us calculate the steady state expression of (t)
corresponding to a general angle modulated signal.
Z t
(t) = K
Am cos(2fm )h(t )d
t0
Z t
K
Am cos(2fm )h(t )d (steady state)

Z
Am cos(2fm )h(t )d (h(t) is causal)
=K

Z
=K
F {Am cos(2fm )} F {h(t )} df Generalization of Parseval theorem (t fixed)

Z


KAm
=
[(f fm ) + (f + fm )] H(f )ej2f t df
2

KAm 
=
H (fm )ej2fm t + H (fm )ej2fm t
2


= KAm < H(fm )ej2fm t
(h(t) is real, thus H (f ) = H(f ))


= KAm |H(fm )| cos 2fm t + arg [H(fm )] (steady state)
(14)
Show that for PM and FM (t) is given by
(
KAm cos(2fm t) PM
(t) = KAm
sin(2fm t) FM
2fm

The modulation index is defined as the maximum phase deviation, or equivalently the maximum deviation of the angle (t) from 2fc t .
= max |(t)| = max |(t) 2fc t|
46

assuming K, Am 0

= KAm |H(fm )|

Hence from (14) the steady state expression of (t) for tone modulation is also given by


(t) = cos 2fm t + arg [H(fm )]
= sin (2fm t + )
where = arg [H(fm )] + 2 .
Phase modulation (PM):
: maximum phase deviation

PM = KAm =
Frequency modulation (FM):
FM =

Kf A m
f
KAm
=
=
2fm
fm
fm

f = Kf Am : maximum frequency deviation

Transmission bandwidth of an angle modulated signal with tone modulation:

For convenience, we define = arg [H(fm )] such that FM = 0 and PM =

and we use

(t) = sin (2fm t + )

The complex envelope of the angle-modulated signal is
x(t) = Ac ej(t) = Ac exp {j sin(2fm t + )}
Unlike the original signal x(t), the complex envelope x(t) is periodic with period T m =
therefore x(t) admits a Fourier series representation
x(t) =

cn ej2nfm t

n=

where the Fourier coefficients are given by

1
cn =
Tm
4

Tm
2

= A c fm
A c fm
=
2fm
= Ac e

x(t)ej2nfm t dt

T2m
Tm
2

jn

x(t)ej[ sin(2fm t+)2nfm t] dt

T2m

ej[ sin(u)nu+n] du (u = 2fm t + )

1
2

ej[ sin(u)nu] du

47

1
,
fm

= Ac ejn Jn ()
where Jn () is the nth Bessel function of the first kind defined as
1
Jn () =
2
=

ej[ sin(u)nu] du (integral independent of 1 )

X
(1)k
k=0

n+2k
2

k!(k + n)!

Therefore the modulated signal x(t) with tone modulation is given by



x(t) = < x(t)ej2fc t
)
(

X
X


Jn () cos 2(fc + nfm )t + n
= Ac
Ac ejn Jn ()ej[2fc t+2nfm t]
=<
n=

n=

and has a Fourier transform given by

X(f ) =



Ac X
Jn () (f fc nfm ) + (f + fc + nfm ) cos(n)
2 n=



+j (f fc nfm ) (f + fc + nfm ) sin(n)

Thus it is seen that angle-modulated signals have an infinite bandwidth.

P


Ac

Jn () (f fc nfm ) + (f + fc + nfm )
2 Pn= 


X(f ) = A2c
J
()
(f

2pf
)
+
(f
+
f
+
2pf
)
(1)p
2p
c
m
c
m
p=




+ jJ2p+1 () (f fc (2p + 1)fm ) (f + fc + (2p + 1)fm )

FM
PM

Using Jn () = (1)n Jn () and mathematical tables, the Fourier transform X(f ) for FM is
illustrated for example in Fig. 14 and Fig. 15. Note that usually only the magnitude of X(f ) is
drawn. It is obtained by reversing the negative peaks to become positive peaks.

Expand the integral as the sum of the three integrals

u + 2 in the first one.

48

R +

and makes the change of variable v =

X(f)

( = 2)

fc- 3f m

fc - f m

fc- 2f m

fc f+f
c
m

f+
3fm
c

(positive frequencies only)

Figure 14: Fourier transform of X(f ) ( = 2) with FM modulation

X(f)

( = 8)

f+
c 3fm
fc - f m

fc
fc- 3f m

f c+ fm

(positive frequencies only)

Figure 15: Fourier transform of X(f ) ( = 8) with FM modulation

Some properties of Bessel functions:

Jn () = (1)n Jn ()
When  1,
 n

1
Jn ()
2
n!
lim Jn () =

1 n = 0,
0 else.
49

J0 () 1
J1 () 2

Jn () 0, n 2

To obtain a definition of an effective (or essential) bandwidth, that is a bandwidth that contains
most of the total power (usually 98% or 99%), let us consider the average power of x(t). The
average power of x(t) is given by
1
Px = lim
T 2T
4

= lim

A2c
2T

x2 (t)dt
T

X
X

Jn ()Jp ()

n= p=

T
T

cos 2(fc + nfm )t + n cos 2(fc + pfm )t + p dt

Z T

A2c X
1
cos 2(2fc + (n + p)fm )t + (n + p) dt
Jn ()Jp () lim
=
T 2T
2 n= p=
T

Z T


+
cos 2(n p)fm t + (n p) dt
T
"


Z Tn,p

A2c X X
1
2t
Jn ()Jp ()
=
+ (n + p) dt
cos
2 n= p=
2Tn,p Tn,p
Tn,p
0

 #
Z Tn,p
2t
1
cos
+ (n p) dt
+ 0
0
0
2Tn,p Tn,p
Tn,p

1
. Since the two trigonometric integrals
where Tn,p = [2fc + (n + p)fm ]1 and Tn,p = (n p)1 fm
are zero unless n = p and are equal to 1 when n = p, the average power of x(t) is given by
0

X
A2c X 2
Px =
J () = Pc +
Pn
2 n= n
n=

A2c 2
J ()
2 0
A2
Pn = c Jn2 () nth side-band power
2
A2c 2
A2
Pn =
Jn () = c Jn2 () = Pn
2
2
Pc =

Note that from x(t) = Ac cos (2fc t + (t)), the average power of x(t) is also given by
Px =
therefore we can deduce that

A2c
2

Jn2 () = 1

n=

50

An effective (essential) bandwidth can be defined as

BT = 2nmax fm
where nmax is the largest n such that |Jn ()| 0.01 and k > n|Jk ()| < 0.01. It turns out
that nmax depends on . In terms of power, it is equivalent to neglect side-bands that contribute
to less than 0.01% of the total power. Another rule for the effective bandwidth is obtained by
approximating nmax by a linear curve,
1c2

BT = 2fm ( + c)
When c = 1, the classical Carsons rule is obtained

BTCars = 2fm ( + 1)
example: Show that Carsons rule for FM is
BTFM = 2 (fm + f )
d) General modulating signal with bandwidth W
If m(t) is periodic, m(t) should be expressed in terms of its Fourier series representation. If m(t)
P
[(t)]k
is a general non-periodic deterministic signal, we can use e j(t) =
.
k=0
k!

Generalization of Carsons rule to a general modulating signal

Worst-case tone approach. Let m(t) be a message signal with bandwidth W and maximum
amplitude max |m(t)|. Assume we model m(t) as an infinite number of tones of frequency f mk
and maximum amplitude Amk , then its effective bandwidth would be
BT = max {2fmk [k + 1]}
k

= max 2fmk + max KAmk fmk |H(fmk )|

k

max 2fmk + K max Amk max [fmk |H(fmk )|]

k

(15)

= W + K max |m(t)| max [fmk |H(fmk )|]

k

where to get (15) we have applied the worse case tone approach. The worse case tone approach
consists of evaluating the bandwidth obtained by considering a tone at the highest possible frequency and the highest possible amplitude, thus maximizing the product of the second term in
BT by maximizing its two terms Amk and fmk |H(fmk )| separately. Let us consider now the term
maxk [fmk |H(fmk )|] for the special case of FM and PM modulation. For FM modulation


f mk
max [fmk |H(fmk )|] = max
= max 1 = 1 = W |H(W )|
k
k
k
2fmk
51

consistent with the worse tone at W . Note that for FM maximizing A mk is equivalent to maximize
the frequency deviation fk . For PM modulation
max [fmk |H(fmk )|] = max fmk = W = W |H(W )|
k

Hence we obtain
BT = 2W + K max(|m(t)|)W |H(W )| = 2W ( + 1)
where called for general modulating signal the deviation ratio is defined as
(
K max |m(t)|
f
= f W
FM
W
= K max(|m(t)|)|H(W )| =
= K max |m(t)| PM
Exercise:
Calculate using Carsons rule the bandwidth of commercial FM broadcasting characterized
by a maximum allowed maximal frequency deviation of 75kHz and a maximum audio signal of
15kHz.

e) Detection of FM signals
Basic structure: using a differentiator and an envelope detector

Show that for large fc , if x(t) is applied to a differentiator followed by an envelope detector,
the resulting output is proportional to the message signal:


Z t
m( )d
x(t) = Ac cos 2fc t + K
dx(t)
=
dt
z(t) =

complete
Output of envelope detector (complete)

Frequency domain differentiation (slope demodulator)

Draw the transfer function of a real filter that can implement the differentiation.
52

Note that the differentiation operation has to be implemented only in the bandwidth of the
modulated signal.
Time domain differentiation
Based on the following approximation
x(t) x(t t)
dx

dt
t
draw the block diagram of a time domain differentiator.

Quadrature detector for an angle-modulated signal

Using a differentiator and a /2 phase shifter, draw the block diagram of a demodulator for an
angle modulated signal, that is based on similar principles as coherent detection for AM.

53

.
Show that the output of the quadrature detector is given by A2c d(t)
dt
f) Form of H(f ) for FM
The phase of an FM modulated signal is given by
Z
Z
(t) = K
h(t )m( )d = K

m( )d

Its Fourier transform is given by



1
M (0)
F {(t)} = KH(f )M (f ) = K
M (f ) +
(f )
j2f
2

Hence in theory
H(f ) =
Let H (f ) =
0

1
,
j2f

(f )
1
+
j2f
2

then the corresponding phase (t) is given by

0

(t) = F
and the original phase is
(t) = F

KH (f )M (f ) = F

1
M (f )
K
j2f




1
1 K
M (f ) + F
(f )M (0)
K
j2f
2

[KH(f )M (f )] = F


K
1
1
=F
M (f ) + M (0)
K
j2f
2

Hence the difference between the two phases is only a constant phase shift which is equivalent to
a change of the time of origin. Furthermore the instantaneous frequency given by
f (t) = fc +

54

1 d(t)
2 dt

is independent of the constant

1.

KM (0)
.
2

H(f ) =

Finally the two possible expressions of H(f )

1
1
+ (f )
j2f
2

2.

H(f ) =

1
j2f

yield the same result for the deviation ratio . Hence in the derivation of results
H(f ) =
can be considered instead of H(f ) =

1
j2f

1
j2f

+ 12 (f ).

55