Operations of Functions

Function operations are the arithmetic operations that are used to solve a function. The arithmetic
operations applied to a function are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

Function operations are the arithmetic rules we can apply to two or more functions. Functions
can be added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided against each other, and we can divide function
operations into four types.

 Addition of the functions

 Subtractions of the functions
 Multiplication of the functions
 Division of the functions
Addition of the Functions
The addition of functions involves combining two or more functions to create a new function. It
is done by adding the corresponding values of the functions at each input.
Suppose we have two functions f(x) and g(x).

The sum of these functions, denoted as (f + g)(x), is defined as:

(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)

In other words, to find the value of the sum function at a particular input x, we add the values of
f(x) and g(x) at that input.

Here's an example to illustrate the addition of functions:

Let's consider two functions:

f(x) = 2x + 3 g(x) = x^2 - 1

To find the sum of these functions, we add the values of f(x) and g(x) at each input x.

(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) = (2x + 3) + (x^2 - 1)

We can simplify this sum function by combining like terms:

(f + g)(x) = x^2 + 2x + 3 - 1 = x^2 + 2x + 2

So, the sum of the functions

f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = x^2 - 1 is (f + g)(x) = x^2 + 2x + 2.

It's important to note that the addition of functions is commutative, which means that the order of
addition does not matter. In other words, (f + g)(x) is the same as (g +
f)(x).
Subtraction of Functions

The subtraction of functions involves subtracting one function from another to create a new
function. It is done by subtracting the corresponding values of the functions at each input.

Suppose we have two functions f(x) and g(x). The difference of these functions, denoted as (f -
g)(x), is defined as:

(f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)

In other words, to find the value of the difference function at a particular input x, we subtract the
value of g(x) from the value of f(x) at that input.

Here's an example to illustrate the subtraction of functions:

Let's consider two functions:

f(x) = 2x + 3 g(x) = x^2 - 1

To find the difference of these functions, we subtract the value of g(x) from the value of f(x) at
each input x.

(f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x) = (2x + 3) - (x^2 - 1)

We can simplify this difference function by combining like terms:

(f - g)(x) = 2x + 3 - x^2 + 1 = -x^2 + 2x + 4

So, the difference of the functions

f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = x^2 - 1 is (f - g)(x) = -x^2 + 2x + 4.

Similarly to addition, it's important to note that the subtraction of functions is not commutative.
In other words, (f - g)(x) is generally not the same as (g - f)(x). The order in which the functions
are subtracted affects the result.

Multiplication of Functions

Multiplication of functions refers to the process of multiplying two or more functions together to
create a new function. It is a fundamental operation in mathematics and is often used in various
branches of mathematics, such as calculus, algebra, and differential equations.
When multiplying functions, each function is typically represented by a variable, such as f(x),
g(x), or h(x), although other variables or symbols can be used as well. The resulting product
function is obtained by multiplying the corresponding terms of the given functions.

Let us consider an example of function operations multiplication: Let's consider the

multiplication of two functions, f(x) and g(x).

We have the following functions:

f(x) = 2x + 3 g(x) = x^2

To find the product of these functions, we can multiply them together:

h(x) = f(x) * g(x) = (2x + 3) * (x^2)

To simplify this, we can use the distributive property of multiplication over addition:

h(x) = 2x * x^2 + 2x * 3 + 3 * x^2 + 3 * 3

Now, let's simplify each term:

h(x) = 2x^3 + 6x + 3x^2 + 9

Therefore, the product of

f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = x^2 is h(x) = 2x^3 + 3x^2 + 6x + 9.

This is an example of how to multiply two functions together.

Division of the Functions

The division of functions refers to the mathematical operation of dividing one function by
another. It involves finding a quotient function and, in some cases, a remainder function.

Given two functions, f(x) and g(x), the division of f(x) by g(x) is denoted as f(x) / g(x).

Division of two functions, f(x) and g(x).

Example 1:

f(x) = 2x^3 - 4x^2 + x + 3 g(x) = x^2 - 2x + 1

To find the quotient of these functions, we can divide f(x) by g(x):

quotient(x) = f(x) / g(x) = (2x^3 - 4x^2 + x + 3) / (x^2 - 2x + 1)

To divide the polynomials, we can use polynomial long division. Here are the steps:
x^2 - 2x + 1 | 2x^3 - 4x^2 + x + 3 - (2x^3 - 4x^2 + 2x) ______ -x + 3 - (-x + 2) __ 1

The quotient is 2x - 4 and the remainder is 1.

Therefore, the division of f(x) = 2x^3 - 4x^2 + x + 3 by g(x) = x^2 - 2x + 1 is

quotient(x) = 2x - 4 with a remainder of 1.

Rational Equation

Any equation with one or more rational expressions is referred to as rational. A fraction with
polynomials in the numerator and denominator is referred to as a rational expression. Finding the
values of the variable that make the equation true is the aim of solving a rational equation.

The steps below should be used to answer a rational equation:

Any limitations on the variable should be noted. Since division is a necessary step in rational
expressions, we must ensure that the denominators are not equal to zero. The variable must not
have any values in the solution set if doing so will result in the denominators being zero.For all
the rational expressions in the equation, determine a common denominator. To get a common
result, each rational statement is multiplied by the relevant factors.

By carrying out the required operations to remove the denominators, simplify the equation.
Remove fractions by multiplying by the common denominator.
The resulting equation should be solved similarly to a typical algebraic equation. This could
entail factoring, combining similar phrases, or shifting variables to one side.
Put your solution(s) back into the original equation to make sure they work. Verify the equation
is accurate and that the denominators are not zero.

It's important to note that rational equations may have extraneous solutions, which are values that
satisfy the equation but do not satisfy the original problem. Therefore, it's always a good practice
to check the solutions obtained.

Here's an example of solving a rational equation:

Example:

Solve the equation (x + 3)/(x - 2) = 2/(x + 1).

Solution:

Step 1: There are no restrictions on the variable in this equation.

Step 2: The common denominator is (x - 2)(x + 1). Multiply each fraction by the necessary
factors:

(x + 3)/(x - 2) * (x + 1)/(x + 1) = 2/(x + 1) * (x - 2)/(x - 2) (x + 3)(x + 1) = 2(x - 2)

Step 3: Simplify the equation:

x^2 + 4x + 3 = 2x - 4

Step 4: Solve the resulting equation:

x^2 + 4x + 3 - 2x + 4 = 0 x^2 + 2x + 7 = 0

This equation does not factor nicely, so we can use the quadratic formula to find the solutions:

x = (-2 ± √(2^2 - 4(1)(7))) / (2(1)) x = (-2 ± √(-24)) / 2 x = (-2 ± 2i√6) / 2 x = -1 ± i√6

So the solutions are

x = -1 + i√6 and x = -1 - i√6.

Step 5: Check the solutions: Substitute each solution back into the original equation:

For x = -1 + i√6: (x + 3)/(x - 2) = (1 + i√6 + 3)/(1 + i√6 - 2)

On simplifying, we find that the equation holds true. Similarly, we can check x = -1 -
i√6.Therefore, the solution to the original equation is

x = -1 + i√6 and x = -1 - i√6.

Rational Inequality

A rational inequality is an inequality that involves rational functions. A rational function is a

function that can be expressed as the ratio of two polynomials.

To solve a rational inequality, you typically follow these steps:

1. Simplify the rational expression if possible.

2. Determine the critical points by setting the numerator and denominator equal to zero and
solving for the variable.
3. Use the critical points to create test intervals on a number line.
4. Choose a test point from each interval and evaluate the rational expression.
5. Determine the sign of the expression in each interval.
6. Use the signs to write the solution to the inequality.

Here's an example to illustrate the process:

Solve the rational inequality:

(x - 2)/(x + 3) > 0
Simplify the rational expression: The expression is already simplified.

Determine the critical points: Set the numerator equal to zero:

x - 2 = 0 -> x = 2
Set the denominator equal to zero:
x + 3 = 0 -> x = -3 So, the critical points are x = -3 and x = 2.

Create test intervals: On a number line, mark the critical points -3 and 2. This divides the number
line into three intervals:

(-∞, -3), (-3, 2), and (2, +∞).

Choose test points: Select a test point from each interval.

-4 from (-∞, -3), 0 from (-3, 2), and 3 from (2, +∞).

Evaluate the expression: Plug in the test points into the inequality:

For x = -4: (-4 - 2)/(-4 + 3) = -6 < 0 For x = 0: (0 - 2)/(0 + 3) = -2/3 < 0 For x = 3: (3 - 2)/(3 + 3)
= 1/6 > 0

Determine the sign: Based on the evaluations, the signs are: (-∞, -3): Negative (-3, 2): Negative
(2, +∞): Positive

Write the solution: Since the inequality is greater than 0, the solution is where the expression is
positive. From the sign analysis, we find that the solution is (2, +∞).

Therefore, the solution to the inequality (x - 2)/(x + 3) > 0 is x > 2.

Rational Function

A rational function is a function that can be expressed as the ratio of two polynomials. It has the
form:

f(x) = P(x) / Q(x)

where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials, and Q(x) is not equal to zero. The variable x represents the
independent variable, and f(x) represents the dependent variable or the output of the function.

Rational functions can have various properties and behaviors. Here are some key points about
rational functions:
Domain: The domain of a rational function consists of all real numbers except for the values of x
that make the denominator Q(x) equal to zero. These values are called the excluded values.

Vertical Asymptotes: If the degree of the polynomial Q(x) is greater than the degree of P(x) by
one or more, the rational function may have vertical asymptotes. Vertical asymptotes occur at
values of x for which the denominator Q(x) is equal to zero.

Horizontal or Oblique Asymptotes: Rational functions may also have horizontal or oblique
asymptotes. These asymptotes describe the behavior of the function as x approaches positive or
negative infinity. The presence and nature of these asymptotes depend on the degrees of the
polynomials P(x) and Q(x).

Zeros and Intercepts: Zeros of a rational function occur when the numerator P(x) is equal to
zero. These are the values of x for which the function f(x) equals zero. Intercepts can also occur
if the numerator or denominator evaluates to zero at a particular value of x.

Graphical Behavior: Rational functions can exhibit various graphical behaviors, such as vertical
stretches or compressions, reflections, and translations. The shape and location of the graph
depend on the coefficients and exponents of the polynomials P(x) and Q(x).

Understanding the properties and behavior of rational functions can help in analyzing their
graphs, finding their domains and asymptotes, identifying zeros and intercepts, and solving
related equations or inequalities.

Here's an example of a rational function:

f(x) = (3x^2 - 5x + 2) / (x - 1)

In this example, we have a rational function where the numerator is the polynomial 3x^2 - 5x +
2, and the denominator is the polynomial x - 1.

Let's analyze some properties of this rational function:

Domain: The function is defined for all real numbers except x = 1, as it would make the
denominator equal to zero.

Vertical Asymptote: In this case, since the degree of the numerator is 2 and the degree of the
denominator is 1, there is no vertical asymptote.

Horizontal Asymptote: As x approaches positive or negative infinity, the function approaches

the ratio of the leading terms of the numerator and the denominator. In this case, the leading term
of the numerator is 3x^2, and the leading term of the denominator is x.

Therefore, the horizontal asymptote is y = 3.

Zeros: The zeros of the function occur when the numerator equals zero. We can factor the
numerator as (3x - 2)(x - 1) = 0.

Therefore, the zeros are x = 2/3 and x = 1.

Intercepts: To find the y-intercept, we evaluate the function when x = 0: f(0) = (3(0)^2 - 5(0) +
2) / (0 - 1) = 2 / (-1) = -2.

So, the y-intercept is (0, -2).

Now, armed with this information, you can plot the graph of the rational function
f(x) = (3x^2 - 5x + 2) / (x - 1) and analyse its behaviour based on the properties discussed above.

Logarithmic Equation

A logarithmic equation is an equation that involves logarithmic functions. Logarithmic functions

are the inverse of exponential functions and are written in the form:

y = log(base a)(x)

where "a" is the base of the logarithm, "x" is the argument of the logarithm, and "y" is the value
of the logarithmic function.To solve a logarithmic equation, you typically follow these steps:

1. Identify the properties of the logarithmic equation, such as the base of the logarithm and
any restrictions on the domain.
2. Use logarithmic properties, such as the power rule or the logarithmic identity, to simplify
the equation if possible.
3. Apply the inverse operation of the logarithm, which is exponentiation, to eliminate the
logarithm and solve for the variable.
4. Check for extraneous solutions by verifying that the obtained solutions satisfy the
original equation and are within the domain of the logarithmic function.

Here's an example to illustrate the process:

Solve the logarithmic equation:

log(base 2)(x + 3) = 4

The base of the logarithm is 2, and there are no restrictions on the domain.

To simplify the equation, we can rewrite it in exponential form:

2^4 = x + 3.

Solve for x by subtracting 3 from both sides:

16 - 3 = x -> x = 13.
Check the solution:

Substitute x = 13 back into the original equation to ensure it satisfies the equation. log(base 2)(13
+ 3) = 4 log(base 2)(16) = 4 2^4 = 16

The solution x = 13 satisfies the original equation.

Therefore, the solution to the logarithmic equation:

log(base 2)(x + 3) = 4 is x = 13.

Remember to always check your solution to eliminate any potential extraneous solutions.

Example of Logarithmic Equation

Example 1: Solve the logarithmic equation.

Since we want to transform the left side into a single logarithmic equation, we should use the
Product Rule in reverse to condense it. Here is the rule:

Given

Apply Product Rule from Log Rules.

Distribute: (x+2)(3)=3x+6(x+2)(3)=3x+6

Drop the logs, set the arguments (stuff inside the parenthesis) equal to each other.

Then solve the linear equation.

ALWAYS check your solved values with the original logarithmic equation.

Remember:It is OKAY for xx to be 00 or negative.However, it is NOT ALLOWED to have a

logarithm of a negative number or a logarithm of zero, 00, when substituted or evaluated into the
original logarithm equation.

CAUTION: The logarithm of a negative number, and the logarithm of zero are both not defined.

 Log (negativenumber)=undefined
 log⁡b(0)=undefinedlogb(0)=undefined

Let’s check our answer to see if x=7x=7 is a valid solution. Substitute it back into the original
logarithmic equation and verify if it yields a true statement.

Since x=7x=7 checks, we have a solution at x=7x=7.

Simple and Compound Interest

Simple interest and compound interest are two methods used to calculate the interest on a
principal amount over a certain period of time. They are different on how the interest is
calculated and accumulated.

Simple Interest:

Simple interest is calculated only on the initial principal amount. It does not take into account
any interest that has already been earned. The formula for simple interest is:

I=P*r*t

where: I is the interest P is the principal amount (initial amount of money) r is the interest rate
per period (usually expressed as a decimal) t is the time period (in years)

The interest is calculated by multiplying the principal amount by the interest rate and the time
period. The resulting interest is constant throughout the duration of the investment.
Compound Interest:

Compound interest takes into account not only the initial principal amount but also the
accumulated interest over time. It involves reinvesting the interest earned, and thus, interest is
calculated on both the principal amount and the interest already earned.The formula for
compound interest is:

A = P * (1 + r/n)^(n*t)

where: A is the final amount including principal and interest P is the principal amount r is the
annual interest rate (as a decimal) n is the number of compounding periods per year t is the time
period (in years)

The compound interest formula incorporates the compounding frequency (n) to calculate the
growth of the investment. The interest is added to the principal amount at each compounding
period, resulting in exponential growth over time.

Simple interest is calculated only on the initial principal amount, while compound interest takes
into account both the principal amount and the accumulated interest. Compound interest results
in higher returns compared to simple interest, especially for longer time periods and higher
compounding frequencies.

Probability Distribution

A probability distribution is a mathematical function that describes the likelihood of various

outcomes occurring in a particular event or experiment. It provides a way to assign probabilities
to different possible outcomes, allowing us to understand and analyze uncertain events.

There are two main types of probability distributions: discrete probability distributions and
continuous probability distributions.
Discrete Probability Distribution: A discrete probability distribution is used when the variable
can only take on specific values, typically integers. It associates each possible outcome with a
probability. The probabilities assigned to each outcome must satisfy two conditions: they must be
non-negative, and their sum must equal

1. Examples of discrete probability distributions include the binomial distribution, the Poisson
distribution, and the geometric distribution.

Continuous Probability Distribution: A continuous probability distribution is used when the

variable can take on any value within a certain range. It is described by a probability density
function (PDF) rather than assigning probabilities to individual outcomes. The area under the
curve of the PDF represents the probability of the variable falling within a specific range.

Examples of continuous probability distributions include the normal distribution, the exponential
distribution, and the uniform distribution.

Probability distributions are essential tools in probability theory and statistics. They help us
understand the behavior of random variables and make predictions about the likelihood of
specific outcomes. By using probability distributions, we can calculate expected values,
variances, and other statistical measures that provide insights into the characteristics of random
events.It's important to note that different probability distributions are applicable in different
situations, depending on the nature of the variable being studied and the assumptions made about
its behavior. Selecting the appropriate probability distribution for a given problem is crucial for
accurate analysis and inference.

Example: Probability distributions are idealized frequency distributionsImagine that an egg

farmer wants to know the probability of an egg from her farm being a certain size.
The farmer weighs 100 random eggs and describes their frequency distribution using a
histogram:

She can get a rough idea of the probability of different egg sizes directly from this frequency
distribution. For example, she can see that there’s a high probability of an egg being around 1.9
oz., and there’s a low probability of an egg being bigger than 2.1 oz.
Suppose the farmer wants more precise probability estimates. One option is to improve her
estimates by weighing many more eggs.
A better option is to recognize that egg size appears to follow a common probability distribution
called a normal distribution. The farmer can make an idealized version of the egg weight
distribution by assuming the weights are normally distributed:

Since normal distributions are well understood by statisticians, the farmer can calculate precise
probability estimates, even with a relatively small sample size.

Variables that follow a probability distribution are called random variables. There’s special
notation you can use to say that a random variable follows a specific distribution:
Random variables are usually denoted by X.

The distribution is denoted by a capital letter (usually the first letter of the distribution’s name),
followed by brackets that contain the distribution’s parameters.
For example, the following notation means “the random variable X follows a normal distribution
with a mean of µ and a variance of σ2.”

Normal Distribution and Areas Under the Normal Curve

The normal distribution, also known as the Gaussian distribution or bell curve, is a continuous
probability distribution that is widely used in statistics and probability theory. It is characterized
by its symmetric, bell-shaped curve. The shape of the normal distribution is determined by its
mean (μ) and standard deviation (σ).

The probability density function (PDF) of the normal distribution is given by the equation:

f(x) = (1 / (σ * √(2π))) * e^(-(x - μ)^2 / (2σ^2))

where:

 x is the random variable

 μ is the mean of the distribution
 σ is the standard deviation of the distribution
  π is the mathematical constant pi (approximately 3.14159)
 e is the mathematical constant e (approximately 2.71828)

The normal distribution has several important properties:

Symmetry: The distribution is symmetric around its mean. This means that the mean, median,
and mode of the distribution are all equal and located at the center of the curve.
Empirical Rule: A large proportion of the data falls within a certain number of standard
deviations from the mean. Approximately 68% of the data falls within one standard deviation of
the mean, 95% falls within two standard deviations, and 99.7% falls within three standard
deviations.
Z-Score: The z-score measures the number of standard deviations a particular value is from the
mean. It is calculated as z = (x - μ) / σ, where x is the observed value.
Central Limit Theorem: The sum or average of a large number of independent and identically
distributed random variables tends to follow a normal distribution, regardless of the distribution
of the individual variables.

Areas under the normal curve can be calculated to determine probabilities associated with
specific ranges of values. This is done by calculating the cumulative distribution function (CDF),
which gives the probability that a random variable is less than or equal to a specific value. The
CDF for the normal distribution does not have a closed-form formula but can be determined
using statistical software or standard normal distribution tables.
The standard normal distribution, also known as the Z-distribution, is a special case of the
normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. By using z-scores, we can
convert values from any normal distribution to the standard normal distribution and then use the
standard normal distribution table to find probabilities.
The normal distribution and its associated areas under the curve are widely used in statistical
inference, hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, and modeling various natural and social
phenomena

Measure of Location
A measure of location, also known as a measure of central tendency, is a statistical value that
represents the center or typical value of a data set. It provides a summary of the location or
position of the data points relative to each other. The most commonly used measures of location
are the mean, median, and mode.

Mean: The mean, also referred to as the average, is calculated by summing up all the data points
and dividing the sum by the total number of data points. It is influenced by extreme values and
provides an overall measure of the "center" of the data set. The formula for the mean is:

Mean = (sum of all data points) / (total number of data points)

Median: The median is the middle value of a sorted data set. To find the median, the data set is
arranged in ascending or descending order, and the value at the center is chosen. If the data set
has an odd number of observations, the median is the middle value. If the data set has an even
number of observations, the median is the average of the two middle values.
Mode: The mode is the value or values that occur most frequently in a data set. It represents the
peak(s) of the distribution and is particularly useful for categorical or discrete data. A data set can
have one mode (unimodal), two modes (bimodal), or more than two modes (multimodal). It is
possible for a data set to have no mode if no value is repeated.

These measures of location provide different perspectives on the center or typical value of a data
set. The mean is influenced by extreme values and is suitable for data sets with a symmetrical
distribution, while the median is resistant to outliers and is appropriate for skewed distributions.
The mode is useful for identifying the most frequently occurring value(s) in a data set.

Choosing the appropriate measure of location depends on the nature of the data set and the
specific objective of the analysis. Each measure has its strengths and limitations and should be
selected accordingly.

Permutation

Permutation refers to the arrangement of objects or elements in a specific order. In permutation,

the order of the elements matters. It is often denoted as "nPr" or "P(n, r)," where "n" represents
the total number of objects or elements, and "r" represents the number of objects or elements
selected for arrangement.The formula to calculate the number of permutations is:

P(n, r) = n! / (n - r)!

where "!" denotes the factorial operation. The factorial of a number is the product of all positive
integers less than or equal to that number.
For example:
4!= 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 24.

The permutation formula accounts for the arrangement of "r" elements from a total of "n"
elements. It divides the total number of arrangements (n!) by the number of arrangements of the
remaining elements ((n - r)!).

This ensures that only the desired number of elements are arranged while maintaining the order.
For example, let’s say you have a set of 5 letters (A, B, C, D, E), and you want to find the
number of permutations of 3 letters taken at a time. Using the permutation formula:

P(5, 3) = 5! / (5 - 3)! = 5! / 2! = (5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1) / (2 x 1) = 60

So, there are 60 possible permutations of 3 letters chosen from a set of 5 letters.
Permutations are commonly used in combinatorial mathematics, probability theory, and various
fields where the arrangement or order of elements is significant, such as arranging a sequence of
events or selecting a committee from a group of individuals.

Here are some example:

Combination

Combination refers to the selection of objects or elements from a set without considering the
order. In combination, the order of the elements does not matter. That means if the same elements
are selected but in a different order, it is considered the same combination. Combinations are
denoted as:

"nCr" or "C(n, r),"

where "n" represents the total number of objects or elements, and "r" represents the number of
objects or elements selected for combination.

For example, if you have a set of 3 letters (A, B, C), the possible combinations of 2 letters taken
at a time are AB, AC, and BC. The order of the letters does not matter, so AB and BA are
considered the same combination.The formula for combinations is:

C(n, r) = n! / (r! * (n - r)!)

The factorial notation "!" denotes the product of all positive integers less than or equal to the
number. For example:

4! = 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 24

In summary, permutation deals with the arrangement of objects in a specific order, while
combination deals with the selection of objects without considering the order. Permutations
involve the factorial operation and result in more possibilities than combinations due to
considering the order of elements. Combinations, on the other hand, have fewer possibilities as
they only consider the selection of elements without regard to their order.
Example:
Quartiles

Quartile deviation is a statistic that measures the deviation in the middle of the data. Quartile
deviation is also referred to as the semi interquartile range and is half of the difference between
the third quartile and the first quartile value. The formula for quartile deviation of the data is Q.D
= (Q3 - Q1)/2.

There are three quartiles denoted by Q1, Q2 and Q3 divides the frequency distribution in to
four equal parts

That is 25 percent of data will lie below Q1, 50 percent of data below Q2 and 75 percent
below Q3. Here Q2 is called the Median. Quartiles are obtained in almost the same way as
median

Quartiles for Raw or Ungrouped data:

If the data set consist of n items and arranged in ascending order then

Example:

Compute Q1 and Q3 for the data relating to the marks of 8 students in an examination given
below 25, 48, 32, 52, 21, 64, 29, 57

Solution:

n=8

Arrange the values in ascending order

21, 25, 29, 32, 48, 52, 57, 64 we have

Quartiles for Continuous series (grouped data)

Step 1: Find cumulative frequencies

Step 2 : Find (N/4)

Step 3 : Q1 class is the class interval corresponding to the value of the cumulative frequency just
greater than (N/4)

Step 4 : Q3 class is the class interval corresponding to the value of the cumulative frequency just
greater than 3 (N/4)

Decile

Decile is a statistical concept that divides a data set into ten equal parts, each containing an equal
proportion of the data. It is a measure of location that helps analyze the distribution of data and
identify specific points within the dataset.

To calculate deciles, follow these steps:

  Arrange the data set in ascending order.
 Calculate the index of each decile using the formula: Index = (10 / 100) * n where n is the
total number of data points in the dataset.
 Round the index to the nearest whole number. This will give you the position of each
decile within the ordered dataset.

The values at the positions calculated in step 3 represent the deciles.The first decile (D1)
represents the value below which 10% of the data falls. The second decile (D2) represents the
value below which 20% of the data falls, and so on. The ninth decile (D9) represents the value
below which 90% of the data falls. Finally, the tenth decile (D10) represents the maximum value
in the dataset.

Deciles are useful in analyzing the spread and distribution of data. They can help identify
outliers, understand the distribution's shape, and compare specific data points with the rest of the
dataset. For example, the fifth decile (D5) is equivalent to the median of the dataset, dividing it
into two equal halves.
In addition to deciles, quartiles (dividing the data into four equal parts) and percentiles (dividing
the data into hundred equal parts) are also commonly used measures of location that provide
further insights into the distribution of data.

Example:
Find the D6 for the following data
11, 25, 20, 15, 24, 28, 19, 21

Solution:
Arrange in an ascending order
11,15,19,20,21,24,25,28

Example:

Calculate D5 for the frequency distribution of monthly income of workers in a factory

Solution :

Percentiles

The percentile values divide the frequency distribution into 100 parts each containing 1 percent
of the cases. It is clear from the definition of quartiles, deciles and percentiles

Relationship

P25 = Q1

P50 = Median = Q2

P75 = 3rd quartile = Q3

Example 1:

The following is the monthly income (in 1000) of 8 persons working in a factory.
Find P30 income value

10,14, 36, 25, 15, 21, 29, 17

Solutions:

Arrange the data in an ascending order.

n=8

10,14,15,17,21,25,29,36
Example 2:

Calculate P61 for the following data relating to the height of the plants in a garden

Solution: