Junior Tatis

December 16th, 2013

Honors Pre-Calculus
Mr. Justin Desai

Unit 1 - Analyzing Functions

Introduction
In this unit, we will be understanding how to analyze a function, the different functions,
and the different parts of a function. By the end of this review the student will be able to fully
describe a function.
Pre-Requisites to Pre-Calculus
Before we indulge into the unit, there are a couple of common mistakes a student must
understand to insure the work being done is correct.
1) A common mistake made by students is confusing ( + )2 = 2 + 2 . ( + )2 does
not equal 2 + 2 instead ( + )2 must be interpreted such as ( + )( + ) which
after the distribute property will equate to 2 + 2 + 2.
2) Another common mistake made by students is interpreting (4) = 2 compared to
(4) = 2 . Students must be able to understand that (4) = 2 is equal to (4) =
(4)2 which equals (4) = (16) or (4) = 16 while (4) = 2 simply equals
(4) = (4)2 which is (4) = 16. Students should always surrond the value they
plug in with parantheses to avoid confusion.
3) The final mistake commonly made by students is intepreting x-values in a fraction,
2 9

especially raised to a specific power. 225 stays as it is rather than change to 1 + 25 or

9

25

Section 1 The Importance of Factoring

In pre-calculus, factoring is one of the most essential processes to analyzing a function.
To factor a function, the first step is looking for the Greatest Common Factor (GCF); for an
example the function () = 4 2 16 has a GCF of 4. By factoring the GCF we are left with.
() = 4( 2 4). The next step to factoring an equation is looking for the difference between
two squares. In this equation we are left with the difference of ( + 2)( 2) or a perfect
square. If the student cannot find a perfect square than therefor different factoring methods
should be used which will later be described. Right now, the student is left with a fully factor

function of () = 4( + 2)( 2). Some equations such as () = 2 + 49 are impossible to

factor with real numbers, although they are factorable with imaginary numbers which will be
explained in a further section.
An important benefit of factoring is being able to solve a function. By solving you are simply
finding out the x-values that make the entire function zero. To set the entire function to zero, you
may have to move numbers around and add like terms, although at the end your equation should
look like () = 0. When fully factored the zeros or solutions of () = 4( + 2)( 2) are
= 2, = 2; because either of these numbers make the function equal to zero. In later sections
we will be able to graph these zeros on the x-axis, because these zeros are the x-intercepts of the
equation.
Try factoring and solving these functions!
1) () = 36 3 24 2 + 8

2) () = 2 6

3) () = 2 5 + 6

4) () = 2 + 17 + 60

5) () = 7 2 45 28

6) () = 2 10 + 25

7) () = 3 2 + 2 = 8

8) () = 2 3 70

9) () = 3 3 + 11 2 = 20

10) () = 14 2 + 16

Section 2 Graphing Quadratics

Now that you know how to factor a function, you must be able to graph the function and
visually interpret a graph. There are several tools to facilitate graphing a function, for now we
will use five tools to graph a simple quadratic function. Lets start with the vertex, the vertex is
an important tool because it is the line of symmetry for a quadratic equation. The vertex is the
center of a parabola; although to find out the coordinates on a graph one must plug in the
quadratic equation to the vertex formula. The quadratic equation is known as () = 2 +
()

+ . The vertex formula is 2(). After solving for the vertex formula, the result of the formula
is plugged in as and the result of the formula is the y-coordinate of the vertex, while the result
from the vertex formula is the x-coordinate.

Lets try it out with the function, () = 2 5 + 6. First we will plug it into the
vertex formula:

()
2()

; The of the function is -5, and the of the function is 1.

(5)
2(1)

5 5

2, 2 is

equal to 2.5 and is the x-coordinate of our vertex. Now we must plug in 2.5 to the function.
2.52 5(2.5) + 6 6.25 12.5 + 6 () = .25. After plugging in, the value we get

is .25. Now we have our vertex and our first tool in graphing quadratics. Our vertex is
(2.5, .25).

After the vertex, the next important piece of information we must get is the y-intercept, or
when the x-coordinate is equal to zero, the y-coordinate is equal to a number. There are several
ways to get the y-intercept, such as, plugging in zero to a function, or simply getting the constant
or . For the function () = 2 5 + 6 our constant is 6, meaning our y-intercept is (0,6).

Weve already learned how to factor functions and solve to get the zeros or x-intercept of
equation. When () = 2 5 + 6 is factored, we get () = ( 2)( 3) and when
solved, our zeros are = 2, = 3.
An important but simple piece to graphing quadratics is realizing whether the parabola is
opening up, or opening down, or rather whether the function as a whole is negative or positive.
This is figured out by simply looking at the first coefficient and realizing whether the number is
negative or positive.
The last piece of information for graphing a quadratic is by creating a table, creating a
table is very simple because we already know 3 or more coordinates to plot on a table. The next
and final part of graphing the parabola is actually graphing it.
The Graph

The Table
X

As you can see, the graph on the left is a

parabola of the function. The points
plotted and on the table are the yintercept, x-intercepts, and the vertex.
These are the points need to successfully
graph a quadratic function. While some
quadratic functions may not have xintercepts, they can still be graphed with
the y-intercept and the vertex, because
quadratics are symmetrical.

Try it out! Graph these and provide the y-intercept, x-intercept(s) if any, and the vertex!
1) () = 2 + 2

2) () = 2 + 6 + 9

3) 2 + 4 + 4

4) () = 2 + 6 + 2

5) () = 2 2 + 4 2

6) () = 2 + 2 + 5

Domain and Range

In pre-calculus it is important to know the domain and range when analyzing a function.
The domain is simply stating the values that the variable x can be, while the range is stating
the value that the variable y can be. Together these two state the values in which a function can
be.
When writing your domain and range, you use a paranthesis if you cannot get the value,
but you can get really close to it, for an example 3, the function cannot reach 3 although it can
get as close as 2.99. Infinity is a number which cannot be reached by any function because it is
always expanding. Brackets are used when the number is reachable. Domain is always modeled
as ( , ). Most parabolas or quadratic function have a domain of
(, ), this is because all the x-values can be reached. Although quadratic functions usually
have a range for an example, in the function () = 2 3 we know that the y-intercept is -3,
and the vertex is (0, 3) there for because it is a positive function, opening up, the range will be
[3, ). As you can see we use a bracket for -3 because it is a number that can be reached, while
we use a paranthesis for because it is a number which can never be reached.
Interval Notation
Interval notation is just like domain and range. Lets look at the inequality 4 what
this is saying is that value of x has to be less than or equal to 4, therefor that means that any
number less than four can be used along with 4 itself. To write this interval notation you simply
state the lesser value(, 4]. This notation is saying that x can be any negative number, up
until it reaches 4, where it is equal to its inequality. In some interval notations, breaks are
involved, and simply show a jump from one value to another, breaks can be as small as 2.99 to
3.01 where it can be shown by using (, 3)(3, ); or breaks as big as 4 to 100 or even bigger
for an example: (2,4][101, ).
This is another of writing interval
notation and is saying (, 3](8, ). The open circle states that the number cannot be reached,
while the closed circle means it does.

Try it out! Write the following inequalities in interval notation, or the interval notations as
inequalities!
1) 4

2) 6 > 22

3) (3, )

4) (, 2][5, )

5) 3 < 10

6) [4,8)

Function Analysis
A function takes an input (x) and gives an output (y). The value of y must be unique to
be a proper function. The vertical line test is a simple test to find whether a graph is a function,
you simply draw a vertical line, if the line has more than one y value or an x value, therefor
the graph is not a function.
The domain states the possible x-values as stated in a previous section, although there are
limits to these x-values. The several limits to domain beginning with there being no negatives in
an even square root. For an example the domain to the function () = 3 is [3, );
because there can be no negatives in an even square root, meaning that inputs such as 2 or 1
are impossible and do not exist, in further chapters we will learn how to express these nonexistent values. Another limit to domain is having the denominator of a rational function being
1

zero. For an example the domain of the function () = is ( ,0)(0, ) this is because
when we input zero, our output is non-existent, because there cannot be a zero on the
denominator of a rational function. Range is usually found out by look and observing where what
the y-values cannot be.
It is important to connect continuity with domain and range. A continuous function does
not have any breaks in the domain and range, for an example (2,3) would be a continuous
function because there are no breaks, although (1,2)(2,3) is not continuous because there is a
break between 2. There are three different ways to show discontinuity, a hole, infinite
0

discontinuity/vertical asymptote, or a jump. A whole is characterized when () = 0, for an

example in the function () =

2 4
2

has a hole because when factored to () =

(+2)(2)
2

and

the value 2 is plugged in, the denominator becomes zero, although the numerator also becomes
zero, meaning that there is a hole. To find the exact location of the whole, you know that it
appears when = 2 although if you plug this value to what is left of the equation + 2 you can
find the y-value of the hole. Infinite discontinuity is simpler, if the denominator is zero although
the numerator isnt zero, than there is an infinite discontinuity. In equations that dont involve a
rational, although have a limit in domain, there is also infinite discontinuity in the value that

creates discontinuity. Lets find the discontinuity of a function using () = 2 4. First we must
1

fully factor the function making it () = (2)(+2). As you probably realized by now, there are
two values that limit the domain, meaning that there is more than one discontinuity. In this
equation the discontinuities are at = 2, = 2. On a graph it would look as such
The vertical asymptotes, or infinite discontinuities are marked by the
two vertical lines, these are the values where x cannot exist and make
non-continuous.
End Behavior
End behavior refers to what a function will do when x goes to or . End behavior can be written as such: , () and
, () . End behavior is found with the dominant term.
The dominant term is the term that contains the highest degree or
power. In the function () = 3 + 2 2 + 2. To find the end behavior, you can plug in and to the dominant term to find out whether at the end the value would be positive or negative.
Because in this function the dominant is 3 you can simply think of and - as values or
variables and plug it in. ()()() = and ()()() = . That means that the
end behavior is , () and , () .
End behavior with rational functions can be a little different. The first step is to find the
dominant term on the numerator, and the dominant term on the denominator. Then you cancel
3 3 4

3 3

out these terms for an example in the function () = 25 4 the dominant terms are 5 4 . Now
3

that you know the dominant terms you have to cancel out the xs making it 5. After canceling
out, you must follow three rules to get the end behavior. The first rule, is when x degree is
bigger on the denominator, the end behavior is equal to zero. The second rule is when x degree
is bigger on the numerator, the end behavior is or -, after plugging in. Finally, the third
rules when the x degree is the same on the numerator and denominator, the end behavior
is equal to the values left over, for an example if

4
5

is left over, than the behavior is equal to

Try it out! Find the End Behaviors for the following functions!

1) () = 3 3 2 2 + 1
3) () =

5 +2
3
2

5) () = 4

2) () = 2 2 + 4 + 2
4) () =
6) () =

2
3
2 2
4 2

Imaginary Numbers
Imaginary are numbers which are not real, and do not exist. is a imaginary number and
= 1. This means that 2 is equal to (1)(1) = 1 and 3 is equal to
(1)(1)(1) = 1(1) or rather . Lets try a equation with an imaginary number,
for an example: (5 + 2)(4 + 3). First you distribute the numbers to get 20 + 8 + 15 +
6 2 . Then you combine the like terms. 20 + 23 + 6 2 . We know that 2 is really 1 meaning
that 20 + 23 + 6 2 turns to 20 + 23 6. We again combine the like terms to get our final
result of 14 + 23
A conjugate is basically an opposite, for an example the conjugate of ( + 3) is ( 3).
With imaginary numbers it is relatively the same, and you should results in a real number such
as: (5 )(5 + ) which then equals to 25 2 or 25 (1) which results in 26.
Try it out! Solve the problems!
1) (2 + 3)(2 )

2) (2 )(1 + 3)

3) (7 3)(2 + 6)

4) (4 + )(6 5)

Radicals
Radicals are the opposite of exponents for an example the opposite of 2 is . One
important rule to know is that there can be no radicals in the denominator of a rational. To fix
this you must rationalize the denominator. To rationalize a denominator, you multiple the value
of the denominator to the denominator itself, and the numerator, for an example:

3
5

has a radical

in the denominator, there for we must rationalizing by multiply 5 to the numerator and
denominator, for an example.

3
5

5
5

which is equal to

35
5

There are times when the denominator needs to be multiplied by a conjugate to remove
the radical from the denominator. Lets use

105
33

as an example. Because multiplying the

rational with just 3 would result in the denominator having 33 rather than a real number, we
must multiply the rational with the conjugate of the denominator.
to

105
33

3+3

3+3 which then equals

30+10332
6

There are times when students may confuse different ways of interpreting square roots,
1

and powers. For an example = 2 which both are the inverse or opposite of 2 . With

rationals as powers, the numerator usually goes inside the radical, while the denominator is on
4

the outside, or an example with 3 is equal to 3 4 .

1

Negative exponents are really the exponent under 1 for an example 3 is equal to 3 .
This has to do with base expression, and how there cannot be negative exponents in a
3 2

denominator for an example: 3 2 is equal to 4 .

Simplifying radicals is basically trying to remove as much as possible from the inside of
the radical to the outside. For an example with the radical: 125 6 7 . First we split the radical
up into pieces 25 5 6 7 . We know that the square root of 25 is 5, and that the
square root of 6 is 3 , there for so far we have 255 3 7. To continue simplifying
we break up the 7 to 6 1 . We know that 6 = 3therefor we have simplified as
much as we could and are left with 25 3 3 5.

Odd and Even Functions

An even function is a function which is even when () = () for all of x in its
domain. This is usually visually characterized when a function is the same on one side, to the
other side, based on the line of symmetry.
An odd function is odd when a function is not even, and () = () for all of x in
its domain. This is usually visually characterized when a function seems to have a 180 degree
rotation about the origin.
To figure out whether a function is even or odd, you plug in the value of a. Lets use
the example () = 2 3, plugging in a for x. () = 2 3 ()() = . Now we
must plug in -a to the function to determine whether () = (). () = ()2 3
() = ()() = . Because () = , () = the function is even.
Lets look at two more functions to determine whether they are negative or even.
The next function we will be using is () = 3 4. First we plug in a () = ()3
4() ()3 4 = 3 4. Our result for a is 3 4. Now we must plug in -a
() = ()3 4() = 3 + 4, as you may have noticed, this is not the same when we
plugged in a, so now therefor it is not even, although is it odd? To find out, we take the answer
we got from plugging in a and multiply the entire function by negative. () =
(3 4) 3 + 4, because when we plug in -a and when we make the function
negative after plugging in a are equal, this makes the entire function odd. Lets try it out with
one final problem: () = 4 + 1. First we will plug in a () = 4() + 1 which is equal
to 4 + 1, now we plug in -a. () = 4() + 1 which equals 4 + 1. () ()

there for this function is not even. Lets try finding out whether it is odd. () = (4 + 1)
which equals 4 1. () () there for this function is also not odd! What this means
is that this function is neither odd nor even.
Try it out! Find out whether these functions are odd, even, or neither.
1) () = 2 + 5
3) () = 13 + 1

2) () =

2 +5

4) () = 3 + 2

The 12 Basic Functions

In the mathematical world, there are 12 basic functions which everyone should know,
these basic functions are usually the most seen, even if combined with eachother. While
displaying a graph of the function, one will be given the equation, domain, range, whether it is
bounded, and some other information one should always know.
Identity function (linear function)
- () =
- Domain = (, )
- Range = (, )
Squaring function (quadratic)
- () = 2
- Domain = (, )
- Range = [0, )
Cubing function
- () = 3
- Domain = (, )
- Range = (, )
Reciprocal function
1
- ()
- Domain = (, 0)(0, )
- Range = (, 0)(0, )

Square Root
- () =
- Domain = [0, )
- Range = [0, )
Exponential function
- () =
- Domain = (, )
- Range = (0, )
Natural Logarithm function
- () = ln
- Domain = (0, )
- Range = (, )
Sine function
- () = sin
- Domain = (, )
- Range = [1,1]
Cosine function
- () = cos
- Domain = (, )
- Range = [1,1]
Absolute Value function
- () = ||
- Domain = (, )
- Range = [0, )
Greatest Integer function
- () = [] = ()
- Domain = (, )
- Range = All integers
Logistic function
1
- () = 1+
- Domain = (, )
- Range = (0,1)

Transformations
Transformation of a graph or function is simple. To shift a function up or down you add
to the function: () + = ; () = . To vertically stretch a function,

you can multiply a function, using a fraction may shrink it: () = ;

() = . To shift a function horizontally, you add to the x-value of the function:
( + ) = ; ( ) = . Multiplying the x-value of the function, can

horizontally stretch or shrink it: () = ; ( ) .

Piece-wise Functions
A piece-wise function is basically a function with steps, basically saying, when x is a value,
than it is this function, and when x is this other value, x is that other function.
2, 1
Lets use an example the piece wise function: () = {
the bracket tells us that
+ 3, > 1
there is more than one piece to this function, the actual function tells us what kind of function it
is, and the inequality tells us when x equals that function. On a graph, a piece wise function
looks like this
As you can see, the graph has the two
functions as
stated by the peace-wise. Peace-wise functions
can have more
than just two functions, but a piece wise can an
infinite
amount of functions, although for now we will
only show a
piece-wise with 3 functions. Such as for an
2
, 2
example: () = { , 2 < 4 which shows as:
2 + 30, > 4

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

A polynomial function with a degree of n ( > 0) has n complex zeros some of the
zeros may be repeated. A complex zero is a zero that is real or imaginary. If a function has an
imaginary zero in the form of + then is also a zero of the function. What this means
is that when ever imaginary zero, there is a conjugate with it. Lets use an example, a polynomial
has a degree of 4 and zeros at = 3, = 4 = 2
Because of the conjugate rule, = 2 + is also a zero. Now that we have all our zeros,
we must write our function. () = ( + 3)( 4)( (2 )( (2 + ). First we start by
grouping it and doing one part first ( + 3)( 4) = 2 12. Second we get the other side
and do it out, ( (2 )( (2 + ) = 2 4 + 5. Now it is time to get the rest of the

function. [ 2 12][ 2 4 + 5] = 4 5 3 3 2 + 43 60. There goes our function

and as you can see, the highest degree follows the theorem of Algebra.