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XuLyAmThanhVaHinhAnh
XuLyAmThanhVaHinhAnh
SCH HNG DN HC TP
X L M THANH V HNH NH
(DNG CHO SINH VIN H O TO I HC T XA)
LU HNH NI B
TP H CH MINH - 2007
LI NI U
Ti liu hng dn hc tp mn "X l m thanh v hnh nh" dnh cho khi o to t xa
chuyn ngnh in t vin thng. Ti liu ny gii thiu nhng kin thc c bn v x l m
thanh v hnh nh. c bit, tc gi ch trng ti vn x l tn hiu ng dng trong mng vin
thng: l cc phng php nn tn hiu, lu tr, cc tiu chun nn tn hiu m thanh v hnh
nh. Nhng kin thc c trnh by trong ti liu s gip hc vin tip cn nhanh vi cc vn
thc tin thng gp trong mng vin thng.
V khi lng kin thc trong lnh vc x l m thanh cng nh hnh nh rt ln, trong ti
liu hng dn ch c th nu ln mt s vn chnh. tm hiu su v rng hn hc vin phi
nghin cu thm trong cc sch tham kho c tc gi cp ti trong phn cui ca ti liu
ny.
y l ln bin son u tin, chc chn ti liu cn nhiu s st, rt mong cc bn c
trong qu trnh hc tp v cc thy c ging dy mn hc ny ng gp cc kin xy dng.
Khi phn loi tn hiu ta c th da trn cc c s khc nhau nh phn loi theo nng lng,
hnh thi, theo tnh cht ca ph ca tn hiu v.v.
Trong l thuyt tn hiu c hai lp tn hiu quan trng l tn hiu xc nh v ngu nhin.
Tn hiu xc nh l tn hiu c qu trnh bin i biu din bng mt hm thi gian, v c th xc
nh chnh xc mi thi im. Cc tn hiu xc nh c vai tr rt quan trng trong l thuyt tn
hiu c in. Tn hiu xc nh cn chia ra thnh tn hiu tun hon (theo chu k T) v khng
tun hon (phi chu k).Tn hiu tun hon l nhng tn hiu c th biu din bng cng thc nh
sau: x (t ) = x (t + kT ) k nguyen - tn hiu ny tun theo quy lut lp li u vi chu k T.
Tn hiu ngu nhin l cc tn hiu m khng th d kin trc hnh vi ca chng theo thi
gian v biu din chng phi da trn l thuyt thng k. Trn thc t, cc tn hiu thng tin
u mang tnh cht ngu nhin.
Tn hiu c th c bin v bin thi gian (khng gian) l ri rc hay lin tc, do
chng ta cn phn bit bn loi tn hiu sau:
Tn hiu
Tn hiu
Tn hiu
Tn hiu
tng t (analog)
lng t
ri rc
s (digital)
Bin
lin tc
ri rc
lin tc
ri rc
lin tc
lin tc
ri rc
ri rc
Nh vy, tn hiu tng t l tn hiu c bin v bin thi gian l lin tc. Nu tn hiu
c biu din bng hm ca bin ri rc th tn hiu l tn hiu ri rc. K hiu chung ca tn
1.1.2 Tn hiu ri rc
Tn hiu x(t) c bin thi gian t ri rc c gi l tn hiu ri rc, chng ta c th k hiu
l {xn} vi n l s nguyn (n = 0, 1, 2, ).
x(n)
x = { x( n )}
< n < +
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Hnh 1.1.1 Tn hiu ri rc
N1 n N 2
n con lai
c-
Chng ta khng dng chung (mt tng hay tch) m khai trin cc gi tr ca tn hiu
ri rc nh sau :
3 1 1
x (n ) = {..., 0, 1, , , , 0, ,...}
4 2 4
: ch mu ti n = 0.
x. y = {x(n). y(n)}
(1.1.1)
. y = {. y(n)}
(1.1.2)
x + y = {x(n) + y(n)}
(1.1.3)
y (n) = x(n n 0 )
vi n0 > 0
(1.1.4)
y(n ) = x (n + n 0 )
vi n0 > 0
(1.1.5)
x ( n) =
x(k ) (n k )
(1.1.6)
k =
x(n) = x(n + N )
, n.
(1.1.7)
E xN =
x( n )
(1.1.8)
n=
PxN = lim
(1.1.9)
(1.1.10)
Gi tr nh nht ca N c gi l chu k.
x(n + kN) = x(n)
; k nguyn dng
(1.1.11)
(1.1.12)
i- Php gp tn hiu:
Thay bin n bng (-n), kt qu ta c x ( n ) thay v x ( n ) . Php bin i ny thc hin
bng cch ly i xng tn hiu x ( n ) qua gc thi gian.
T x ( t ) = y ( t )
hay
T
x ( t )
y (t )
(1.1.13)
x 1 ( t ) y1 ( t )
nu
(1.1.14)
x 2 (t ) y 2 (t )
a 1 x 1 ( t ) + a 2 x 2 ( t ) a 1 y1 ( t ) + a 2 y 2 ( t )
y ( t ) = T x ( t ) th y ( t t0 ) = T x ( t t0 )
(1.1.15)
c) Tnh nhn qu
H thng c gi l nhn qu nu p ng ca n ti thi im bt k ch ph thuc vo
cc gi tr ca tn hiu vo thi im hin ti v qu kh.
d) Tnh n nh: Mt h thng c gi l n nh nu tn hiu ra gii hn vi tt c cc
tn hiu vo gii hn.
Da trn cc tnh cht nu ca h thng, chng ta c th phn loi cc h thng nh sau:
h thng tuyn tnh, h thng bt bin, h thng nhn qu, h thng tuyn tnh bt bin.
p ng xung.
y (t ) = x (t ) h (t ) =
x ( ) h ( t ) d
(1.1.16)
v ngc li
x ( t ) M x < , M x l hng s.
kin:
t 0.
1.1.3.1.3 Phng trnh sai phn tuyn tnh h s hng
ak y( k ) ( t ) = br x( r ) ( t )
k =0
(1.1.17)
r =0
y0 ( t ) : y ( t ) = yr ( t ) + y0 ( t ) .
Trong nghim thun nht y0 ( t ) l nghim ca phng trnh thun nht:
N
ak y( k ) ( t ) = 0 .
(1.1.18)
k =0
1.1.3.2 H thng ri rc
T x ( t ) = y ( t )
hay
T
x ( t )
y (t )
(1.1.19)
(1.1.20)
y ( n ) = F x ( n ) , x ( n 1) , x ( n 2 ) .... , vi F l mt hm s no .
Nu h thng khng tha mn c iu kin trn th ta gi h thng l khng nhn qu.
d. H thng n nh v khng n nh
Mt h thng gi l n nh nu n b chn (Bounded Input Bounded Output - BIBO), tc
x ( t ) M x < , M x l hng s th
y ( t ) M y < , M y l hng s.
1.1.3.2.2 p ng xung ca h thng tuyn tnh bt bin
Nu h thng l tuyn tnh v bt bin ta c:
Khi h thng l tuyn tnh v bt bin, th ta c quan h sau :
y( n) =
x(k )h(n k )
(1.1.21)
k =
y( n) =
(1.1.22)
k =
S=
h(n) <
(1.1.23)
n =
k =0
r =0
a k ( n) y ( n k ) = b r ( n) x ( n r )
(1.1.24)
a (t )
k
k =0
d k y (t ) M
d r x (t )
b
(
r
)
=
r
dt k
dt r
r =0
(1.1.25)
Chng ta c th nhn c phng trnh sai phn tuyn tnh t mt phng trnh vi phn
tuyn tnh bng cch thay gn ng ca cc o hm vo v tr ca cc o hm. V d vi o
hm bc mt, ta c gn ng nh sau :
dt
t
b. Phng trnh sai phn tuyn tnh h s hng
H tuyn tnh bt bin ng vai tr rt quan trng trong nhiu ng dng thc tin. Mt lp
h con ca h tuyn tnh bt bin l cc h c tn hiu vo v tn hiu ra tho mn phng trnh sai
phn tuyn tnh h s hng (PT-SP-TT-HSH) di dng:
N
k =0
r =0
ak y( n k ) = br x( n r )
(1.1.26)
k =0
r =0
ak . y( n k ) = br . x(n r )
(1.1.27)
10
nu trng hp N = 0, ta c :
M
br
. x( n r )
r =0 a0
y( n) =
M
y( n) = br . x( n r )
a0 0
a0 = 1
(1.1.28)
r =0
nh ngha :
N
b
br
. x( n r ) k . y ( n k )
r =0 a0
k =1 a0
y( n) =
(1.1.29)
nh ngha :
H thng c c trng bi phng trnh sai phn bc N > 0 c gi l h thng qui.
11
1.2.3 Lu tr
Nh ni trn, thng tin m thanh cht lng cao v video trong multimedia lm cho
lung s tng hp c kch thc rt ln, v th lu tr d liu l mt trong nhng vn quan
12
trng trong h thng multimedia. Hin nay, h thng multimedia s dng hu ht cc cng ngh
truyn thng ghi d liu l cc cng ngh lu tr t, quang v cng ngh flash. Gi thnh
cc h thng lu tr dung lng ln ngy cng h, trong khi cc thng s k thut lin tc c
ci thin. V d, cc a cng (HDD) hin i cho php ghi lung d liu c tc ln ti
300MBps qua giao thc SATA-II, tc ghi ny cho php lu trc tip video s ln cng
khng qua giai on nn d liu (lm mt cht lng video gc). H thng RAID (Redundant
Array of Independent Disks) c th c thit lp t 8, 16 hoc nhiu hn na cc cng c dung
lng ln ti 750 GB mi . Vi dung lng 12 TB, h thng RAID cho php ghi ti ~2700 gi
video cht lng DVD (9.8Mbps) hoc ~125 gi video s (PAL) khng nn (216Mbps). Gi
thnh cng hin nay ch khong ~0.3$/GB. so snh, vo nm 2005, gi thnh cng khong
1.2$/GB, tc ghi ch t ~6Mbps.
Trong cc h thng truyn dn c bng thng hp, vic truyn ti d liu multimedia khng
th thc hin trong thi gian thc, khi cc user u cui phi s dng thit b lu tr cc b.
Ton b d liu sau khi ti v s c gii m trnh chiu offline. V d nh mng Internet ch
c kh nng phn phi video v audio trc tuyn vi cht lng thp, tuy nhin lu tr cc b vn
cho php ngi dng nghe nhc hoc xem video cht lng cao. H thng lu tr ngy cng c
ci tin p ng nhu cu ny.
Cc thit b lu tr nh CDROM v DVD cng c ci tin cung cp lung d liu tc
cao. Cng ngh CDROM hin ti c th truyn ti d liu khong 64 Mbps hay cao hn, lu
tr khong 700MB d liu v c thi gian truy cp khong 300 ms. a DVD mt mt c dung
lng ~4.7 GB. Vi cc thng s nh vy, cng ngh CD ROM l tm chp nhn c cho mt
s ng dng. Hin ti cng ngh a cng vn c ci tin lin tc phc v cho nhu cu lu
tr a dng ca d liu multimedia ngy cng i hi nhng tiu chun kht khe v khng gian
lu tr, thi gian tr
13
1.2.6 Tng tc
Ngy ny, cng vi s pht trin ca cng ngh, tn ti rt nhiu cc loi phn cng khc
nhau, cc loi mng khc nhau, cc ng dng khc nhau v cc loi nh dng multimedia khc
nhau. Vic tng tc chng cng hot ng c l vn ct li ca ngi dng u cui
multimedia.
gii quyt vn , t chc IMA (Interactive Multimedia Association) v MMCF
(Multimedia Communications Forum) c thnh lp pht trin cc gii php gii quyt vn
tng tc multimedia gia cc chun khc nhau.
Mc ch ca MMCF l pht trin:
- Gii php tng tc multimedia t ngi dng u cui n ngi dng u cui m
khng ph thuc vo ng dng cng nh cng ngh truyn dn.
- Pht trin Application Programming Interfaces (API) m rng h tr tng tc gia ngi
dng u cui vi ngi dng u cui m khng ph thuc vo nh sn xut. Loi phn mm
nh vy c gi di tn l middleware bi v n lin quan n ng dng ca ngi dng u
cui cng nh nh dng file, k thut lu tr v mng truyn dn.
IMA m nhn trch nhim kt hp cc tiu chun nh dng multimedia. y l mt cng
vic kh khn v hin ny tn ti rt nhiu nh dng cho m thanh, hnh nh v video.
Hin nay c khon 20 m hnh (scheme) m ha m thanh. Hu ht u da trn u-law, Alaw v ADPCM s dng 4, 8 hay 16 bit/mu. Cc nh dng tiu biu nh:
Sound Blaster .VOC
Windows .WAV
Sounder/Soundtools .SND
Apple/SGI AIFF files
Vi d liu nh mu cng tn ti rt nhiu nh dng khc nhau. Cc nh dng nh mu
cho php hin th t 16 n hng triu mu. Cc nh dng nh tnh tiu biu ang c s dng
rng ri l:
Windows Bitmap .BMP
Graphic Interchange Format .GIF
Joint Picture Experts Group .JPEG or JPG
TIFF
PCX
PhotoCD .PCD
Hin nay trn ton th gii c tng cng khong 15 loi nh dng video cho truyn hnh
tng t v truyn hnh cht lng cao (High Definition TV) c thc hin v a ra th
trng. Mt s nh dng tiu biu ca video:
Motion JPEG
Video conferencing H.261
Microsoft AVI Video for Windows
Apple Quicktime
Intel Indeo DVI
14
15
f ( x, y ) = x 2 2 xy 6 y 2
17
Ch
ng 2 K thu
ut x l m thanh
Hn
nh 2.1.1 Tnn hiu lin tc theo thi gian
g
Tn hiu r
i rc thi gian:
g
l tn hiu
h
ch cc nh nghaa ti nhng thi
t
im r
i rc
khc nhau,
n
k hiuu x(n) .
Hn
nh 2.1.2 Tnn hiu ri rcc theo thi gian
g
Tn hiu lin tc gi trr: l tn hiuu c th nhnn tr bt k trong
t
on [Ymin , Ymax ] , v
v d
tn hiu tng t (analog).
(
Hn
nh 2.1.3 Tnn hiu lin tc gi tr
Tn hiu r
i rc gi trr: tn hiu ch
c nhn tr trong mt tp tr ri rc nh trcc (tn
hiu s).
Hnh 2.1.7 nhn c tm mc tn hiu khc nhau mt cch phn bit, tn hiu
nh-nh ca tn hiu nhiu phi nh hn hoc sai bit gia cc mc . T s tn hiu trn
nhiu phi ti thiu l 8:1 hoc l 18dB, truyn bi 3 bit. 16 mc th t s tn hiu trn nhiu
phi l 24dB, truyn bi 4 bit.
2.1.1.6 M hnh ha tn hiu m thanh
C rt nhiu k thut x l tn hiu c m hnh ha v p dng cc gii thut trong
vic khi phc m thanh. Cht lng ca m thoi ph thuc rt ln vo m hnh gi nh ph
hp vi d liu. i vi tn hiu m thanh, bao gm m thoi, nhc v nhiu khng mong
mun, m hnh phi tng qut v khng sai lnh so vi gi nh. Mt iu cn lu l hu ht
cc tn hiu m thoi l cc tn hiu ng trong thc t, mc d m hnh thc tin th thng
gi nh khi phn tch tn hiu l tn hiu c tnh cht tnh trong mt khong thi gian ang
xt.
M hnh ph hp vi hu ht rt nhiu lnh vc trong vic x l chui thi gian, bao
gm vic phc hi m thanh l m hnh Autoregressive (vit tt AR), c dng lm m hnh
20
(2.1.1)
i =1
M hnh AR i din cho cc qu trnh tuyn tnh tnh, chp nhn tn hiu tng t
nhiu v tn hiu tng t iu ha. Mt m hnh khc ph hp hn i vi nhiu tnh hung
phn tch l m hnh auto regressive moving-average (ARMA) cho php cc im cc cng
nh im 0. Tuy nhin m hnh AR c tnh linh ng hn trong phn tch hn m hnh
ARMA, v d mt tn hiu nhc phc tp cn m hnh c bc P > 100 biu din dng sng
ca tn hiu, trong khi cc tn hiu n gin hn ch cn biu din bng bc 30. Trong nhiu
ng dng, vic la chn bc ca m hnh ph hp m bo vic biu din tn hiu
khng lm mt i thng tin ban u l tng i phc tp. C rt nhiu phng php dng
c lng bc ca m hnh AR nh phng php trong cc phng php dng gim nhiu.
Tn hiu c cho bi cng thc (2.1.2):
nT
Pn
(2.1.2)
Time
21
+1.0
Voltage
+0.5
0
-0.5
-1.0
Time
+32,767
+16,383
0
-16,384
-32,768
1
43
+32,767
+16,383
0
-16,384
-32,768
Time
+16,383
0
-16,384
-32,768
1
43
+32,767
+16,383
0
-16,384
-32,768
1
43
X (z ) =
x ( n) z
(2.1.3a)
n =
x ( n) =
1
X ( z ) z n1dz
2j C
(2.1.3b)
x(n) z
<
(2.1.4)
n=
23
R1 < z < R2
(2.1.5)
X ( z ) = (1).z
n =0
1 zN
=
1 z 1
n n
V d: Cho x ( n ) = a n .u ( n ) . Suy ra X ( z ) = a z =
n =0
V d: Cho x ( n) = b n u ( n 1) . Then X ( z ) =
b z
n
1
,a < z
1 az 1
n
n=
1
, z <b
1 bz 1
Bin i z
ax1 ( n) + bx2 ( n )
aX 1 ( z ) + bX 2 ( z )
x ( n + n0 )
z n X ( z)
3. Hm m
a n x(n )
X ( a 1 z )
4. Hm tuyn tnh
nx(n)
5. o thi gian
x(-n)
X ( z 1 )
6. Tng quan
x(n)*h(n)
X(z)H(z)
7. Nhn chui
x(n)w(n)
1
X ( )W ( z / ) 1d
2j C
1. Tuyn tnh
2. Dch
dX ( z )
dz
X (e jw ) =
x(n)e
jwn
(2.1.6a)
n=
x ( n) =
1
2
X (e
jw
)e jwn dw
(2.1.6b)
x(n) <
(2.1.7)
24
~
x ( n) = ~
x (n + N )
< n<
(2.1.8)
Vi ~
x ( n) c th c dng l tng ri rc cc tn hiu sin thay v tch phn nh cng
thc (2.1.9b). Php bin i Fourier cho chui tun hon nh sau
2
N 1
j
kn
~
X (k ) = ~
x ( n )e N
(2.1.9a)
n=0
1
~
x (k ) =
N
N 1
j
kn
~
X ( k )e N
(2.1.9b)
k =0
X ( z ) = x ( n) z n
(2.1.10)
n =0
X (e
2
k
N
N 1
) = x ( n )e
2
kn
N
, k = 0,1,..., N 1
(2.1.11)
n=0
~
x ( n) =
x(n + rN )
(2.1.12)
r =
j
X ( k ) = x ( n)e
2
kn
N
, k = 0,1,..., N 1
(2.1.13a)
n =0
25
1
x (n) =
N
N 1
X ( k )e
2
kn
N
, n = 0,1,..., N 1
(2.1.13b)
k =0
iu khc bit duy nht gia biu thc (2.1.9a,b) v (2.1.13a,b) l k hiu ~ (loi b
k hiu ~ khi ni n tn hiu khng tun hon) v gii hn hu hn 0 k N 1 v
0 n N 1. Lu mt iu l ch dng php bin i DFT cho tn hiu tun hon c tnh
cht l module ca N .
x( n ) =
x( n + rN ) =
(2.1.14)
r =
= ( x( n )) N
Bng 2.1.2 Chui v bin i DFT
Chui tn hiu
1. Tuyn tnh
ax1 ( n ) + bx 2 ( n)
aX 1 ( k ) + bX 2 ( k )
x (( n + n0 )) N
2. Dch
x (( n )) N
3. o thi gian
Bin i N im DFT
2
kn0
N
X (k )
X * (k )
N 1
4. Kt hp
x(m)h((n m))
m =0
5. Nhn chui
x(n)w(n)
X(k)H(k)
1 N 1
X (r )W ((k r )) N
N r =0
x ( n ) = x a ( nT ) , < n <
(2.2.1)
26
Tn hiu
lin tc
Mch
lc
y (n)
x(n)
xa (t )
Mch x l tn
hiu s
A/D
ya (t )
D/A
x'a (t )
Mch
lc
t = nT =
n
Fs
(2.2.2)
X ( ) =
x(n)e
jn
(2.2.3)
n=
2
k = x ( n)e j 2kn / N k = 0,1,..., N 1 (2.2.4)
N n =
Xt = 2k / N , ta c X
Xt tn hiu x p (n) =
x(n lN )
l =
x p ( n) =
1 N 1 2
X ( k )e j 2kn / N , n = 0,1,..., N 1
N k =0
N
(2.2.5)
T cng thc x p (n) trn, ta nhn thy c th khi phc tn hiu x p (n) t cc mu ca
27
x p (n) nu khng c aliasing ci thi gian, ngha l nu x (n) c thi gian gii hn nh hn
hoc bng chu k N ca x p (n) .
2.2.1.4 Cc chun m ha m thoi trong cc h thng x l thoi
Chun m ha m thoi thng thng c nghin cu v pht trin bi mt nhm
cc chuyn gia ginh ht thi gian v tm huyt thc hin cc cng vic kim nghim, m
phng sao cho m bo mt tp cc yu cu a ra p ng c. Ch c cc t chc vi
ngun ti nguyn khng l mi c th thc hin c cc cng vic kh khn ny, thng
thng, thi gian ti thiu cn thit hon thnh mt chun trong trng hp gp nhiu
thun li trong qu trnh l khong bn nm ri.
iu ny khng c ngha l mt chun c a ra th khng c li hoc khng cn
phi ci tin. Do , cc chun mi lun lun xut hin sao cho tt hn chun c cng nh
ph hp vi cc ng dng trong tng lai.
Hi ng chun l cc t chc c trch nhim trong vic gim st vic pht trin cc
chun cho mt ng dng c th no . Sau y l mt s hi ng chun ni ting c
nhiu nh cung cp sn phm tun theo
Lin minh vin thng quc t - International Telecommunications Union (ITU): Cc
chun vin thng ca ITU ( chun ITU-T) c uy tn trong vic nh ra cc chun m
ha m thoi cho h thng mng in thoi, bao gm cc mng v tuyn ln hu
tuyn.
Hip hi cng nghip vin thng - Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA):
c trch nhim ban hnh cc chun m ha thoi cho cc ng dng c th, l mt
thnh vin ca Vin tiu chun quc gia Hoa K - National Standards Institute
(ANSI). TIA thnh cng trong vic pht trin cc chun s dng trong cc h thng
tng i t bo s Bc M, bao gm cc h thng s dng chun a kt phn thi gian
- Time division multiple access (TDMA) v a truy nhp phn chia theo m - Code
division multiple access (CDMA).
Vin tiu chun vin thng chu u - European Telecommunications Standards
Institute (ETSI): ETSI c cc hi vin t cc nc cng nh cc cng ty Chu u, l
t chc a ra cc chun sn xut thit b ti Chu u. ETSI c thnh lp bi nhm
c nh hng nht trong lnh vc m ha m thoi l nhm di ng c bit - Groupe
Speciale Mobile (GSM), a ra rt nhiu chun hu dng v c trin khai rt
nhiu trn th gii
B quc phng Hoa K - United States Department of Defense (DoD). DoD c lin
quan n vic sng lp cc chun m ha thoi, c bit n vi cc chun lin bang
Hoa K (U.S. Federal) dng nhiu cho cc ng dng qun s
Trung tm pht trin v nghin cu cc h thng v tuyn ca Nht Bn - Research
and Development Center for Radio Systems of Japan (RCR). Cc chun t bo s
c pht hnh bi RCR.
28
Tn chun
Tc bit truyn
(kbps)
Cc ng dng
64
FS 1015 LPC
2.4
Lin lc bo mt
1987
13
V tuyn di ng s
1990c
1990b
7.95
1990c
1984
5.6
H thng t bo GSM
6.7
H thng t bo Nht
FS1016 CELP
4.8
Lin lc bo mt
1992
16
1993b
1995a
1995b
1996a
12.2
1996
7.4
1997b
FS MELP
2.4
Lin lc bo mt
1990
1991
1999
ETSI AMR-ACELP
8.5, 4, 2, 0.8
5.3, 6.3
l c m t mt phn
l c gii thch y
c
l c m t ngn gn m khng c m t k thut chi tit
b
29
30
Tn hiu
m thoi
ng vo
PCM
Phn tch v x l
Trch v m
ha thng
s 1
Ch s 1
Trch v m
ha thng
s 2
...
Ch s 2
Trch v m
ha thng
s N
Ch s N
Chui bit
ng gi
Chui bit
M gi
Ch s 1
Gii m
thng s
1
Ch s 2
Gii m
thng s
2
Kt hp v x l
Ch s N
...
Gii m
thng s
N
m thoi
tng hp
31
Hnh 2.2.5 M hnh chung ca b m ha m thoi. Hnh trn: b m ha, hnh di:
b gii m.
B gii m thc hin vic phn tch chui bit nhn c, cc ch s nh phn c
phc hi sau qu trnh phn tch v dng kt hp vi cc thng s tng ng ca b gii
m c c cc thng s c lng t. Cc thng s gii m ny s kt hp vi nhau
v c x l to li tn hiu m thoi tng hp.
2.2.1.7 Cc yu cu cn c ca mt b m ha m thoi
Mc tiu chnh ca ca m ha thoi l ti a ha cht lng nghe ti mt tc bit
no , hoc ti thiu ha tc bit ng vi mt cht lng c th. Tc bit tng ng vi
m thoi no s c truyn hoc lu tr ph thuc vo chi ph ca vic truyn hay lu tr,
chi ph ca m ha tn hiu thoi s, v cc yu cu v cht lng ca m thoi . Trong hu
ht cc b m ha m thoi, tn hiu c xy dng li s khc vi tn hiu nguyn thy. Tc
bit truyn b gim bi vic biu din tn hiu m thoi (hoc cc thng s trong m hnh
to m thoi) vi chnh xc b gim, v bi qu trnh loi b cc thng tin d tha ca tn
hiu. Cc yu cu l tng ca mt b m ha thoi bao gm:
Tc bit thp: i vi chui bit m ha c tc bit t l thun vi bng thng cn cho
truyn d liu. iu ny dn n nu tc bit thp s lm tng hiu sut ca h
thng. Yu cu ny li xung t vi cc cc c tnh khc ca h thng, nh l cht
32
y(t ) = Ai (t )e j ( t )
i
(2.2.6)
i =1
thnh phn sin th i . Trong thc t, tn hiu c xem xt l tn hiu ri rc thi gian thc,
nh vy ta c th vit li
I
(2.2.7)
i =1
33
Vi i ( n ) = i ( ) d + 0 , i .
(2.2.8)
y ( n) = Ai ( n) cos(i (n )) + e(n)
i =0
(2.2.9)
Hnh 2.2.6 Phn tch cc thnh phn hnh sin ca phn stochastic
Pht hin nh v ghp (Peak detection and continuation): thc hin vic phn
tch cc thnh phn hnh sin t tn hiu thng d, ta phi tm c v ghi ch li cc nh tn
s ni tri, tc l cc thnh phn hnh sin nm vai tr chnh trong cng thc phn tch c.
Mt chin thut c s dng thc hin iu ny l v bng ch dn trong cc khung
STFT.
thc hin vic phn chia phn no l tn hiu, phn no l nhiu, cc tn s v pha
phi c xc nh mt cch chnh xc. Ngoi ra, qu trnh tng hp li hai tn hiu
c n gin, bin ca cc thnh phn nn c ni suy gia cc khung tn hiu, v php
ni suy tuyn tnh thng c s dng. Cc tn s cng nh pha ca tn hiu cng c th
c ni suy, tuy nhin cn phi lu l php ni suy tn s c nh hng cht ch n php
ni suy pha.
Tng hp li cc thnh phn sin: Trong giai on tng hp li, cc thnh phn sin c
34
Hnh 2.2.7 C cu t chc cho vic biu din vic truyn tn hiu m nhc
2.2.2.1.2 Tn hiu sin + nhiu + nt m
Trong m hnh sin + nhiu, iu c bn l cc tn hiu m thanh l tng hp ca nhiu
tn hiu sin tn s thp v cc loi nhiu bng rng hu nh dng tnh. Khi , mt thnh
phn ca m thanh khng c xem xt n, l nt m. Vic hiu chnh m thanh c th
c thc hin d dng bng cch tch ring thnh phn nt m xt ring. Thc t, hu
ht cc dng c m nhc m rng trng ca mt nt nhc khng lm nh hng n cht
lng x l.
Vi l do ny, mt m hnh mi l sin + nhiu + nt m (SNT) c pht ha dng
trong vic phn tch m thanh. tng chnh ca vic trch m m trong thc t t vic
quan st rng, cc tn hiu hnh sin trong min thi gian c nh x qua min tn thnh cc
nh c v tr xc nh, trong khi cc xung ngn i ngu trong min thi gian khi c
nh x qua min tn li c dng hnh sin. Nh vy, m hnh sin c th c ng dng trong
min tn s biu din cc tn hiu hnh sin. S khi m t qu trnh phn tch SNT c
biu din trn hnh 2.2.8.
35
Hnh 2.2.8 Phn tch tn hiu m thanh theo m hnh sin + nhiu + nt m
Khi DCT trong hnh 2.2.8 m t hot ng ca php ri rc cosin.
Php bin i, c nh ngha nh sau:
N 1
(2n + 1)k
C (k ) = x(n) cos
2N
n =0
(2.2.10)
Php bin i DCT thc hin vic mt xung c bin i thnh dng cosin v ngc
li.
2.2.2.1.3 M hnh LPC
M ha d on tuyn tnh c th c s dng m hnh ph tnh. Tng hp LPC
c m t trong lu trong hnh 2.2.9. V bn cht, m hnh chnh l gii thut tr tng
hp thc hin mt tn hiu c ph c c lc bi mt b lc cc. Tn hiu kch thch c
th s dng chnh tn hiu thng d e c c qua qu trnh phn tch, hoc c th s dng
cc thng tin ca tn hiu thoi/phi thoi.
a1 ,, a p
36
e j
0 ( n +1)
= e j e j n
0
(2.2.11)
x R ( n + 1) = cos 0 x R ( n) sin 0 x I ( n )
(2.2.12)
xI ( n + 1) = sin 0 xR ( n ) + cos 0 xI ( n )
(2.2.13)
Thng s bin v pha ban u c th tnh da theo pha ban u e j0 0 v thc hin
vic lch pha vo s m. Tn hiu xR ( n + 1) c th c tnh theo cng thc sau:
xR ( n + 1) = 2 cos 0 x R ( n ) x R ( n 1)
(2.2.14)
p ng xung ca b lc nh sau:
H R ( z) =
1
1 2 cos 0 z + z
1
(1 e
1
j0 z 1
)(1 e )
j0 z 1
(2.2.15)
x R1 = sin (0 0 )
(2.2.16)
x R 2 = sin (0 20 )
(2.2.17)
Phng php thng dng nht dng tng hp cc dng sng c chu k (bao gm tn
hiu dng sin) thc hin qu trnh c lp i lp li mt bng cha ni dung ca mt dng
sng c lu tr trc. V d: nu dng sng cn c tng hp dng sin, i xng th
ch cn lu tr lu tr chu k, sau s dng php tnh ton ni suy cho ton b chu k.
t buf
sng. My to dao ng dng sng hot ng lp li theo chu k qut bng dng sng l bi
s ca gia s I v c ni dung ca bng dng sng ti v tr .
Gi B l chiu di ca b m, f 0 l tn s m ta mun to tn s ly mu Fs , khi
gi tr ca gia s I l:
I=
Bf 0
Fs
(2.2.18)
37
Ch
ng 2 K thu
ut x l m thanh
S thay ii tn s ly mu
S
m
Bi ton thhit k my to dao nng bng sng c th chuuyn thnh bi
b ton thayy i
tn s ly mu, v d nh binn i tn hiuu c ly mu
m ti tn s ly mu Fs ,1 thnh tnn hiu
l mu ti tn s Fs , 2 . Nu
c ly
Fs , 2
Fs ,1
L
, vi L v M l cc s nguy
yn ti gin, vic
M
thc hin
h thay ii tn s ly mu
m c th
c nh hin
n bng cc bbc:
1 Tng tn s ly mu bng
1.
b
h s L
2 S dng b
2.
b lc thng
g thp
3 Gim tnn s ly mu bng h s M
3.
Hnh 2.2.110 S kh
i phn r ca qu trnh thay i tnn s ly mu
nh 2.2.11 V
V d v thayy i tn s ly
l mu vi L / M = 3 / 2
Hn
2
2.2.2.2.3
Tn
ng hp ly m
mu bng sng
Tng hp ly
l mu bnng sng l phhn m rng ca my daao ng bngg sng i v
i
Dng sng
g phn tch khng
k
phi dng sin
Bng dng
g sng c lu tr vi nnhiu chu k
Cc tn hiu iu khinn rt quan trng trong vic nhn
c m thanh t nhin
2
2.2.2.2.4
T
ng hp ht (vi Giovanni De Poli)
Cc bng sng ngn c
c th c c vi nhiu tc kkhc nhau, v
v kt qu l m
s g ( n ) = ak g k ( n lk )
(2.2.19)
Khi s lng ht ln, th vic tnh ton s tr nn phc tp. Tnh cht ca cc ht v
cc v tr trong min thi gian quyt nh m sc ca m thanh. Vic la chn cc thng s
ty thuc vo cc tiu chun a ra bi cc m hnh th hin. Vic la chn cc m hnh biu
din lin quan n cc qu trnh hot ng m cc qu trnh ny c th nh hng n m
thanh no theo nhiu cch khc nhau.
Loi c bn v quan trng nht ca tng hp ht (tng hp ht bt ng b) l phn
phi cc ht khng theo quy lut trong min tn s -thi gian. Dng sng ht c dng
g k (i ) = d (i ) cos (2f k Ts i )
(2.2.20)
(2.2.21)
( n) = c I m cos ( m n )
(2.2.22)
f ( n ) = f c If m cos( 2f m n )
(2.2.23)
Hoc:
Hnh 2.2.12 m t vic trin khai pd ca gii thut FM n gin. Tn s iu ch
c dng iu khin trc tip b to dao ng, trong khi tn s sng mang dng iu
khin b to pha n v, to pha theo chu k. Vi tn s sng mang, tn s iu ch v ch s
iu ch cho trc, ta c th d dng d on cc thnh phn ph tn s ca m thanh kt
qu.
39
k
= A J 0 ( I ) sin(c n) + J k ( I ) sin ((c + km )n ) + ( 1) sin ((c km )n )
k =1
carrier
side frequencies
(2.2.24)
(2.2.25)
x ( n) = A cos( 0 n)
(2.2.26)
y ( n ) = F ( x (n ))
(2.2.27)
T0 ( x ) = 1
(2.2.28)
T1 ( x ) = x
(2.2.29)
Tn ( x ) = 2 xTn1 ( x ) Tn2 ( x ) ,
(2.2.30)
Tn (cos ) = cos n
(2.2.31)
v c tnh cht:
Nh vy, vi tnh cht (2.2.31), nu hm mo phi tuyn l a thc Chebyshev cp
m , gi tr ng ra y c c bng cch s dng b dao ng sin x ( n) = cos 0 n , nh vy
y ( n ) = cos (m 0 n ) l hi bc m ca x .
Ph ca y(n) vi:
y ( n ) = hk cos( k 0 n )
(2.2.32)
F ( x ) = hk Tk ( x )
(2.2.33)
l:
k
Ngoi cc m hnh trn, cc m hnh vt l cng c p dng trong vic tng hp, x
l m thanh nh mch dao ng vt l, mch dao ng i v mch phn phi cng hng
mt chiu.
41
(n) = 1 n = 0
= 0 ngc li
(2.2.34)
Chui bc n v c k hiu
u (n) = 1 n 0
=0 n<0
(2.2.35)
Hm m
x(n) = a n
(2.2.36)
x ( n) = r n e jw n = r n (cos 0 n + j sin 0 n)
(2.2.37)
42
Hnh 2.2.15 (a) Ly mu n v, (b) n v bc, (c) hm m thc v (d) hm sin suy
gim
y ( n) =
x ( k ) h( n k ) = x ( n) * h( n)
(2.2.38a)
k =
43
y ( n) =
(2.2.38b)
k =
s[n] = ai s[n i]
(2.3.1)
i =1
44
(2.3.2)
Hnh 2.3.2 B lc li d on
Li d on chnh l sai bit gia mu tht s v mu c lng. Hnh 2.3.2 m t
lu tn hiu thc hin b lc li d on. B lc c ng vo l tn hiu AR v ng ra chnh
l tn hiu li d on.
Ti thiu ho li
Bi ton nhn dng h thng bao gm vic c lng cc thng s AR a i t s[n] .
thc hin vic c lng, tiu chun phi c thit lp. Trong , bnh phng trung bnh
li d on c tnh bi cng thc:
2
M
J = E {e 2 [n]} = E s[n] + ai s[n i ]
i =1
(2.3.3)
45
= 2 E s[ n] + ai s[ n i ] s[ n k ] = 0
ak
i =1
(2.3.4)
2
E{s 2 [n]}
PG = 10 log10 s2 = 10 log10
2
E{e [n]}
e
(2.3.5)
(2.3.6)
Khi , li d on t gi tr ln nht.
iu kin ti u c th t c khi bc ca b d on ln hn hoc bng bc ca
qu trnh tng hp AR. Trong thc t, M thng l s cha bit trc. Mt phng php n
gin c th c lng c gi tr M t tn hiu ngun l v biu li d on nh l
mt hm ca bc d on. Vi phng php ny, ta c th quyt nh c bc ca d on
ng vi li bo ha, khi khi tng bc d on th li khng tng. Gi tr ca bc d
on ti im tha iu kin bo ha ny c xem l gi tr c lng tt nht cho bc ca
tn hiu AR.
Sau khi xc nh c gi tr M, hm chi ph J t gi tr ti thiu khi ai = a i , dn
n e[n] = x[n] . V khi , li d on s bng vi gi tr tn hiu u vo ca b tng hp
qu trnh AR.
2.3.1.2 Phn tch d on tuyn tnh cho tn hiu ng
Tn hiu thoi trong thc t l tn hiu ng, nn LPC phi c tnh ng vi tng
khung tn hiu. Trong mt khung tn hiu, mt tp LPC c tnh ton v dng i din
cho cc thuc tnh ca tn hiu trong mt chu k c th, vi gi nh rng s liu thng k ca
tn hiu vn khng thay i trong mt khung. Qu trnh tnh ton LPC t d liu tn hiu c
gi l phn tch d on tuyn tnh.
a2 [m]
...
a M [m ]]
(2.3.7)
46
Ch
ng 2 K thu
ut x l m thanh
V M l bc d on
Vi
li d oon
li d on
ca b d on c cho bi cng
c
thc
m 2
s [n ]
PG[m] = 10 log10 n = mm N +1
2
e [n ]
n = m N +1
(22.3.8)
V
Vi
^
(22.3.9)
i =1
sau c
lc b
i b tng h
p AR vi
a1 = 1.534
a2 = 1
a3 = 0.5887
a 4 = 0.347
a56 = 0.08
a6 = 0.061
1
a7 = 0.172
a8 = 0.156
a9 = 0.157
a10 = 0.14
Khung tn
ng hp ca tn
t hiu AR c dng cho phn tcch LP, vi tng
t
cng l 240
lng t
t ng tnng quan khng hi qui s
s dng caa s Hammin
ng. Phn tch LP
mu. c
c thc
t
hin v
i bc t 2 n 20. Hnh 2.3.3 tm tt
t kt qu, vvi li d
on cc tnh
ton ti M = 2 v t gi tr cao
c nht ti M = 10 . Cc bc ln h
n 10 khngg cho c li
cao h
n na, cho nn
n ta c th ch cn xtt n M = 10 .
Hnh 2.3.3
3 li d on (PG) ll mt hm theo
t
bin bcc d on M
nh tr ban u: l = 0 , tp J 0 = R[0]
l = 1,2,..., M
o Bc 1: Tnh ton RC th l , kl =
l 1
1
(R[l ]) + ai (l 1) R[l i ] ,
J l 1
i =1
ai( l ) = kl ;
ai( l ) = ai( l 1) kl al(l i 1) ;
i 1, 2,..., l 1
Dng nu l = M
o Bc 3: Tnh gi tr bnh phng trung bnh li d on tng ng
vi li gii ti bc l
J l = J j 1 (1 kl2 )
Gn l = l + 1 , quay li bc 1
2.3.1.4 Gii thut Leroux-Gueguen
Bi ton s dng gii thut Levinson-Durbin da trn cc gi tr ca cc LPC, bi v
chng c thuc mt tm vc rng v gi tr bin ca bin ca cc LPC khng th tnh c
ng vi c s l thuyt. Vn xy ra khi gii thut c p dng cho tnh ton trn du
chm tnh. Gii thut Leroux-Gueguen khc phc im yu ny ca gii thut LevisonDurbin.
(2.3.10)
i =0
Vi
e ( l ) [n ]
= li d on s dng b lc d on li bc th
48
ai(l )
= LPC ca b d on bc th l
R[ k ]
nh l:
( l ) [k ] R[0]
(2.3.11)
l
M
M 1
( M 1) [0], ( M 1) [M ]
M 2
M 3
M 4
Gii thut:
l = 1,2,..., M
o Bc 1: Tnh ton RC th l , kl =
( l 1) [l ]
e ( l 1) [0]
, dng khi l = M
( l ) [k ] = ( l 1) [k ] kl ( l 1) [l k ];
k = M + l + 1,...,0, l + 1,...M .
o Gn l = l + 1 , quay li bc 1
2.3.1.5 So snh gii thut Levison-Durbin v Leroux-Gueguen
Gii thut Leroux-Gueguen ph hp hn cho cc bi ton du chm tnh i vi cc
bin trung gian c bin c bit trc. Nhc im ca gii thut ny l ch c cc gi tr
RC l kt qu tr v, l kt qu khng cn thit i vi b lc li. i vic cc b lc c
dng trc tip, cc gi tr LPC c th c c nu dng mt trong hai gii thut.
Vic s dng b lc mt cao thng trong vic tnh ton LP thng khng n gin
49
H s lc: nh r p ng ca b lc tng hp
Chu k m thanh: trong trng hp i vi khung thoi, l chiu di thi gian gia
cc xung kch thch lin tip nhau.
50
Ch
ng 2 K thu
ut x l m thanh
Qu trnh c
lng thhng s cc thc hin ng
vi tngg khung, ccc kt qu chnh l
cc th
ng tin ca khung.
k
Nh vy, thay v truyn cc xung PCM, cc thng s ca m hnnh s
c gi
g i. gim
g
thiu nhiu
n
v s m
mo tn hiuu, cc bt truuyn c cp
c pht theoo ch
nh ng
vi tng thng s, nhh vy, t s nn ti u c
c th t
c.
Chu k
cng
B to
chui xunng
B to
nhiu trnng
Kha
trruyn m/
cch m
B lc
ttng hp
T
Truyn m
li
m thoii
Cc h s
C
b lc
Hn
nh 2.3.5 Hnh v cc cc khung phii thoi
Hnh 2.3.55 m t mt khung tnn hiu phi thhoi c 1800 mu (s dng
d
b m ha
u nguyn thy c x phn tch LP qua qu trrnh tng h
p LPC dngg cho
FS10115). Cc mu
vic t
ng hp m thoi da trrn m hnh hnh 2.3.4. Tn hiu caa tn hiu ngguyn thy v
v tn
hiu sau khi tng hp tng i
ging nhhau do mt
ph cngg sut c dn
ng tng
ng,
c m
m t trong hnh
h
2.3.6.
Ch
ng 2 K thu
ut x l m thanh
LPC.
Hnh 2.3.8 S ca mt
H
m khung m thanh thooi, Hnh bn tri: tn hiiu nguyn thu;
t
Hnh bn
b phi: tn
n hiu tng hp.
h
ng nt t l gii tr mt ph cng suut dng ph
ng
php d
d on LPC
C.
p=
1
N
N 1
e [n]
2
(2.3.12)
n =0
p=
1
[N T ]T
[ N T ]T 1
e [n ]
2
(2.3.13)
n =0
dng [] lun m bo rng vic tnh ton lun nm trong vng bin ca khung.
53
2.3.2.2.3 B gii m
Khi unpack
Chui bit
Ch s
cng sut
Ch s chu k
cng
B gii m chu
k cng
B gii m
cng sut
Khi to xung
hun luyn
Tnh ton
li
Khi to
nhiu
Kha
voiced/
unvoiced
Ch s
LPC
B gii m
LPC
B lc tng
hp
Ting ni
tng hp
Khi
De-emphasis
g=
(2.3.14)
Dch v thoi l dch v c bn v quan trng nht trong cc dch v cung cp cho
khch hng ca cc nh khai thc di ng Vit Nam cng nh trn th gii. m bo h
tr tt khch hng nhm t c li th cnh tranh, cc nh khai thc di ng cn h tr tt
54
Tr: thi gian truyn dn tn hiu gia hai u cui gy ra nhng kh khn trong vic
hi thoi. Tr bao gm: tr chuyn m thoi, tr m ha knh, tr mng v tr x l tn
hiu thoi loi b ting vng v gim nhiu ch Handsfree.
Nhiu nn...
2.4.3 Cc phng php nh gi cht lng thoi c bn
Vic nh gi cht lng thoi trong mng GSM cng nh cc h thng thng tin
khc (c nh v v tuyn) c th c thc hin bng cch nh gi cc tham s truyn dn
c nh hng n cht lng thoi v xc nh tc ng ca cc tham s ny i vi cht
lng tng th. Tuy nhin, vic nh gi tng tham s rt phc tp v tn km. Hin nay, vic
nh gi cht lng thoi c da trn mt tham s cht lng tng th l MOS (Mean
Opinion Score). Nhng phng php s dng MOS u mang tnh cht ch quan do chng
55
Hnh 2.4.1 Phn loi cc phng php nh gi cht lng thoi: a) Cc phng php
so snh, b) Cc phng php c lng tuyt i, c) Cc m hnh nh gi truyn dn
56
Phng thc nh gi theo MOS c th c thc hin theo cc bi kim tra hi thoi
hai chiu hoc bi nghe mt chiu. Cc bi kim tra nghe mt chiu s dng cc mu thoi
chun. Ngi nghe nghe mu truyn qua mt h thng v nh gi cht lng tng th ca
mu da trn thang im cho trc. P.800 nh ngha mt s hnh thc nh gi cht lng
thoi theo phng php ch quan:
Phng thc phn loi theo suy hao (Degradation Category Rating (DCR)).
Rt tt
Tt
Chp nhn c
Ti
Rt ti
Khng cn c gng
Cn tng i tp trung
Cn tp trung
Khng hiu cu mu
57
Phng thc ny rt tn km, i hi nhiu ngi tham gia v thit lp phc tp.
Khi cn thc hin o thng xuyn cc tham s cht lng th vic s dng phng
php nh gi cht lng ny l khng thc t.
Nhng hn ch ca phng php nh gi cht lng thoi da trn MOS cho thy
cn c mt phng thc nh gi khch quan, phng php ny c th thc hin mt cch t
ng nh gi cht lng thoi.
model ny c lng cht lng thoi hai chiu v tnh n cc yu t nh: ting vng,
tr ...
(2.4.1)
A cho php iu chnh cht lng trong nhng trng hp c bit nh thm vo cc
yu t phi k thut nh gi cht lng.
d ( x, y ) =
(x y )
(2.5.1)
Bi ton c m t hnh 2.5.1, m t mt ma trn hai chiu theo thi gian s dng
cho vic canh chnh theo thi gian. Ct l m t cho ting ni mu (template) v dng l ting
ni thu c cn nhn dng. Trong hnh minh ha, tn hiu vo SsPEEhH c xem l mt
dng nhiu ca ting ni mu. Tn hiu vo ny s c so snh trng vi tt c cc mu
ting ni c lu tr trong h thng. Mu c tng thch tt nht s c sai bit nh
nht so vi tn hiu vo cn so snh. Gi tr sai bit ton cc l tng cc sai bit cc b ca
vic so snh.
Hnh 2.5.1 M t canh chnh thi gian gia mu ting ni SPEECH v tn hiu ting
ni u vo SsPEEhH
Lm cch no c th tnh c tng thch tt nht (c gi tr sai bit ton
cc nh nht) gia tn hiu cn so snh v ting ni mu? Vic ny c thc hin bng cch
c lng tt c khong cch c th c, nhng cch ny khng hiu qu khi s lng khong
cch c dng hm m theo chiu di ca tn hiu ng vo. Thay vo , ta xem xt nhng
rng buc tn ti trong qu trnh so trng (hoc c th p t cc rng buc ny) v dng
nhng rng buc ny c c gii thut hiu qu hn. Cc rng buc c thit lp phi
khng phc tp v cng khng hn ch nhiu, nh:
Cc khong cch so trng khng th thc hin vic i lui;
Mi khung ca tn hiu cn so trng phi c dng trong qu trnh so trng;
Cc gi tr sai bit cc b c kt hp bng phng php cng dn vo gi tr sai
bit ton cc.
(i, j ) .
D (i , j ) = min [D (i 1, j 1), D (i 1, j ), D (i , j 1) ] + d (i , j )
(2.5.2)
Hnh 2.5.2 Ba hng c tng thch tt nht c th i n t (i, j ) trong gii thut
DTW i xng.
Phng trnh (2.5.2) c thc hin bng phng php quy. Tuy nhin, tr khi
ngn ng c ti u cho vic quy, phng php ny c th tn nhiu thi gian ngay c
i vi nhng tn hiu cn so snh c kch thc nh. Mt phng php khc c th ci tin
c tc x l cng nh cn b nh thc thi nh hn l dng hai vng lp, s dng hai
array lu tr cc ct k vi ma trn thi gian-thi gian.
64
Ch
ng 2 K thu
ut x l m thanh
G thut tm
Gii
m chi ph ton cc nh nht:
n
1. Tnh ti ct 0, bt uu t y ca . Gi tr chhi ph ton c ca bnng gi tr chhi ph
cc b. Sauu , tnh ton gi tr chi ph ton c
c ca cc c kh nngg cho c gi
g tr
thp bng cch ly gi tr chi ph cc b ca cng thm
m cho gi trr ton cc ca
c
c gi l prredCol (pred
decessor coluumn).
ngay di , ny
G tr cc b ca
2. Tnh gi trr chi ph ton cc ca u tin caa ct k tip l curCol. Gi
cng thm
m cho gi tr ton cc ca pha d
i cng ca ct trc n
.
Col.
3. Tnh gi trr ton cc ca cc cnn li ca curC
c nh l prredCol v lpp li bc 2 cho n khii tt c cc ct c tnhh ton
4. curCol
xong.
5. Gi tr chi ph ton ccc ti v tr ct cui cng, dng trn cc l gi tr cn tm.
M gii ca qu trnh nh
M
h sau:
cho,, iu ny dn n loi b
b li ti ccc v tr ct vv hng, gi gi tr li c lp
d h , d v tng ngg cho cc bc di chuynn theo hng v ct. Phng trnh (1)) s tr thnhh
D (i, j ) = min
m [D (i 1, j 1) + 2d (i, j ), D (i 1, j ) + d (i + j ) + d h , D (i, j 11) + d (i, j ) + d v ]
(2.5.3))
V gi tr d h , d v c
Vi
c qua thcc nghim
Cc rng buc trong vic nhy n ccc k tipp:
C
v tr (i, j ) - gi l ngg cho m rng ( c l 2)
(i 1, j 2) n v
(i 1, j 1) n v tr (i, j ) - ggi l ongg cho chunn ( dc l 1)
(i 1, j ) n v tr (i, j ) - gi l ng ng
gang ( dc l 0)
Gi s rnng mi khunng ca tn hiu ng vo ch c xt n mt ln duy nht,, nh
vy taa c th khnng xt n vic
v
chun ha
h di ca
c mu tinng ni. Do vic
v tnh ton ti
tng khc nhau nn
n gii thut c gi ll gii thut lp trnh nng bt i x
ng.
Ch
ng 2 K thu
ut x l m thanh
H
Hnh
2.5.4 Ba hng c gi tr soo trng tt nht
n
c th i n t (i, j ) trongg gii
thut DTW
D
bt i xng.
H
Hnh
2.5.5 Cc v tr ti (i, j ) , (i,0) v (i,1) c cc nh hng khc
k
nhau. Ti
T
c c th ii n (i 1,0) ; ti (i,1) c th ii n (i 1,1) hoc (i 1,0) ; ti (i, j )
(i,0) ch
c th i n cc v
v tr chun.
[ j 2]
2i : chi ph cc b + gi tr nh nht ti v tr predCol
p
M gii ca qu trnh nh
n sau:
Ch
ng 2 K thu
ut x l m thanh
G tr chi ph
Gi
h nh nht l
l ct cui ccng lu tron
ng highestJ
2.5.2 M hnh chui mark
kov n
22.5.2.1 Tngg quan
M hnh Markov
M
n (H
Hidden Markkov Model - HMM)
c s dng trong vic thhng
k m
hnh to m
m thoi. Tn
nh hiu qu ca
c m hnh
h c th hin
h
trong viic c th m
m t
c im ca tn hiu
h m thoi theo dng ton
t
hc d dng cho vic x l tn hiu.
h
Cc trng thi ca HM
MM c cc trc khi thc
t
hin vic x l ccc trng thi ((trch
th, ng vo ca HMM
M chnh l chhui cc thnng s vectorr ri rc theoo thi
cc thng s). Nh
gian.
22.5.2.2 nh
h ngha m h
hnh Marko
ov n
M hnh Markov
M
n l mt tp ccc trng thi hu hn, m mi trng thi c lin quan
n hm phn phi xc sut. Vic
V chuyn tip gia cc trng thi c nh ngha
n
bi mt tp
xc su
ut c gi l xc sut chuyn
c
tip (transition probability).
p
Trong mt trng thi c th,
kt quu c th
c to ra d
a trn hm phn phi xc
x sut t
ng ng. Kt qu ny khng
k
phi l mt trng thi c th nhn
n
thy
c thng qua
q vic quann st cc trng thi, choo nn
c gi
g l m hn
nh Markov n.
T
Trong
m hnh Markov n, cc k hhiu sau y c s dnng
-
S lng k
k hiu quan
n st theo thh t, M . Nu
N vic quann st l lin tc th c gi
g tr
M l v hn
h
{ }
aij 0,
1 i, j N v
a
j =1
ij
=1 ,
1 i N
b j ( k ) = p{at = vk qt = j},
1 j N,
1 k M vi v k nh ngha cho k
b j ( k ) 0, 1 j N ,
1 k M v
b (k ) = 1,
k =1
1 j N
b j (at ) = c jm ( jm , jm , at ) vi
m =1
c jm
= h s trng s
jm
jm
= ma trn ng bin
c jm tha cc iu kin c jm 0,
M
c
m =1
jm
= 1,
1 j N,
1 m M
1 j N
1 i N
68
69
Ch
ng 2 K thu
ut x l m thanh
Php tng
CC NG
N
VO
O
NG RA
NG V
O HNG DN
N
Ch
ng 2 K thu
ut x l m thanh
Ch
ng 2 K thu
ut x l m thanh
- Mc 1- mc
m cm nhn: cm nhn c s tn
t ti cc i tng quan
q
st, hayy i
tng m h thng
g cn nhn dng.
d
Mc ny
n cng aa ra qu trnhh thu nhn s liu qua cc b
cm bin trong h thng nhn dng, v d trong h thng nhn dnng ting ni:: i tng y
l tin
ng ni (speecch) v thu nhhn u vo qua
q Micro hoc
h
cc file m thanh .w
wav.
- Mc 2- m
c nhn thcc: y biuu din qu trnh
t
hc, m hnh ho i
tng tin
ti hnnh thnh s phn
p
lp (claassification) cc i tnng cn nhn dng.
- Mc 3- m
c nhn bitt: t i tnng quan st c th tr l
i nhn bit i tng l g ?
Hay y l qu trn
nh ra quyt nh.
i tng
vt l
Thu nhn
quan st
S
S liu
(ttn hiu)
Tinn x l
s liu
nh
gi cht
l
ng nhn dng
i t
ng
biu din
d
Tr li
nhn dng
Trch chn
c tnh
h
Ra
R quyt nh
phn lp
Biu din
c tnh
Hc hnh thn
nh
s phn lpp
Hc v ra
quyt nh
Hn
nh 2.5.12 S
tng quuan ca h thhng nhn dng
2
2.5.3.4.2
Nhhn dng tinng ni dng mng Neuroon
H
Hnh
2.5.13 m t chc nng c bnn ca h thnng nhn dngg ting ni
Hn
nh 2.5.13 S
S khi m
m t h thnng nhn dngg ting ni
Phng n
n la chn s nt ca tnng lp trong mng: theo kinh nghim
m ca cc chhuyn
on trong cc bi ton phn lp c s
dng mngg lan truyn ngc
n
hnng, s
gia v mng neuro
l
dng 1 lp tnh ton l lp mng Kohonenn lm lp n. Vic xc nh s neuroon cho tng lp.
+ S neuronn lp vo = s chiu ca vector vo.
+ S neuronn lp Kohoneen = s gi trr cc tp tr li.
+ S neuron
n lp ra = s lng kt qu
q u ra, s
dng ph
ng php m ho bng s
s bit
biu din
d s lngg kt qu
Phng php hc cnh tranh
P
t
ca lpp n v qu trnh hc c ch o ti lp ra ca mng
m
theo cc bc sau:
+ Khi to trng s: cc thnh phn ma trn trng
t
s
c khi to bi gi tr ngu
nhin
+ c tn hiiu vo cho mng:
m
d liu trong filee mu cha tthng tin mu hc v cho kt
qu gm 2 thnh phn:
p
mng 1 chiu ch
a vector tn hiu vo v mng 2 chiiu cha maa trn
trng s
s lin kt ban u ca lp
l Kohonenn
+ Hiu chnhh ma trn trng s lp Kohonen:
K
hiiu chnh trng s lin kt
k neuron l
p n
Kohon
nen sao cho mng c th hc mu tt nht.
P
Phng
phpp nhn dngg
- u
u vo: file cha
c
d liu tn hiu tinng ni cn nnhn dng v file cha thng
t
73
CU HI V BI TP CHNG 2
x(n) <
B/ z = 1
C/ A, B u ng
D/ A, B u sai
2. Nh th no c gi l yu cu Nhn dng ting ni / ngn ng khc nhau ca
mt b m ha thoi?
A/ K thut nhn dng ting ni c th phn bit c ging ni ca ngi ln nam
gii, ngi ln n gii v tr con
B/ K thut nhn dng ting ni c th nhn dng c ngn ng ni ca ngi ni.
C/ A, B u ng
D/ A, B u sai
3. s dng nh gi cht lng thoi cho mng GSM (Global System Mobile) ca
VNPT (Vietnam Posts and Telecommunications Corporation), c th s dng cc phng
php nh gi no sau y
A/ S dng PESQ (Perceptual Evaluation of Speech Quality) nh gi cht lng
thoi mt chiu t u cui n u cui
B/ S dng PSQM (Perceptual Speech Quality Measurement) nh gi cht lng
thoi mt chiu t u cui n u cui
C/ S dng E-model nh gi cht lng thoi mt chiu t u cui n u cui
D/ A, B u ng
4. ng dng mng neuron trong thc t, ngi ta thng dng
A/ thng k m hnh to m thoi
B/ nhn dng ting ni
C/ A, B u ng
D/ A, B u sai
5. Ngi ta s dng phng php no trong nhng phng php sau y nhn dng
ting ni
A/ mng neuron
B/ m hnh thi gian ng
C/ M hnh chui markov n
D/ A, B ng
6. Ngi ta s dng phng php no trong nhng phng php sau y x l thoi
A/ mng neuron
74
75
Khng cn c gng
Cn tng i tp trung
Cn tp trung
Khng hiu cu mu
77
dX (1 / z )
dz
B/ z
dX (1 / z )
dz
C/ z
dX (1 / z )
dz
D/ z
dX (1 / z )
dz
E/ A, B, C, D u sai
78
79
K THUT X L HNH NH
80
Chnng 3 K thu
ut x l hnhh nh
ngi quan st. Thhi gian gn y,
phm vii ng dng x
l nh m rng khng ngng, c thh ni
hin khhng c lnh vc khoa hc no khngg s dng ccc thnh tu ca cng ngh x l nh s .
T
Trong
y hc,, cc thut toon x l nhh cho php biin i hnh nh c too ra t ngunn bc
x X -rray hay ngun bc x siu m thnh hhnh nh quaang hc trn bb mt film x-quang
x
hocc trc
tip trn b mt mn hnh hin th. Hnh nnh cc c quaan chc nngg ca con ng
gi sau c
c th
c x
x l tip nng cao tng phn,, lc, tch cc thnh phnn cn thit (cchp ct lp) hoc
to ra hnh
h
nh tronng khng giaan ba chiu (ssiu m 3 chiiu).
Trong lnh vc
T
v a cht, hnh nh nhhn c t v
v tinh c thh c phnn tch xc nh
cu trc b mt trii t. K thuut lm ni
ng bin (im
mage enhanccement) v khhi phc hnhh nh
(imagee restoration)) cho php nng
n
cao chtt lng nh v tinh v to ra cc bn
n a hnhh 3-D
vi chnh xc caao.
82
83
+U
84
85
luc
500
vang
590
cam
630
o
700
o nhay
tm
380
( ) =
dP( )
d
(Watt/m)
(3.1.1)
- bc sng (m);
P( )
Cng sut ton phn ca ngun nh sng c ph lin tc (nh sng mt tri, ng sng n
t nng v.v.) s bng:
P =
780
( ) d
(3.1.2)
370
c trng cho phn nng lng bc x c ch (cm nhn c bng mt) ta a ra khi
nim quang thng
F:
780
F = K V ( ) ( ) d
(lumen1)
(3.1.3)
370
I=
dF
, (candela2)
d
- gc khi; d =
(3.1.4)
dS
r2
(sr steradian)
86
n
d
dS o
dS
dF
Gc khi ln nht l
4 r 2
r
I tb =
FA FA
=
4
E =
dF
(lux4)
dS
(3.1.5)
ES
ES
dS 0
dS cos
;
r2
r2
dF Id
I dS cos
=
=
=
dS
dS
dS
r2
I cos
=
r2
(3.1.6)
Ngun im l ngun sng c kch thc (d) nh hn nhiu ln so vi khong cch (l) n b mt c
chiu sng (l 10d).
4
87
L0 =
I0
S
(candel / m2 )
(3.1.7)
p = F / ( F + FE )
(3.1.8)
p l sch mu, i lng xc nh s lng nh sng trng trong ngun sng hay
pha long ca ngun sng . Nh vy, mu quang ph s c sch l p = 100% , i vi mu
trng p = 0 .
Da trn nhng tnh cht ca h th gic nh phn gii, tnh lu nh v thuyt ba thnh
phn cm nhn mu, to ra cm gic v mt mu no , ngi ta c th thc hin pha trn cc
mu c bn theo nhng phng php sau:
88
Phng php tr
f F = rR + g G + b B
(3.1.9)
89
R = 700 nm
G = 546,1 nm
B = 435,8 nm
Ba mu trn c gi l ba mu c bn. Mi mu c bn s c mt mu b xung tng
ng, khi pha trn mu c bn v mu b xung ca n chng ta s nhn c mu trng. Cc cp
mu c bn v mu b xung l: L (Cyan), Lc Mn chn (Magenta), Lam Vng
(Yellow).
nh lut th hai: S bin i lin tc ca cc h s cng sut ca cc mu c bn s dn
dn s bin i lin tc ca mu sc tng hp, n chuyn t mu ny sang mu khc.
Khi thay i cng sut ca cc ngun sng c bn nhng gi nguyn t l cng sut th mu
tng hp s khng thay i sc , ch c s thay i v chi m thi. V vy, t l tng i
gia ba mu c bn R:B:G s quyt nh mu sc ca mu tng hp.
nh lut th ba: Mu sc tng hp ca nhiu ngun sng ch xc nh bi cc thnh phn
mu sc ca tng ngun sng ch khng ph thuc vo thnh phn ph ca chng.
nh lut th t: chi ca mu tng hp bng tng s chi ca cc thnh phn mu.
L = L R + LG + L B
3.1.5.4 Khng gian mu RGB
xc nh mt mu F, theo nh lut trn mu th nht, ta ch cn bit s lng ca ba
mu c bn trong phng trnh (3.1.9). V th mu F c th c biu din bng mt im trong
khng gian mu ba chiu rgb hay nh mt vector ni t gc ta ti im , cc vector mu
n v s l
R, G, B
sc tng ng vi phng hng ca F trong khng gian rgb. Tng ba vector n v s cho ta
mu trng chun.
f'F
F
E
0
B
b
Hnh 3.1.12 Khng gian mu rgb
Xt mt mu bt k trong khng gian mu rgb, xc nh bi phng trnh:
90
f F = rR + g G + b B
Ta thy ba h s
(3.1.11)
r
r
= ;
r + g + b m
g
g
g=
= ;
r + g + b m
b
b
b=
=
r + g + b m
r=
(3.1.12)
m = r + g + b = f - chi ca mu.
Chia (3.1.11) cho m ta nhn c mu F:
F = rR + gG + bB
(3.1.13)
v im trng ng nng
mu thp hn ( pN
1
ng thng NE s bng
91
A
500
G
550
N2
N
N1
450
F
C
600
R
p = 100% , mu trng c bo
pE = 0 , sch mu ti im N1 c gi tr:
pN1 =
N1E
100%
NE
(3.1.14)
3.
thc.
Cc mu n v X,Y,Z u khng c thc v sch mu ca chng ln hn 100%.
nh gi mu sc ca mt ngun sng (khng tnh n chi ca ngun sng ), ngi ta s
dng tam gic mu n v vi cc ta mu x , y, z : x + y + z = 1 (hnh 3.1.16).
92
X
Z
xE = yE = zE = 1 / 3
y
1.0
y
0.8
0.6
E
0.4
0.2
F1
0.6 y
1
550
500
520
0.4
700
0.2
700
yE
600
580
x1
0.2 xE 0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
phng n v XYZ
93
vong mac
hoang iem
thau knh
truc nhn
iem mu
than kinh
th giac
thuy tinh
dch
mo mac
Lmin Lmax xung quanh mc chi trung bnh ca nh, khong ny ta gi l phm vi ng ca
mt. i vi hnh nh c mc chi trung bnh no , tt c mc chi ln hn
nh mc trng, tt c mc chi nh hn
Lmax s cm nhn
chnh l tnh cht thch nghi vi sng ca mt ngi. Th nghim cho thy, khi mc sng tng
ln, thi gian mt iu tit thch nghi vi mc mi rt nhanh (khong vi giy). Ngc li, khi
mc chiu sng gim th mt iu tit thch nghi tng i chm (khong vi pht).
Kh nng mt ngi cm nhn s thay i chi l khng lin tc.
Ln (hnh 3.1.22), lc u
mc d c s khc bit v chi gia chi tit v nn, nhng ngi quan st khng pht hin
ra chi tit ny. Khi mc chnh lch t ti ngng nht nh, ngi quan st bt u nhn dng
c chi tit nh.
Lmin Lmax v c
L = ( L Ln ) , nu Lmin
Lmin Lmax ca nh s.
m=
ln k
+1
ln (1 + )
(3.1.15)
Thay vo cng thc (3.1.15) gi tr tng phn trung bnh ca hnh nh trn mn hnh
hin th:
Lng
95
k =
Lmax + Lng
L
< k = max ,
Lmin + Lng
Lmin
(3.1.16)
3.1.5.6 Biu din tn hiu hnh nh trong khng gian v thi gian
3.1.5.6.1
Hnh nh tng t
Nh cp ti phn trn, hnh nh c th biu din bng hm 2 chiu f ( x , y ) . Gi
tr hm f ti im c ta khng gian (x,y) l chi ca im nh (x,y). a s nh s dng
trong ti liu ny ny l nh en trng, chi ca cc im nh nm trong phm vi nht nh
t L min ti Lmax . Nu nh c to ra bi qu trnh vt l th gi tr cc im nh s t l thun
vi nng lng ca ngun bc x, v d nng lng sng in t, khi hm f ( x , y ) l hu
hn: 0 < f ( x , y ) < .
Gi tr hm f ( x , y ) ph thuc vo lng nh sng ri ln cnh vt v lng nh sng
phn x li t cnh vt :
f ( x, y ) = i ( x, y ) r ( x, y )
(3.1.17)
96
Chnng 3 K thu
ut x l hnhh nh
bin i tip
t
tn hiu thnh dng ss, chng ta phi thc hin giai on lng t ha cc
mu v
a nhn
c. y l quu trnh ri rc tn hiu thheo bin . Trn hnh 3..1.23 thangg xm
c chia
c
thnh 8 mc ri rc t mc trngg ti mc een. Lng t
ha c thhc hin nn gin
bng cch
c
tm gi tr
t mc lnng t gn ginng nht vi gi
g tr thc cca mu v gn gi tr nyy cho
mu nnh. Bin cc
c mu nh sau khi lnng t s cc m ha (bnng m nh ph
hn) nhn c
tn hiu video s. Kt
K qu nhn
n c sau khhi ly mu, lng
l
t ha v m ha l
l chui s r
i rc
m dng nhh. Nu thc hin qu trnnh s ha ch
ho tt c cc dng
m t bin i chi trong mt
nh t trn xung di,
d
chng ta
t s nhn
c nh s tro
ong khng giian hai chiu
u.
b)
a)
3
3.1.5.7
Tn hiu
h
video
n hiu video
hay tn
:
ng
p
L = f L ( x, y , z , t ) ;
= f ( x, y , z, t ) ;
p = f p ( x, y , z, t ) .
(3.1.18 )
L = f L ( x, y, t ) . Nh vy,
98
f H = 1/ T H ; fV = 1/ TV ;
Tn hiu video tng t cng nh tn hiu nh tnh phi c s ha trc khi a vo h
thng x l s. Cng nh trong cc h thng x l tn hiu mt chiu, qu trnh s ha tn hiu
99
100
101
f ( 0,1)
...
f ( 0, N 1)
f ( 0, 0 )
f (1, 0 )
f (1,1)
...
f (1, N 1)
f ( x, y ) =
f ( M 1, 0 ) f ( M 1,1) ... f ( M 1, N 1)
(3.1.19)
b = M Nk.
102
y ( m, n ) = T x ( m, n )
(3.1.21)
T ax1 ( m, n ) + bx2 ( m, n ) = aT x1 ( m, n ) + bT x2 ( m, n ) =
= ay1 ( m, n ) + by2 ( m, n )
(3.1.22)
a v b l cc hng s bt k.
Cc ton t thc hin vi nh 2 chiu thng c tnh cht tuyn tnh, v d cc php dch
chuyn trong khng gian, php chp, cc php bin i thc hin qu trnh lc tuyn tnh m
chng ta s xt cc chng sau.
b) Xung n v trong khng gian 2 chiu
Xung n v c s dng rng ri m t cc tc ng trc tip ln im nh trong
khng gian.
1
0
( m, n ) =
khi m = n
khi m n
(3.1.23)
h [ m, n ] = T ( m, n )
(3.1.24)
103
y ( m, n ) = x ( l , k ) h ( m, l ; n, k )
(3.1.25)
l =0 k =0
y ( m, n ) = x ( l , k ) h ( m l ; n k )
(3.1.26)
l =0 k =0
hay
y ( m, n ) = x ( m, n ) h ( m, n )
(3.1.27)
f =
f
(1)
(2)
( j)
N
( )
(3.1.28)
Vector dng (ma trn dng) h, kch thc 1xN l tp hp cc phn t f ( n ) vi n=1, 2, ...,
N sp xp theo dng ngang: f = f (1) , f ( 2 ) ... f
( j ) ... f ( N )
(3.1.29)
b) Ma trn
Ma trn F, kch thc MxN l tp hp cc phn t F(m,n) vi m=1,2,..,M, n=1,2,...,N c
sp xp thnh M hng v N ct nh sau:
F (1, N )
F (1,1) F (1, 2 ) .....
F ( 2,1) F ( 2, 2 ) .....
F ( 2, N )
F=
...............................................
F ( M ,1) F ( M , 2 ) ..... F ( M , N )
(3.1.30)
104
C ( m, n ) = A ( m, p )B ( p, n )
(3.1.31)
p =1
k = g Tf = f Tg ,
N
k = g(n)f (n)
(3.1.32)
n =1
h) Tch ma trn ca hai vector f kch thc Mx1 v g kch thc Nx1 l ma trn:
A=gf T ,
A(m, n) = g ( m ) f ( n )
(3.1.33)
105
y ( m, n ) = x ( l , k ) h ( m l ; n k )
(3.1.34)
l =0 k =0
( M1 + M 2 1) ( N1 + N 2 1) .
V d:
Nn (
N1 N 2 N1 ):
0 1
0 n 1
vn = 1 n
0 n + 1
0 N
2
(3.1.35)
106
[0]
[0]
1 0 0
th
0 1 0
n unit matrix
Nn =
0
0
1
[0]
[0]
(3.1.36)
f = N n Fv n
(3.1.37)
n =1
F= NTn f v Tn
(3.1.38)
n=1
S dng cng thc (3.1.37) v (3.1.38) c th d dng xc nh quan h gia hai phng
php biu din hnh nh thng qua ma trn v vector. Phng php biu din di dng vector
gip thu gn ng k cc cng thc m t qu trnh x l nh v cho php chng ta p dng
nhng phng php x l tn hiu mt chiu trong x l nh.
V d: Bin i ma trn F (3x3) thnh vector f
1 4 7
1
0
0
F = 2 5 8 , v1 = 0 ; v 2 = 1 ; v 3 = 0 ,
3 6 9
0
0
1
1
0
0
N1 = 0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 1
0 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 ; N 2 = 0 1 0 ; N 3 = 0 0 0
0 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 0
N2
f= N n Fv n = N1 Fv1 + N 2 Fv 2 + N 3 Fv 3
n=1
107
1
0
0
N1 Fv1 = 0
0
0
0
0
0 0
1
0
1 0
0
0 1
0 0 1 4 7 1 0
0 0 2 5 8 0 = 0
0 0 3 6 9 0 0
0
0 0
0 0
0
0
0 0
0 0
1
2
1 0
3
0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 2 = 0
0 0 3 0
0
0 0
0 0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
Tng t ta c: N 2 Fv 2 = 5 ; N 3Fv 3 = 0
6
0
0
7
0
8
0
9
1
2
3
4
f = 5
6
7
8
9
y ( m, n ) = x ( l , k ) h ( m l ; n k )
(3.1.39)
l =0 k =0
y ( m, n ) =
= x ( 0, 0 ) h ( m 0, n 0 ) + x (1, 0 ) h ( m 1, n 0 ) + x ( 2, 0 ) h ( m 2, n 0 ) +
x ( 0,1) h ( m 0, n 1) + x (1,1) h ( m 1, n 1) + x ( 2,1) h ( m 2, n 1) +
(3.1.40)
x ( 0, 2 ) h ( m 0, n 2 ) + x (1, 2 ) h ( m 1, n 2 ) + x ( 2, 2 ) h ( m 2, n 2 )
V phi ca (3.1.40) l tch v hng ca hai vector ct x v hm,n :
108
x (1, 0 )
h ( m 1, n 0 )
x ( 2, 0 )
h ( m 2, n 0 )
x ( 0,1)
h ( m 0, n 1)
x = x (1,1) hm ,n = h ( m 1, n 1)
x ( 2,1)
h ( m 2, n 1)
x ( 0, 2 )
h ( m 0, n 2 )
x (1, 2 )
h ( m 1, n 2 )
x ( 2, 2 )
h ( m 2, n 2 )
(3.1.41)
h (1,0 ) h ( 0,0 )
h ( 2,0 ) h (1,0 )
h ( 0,1) h ( 1,1)
H = h (1,1) h ( 0,1)
h ( 2,1) h (1,1)
h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 1, 2 )
h (1, 2 ) h ( 0, 2 )
h ( 2, 2 ) h (1, 2 )
h ( 2,0 ) h ( 0, 1) h ( 1, 1) h ( 2, 1) h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 1, 2 ) h ( 2, 2 )
h ( 0,1)
h ( 2,0 )
h (1,0 )
h ( 0,0 )
h ( 2, 1) h (1, 1)
h ( 0, 1)
h ( 2, 2 ) h ( 0,1)
h ( 1,1)
h ( 2,1)
h ( 0,0 )
h ( 1,0 )
h ( 2,0 )
h ( 1, 2 ) h (1,1)
h ( 0,1)
h ( 1,1)
h (1,0 )
h ( 0,0 )
h ( 1,0 )
h ( 0, 2 )
h ( 2,1)
h (1,1)
h ( 0,1)
h ( 2,0 )
h (1,0 )
h ( 0,0 )
(3.1.42)
Khi , phng trnh (3.1.40) c rt ngn nh sau:
y = Hx
(3.1.43)
H 00
H = H10
H 20
H 01
H11
H 21
H 02
H12
H 22
(3.1.44)
109
m k = 0
n = 0
l
k = 0
H=
m
n = 1
k = 0
n = N 1
m k = 1
n = 0
l
m k = 1
n = 1
l
m k = 1
n = N 1
m k = N 1
n = 0
m k = N 1
n =1
m k = N 1
n = N 1
(3.1.45)
y = HN n Xv n
(3.1.46)
n =1
Ngoi ra, s dng (3.1.38) chng ta cng c th biu din ma trn Y thng qua vector y ca
nh:
N
Y= M Tm y u Tm
(3.1.47)
m=1
) (
Y= M Tm HN n X v n u Tm
m=1 n =1
(3.1.48)
T
Y= H m,n X v n u Tm
m=1 n =1
(3.1.49)
h ( m, l ; n, k ) = hc ( m, l ) hr ( n, k )
N 1
N 1
l =0
k =0
y ( m, n ) = hc ( m, l ) x ( l , k ) hr ( n, k )
(3.1.50)
(3.1.51)
Theo (3.1.50) ta thy trong cc ma trn circulant (3.1.45) thnh phn hr ( n, k ) l constant
v c th a ra ngoi ma trn. Do ma trn circulant khi H c th bin i nh sau ( rt
gn, chng ta vit tt hn , k = h ( n, k ) ):
110
hr 0,0
hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1
h
...
h
c 0,0 c N 1,0
H = r 0,1
hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1
hr 0, N 1
hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1
h
...
h
c 0,0 c N 1,0
hrN 1,1
= hT hT
r
c
hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1
hrN 1, N 1
hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1
hrN 1,0
hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1
(3.1.52)
F (u) =
f (x)e
j 2 ux
dx
(3.1.53)
f (x) =
F (u) e
j 2 ux
du
(3.1.54)
F (u) = F (u) e
j ( u )
Modul F ( u ) = R 2 ( u ) + I 2 ( u )
1/ 2
(3.1.55)
c gi l ph bin , cn hm
I (u)
( u ) = arctg
gi l ph pha ca hm f(u). R(u) v I(u) l thnh phn thc v o
R (u)
ca F(u).
Mt i lng khc c th suy ra t ph Fourier l ph cng sut ca tn hiu P(u):
P ( u ) = F ( u ) = R2 ( u ) + I 2 ( u )
2
(3.1.56)
Ph cng sut cho chng ta thy phn b cng sut ca tn hiu trong min tn s.
i vi tn hiu ri rc, mt bin, cp khai trin Fourier thun v nghch c dng nh sau:
111
F (u) =
1
M
M 1
f ( x)e
j 2
ux
M
vi u = 0,1, 2...M 1 ,
(3.1.57)
x =0
M 1
f ( x ) = F (u)e
j 2
ux
M
vi x = 0,1,2...M 1
(3.1.58)
u =0
thc hin khai trin Fourier, chng ta phi s dng M2 php nhn v php cng. Cng
dng nhn thy rng, mi thnh phn ri rc trong F(u) l tng ca tch tt c cc gi tr ca hm
F (u) = F (u) e
j ( u )
(3.1.59)
P ( u ) = F ( u ) = R2 ( u ) + I 2 ( u )
2
(3.1.60)
F ( u, v ) =
f ( x, y ) e
j 2 ( ux+vy )
dxdy
(3.1.61)
dudv
(3.1.62)
f ( x, y ) =
F ( u, v ) e
j 2 ( ux+vy )
u, v l bin tn s.
Cng nh trng hp bin i Fourier mt chiu, ta c ph bin , ph pha v ph cng
sut cho tn hiu hai chiu:
F ( u, v ) = R 2 ( u, v ) + I 2 ( u, v )
1/ 2
(3.1.63)
I ( u,v )
( u, v ) = arctg
R ( u, v )
(3.1.64)
P ( u , v ) = F ( u , v ) = R 2 ( u, v ) + I 2 ( u, v )
(3.1.65)
V d: Bin i Fourier ca xung hnh ch nht trong khng gian 3 chiu (hnh 3.1.35a) c
112
a)
b)
Hnh 3.1.35 Ph Fourier ca xung hnh ch nht trong khng gian 3 chiu.
1
F ( u, v ) =
MN
M 1 N 1
f ( x, y ) e
ux vy
j 2 +
M N
(3.1.66)
x =0 y =0
f ( x, y ) =
M 1 N 1
F ( u, v ) e
ux vy
j 2 +
M N
(3.1.67)
u =0 v =0
F ( u, v ) = R 2 ( u, v ) + I 2 ( u, v )
1/ 2
(3.1.68)
I ( u, v )
( u, v ) = arctg
R ( u, v )
(3.1.69)
P ( u , v ) = F ( u , v ) = R 2 ( u, v ) + I 2 ( u, v )
(3.1.70)
F ( 0,0 ) =
1
MN
M 1 N 1
f ( x, y )
(3.1.71)
x =0 y =0
113
f ( x, y )( 1)
x+y
x +y
M
N
F u ;v
2
2
(3.1.72)
D ( u,v ) = c log 1 + F ( u, v )
(3.1.73)
c- hng s.
nh ph sau khi bin i bng (3.1.73) biu din trn hnh 3.1.36d.
114
Chnng 3 K thu
ut x l hnhh nh
3.2 PH
N TCH C
C K THU
UT X L
NH V V
VIDEO
3.2.1 Khi nim v quan
q
h giaa cc im n
nh
33.2.1.1 Cc im nh ln cn
M im n
Mi
nh p ti ta
(x,y) s c 4 im nh
h c gi l ln cn theeo chiu nganng v
dc, l cc im
m ( x + 1, y ) , ( x 1, y ) , ( x
l cn trn c
x, y + 1) ( x, y 1) . Tp hhp 4 im ln
k hiu
u l
(x,y)
N4 ( p ) . Mi im ln
l cn nm cch im (xx,y) 1 n v. 4 im nhh ln cn vi im
theo
ng
cho
hiu
( x + 1, y + 1) , ( x + 1, y 1) , ( x 1, y + 1) ( x 1, y 1) .
c gi
g l 8 im
m ln cn:
ND ( p ) ,
Tp hp 8 im
cc
im:
N4 ( p )
ND ( p )
ln cnn c th nm bn ngoi n
nh.
nh p v q c cc gi tr t V c lin
l kt 4 nuu q nm tronng tp
N4 ( p ) .
2) Lin
n kt 8: hai im
nh p v q c cc gi tr t V c lin
l kt 8 nuu q nm tronng tp
N8 ( p ) .
3) Lin
n kt m (hn hp): hai im nh p v q c cc gi tr t V c lin kt m nuu:
- q nm tro
ong tp N 4 ( p ) , hoc
- q nm trong tp N D ( p ) v tp N 4 ( p ) N 4 ( q ) khng chha cc gi tr trong V.
Lin kt m l bin th c
L
a lin kt 8 dng loi tr cc mi lin kt a hng (khnng r
rng) c
c th gp khi
k dng linn kt 8. iuu ny minh ha
h trn hnhh 3.2.1b. Lin kt 8 trn hnh
3.2.1 c
Hnnh 3.2.1
M
Minh
ha lin kt 8 v lin
n kt m.
( x 0 , y0 ) = ( x, y )
( x n , yn ) = ( s, t )
( x i , yi ) v ( x i1 , yi1 ) l cc im lin kt vi 1 i n . n c gi l chiu di ca ng
kt ni. Khi ( x 0 , y 0 ) = ( x n , y n ) , ng ni c gi l khp kn.
Ty theo phng php xc nh lin kt,chng ta c ng kt ni 4, 8 hoc ng kt ni
m. Trn hnh 3.2.1 m t hai loi ng kt ni vi lin kt m v 8.
Cho S l mt tp cc im nh, hai pixel p v q c gi l lin kt trong S, nu tn ti
ng kt ni gia hai im p v q c to ra ch bi cc im trong tp S.
Vi bt c im p no t S, tt c cc pixel lin kt vi p trong S s c gi l thnh phn
lin kt ca S. Nu S trong ch tn ti mt thnh phn lin kt, th tp S gi l tp lin kt.
Cho R l tp con cc im nh, R c gi l vng nh nu R l tp lin kt. ng bin
ca vng R c to ra t tp nh cc im nh. Cc im ny c mt hoc nhiu hn cc im
ln cn khng nm trong tp R.
3.2.1.3 Ton t x l im nh
Trong phn ny, chng ta s ni n mt s php tnh thc hin trc tip vi cc im nh
trong nh, th d nhn hoc chia mt nh cho nh khc theo tng im. Nh gii thiu trn,
ta c th biu din nh s nh ma trn cc im nh, tuy nhin trong trng hp tng qut, hai ma
trn khng chia c cho nhau. Do , khi thc hin ton t chia hai nh cho nhau, ngi ta chia
cc pixel tng ng ca nh ny cho nh khc (vi iu kin cc im nh ca nh chia khc 0).
Tng t nh vy, cc ton t s hc v logic s c thc hin cho cc pixel tng ng gia hai
nh.
3.2.1.3.1
D ( p, q ) = 0 nu p=q
D ( p, q ) = D ( q, p )
D ( p, z ) D ( p, q ) + D ( q, z )
3.2.1.3.2
2
2
De ( p,q ) = ( x s ) + ( y t )
3.2.1.3.3
(3.2.1)
D 4 ( p,q ) = x s + y t
(3.2.2)
116
Chnng 3 K thu
ut x l hnhh nh
thoi c tm im ti (x,y).V d: pixels nm
m cch (x,y) mt
m khong D 4 2 to ra
r hnh thoi sau:
s
3.2.1.3.4
Khong cch
h D8 gia p va
v q c n
nh ngha nh
sau:
D8 ( p, q ) = max
x(x s , y t )
(3.2.3)
P
Pixels
nm cch
c
(x,y) mt khong D 8 2 to ra hnh
h
vung cc tm im ti
t im (x,y)):
P
Pixels
vi khhong cch D 8 = 1 l 8 im ln cn ca
c pixel (x,yy).
(3.2.4)
Mt n
s = T [r]
(3.2.5)
r v s l mc xm ca nh gc f ( x, y ) v nh g ( x, y ) ti im (x,y).
V d: Qu trnh bin i mc xm n gin c m t trn hnh 3.2.3. nh gc "Lena"
(hnh 3.2.3a) c tng cng tng phn khi p dng hm bin i c c tuyn trn hnh
3.2.3b. Mc ch t c khi cc im nh c mc xm ln hn mc trung bnh m s c lm
sng thm, ngc li cc im nh c chi di mc m s c lm ti i. Trn hnh 3.2.3c,
nh c x l s bin thnh dng nh phn: ch c 2 mc c nh, en hoc trng.
Lena
a)
b)
c)
Hm dng bin i mc xm trong Matlab c dng:
J = imadjust(I,[low_in; high_in],[low_out; high_out],gamma).
Hm ny bin i cc mc xm nm trong khong [low_in; high_in] thnh cc gi
118
(3.2.6)
Hnh 3.2.4 nh m bn
s = c log 1 + r
(3.2.7)
Lmax
T (r) =
Lmin
A<r <B
(3.2.8)
vi cc r khc
A<r<B
L
T ( r ) = max
r
vi cc r khc
(3.2.9)
119
a)
c)
b)
Trn hnh 3.2.6 minh ha l kt qu tch di chi [A-B] trong nh bng hai phng php
ni trn.
3.2.2.1.6 X l lc xm (histogram)
Lc xm ca mt nh s (histogram) c cc mc xm bin thin trong khong
120
[0, L 1] l hm ri rc h ( rk ) = nk , vi
rk l mc xm th k, nk - l s lng im nh, c mc
p ( rk ) = nk / n
(3.2.10)
vi k=0,1,2...L-1.
Ni cch khc p ( rk ) l xc sut xut hin cc im nh c mc xm rk. Tng cc gi tr ri
rc p ( rk ) bng 1. Ngoi cc thng tin thng k v mc xm, histogram cn cha nhiu tin tc
quan trng c th s dng trong cc qu trnh x l khc nh nn hay phn vng nh.
Hm c bn nht dng tm histogram ca nh trong Matlab l hm: imhist(I, n), trong
,ton b di ng cc mc xm c chia ra thnh n on.
Trn hnh 3.2.9 th hin 4 nh c chi v tng phn khc nhau cng vi histogram
ca chng. Lc xm c biu din trong h ta vung gc, trc honh biu din cc gi
tr mc xm t [0,255], trc tung biu din s lng im nh c cng mc xm.
D dng thy rng, khi nh c tng phn cao (hnh 3.2.9a), cc mc xm phn b u
trn trc rk. Vi nh c chi thp (hnh 3.2.9b), cc mc xm tp trung ti min gi tr chi
thp v ngc li vi nh c chi cao (hnh 3.2.9c). Vi nh c tng phn thp, nht mu
trn lc xm cc vch xm tp trung ti trung tm di chi (hnh3.2.9d).
s = T (r)
0 r 1
(3.2.11)
121
0 r 1
0 s 1 . Ngoi ra, nu
hm T(r) khng ng bin, trong nh kt qu c th xut hin mt phn di chi l "m bn" so
vi nh gc. iu kin (b) cho thy di ng ca nh vo v ra ging nhau.
ps ( s ) = pr ( r )
dr
ds
(3.2.12)
s = T ( r ) = pr ( ) d
(3.2.13)
V phi ca (3.2.13) chnh l tch phn phn b xc sut (CDF) ca bin ngu nhin r. Hm
ny l hm n nh v ng bin trong khong 0 r 1 , p ng yu cu (a) v (b) trong
(3.2.11). Ly o hm ca s theo r ta c:
ds dT ( r )
=
dr
dr
(3.2.14)
ds d
= pr ( ) d = pr ( r )
dr dr 0
(3.2.15)
ps ( s ) = pr ( r )
dr
1
= pr ( r )
=1
ds
pr ( t )
0 s 1
(3.2.16)
122
pr ( rk ) =
nk
n
k = 0,1,2,......, L 1
(3.2.17)
nj
j =0
j =0
sk = T ( rk ) = pr ( rj ) =
k = 0,1,2,......, L 1
(3.2.18)
a)
b)
c)
d)
Trn hnh 3.2.11 biu din ba nh c chi thp, cao v c tng phn thp. Ba nh
trn c cn bng histogram theo (3.2.18), hm bin i ca tng nh khc nhau v c biu
123
nj
j =0
j =0
sk = T ( rk ) = pr ( rj ) =
k = 0,1,2,......, L 1
(3.2.19)
( )
vk = G ( zk ) = pz ( zi )
k = 0,1,2,......, L 1
(3.2.20)
i =0
zk = G 1 ( vk )
k = 0,1,2,......, L 1
(3.2.21)
zk = G 1 ( vk ) = G 1 ( sk ) = G 1 T ( rk )
k
z k = G 1 p r ( rj )
j =0
k = 0,1,2,......, L 1
(3.2.22)
(3.2.23)
( )
124
Hnh 3.2.12
a) Minh ha qu trnh nh x
T
rk
sk
G
b) Bin i thun zq
vq v
1
G
zk
bin i nghch sk
G
sk
zk , mi gi tr sk c nh x ngc thnh gi tr zk (hnh 3.2.12b). c tuyn G(z)
( )
G s* sk 0
k = 0,1,2,......, L 1
(3.2.24)
125
Hnh 3.2.13 So snh hai phng php nng cao cht lng nh bng k thut cn bng
mc xm v xp x histogram
Qu trnh cn bng xm c thc hin bi hm bin i c th nh trn hnh 3.2.14a.
Hm ny c tm ra da trn cng thc (3.2.19) v histogram ca nh gc. C th thy rng,
cn bng histogram, cc im nh c mc xm nm gn mc en s c bin i thnh mc gn
trng. Trong nh gc, cc im nh c mc xm thp chim a s, do , nh nhn c sau khi
cn bng s c mc chi trung bnh rt cao (hnh 3.2.13b), tng phn ca nh s b gim.
Hnh 3.2.14
126
212
1
p ( z ) = A1
e
1 2
+ A2
2 2
( z m2 )2
2 22
(3.2.25)
g ( x, y ) = f ( x, y ) + ( x, y )
(3.2.26)
g ( x, y ) =
1 M
gi ( x, y )
M i 1
(3.2.27)
E {g ( x, y )} = f ( x, y )
(3.2.28)
Phng sai g2( x , y ) (chnh l cng sut nhiu trong tng im ca nh trung bnh cng)
g2( x , y ) =
bng:
1 2
M ( x, y)
(3.2.29)
Theo (3.2.29), khi M tng ln, cng sut trung bnh ca nhiu ti mi im nh gim i;
127
128
C hai cch thc hin qu trnh lc tuyn tnh, l thc hin php nhn chp nh ni
trn hoc thc hin php tnh tng quan. Khi tnh tng quan chng ta di chuyn mt n lc qua
cc im nh; khi tnh tch chp, mt n phi c xoay 1800 trc khi thc hin nhn vi ma trn
im nh. nh f c kch thc MxN c lc bi mt n w ( x , y ) kch thc (mxn) theo biu
g ( x, y ) =
w ( s, t ) f ( x + s , y + t )
(3.2.30)
s = a t = b
R = w1 z1 + w 2 z2 + ... + w mn zmn = wi zi
(3.2.30a)
i =1
Php lc tuyn tnh trong Matlab c thc hin bng hm: B = imfilter(A, H,
option1, option2,...); H- ma trn lc vi cc thng s ty chn option1, option2.
B lc trung bnh khng gian thc hin theo (3.2.30) thng c s dng lc nhiu
hoc lm m (blurring) nh. V d: qu trnh lm m nh c th c s dng lc b cc chi
tit nh trc khi a vo nhn dng nhng chi tit c kch thc ln trong nh. Trn hnh 3.2.18
l hai mt n dng thc hin qu trnh trung bnh trong khng gian, v bn cht, l mt n
lc thng thp. p ng mt n hnh 3.2.18a l gi tr trung bnh ca 9 im nh. D dng nhn
129
Chnng 3 K thu
ut x l hnhh nh
thy, thnh
t
phn nhiu, l nhn
ng im nh c chi bin
b
i bt tthng so v
i mc chi trung
t
bnh trrong vng nnh rng, s b lm "trn" sau khi b tc ng bi m
mt n ni trn. Tuy nhinn, tc
ng ca
c mt n s lm cho ccc ng binn hoc cc chii tit nh tronng nh b "lm m".
C mt n dng
d
thc hin trung bnh
b
khng giian
Hnh 3.2.18 Cc
a)
b)
Hnh 3.2.19 nh
kt qu kkhi lc thng thp bng ma
m trn 3x3 (aa) v 5x5 (b)
Vi mt n hnh
V
h
3.2.18b,, cc pixel khhc nhau
c nhn vi hh s khc nhau,
n
lm nh
vy
ta c th
h xc nh "trng
"
lngg" ring (mcc quan tr
ng) cho tngg pixel. Tronng mt n 3.22.18b,
im trung
t
tm c
"trng lnng" ln nht,, cc im nh
nm cngg xa tm, "trrng lng" cng
nh. Cch
C
phn b "trng lnng" ny lm
m gim hiu ng
nhe
ng bin kh
hi thc hin trung
t
bnh ha nh.
K kch th
Khi
c ca s tnng ln, bng thng ca b lc thng tthp s gim, nn mc lm
"trn" nh s tng ln, iu nyy thy r trnn hnh minh ha
h kt qu llc thng thp vi hai maa trn
3x3 v 5x5 (hnh 3.2.19a v 3.22.19b).
T dng lcc nhiu ca b
Tc
b lc thngg thp vi ma
m trn 3x3 thh hin trn hnh 3.2.20. nh
gc b tc ng ca nhiu Gaussian c lc tuyn tnh
h bng ma trn 3x3, ngg nh phn tch
t
nh kt qu c mc nhiu thp hn nh
ng nt suuy gim so vi nh gc.
trn, n
N
Nhiu
Gausian c tngg hp vi nhh I bi hm Matlab:
M
J = imnoi
ise(I,'ga
aussian',m,v); m - trung bnh tthng k, v-
lch chunn ca
hm Gausian.
G
Hnh 3.2.21
a) nh gc;
b) nh nhiu
c) nh lc median;
131
3.2.2.2.3 Lm tng nt ca nh
Ton t Laplace hay Laplacian ca hm hai bin f ( x, y ) c xc nh bi biu thc:
2 f =
2 f 2 f
+
dx 2 dy 2
2 f
= f ( x + 1, y ) + f ( x 1, y ) 2 f ( x, y )
x 2
2 f
= f ( x, y + 1) + f ( x, y 1) 2 f ( x, y )
y 2
(3.2.31)
(3.2.32)
2 f = f ( x + 1, y ) + f ( x 1, y ) + f ( x, y + 1) + f ( x, y 1) 4 f ( x, y ) (3.2.33)
Ton t Laplace c s dng rng ri trong k thut xc nh ng bin v s c phn
tch trong phn 3.2.4. Ti y, chng ta s ch xt k thut lm r nh s dng ton t Laplace.
V mt bn cht, y l phng php ng dng o hm bc hai lm tng nt ca nh.
Ton t Laplace hai chiu cho tn hiu ri rc thng c thc hin vi mt n kch thc
3x3. Hai mt n lc trn hnh 3.2.22a v b thc hin ton t Laplacian ri rc theo cng thc
(3.2.33) u cho cc nh kt qu ging nhau.
b)
a)
a)
b)
c)
nh gc; b- nh cc ng bin c lm ni
c- nh tng hp
132
(3.2.34)
g ( x, y ) = f ( x, y ) 2 f ( x, y ) =
(3.2.35)
= 5 f ( x, y ) f ( x + 1, y ) + f ( x 1, y ) + f ( x, y + 1) + f ( x, y 1)
Mt n lc thc hin biu thc (3.2.35) c dng:
f ( x, y)
g ( x, y ) = H f ( x, y ) + ( x, y ) = h ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) + ( x, y )
(3.2.36)
133
G ( u, v ) = H ( u, v ) F ( u, v ) + N ( u, v )
(3.2.37)
p( z) =
2
1
z m /2 2
e( )
2
(3.2.38)
2
Gi tr trung bnh v phng sai c dng m = a + b / 4 v =
(3.2.39)
b(4 )
.
4
a b z b 1 az
e
p ( z ) = ( b 1) !
0
khi z 0
(3.2.40)
khi z < 0
b
b
v 2 = 2 .
a
a
134
khi z 0
khi z < 0
(3.2.41)
vi a>0
Gi tr trung bnh v phng sai bng m =
1
1
v 2 = 2
a
a
p (z) = b a
0
khi
a zb
(3.2.42)
vi cc z khc
( a b) .
a+b
Gi tr trung bnh ca bin ngu nhin z l m =
, phng sai 2 =
2
12
2
Pa
p ( z ) = Pb
0
khi
z=a
khi
z=b
(3.2.43)
vi cc z khc
135
(3.2.44)
G ( u, v ) = F ( u, v ) + N ( u, v )
(3.2.45)
1
f ( x, y ) =
g ( s, t )
mn ( s ,t )S xy
(3.2.46)
mn
f ( x, y ) = g ( s, t )
( s ,t )S xy
(3.2.47)
f ( x, y ) =
mn
( s ,t )S xy
1
g ( s, t )
(3.2.48)
B lc ny c kh nng trit nhiu xung dng "m trng" v nhiu Gaussian kh tt.
Nhng b lc ny khng c kh nng lc cc thnh phn nhiu xung dng "m en".
B lc contraharmonic (Contraharmonic mean filter)
Bin i trong b lc contraharmonic c m t bng biu thc:
136
g ( s, t )
Q +1
f ( x, y ) =
( s ,t )S xy
g ( s, t )
(3.2.49)
( s ,t )S xy
f ( x, y ) = med {g ( s, t )}
( s ,t )S xy
(3.2.50)
f ( x, y ) = max {g ( s, t )}
( s ,t )S xy
(3.2.51)
B lc cc i cho php pht hin nhng im sng nht trong nh, ng thi c tc dng
trit nhiu xung dng "m en".
B lc cc tiu c m t bng biu thc:
f ( x, y ) = min {g ( s, t )}
( s ,t )S xy
(3.2.52)
B lc ny cho php pht hin nhng vng ti ca nh v lm gim nhiu xung "trng".
B lc gi trung v
p ng ca b lc ny l gi tr trung bnh gia hai im cc i v cc tiu trong ma trn
lc:
1
f ( x, y ) = max {g ( s, t )} + min {g ( s, t )}
( s ,t )S xy
2 ( s ,t )S xy
(3.2.53)
137
H ( u , v ) = 0
khi D ( u, v ) < D0
W
2
W
W
D ( u, v ) D0 +
2
2
W
khi D ( u, v ) > D0 +
2
khi D0
(3.2.54)
H ( u, v ) =
1
D ( u, v ) W
1+ 2
2
D ( u, v ) D0
(3.2.55)
2n
H ( u, v ) = 1 e
2
2
1 D ( u ,v ) D0
2 D ( u ,v )W
(3.2.56)
138
H td ( u, v ) = 1 H cd ( u, v )
(3.2.57)
Notch filter
Cc b lc Notch cho php lc mt s thnh phn ph trong khng gian ph hai chiu ca
nh. Khc vi cc b lc chn di c c tuyn tn s ng hng (hnh 3.2.27b,c), notch filter
cho php lc b cc thnh phn nhiu theo hng nht nh trong khng gian tn s.
c tuyn tn s ca notch filter (lc chn) l tng c dng i xng qua im gc ca
khng gian tn s, vi nh nm ti cc im ( u0 , v0 ) v ( u0 , v0 ) c th c m t bng biu
thc sau:
0
H ( u, v ) =
1
khi D1 ( u, v ) D0 hay D2 ( u, v ) D0
(3.2.58)
vi cc trng hp khc
(3.2.59)
2
2
D2 ( u, v ) = ( u M / 2 + u0 ) + ( v N / 2 + v0 )
(3.2.60)
H ( u, v ) =
D02
1+
D1 ( u, v ) D2 ( u, v )
(3.2.61)
H ntd ( u, v ) = 1 H ncd ( u, v )
(3.2.62)
g ( x, y ) = H f ( x, y ) + ( x, y )
(3.2.63)
g ( x, y ) = h ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) + ( x, y )
(3.2.64)
G ( u , v ) = H ( u, v ) F ( u , v ) + N ( u, v )
(3.2.65)
F ( u, v ) , G ( u, v ) , N ( u, v ) l ph ca nh gc, nh kt qu v nhiu. H ( u, v ) - hm p
ng tn s (tng ng vi ton t H).
Trong trng hp khi hm H ( u, v ) c cho trc, k thut khi phc n gin v chnh
139
F ( u, v ) = G ( u, v ) / H ( u, v )
(3.2.66)
F ( u, v ) = F ( u, v ) + N ( u, v ) / H ( u, v )
(3.2.67)
C th thy rng, ngay c khi bit trc H ( u, v ) , chng ta vn khng th khi phc chnh
xc c nh gc, v nhiu cng l tn hiu ngu nhin v hm mt ph N ( u, v ) khng xc
nh chnh xc c. Mt nhc im na ca lc ngc l khi hm H ( u, v ) c gi tr bng
hoc gn bng 0, b lc ny tr nn khng n nh. Trong trng hp ny, thnh phn th hai ca
(3.2.67) s c gi tr ln hn nhiu so vi tn hiu nh gc. khng xy ra hin tng ni trn,
3.2.3.6 Lc Wiener
Phng php lc ngc tuy n gin, nhng kt qu khng ti u khi nh chu tc ng ca
e2 = E
{( f f ) }
2
(3.2.68)
H * ( u, v ) S f ( u, v )
G ( u, v ) =
F ( u, v ) =
2
S f ( u, v ) H ( u, v ) + S ( u, v )
H ( u, v )
1
G ( u, v )
=
H ( u, v ) H ( u, v ) 2 + S ( u, v ) / S f ( u, v )
(3.2.69)
140
fA =
v
A =
1
MN
S ( u, v )
(3.2.70)
1
MN
S ( u, v )
(3.2.71)
H ( u, v )
1
G ( u, v )
F ( u, v ) =
H ( u, v ) H ( u, v ) 2 + R
(3.2.72)
141
a)
b)
Hnh 3.2.29 Minh ha khi nim ng bin ca nh. a- ng bin gia hai vng nh
trong khng gian 2 chiu b- S thay i chi trn ng bin.
Trong trng hp l tng, chi gia hai vng nh thay i t ngt hoc tng dn u.
142
G ( x, y ) < TL th
G ( x, y ) > TH - im (x,y)
f
G Gx x
f = =
G y f
y
(3.2.73)
143
Gx =
Gy =
f ( x, y )
f ( x + dx, y ) f ( x, y )
dx
(3.2.74)
f ( x, y ) f ( x, y + dy ) f ( x, y )
=
dy
y
(3.2.75)
G
f = f = Gx2 + G y2
(3.2.76)
Vic xc nh modul gradient theo cng thc trn i hi thc hin php tnh bnh phng
v ly cn bc hai. n gin ha qu trnh tnh ton, m vn c kt qu tng i chnh xc khi
tm bin, ngi ta xp x gi tr gradient nh sau:
G
(3.2.77)
f f = Gx + G y
Hng ca vector gradient ti im A c ta (x,y) cng l mt thng s quan trng, n
Gy
Gx
( x, y ) = arctg
(3.2.78)
Gx ( x, y ) = f ( x + 1, y ) f ( x, y )
(3.2.79)
Gy ( x, y ) = f ( x, y + 1) f ( x, y )
(3.2.80)
144
Chnng 3 K thu
ut x l hnhh nh
a
a)
b)
Hnh 3.2.32
L
Lm
ni nng bin
ss dng ph
ng php graadient.
a- nnh gc;
b- Grradient theo cchiu x (Gx);;
c- Grradient theo cchiu y (Gy);;
c)
lm ni nhng
n
ngg bin dc, taa phi ly o hm ri rc theo chiuu ngang v ngc
n
li. Kt qu qu trnh lm ni
n ng bbin theo phhng php gradient th hin trn hnh
3.2.32.
C nhiu ccch tm o hm bc mt cca nh, n gin nht l phng php s dng toon t
C
Robertt.
Hnh 3.2.33 Ma trn
n 9 im
nh v ccc mt n dng tm
gradient ti im z5
z1
z2
z3
z4
z5
z63
z7
z8
z93
a- Ma trn cc im nhh
-1
-1
-1
z3
-1
z13
-1
-2
-1
z3
-1
z13
-1
z03
z3
-1
z03
-1
z13
z03
-2
z23
z13
z03
z13
-1
z13
z13
-1
z13
b Mt n Ro
bobert
c - Mt
M n Prew
witt
d- mtt n Sobel
G1 = z9 z5
G2 = z8 z6
(3.2.81)
Gradient caa nh c tm
G
m ra bng cch nhn chp nh vi ccc mt n Robbert nh trnn hnh
(3.2.333b). Trn hnnh (3.2.34b)) l hai nh kkt qu c
c sau khi thc
t
hin ton t Robertt theo
(3.2.811). Trong tn
ng nh, cc ng
Chnng 3 K thu
ut x l hnhh nh
Do mt n 2x2
D
2 khng c im trung tm, ngi ta thng dng cc mt n c kch thc
t
3x3 hooc 5x5. Ton t Prewittt c thc hhin vi cc mt n nh
trn hnh (3
3.2.34c). Graadient
tnh thheo chiu ngaang v chiu dc s bng:
G x = ( z7 + z8 + z9 ) ( z1 + z2 + z3 )
(3.2.82)
G y = ( z3 + z6 + z9 ) ( z1 + z4 + z7 )
(3.2.83)
T
Ton
t Sobel c biuu din trn hnh 3.2.33d c
c tc dng gn
g ging nhh mt n Preewitt,
im khc
k
bit l cc
c h s nm
m ti v tr ln cn theo ch
hiu ngang vv dc vi z5 tc N 4 ( z5 ) c
gi tr 2 (hnh 3.2
2.33d). Mt n
n ni trn cng cho phpp thc hin qu
q trnh tm o hm theeo hai
hngg:
G x = ( z7 + 2 z8 + z9 ) ( z1 + 2 z2 + z3 )
(3.2.84)
G y = ( z3 + 2 z6 + z9 ) ( z1 + 2 z4 + z7 )
(3.2.85)
V tng gi tr cc h s
Vic
s ni trn s lm gim tnh
t
trung bnnh ha (lm m nh) caa qu
trnh nhn
n
chp nhh gc vi ccc mt n ny..
a)
b)
c)
d)
Hnh 3.2.34 nh
g (a) v kt
gc
k qu lm ni
n
ng
bin
n s dng cc
c
m n Robert (b), mt n
mt
P
Prewitt
(c)) v mt n
Sobel (d).
147
Mt n ng Bc
Mt n Nam
Mt n ng
148
2 f =
2 f 2 f
+
dx 2 dy 2
(3.2.86)
2 f
= f ( x + 1) + f ( x 1) 2 f ( x )
x 2
(3.2.87)
149
2 f
= f ( x + 1, y ) + f ( x 1, y ) 2 f ( x, y )
x 2
(3.2.88)
2 f
= f ( x, y + 1) + f ( x, y 1) 2 f ( x, y )
y 2
(3.2.89)
Thng thng, ton t Laplace hai chiu ri rc c thc hin vi mt n kch thc 3x3.
C hai cch xp x o hm bc 2 ri rc cho vng nh 3x3: theo cng thc (3.2.90) v (3.2.91).
2 f = 4z5 [ z2 + z4 + z6 + z8 ]
(3.2.90)
2 f = 8z5 [ z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 + z6 + z7 + z8 + z9 ]
(3.2.91)
thc hin cc cng thc trn, chng ta s dng hai mt m tng ng nh trn hnh
3.2.43.
a)
b)
c)
150
Chnng 3 K thu
ut x l hnhh nh
3.2.43cc. Bin cc ng bin thu c dda trn b lc
l bng mtt n hnh 3.2..43c c gi trr ln
hn.
a)
b)
Hnh 3.2.44 Minh
M
ha qu trnh lm nii ng binn bng ton t
Laplace
T
Trong
thc t
t ton t Laaplace t
c s dng trrc tip do tnh nhy cm vi nhiuu c
trng cho o hm
m bc hai. Ngoi
N
ra, nh
phn tcch trn, viic s dng o hm bc hai
nh. V vy,
thngg dn n hin tng xut hin cc biin kp, gy kh khn choo vic phn on
lm
m gim nh hng
h
ca nhhiu, trc kkhi thc hin ton t Lapplace ngi ta
t thng lm
m m
nh bng b lc Gaausian. nh a vo x l
l trong tr
ng hp ny ss c nhn
n chp vi toon t
Laplacce ca hm Gausse
G
hai chhiu c dng nh
n sau:
h(r) = e
x2 + y2
2 2
=e
r2
2 2
(3.2.92)
M lm m nh s ph
Mc
p thuc voo gi tr dungg sai chun
2.
hm bcc hai ca hm
o
m Gausse theo r s c dnng:
2
r 2 2 2r
h(r) =
e
4
(3.2.93)
m p ng ca b lc Lapplacian-Gausssian v nh kt qu
Hnnh 3.2.45 Hm
Mt n trn hnh
M
h
3.2.45d c s dnng xp x ton
t
t LoG ri rc. V o
hm bc hai
h l
php tnh tuyn tnnh, do qu trnh nhn cchp nh v LoG
L cng t
ng ng vi vic nhn chp
nh v
i hm lm m
m Gausse 2 chiu (3.2.992), sau th
hc hin tonn t Laplacee lm ni bin.
Kt quu nhn cc minh ha trn hnh 3.2.445.
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
3.2.5 Phn vng nh
3.2.5.1 Tng quan v phn vng nh
Vng nh (segment) l mt chi tit trong nh. N c hnh thnh bi tp hp cc im nh
c cng hoc gn cng mt tnh cht no nh: mc xm, mu sc, kt cu (texture) v.v. ng
bao xung quanh vng nh c gi l bin nh (boundary).
Phn vng nh l qu trnh pht hin v tch nh thnh cc vng hoc cc thnh phn c
lp. Cc thnh phn c lp c th c xc nh da trn c s ng bin ca chng, hoc da
trn cc tiu chun phn vng lin thng c cng chi, mu sc hoc c cng cc tham s khc
ca nh. Ngoi ra cn c cc k thut phn vng khc nh phn vng da vo bin , phn vng
theo kt cu (texture segmentation), phn vng da trn tc di chuyn ca cc chi tit trong
nh v.v.
f ( x, y ) f ( x0 , y0 ) E
(3.2.94)
( x, y ) ( x0 , y0 ) A
(3.2.95)
152
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
im nh c nm trn cng ng cong (hoc ng thng) cho trc hay khng. Khc vi
phng php lin kt trong phn (3.2.5.2.1), xp x ng bin, chng ta phi xt n quan h
gia cc im nh nm trong ton nh.
-
( xi , yi )
nm cnh im
Sai s tuyt i:
= yi g ( xi )
i =1
M
= yi g ( xi )
i =1
Sai s ti a:
= max yi g ( xi )
i
y = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... + aN x N
(3.2.96)
ai - h s ca a thc.
Sau khi t ta ca cc im nh trn ng bin vo (3.2.96) ta c h phng trnh
tuyn tnh:
1 x0
1 x1
1 x2
1 #
1 xM
x02
x12
x22
#
xM2
... x0N a0 y 0
... x1N a1 y1
... x2N a2 = y 2
# # #
... xMN a N y 0
(3.2.97)
Xa = y
(3.2.98)
= ( y y ) ( y y )
T
(3.2.99)
153
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
(im F trn hnh 3.2.46c).
r = x cos + y sin
(3.2.100)
Nh vy, mi ng thng c th biu din trong mt phng (r, ) bng 1 im duy nht
(hnh 3.2.47b).
Hnh 3.2.47
a)
ng thng trong khng gian (x,y).
b)
ng thng c biu din bng 1
im trong khng gian (r, ).
c)
Tp cc ng thng i qua mt im
d)
Bin i Hough ca tp ng thng
e)
Cc im A,B,C nm trn mt ng
thng c ta gc (r, )
f)
Bin i Hough cho tp cc ng
thng chy qua A,B v C
154
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
i s to ra 1 ng cong trn mt phng (r, ) (hnh 3.2.47d).
Chng ta xt ba im A, B, C trong mt phng (x,y). Bin i Hough i vi cc ng
thng i qua tng im A, B, C s to ra ba ng cong trn mt phng nh trn hnh 3.2.47f. C
th thy rng im ct ca ba ng cong ti X ( r0 , 0 ) nh x sang mt phng (x,y) s cho
ng thng i qua c ba im A, B v C.
Khi ba im A,B,C khng nm cng trn mt ng thng, 3 ng cong ni trn s khng
ct nhau cng mt im. Tuy nhin, c th thy rng i vi cc im nm gn ng thng AC
trn mt phng (x,y), bin i Hough s cho kt qu l cc ng cong ct nhau trong khu vc ln
cn vi im X ( r0 , 0 ) (hnh 3.2.47f). Tnh cht ny c s dng xp x ng bin trong
155
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
T = T x, y , p ( x, y ) , f ( x, y )
(3.2.101)
1
g ( x, y ) =
0
f ( x, y ) > T
f ( x, y ) T
(3.2.102)
156
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
3.2.5.3.2 Phn vng vi ngng ton cc (Global thresholding)
Phng php phn vng theo ngng ton cc l phng php kh n gin, khi vt th v
nn c tch bng cch so snh vi mt mc ngng T. Mc chnh xc ca phng php ny
ph thuc vo tnh cht ca nh, v d: nu nh c histogram c chia thnh cc vng r rt
(cn gi l cc mode) th vic la chn ngng s tng i d dng. Trn hnh 3.2.50a l nh
scan ca vn bn, y l loi hnh nh thng dng v tng i n gin. C th thy histogram
ca nh c chia thnh cc vng r rt (hnh 3.2.50c). Nh vy tch vng nh (cc ch ci)
khi nn mu xm, ta c th dng mc ngng T nm gia hai vng xm nh trn hnh 3.2.50c.
Tt cc cc im nh c chi thp s c gn mc trng, cc im nh c chi cao (nn
ca nh) c thay bng mc en. nh kt qu cho chng ta hng ch trng trn nn mu en
trn hnh 3.2.50b.
T =
1
( m1 + m2 ) .
2
157
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
Hnh 3.2.53
a) nh gc.
b) Phn vng vi ngng ton cc.
c) nh c chia vng d) Phn vng vi ngng thch nghi.
Hnh 3.2.53a l nh gc bao gm nn v chi tit c chi thay i trong phm vi nh. Histogram ca
nh khng phn vng r rt, do , khi dng ngng ton cc, tc ngng duy nht phn vng s
khng cho kt qu tt (hnh 3.2.53b). Mt phng php lm tng cht lng phn tch nh l chia nh
gc ra thnh nhiu vng nh (segment) (hnh 3.2.53c), trong mi vng chng ta s tm gi tr ngng
cc b theo phng php m t trn. Gi tr T ban u c chn bng gi tr trung bnh gia
158
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
mc chi cao nht v mc chi thp nht trong vng. Nh vy c th ni rng, nh gc c x l
vi mc ngng thch nghi theo tng vng nh. Kt qu nhn dng vng theo ngng thch nghi biu
din trn hnh 3.2.53d, d dng nhn thy vng nh chi tit c hin th chnh xc hn nhiu so vi
trng hp dng ngng ton cc.
p ( z ) = P1 p1 ( z ) + P2 p2 ( z )
(3.2.103)
E1 ( T ) =
p2 ( z ) dz
(3.2.104)
E2 (T ) = p1 ( z ) dz
(3.2.105)
E ( T ) = P2
p2 ( z ) dz + P1 p1 ( z ) dz
(3.2.106)
P1 p1 ( T ) = P2 p2 ( T )
(3.2.107)
159
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
Trng hp khi P1 = P2 , ngng ti u s nm ti im ct th hm p1 ( z ) v p2 ( z ) .
Trong trng hp tng qut, tm ra Topt , ta cn bit hai hm phn b xc sut p1 ( z ) v
P1
e
2 1
( z 1 )2
2 12
P2
e
2 2
( z 2 )2
2 22
(3.2.108)
AT 2 + BT + C = 0
vi:
(3.2.109)
A = 12 22
(3.2.110)
B = 2 1 22 2 12
C = 2 12 1 22 + 2 12 2 22 ln ( 2 P1 / 1 P2 )
Phng trnh bc hai c th c hai nghim, do , trong mt s trng hp c th c hai gi
tr ngng ti u. Nu phng sai ca hai hm phn b nh nhau:
12 = 22 = 2 th Topt l duy
nht:
Topt =
1 + 2
2
P
ln 2
1 2 P1
(3.2.111)
Nu P 1 = P2 , ta c:
Topt =
1 + 2
2
(3.2.112)
3.2.6 X l nh mu
Trong phn 3.1.5 gii thiu s b v mu sc v cc thng s c trng ca mu sc.
Da trn cc phn tch v c ch cm nhn mu sc ca h thng th gic ta thy mi mu sc
trong thin nhin c th c to ra t cc mu c bn bng cc phng php pha trn mu khc
nhau. Khng gian mu RGB hoc XYZ thng c s dng m t qu trnh pha trn mu
sc. Ta c th xc nh c mi mu sc c to ra t t hp ba mu bt k bng cch xc nh
v tr ba mu trong khng gian RGB (XYZ) sau ni chng li, to ra tam gic mu; Tam
gic c nh l ba im ni trn s cha tt c cc mu sc c th c to ra bng cch pha trn
ba mu trn (hnh 3.2.55).
3.2.6.1 Cc h mu c bn
Hin nay c kh nhiu h mu (khng gian mu) c s dng vi cc mc ch khc nhau.
Khng gian mu RGB thng c s dng m phng cc h thng to nh mu nh mn
hnh TV mu, camera mu; h mu CMYK (Cyan-Magenta-Yellow-BlacK) thng c dng
trong k thut in n. H mu HSI (Hue-Saturation-Intensity) hay cn gi l HSB (Hue-SaturationBright) c s dng rng ri trong lnh vc x l nh. H mu HSI cho php m t nh mu
160
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
thng qua cc thnh phn sc mu v thnh phn chi ca nh. Phng php m t ny tng i
ph hp vi cch cm nhn mu sc ca h thng th gic, ng thi h HSI cng c th dng khi
phn tch nh en-trng (ch c cc mc xm). Sau y chng ta nhc li mt s c im chnh
ca ba h mu ni trn.
xy
3.2.6.1.1 H mu RGB
Nh bit, trong h RGB, ba mu c bn l R (), G (xanh lc), B (xanh lam). Khng
gian RGB, trong lnh vc nh s, c th hin di dng hnh khi lp phng nh trn hnh
3.2.56a. Cc mu c bn nm trn ba nh ca hnh khi. Mu en K nm ti im gc ta ,
mu trng nm i din vi K qua ng cho. Khng gian mu RGB trn hnh 3.2.56a l khng
gian mu chun, gi tr ca cc mu RGB nm trong khong [0,1]. Trong lnh vc nh s, mi
im mu R, G hoc B thng c lng t ha vi 256 mc, tc mi mu c m ha bng 8
bit.
a)
b)
(2 )
8 3
161
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
3.2.6.1.2 H mu CMYK
Nh chng ta bit, mu C (Cyan - xanh l), mu M (Magenta - mn chn) v mu Y
(Yellow - vng) l cc mu b xung ca R, G v B. a s cc thit b in mu ln giy i hi d
liu a vo tng ng vi cc knh mu CMY hoc bin i t RGB sang CMY. Qu trnh bin
i c thc hin theo cng thc sau:
C 1 R
M = 1 G
Y 1 B
(3.2.113)
Khi C=M=Y chng ta s nhn c mu en. Tuy nhin, trn thc t mu nhn c khng
hon ton en. Do trong cc h thng in n, ngi ta s dng thm mt loi mc na c mu
en (BlacK) - k hiu l K. Nh vy h mu CMY c m rng thnh CMYK.
3.2.6.1.3 H mu HSI
Trong khng gian mu HSI, mi im mu c m t da trn cc thng s v: sc mu
(bc sng tri), bo ha mu ( sch mu) v chi. Hai thng s u tin c trng cho
"mu sc", cn thng s th ba cho ta thy sng ca im nh. Cch m t cc im nh nh
vy tng i ging vi thi quen quan st v phn tch mu sc ca h thng th gic.
H =
360
BG
B>G
(3.2.114)
162
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
vi
( R G ) + ( R B
2
= arccos
1/2
2
( R G ) + ( R B ) ( G B )
(3.2.115)
- Xc nh bo ha mu:
S =1
3
min ( R, G, B )
(R + G + B)
(3.2.116)
- Xc nh chi I:
I=
1
(R + G + B)
3
(3.2.117)
B = I (1 S )
(3.2.118)
S cos H
R = I 1 +
0
cos ( 60 H )
(3.2.119)
G = 3I ( R + B )
(3.2.120)
H = H 1200
(3.2.121)
R = I (1 S )
(3.2.122)
S cos H
G = I 1 +
0
cos ( 60 H )
(3.2.123)
B = 3I ( R + G )
(3.2.124)
H = H 2400
(3.2.125)
163
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
G = I (1 S )
(3.2.126)
S cos H
B = I 1 +
0
cos ( 60 H )
(3.2.127)
R = 3I ( G + B )
(3.2.128)
Cc cng thc (3.2.114) (3.2.128) nhn c thng qua php bin i hnh hc nh m
t trn hnh 3.2.58.
Trn hnh 3.2.59 l cc thnh phn nh H, S, I c tch ra t nh mu RGB theo cng thc
3.2.114, 3.2.116, 3.2.117.
C th thy rng, mc sng ca nh I chnh l chi (Intensity) ca nh mu. Mc sng
ca nh H ph thuc vo gc vector mu vi trc R, v d, i vi mu H=0 nn vng trn
nh H s c mu en.
Hnh 3.2.59 nh mu RGB (24 bt) v cc thnh phn H,S,I tng ng.
3.2.6.2 Mt s k thut x l nh mu cn bn
3.2.6.2.1 K thut to mu gi
y l phng php thay th cc mc xm trong ca nh en -trng bng cc mu theo mt
quy lut nht nh. "Mu gi" c s dng "t" nh trong trng hp ny khng phi l mu
thc ca nh. Nh chng ta bit, h thng th gic c kh nng cm nhn s khc bit v mu sc
tt hn s thay i chi ca nh, do trong nhiu trng hp, k thut to mu gi cho php
hin th r rng hn nhng chi tit c tng phn thp trong nh en-trng.
K thut lng t theo mc chi v m ha bng mu gi l mt trong nhng phng php
x l nh mu da trn qu trnh to mu gi. Trn hnh 3.2.60 m t nh en trng vi cc im
nh c chi thay i trong di ng
164
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
165
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
thut lng t mc xm c th c s dng tch cc vt th hin th trong nh da trn tnh
cht vt l ca chng. V d, trn hnh 3.263a, ta c nh X quang thu c trong h thng gim
st cht lng cc mi hn [15].
3.2.6.2.3 Bin i mu
K thut x l nh mu c chia thnh hai nhm. Nhm th nht bao gm cc phng
php phn tch nh mu thnh ba nh n sc (v d: nh R, G, B), sau x l tng nh n sc
ring r; nh kt qu s c tng hp t cc nh va c x l. Chng ta gi y l cc phng
166
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
php x l nh theo thnh phn. Nhm th hai l cc k thut x l tc ng trc tip ln cc
im nh mu. Trong khng gian mu RGB, mi im mu c th c biu din nh vector ni
R ( x, y )
c ( x, y ) = G ( x, y )
B ( x, y )
(3.2.129)
c ( x, y ) , x
b- nh mu
Trn hnh 3.2.65 m t qu trnh lc (trung bnh ha) nh trong min khng gian. Trn nh
en trng, chng ta cng gi tr mc xm ca cc im nh bn trong mt n ri chia cho tng s
im nh ca mt n, gi tr trung bnh ny s c gn cho im nh (x,y) (hnh 3.2.65a). Trong
nh mu RGB, qu trnh trung bnh ha c thc hin vi cc vector mu ng vi cc im nh
trong mt n. Vector mu trung bnh ti im (x,y) c cc thnh phn
g ( x, y ) = T f ( x, y )
(3.2.130)
si = Ti ( ri )
i = 1,2... n
(3.2.131)
167
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
Bin ri v si l gi tr cc thnh phn mu ca nh
f ( x, y ) v g ( x, y ) ti mt im
(x,y) bt k. n - s lng thnh phn mu. Ti - ton t bin i cho tng thnh phn mu. n c
xc nh bi h mu ang s dng. V d: trong khng gian mu RGB n=3, trong khng gian
CMYK n=4. Tp hp cc ton t Ti s xc nh ton t T trong (3.2.130).
Trn hnh 3.2.66 l nh mu v nh cc thnh phn trong khng gian R,G,B. y, cc
thnh phn c gi tr ln nht l 1 (mc trng) , nh nht l 0 (mc en). Trn nh en-trng biu
din thnh phn R, ta thy cnh hoa mu (gn bo ha) s c chi ln nht. Thnh phn G
v B trong vng cnh hoa c gi tr rt thp.
168
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
Thnh phn H c trng cho sc mu ca nh tnh theo (3.2.114) c th c cc gi tr xung
t cc im nh c gc H bng 00 v 3600; ngoi ra, gi tr H cng khng c xc nh ti cc
im nh en, trng hoc xm. Cc im nh c gi tr H bng 00 v 3600 hin th trn nh H
(hnh 3.2.67) nh cc im en hoc trng ngu nhin trong vng cnh hoa mu .
Cc bin i mu sc nh c th c thc hin trong cc h mu khc nhau, tuy nhin, trn
thc t ty theo ng dng, chng ta nn chn h mu ph hp nht.
V d: thc hin qu trnh bin i sng ca nh:
g ( x, y ) = k f ( x, y ) vi 0 < k < 1
(3.2.132)
Trong h mu HSI, theo nguyn tc, bin i trn c thc hin cho ba thnh phn H, S, I
bi ton t sau si = Ti ( ri )
s3 = k r3
(3.2.133)
si = k ri
phn mu R, G v B:
i = 1,2,3
0,5
si =
r
j
D0
2
D
rj a j 0
2
rj a j >
(3.2.134)
vi cc i=1, 2, 3; j=1, 2, 3;
Bin i (3.2.134) cho nh kt qu bao gm cc mu nm trong hnh khi c cnh D0, cc
mu nm ngoi hnh khi s c thay th bng mc xm trung bnh.
Nu vng mu quan tm nm trong hnh cu, biu thc (3.2.134) s bin i thnh:
0,5
si =
r
j
( rj a j )
> R02
R02
j =1
n
( rj a j )
j =1
(3.2.135)
i = 1, 2,....n , j = 1, 2,....n
Biu thc (3.2.135) c th ng dng cho khng gian mu n-chiu. Cc thnh phn mu
c tch bit nm trong hnh cu (khi n=3) c bn knh R0, tm nm ti im ( a1, a2 , a3 ).
Trn hnh 3.2.68 m t qu trnh tch thnh phn mu xung quanh mu c ta
169
Chnng 3 K thu
ut x l nh
(0.68663, 0.1608, 0.1922) trong khng gian RGB.
R
Thc hin
h bin i (3.2.134) v
i D0 =0.25499, v
bin i (3.2.135) vi
v R0 = 0.17765, ta nhn c cc nh
h kt qu 3.2.72c v 3.2.772d. Gi tr D0 v
R0
c la chn sao
s cho vng mu
c tch mt cch chnh xc nht. Quann st nh gc v
nh kt qu, c th nhn thy rng bin i (3.2.135) choo kt qu tt hn v vng mu
c
tch raa c din tch
h ln hn so vi
v kt qu nhn
n
c t (3.2.134).
a)
c)
b)
d)
H
Hnh
3.2.68 Minh ha k thut tch nh
theo cc mc mu
a- nh mu gc,
g b- Vngg mu c tch trong khng gian muu RGB
c- nh kt qu khi tch cc mu nm trrong hnh lpp th
d-- nh kt qu khi tch cc mu nm trrong hnh cuu
3
3.2.6.2.5
Hiu chnh nhh mu
Q trnh hiu chnh nh
Qu
h mu trn mn
m hnh my tnh trc khi a ti cc thit b in n
thngg c thc hin
h tng bc theo hai ggiai on: hiu chnh sng v hiu chnh
c
mu.
Hiu chnh
H
sng l quu trnh thay i sng v tng phn ca nnh lm tnng ti
a kh nng hin thh cc chi tit nh ca nhh. Cc thngg s v mu sc
s ca nh ti
t giai on x l
ny kh
hng c thhay i. Tronng h mu RG
GB hay CMY
YK qu trnhh bin i phi c thcc hin
ging nhau hon to
on cho tngg knh mu. T
Thng thn
ng c ba loi nh cn hiuu chnh: thiuu nh
sng (hhnh 3.2.69a)), tha nh sng
s
(hnh 3.22.69b) v thiiu tngg phn (hnh 3.2.69c). Cc c
tuyn s dng hiu
h
chnh n
nh trong tngg trng hp
p v kt qu hiu chnh c
hin th trn
hnh 3.2.69.
3
V d
: c tuyn dng ng cong ch S c th cc dng ci thin ttng
phn ca
c nh; vi c
tuyn bin i nh trrn hnh 3.2.669c, cc im
m nh gc sm mu hocc nht
mu s tr nn sm
m hn hoc nht
n
hn trong nh kt qu,
q
do tng phnn ca nh s tng
ln. Quuan st cc nh
v histoggram ca chng trn hnhh 3.2.69 c tth thy rng
g, cht lngg hin
th sng (nh t
i, qu sng hay thiu t
ng phn) c th nh gi
g trc tip khi quan stt nh,
c xm (hiistogram) ca nh.
hoc thhng qua l
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
Sau khi nh c hiu chnh chi, bc x l tip theo l hiu chnh mu. y l qu
trnh cn bng mu vi mc ch lm cho mu sc hin th trn nh tr nn trung thc. V d:
tuyt phi c mu trng, c phi c mu xanh l cy v.v. Thng th qu trnh hiu chnh mu
c thc hin trn cc mng hnh c mu trng, khi cc thnh phn mu R, G, B s phi
ging nhau. Ngoi ra, mu da mt ngi cng c th dng hiu chnh, v h thng th gic rt
nhy cm vi mu ny.
Khi tin hnh hiu chnh theo tng knh mu, nht thit cn phi hiu r qu trnh hiu
chnh tc ng th no ti mu sc tng hp ca nh. thy c nh hng ca s thay i
mi thnh phn mu ti mu sc chung ca nh c th da trn vng trn mu (hnh 3.2.70).
lm tng mt thnh phn mu trong nh c th: hoc lm gim mu b xung vi n, hoc tng
cng lc hai mu nm cnh mu . V d, trong hnh mu h RGB c qu nhiu mu xanh lam
(B), lm gim mu ny, chng ta c th: (1) tng mu b xung vi n l mu vng (Y) hoc (2)
gim cc mu xanh l (C) v mu mn chn (M).
Mt v d c th c biu din trn hnh 3.2.71. nh gc trn hnh 3.2.71a sau khi truyn
qua knh b mt cn bng mu. Thnh phn mu xanh lam tr nn vt tri hn so vi cc mu
khc (hnh 3.2.71b). lm gim mu xanh lam trn nh, chng ta chuyn i nh t h mu
RGB sang h mu CMYK, tng mu Y bng cch p dng c tuyn hiu chnh knh Y nh trn
hnh 3.2.71c. nh kt qu nhn c (hnh 3.2.71d) tng i ging vi nh gc (hnh 3.2.71a).
171
Chnng 3 K thu
ut x l nh
Hnh
H
3.2.70 Vng trn mu
m
a)
b)
c)
d)
Hnh
H
3.2.71 Hiu chnh mu
a- nh ggc
b- nh nnhiu mu Blue
B
c- c ttuyn hiu chnh
knh Y
d- nh kkt qu
3
3.2.6.2.6
X
l histogram
m nh mu
N chng ta
Nh
t bit, k thut cn bbng lc
xm (histoogram equalization) trongg nh
en-trng lm cho phn b cc mc xm tr thnh ngg u. i v
i nh mu, c tng h
p t
nhiu nh n scc, vic thc hin
h
cn bnng lc "xm" cho t
ng nh n sc ri tngg hp
m kt qu c th dn tti hin tnng mt cn bng mu. Trrn hnh 3.2.72 l
chng thnh nh mu
h. nh mu gc
g c t
ng phn thp (xem lc xm)
c tch ra thnh 3
mt v d in hnh
nh
n sc R, G, B.
B
Hnh 3.2.72 C
Cn bng
t
knh
lc xm cho tng
G, B
mu R, G
C ba nh trn c cn bng
C
b
mc xm. Tuy nhin v lc xm ca 3 nh
n sc c
c di
Chnng 3 K thu
ut x l nh
ng khc
k
nhau, kt qu qu trrnh cn bngg cng s khc nhau. Khi tng hp n
nh mu t ccc nh
n sc nhn cc sau khi cn bng, t l bba thnh phn R, G, B ti mi im nh
b thay i
so
vi nhh gc, chnh v vy, so snh hai nh m
mu gc v kt
k qu, ta thy c s khcc bit v muu sc.
Tuy nhhin, tn
ng phn ca nh
kt qu ttng ln r rt, cng l h qu ca bin
b i cn bng
lc xm.
trnh tnh
H
Hnh
3.2.73 Cn
C bng l
c xm troong h mu H
HSI
3
3.2.6.2.7
K thut lm tr
n nh mu
Trong phn 3.2.2.2 chnng ta ni n qu trnhh lm trn nh en-trng
T
g bng cc b lc
khng gian. c tuuyn b lc ph
p thuc voo cc h s trrong mt n llc (hnh 3.22.74a). Khi m
mt n
di chuuyn trong n
nh, gi tr im nh ti ttm mt n c
c ( x, y ) =
1
c ( x, y )
K ( x , y )S xy
(3.2.136)
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
Da vo tnh cht cng cc vector, ta c:
R ( x, y )
K ( x , y )S xy
1
c ( x, y ) =
G
x
y
,
( )
K ( x , y )S xy
K B ( x, y )
( x , y )S xy
(3.2.137)
a)
b)
174
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
Tuy nhin khi so snh vi nh c lm m trong h RGB, chng ta nhn thy rng chng c s
khc nhau. nh sai s c hin th trn 3.2.75d. Vn ch, mu ca cc im nh c lm
trn trong h RGB khng hon ton ging mu sc thc v thnh phn R, G v B bng gi tr
trung bnh trong khng gian ma trn lc (gi tr trung bnh thng khc so vi gi tr gc ca im
nh mu). Trong khi , thnh phn mu (H v S) ca cc im nh trong h HSI khi lm trn
khng thay i. Cng chnh v l do va nu trn, c th a ra kt lun rng mc sai s gia
cc nh c lm trn trong khng gian RGB v HSI s tng khi kch thc ma trn lc tng.
Hnh 3.2.76 Biu din nh nhiu (a) trong khng gian mu RGB (b, c, d)
v HSI (e, f,g)
Qu trnh trit nhiu cho nh mu c th c thc hin trn c s lc trong khng gian hay
trong min tn s nh xt trong phn 3.2.3. Cc b lc ni trn c th p dng cho cc thnh
phn mu ring r hay p dng trc tip ti cc vector mu. Mt s b lc, th d b lc trung
bnh khng gian s cho kt qu ging nhau. Cc b lc da trn nguyn tc thng k th t in
hnh l b lc median thng ch c thc hin cho tng thnh phn mu. Qu trnh thng k
th t trong khng gian vector mu nhiu chiu tng i phc tp nn khng c gii thiu
y.
175
3.3 CC K THUT NN NH
3.3.1 Gii thiu chung v k thut nn nh
Cc k thut nn nh hng ti gii quyt bi ton lm gim thiu khi lng thng tin cn
thit m t nh s. Nn tng ca qu trnh nn l loi b d tha c trong tn hiu. Phng
php nn hiu qu nht thng s dng cc bin i ton hc bin ma trn cc im nh trong
khng gian hai chiu sang mt khng gian hai chiu khc, ni mc tng quan gia cc h s
bin i mi nh hn. Nh chng ta bit, d tha trong tn hiu nh s ph thuc vo mc
tng quan gia cc im nh, tng quan ln th d tha cng ln.
Nn nh l lnh vc nghin cu kh lu i. Thi gian u, cc nghin cu i theo hng
x l tn hiu video tng t, nhm nn "b rng ph" ca tn hiu ny. Nn video trong nhng
nm 1950 c thc hin bng cng ngh tng t c t s nn thp. Cc h truyn hnh tng t
NTSC, PAL, SECAM s dng k thut nn tn hiu video bng cch gim rng bng tn thnh
phn mu so vi thnh phn chi, v d trong h NTSC, thnh phn mu I v Q c b rng ph
1,3 MHz v 0.6 MHz, b rng ph thnh phn chi l 4.2 MHz.
S pht trin ca k thut s v vic s dng cng ngh s vo k thut truyn hnh lm cho
khi nim nn video tr thnh ti nng hi trong nhng nm gn y. Nh chng ta bit,
tiu chun nh dng video thnh phn 4:2:2 ( CCIR-601) vi quy nh b rng bng tn tn hiu
chi v mu l 5,75 MHz v 2,75 MHz ( 0,1 dB). Sau khi s ha vi tn s ly mu tiu chun
13.5 MHz (cho knh chi), tc bit tng cng ca tn hiu chi v mu l 270 Mbps. Dng d
liu video s c tc cao nh trn khng th c truyn qua v tinh vi rng di tn mi
knh 27 MHz hoc qua h thng truyn hnh qung b trn mt t vi quy nh 78 MHz cho
mt knh truyn hnh tiu chun. Do vy, nn tn hiu video l cng on khng th thiu khc
phc c nhng kh khn trn. T nhng nm 1980, cc nh khoa hc t c nhng thnh
tu quan trng trong vic nn tn hiu video v audio. C rt nhiu hng sn xut thit b nn tn
hiu video, ch yu cc thit b ny lm vic vi hai nh dng nn c coi l tiu chun l JPEG
(Joint Photographic Experts Group) p dng cho nh tnh v MPEG (Moving Picture Experts
Group) - p dng cho nh ng.
Phn loi cc phng php nn nh:
C th thc hin phn loi theo nguyn l nn:
- Nn khng tn hao (lossless data reduction)
- Nn c tn hao (loss data reduction)
Phn loi theo cch thc hin nn:
- Phng php khng gian (Spatial Data Compression): cc phng php nn bng cch
tc ng trc tip ln im nh.
- Phng php s dng bin i (Transform Coding): phng php nn s dng cc php
bin i khng gian, qu trnh nn c thc hin bng cch tc ng ln nh bin i.
176
trong :
CN = N1/N2
D tha tm sinh l
e ( x, y ) = f ( x, y ) f ( x, y )
(3.3.1)
177
eRMS
1
=
MN
M 1 N 1
( f ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) )
1/2
2
x =0 y =0
(3.3.2)
Thng thng, khi gi tr RMS thp, cht lng nh nn s tt. Tuy nhin, trong mt s
trng hp cht lng hnh nh nn khng nht thit phi t l thun vi gi tr RMS.
Mt phng php nh gi cht lng nh nn khc da trn t l tn hiu/nhiu c tnh
theo cng thc sau:
M 1 N 1
2
f ( x, y )
x =0 y =0
SNR = M 1 N 1
f ( x, y ) f ( x, y )
x =0 y =0
1/2
(3.3.3)
B m ha v gii m ngun
B m ha ngun thc hin qu trnh loi b cc thnh phn d tha trong nh gc. Thng
thng, b m ha ngun c cu trc nh trn hnh 3.3.2.
178
B m ha v gii m knh
Khi truyn tn hiu qua knh truyn c nhiu, lm gim nh hng ca nhiu ti tn hiu
ngi ta thng s dng cc phng php m bng cch thm mt s thng tin d tha vo chui
tn hiu cn truyn i. Ty thuc vo phng php m ha, ti pha thu, sau khi gii m knh,
chng ta c th pht hin c li trong chui tn hiu va nhn c (do nhiu knh gy ra) hoc
c th ng thi thc hin sa cc li .
179
fn
a) m ha DPCM
180
en
fn
fn
b) gii m DPCM
Hnh 3.3.4 S khi b m ha v gii m DPCM
Trong thnh phn b m ha v gii m u c khi d on. Khi mt mu f n ca nh
c a ti b m ha, khi d on s thc hin xp x gi tr mu nh da trn thng tin
c v cc im nh trc. Sau gi tr xp x c lm trn fn v a ti mch tr tm ra sai
s gia im nh thc v im nh d on:
en = f n fn
(3.3.4)
f n = fn + en
(3.3.5)
fn = round i f ni
i =1
(3.3.6)
i - h s d on vi i = 1,2,...m ;
round ( ) - ton t lm trn ti s nguyn gn nht.
3.3.5 Cc phng php nn tn hao (loss data reduction)
Cc phng php nn c tn hao thng c hiu qu nn cao hn rt nhiu so vi nn
khng tn hao. c im ca cc phng php nn ny l hiu qu nn cng cao th mc tn
hao cng ln, ni cch khc cht lng nh nn s gim i khi h s nn tng ln. Mt s phng
php nn nh c tn hao c th t h s nn ti 100 ln trong khi cht lng nh nn vn cn
chp nhn c. Cn ch rng h s nn cng nh cht lng nh nn trong trng hp nn tn
hao ph thuc tng i nhiu vo tnh cht ca hnh nh gc.
Sau y chng ta s cp ti mt s phng php nn nh tn hao tiu biu.
181
fn = en + fn
(3.3.7)
en
fn
fn
fn
a) m ha DPCM
fn
en
fn
b) gii m DPCM
Hnh 3.3.5 H thng m ha d on c tn tht
3.3.5.2 Cc phng php nn s dng php bin i khng gian tn hiu
Trong phn ny chng ta s phn tch k thut nn nh s s dng cc php bin i khng
gian tn hiu. Nguyn l chung ca cc phng php nn ny l s dng cc php bin i tuyn
tnh (nh bin i Fourier, bin i Cosin, bin i DCT - Discrete Cosine Transform v.v.) nh
x nh s sang khng gian khc. Tp h s kt qu ca cc bin i tuyn tnh sau c lng
t ha v m ha. u im quan trng ca cc php bin i l cc h s khai trin thng c
mc tng quan nh hn so vi mc tng quan gia cc im nh trong khng gian thc.
Ngoi ra, phn ln nng lng ca tn hiu tp trung ti cc h s nm trong min tn s thp.
Qu trnh nn d liu c th c thc hin trong giai on lng t ha: khi la chn mc lng
t tng i ln, cc h s bin i c nng lng nh (thng nm min tn s cao) s b loi
b bt. nh nn nhn chung s khng hon ton ging c nh gc, tuy nhin c th d on
rng, nh hng ca cc thnh phn cao tn b loi b thng khng ln, do cht lng nh
hu nh khng b thay i k c khi tn hiu b nn kh nhiu. Hnh 3.3.6 m t s khi tng
qut h thng nn nh s dng php bin i khng gian. Coder thc hin bn bc c bn: 1Chia nh thnh cc block ( tin x l trong my tnh, cc block thng c kch thc 8x8
pixel); 2- Thc hin php bin i vi tng block; 3- Lng t ha cc h s bin i; 4- M ha.
Decoder thc hin qu trnh bin i ngc li (ngoi vic lng t ha).
182
183
F ( u, v )
Fq ( u, v )
184
Bin i DCT hai chiu (2-D) c dng cho cc khi nh c kch thc 88. Qu trnh
bin i thun DCT (Forward DCT) dng trong tiu chun JPEG c nh ngha nh sau:
F(u,v)=
C (u )C (v )
4
f ( j, k ) cos
j =0 k =0
(2k + 1)v
(2 j + 1)u
cos
16
16
(3.3.8)
trong :
f(j,k)- cc mu ca nh gc trong block 88 pixel.
F(u,v)-cc h s ca khi DCT 88.
1 / 2
C (u ) , C (v ) =
1
u, v = 0
u, v 0
Phng trnh trn l kt qu lin kt ca hai phng trnh DCT mt chiu, mt cho tn s
ngang v mt cho tn s dc. Trong ma trn h s DCT hai chiu, h s th nht F ( 0,0 ) bng
gi tr trung bnh ca cc im nh trong block 8x8:
F ( 0,0) =
1 7
8 j=0
f ( j, k)
(3.3.9)
k =0
185
f ( j, k ) =
(3.3.10)
ng trong khong t 2
10
n 2
1.
3.3.5.4.2 Lng t ha
Bc tip theo ca qu trnh nn nh l bc lng t ha cc h s DCT F(u,v) vi mc
ch lm gim s lng bit cn thit dng m t nhng h s . Cc h s tng ng vi tn
s thp thng c gi tr ln, nhng h s ny cha phn ln nng lng ca tn hiu, do
chng phi c lng t ha vi chnh xc cao. Ring h s DC cn m ha vi chnh xc
cao nht, bi l h s ny l gi tr chi trung bnh ca tng block nh. S thay i chi
trung bnh ca cc block s nh hng rt nhiu ti cht lng ca nh nn.
thc hin qu trnh nn d liu, ma trn cc h s khai trin sau DCT phi c chia cho
bng trng s Q(u,v) loi b mt phn cc h s DCT c bin nh (thng l cc thnh
phn cao tn).
186
F (u, v)
Q(u, v)
Fq(u,v)=round
(3.3.11)
Trn hnh 3.3.9 m t qu trnh bin i DCT: nh gc (a), ma trn h s DCT trc (b) v
sau khi lng t ha (d) bng cch chia cho bng lng t Q(u,v) (c).
11
187
188
189
DC
AC
EOB
f ( i, j )
Fq ( u, v )
F ( u, v )
IDCT
Lng t
ngc
8x8
Bng lng
t ngc
Header
Bng m
Bng m
Gii m
DPCM
Gii m
entropy
Gii m
RLC
DC
AC
(3.3.12)
190
a)
c)
b)
d)
e)
2)
3)
191
192
193
nh 1
nh 2
Chi tit c d on
t nh sau
nh 3
194
Nhm nh (GOP)
195
196
197
198
di 64 kbps
64 n 384 kbps
c im quan trng ca chun MPEG-4 l cho php sa sai ti pha thu, v vy chun nn
ny c bit thch hp i vi mi trng d xy ra li nh truyn d liu qua knh wireless n
cc thit b cm tay. Mc d tp trung vo nhng ng dng tc bit thp nhng MPEG-4 cng
cho php nn video cht lng cao v c th c s dng trong h thng HDTV. Nhng profile
v level khc nhau trong MPEG-4 cho php s dng tc bit ln n 1.2Gbps. MPEG-4 l
199
200
3.3.7.3 M ha ng nt (shape)
C hai loi ng nt dng m t i tng video trong MPEG-4 l ch nht v ty .
201
3.3.7.4 M ha texture
Thnh phn texture ca cc i tng video c th c m ha trong MPEG-4 theo
phng php ging nh b chuyn ng trong MPEG-2. C cc loi VOP nh sau: I-VOP, PVOP, B-VOP. Hu ht cc profile MPEG-4 u s dng tiu chun 4:2:0 v YUV m t
texture ca i tng video.
3.3.7.5 Sprites
MPEG-4 c mt loi i tng c bit c dng lm cnh nn gi l sprite. Sprite l i
tng video c kch thc ln hn mn hnh hin th. Sprite l i tng c s dng lin tc
trong mt cnh (tng t nh cnh trn sn khu din kch). Sprite thng dng m ho cc tr
chi in t (video game). Thng thng mt cnh trong game bao gm nh nn v mt s i
tng nhn to di chuyn theo kch bn ca game v hnh ng ca ngi chi. MPEG-4 cho
php truyn ton b cnh nn nh sprite v nh nn tc thi c c ra t sprite da trn cc
thng tin cropping v wraping c truyn ti decoder. Nh vy, nh nn tc thi hin th trn
mn hnh ch l mt vng nh (bng kch thc ca s mn hnh) trong cnh nn (hnh 3.3.30).
Trong video game, cc thnh phn ca mt sprite c th c s dng nhiu ln v th lng d
liu cn truyn s gim ng k.
202
3.3.7.6 Scalability
MPEG-4 cung cp ch phn cp cht lng tc thi v c nh mc i tng. Trong
c hai trng hp, k thut ny c s dng to ra lp c s (base layer), lpos ny cho cht
lng nh thp nht c th ti to t lung bit v mt hoc nhiu lp tng cng (enhancement
layer). Cht lng hnh nh c th c iu chnh bng hai cch khc nhau. Nu bng thng b
gii hn th lung bit truyn i s ch bao gm lp c s hoc lp c s v mt vi lp tng cng
bc thp. Mt cch khc tt c cc lp c th c truyn i n b gii m, ti y s quyt nh
nhng lp no s c s dng gii m. Nu thit b hin th c phn gii thp hoc ti
nguyn tnh ton khng th lp tng cng c th b qua.
203
Tiu chun m
ha
gii cc i
phn
Tc bit cc
Videophone
H.261
176x144
64 128 Kbps
H.261
352x288
Truyn hnh cp
MPEG-2
720x576
49 Mbps
Truyn hnh
MPEG-2
720x576
< 50 Mbps
Studio / sn xut
MJPEG
720x576
< 50 Mbps
MPEG-2(@4:2:2)
HDTV / sn xut
MPEG-2
1920x1280
100 Mbps
HDTV / truyn dn
MPEG-2
1920x1280
20 Mbps
204
205
i ( x, y ) = Ke
2
2
( x x0 ) +( y y0 )
vi K=255.
nh phn chiu t b mt ni trn c s ha. S bits dng lng t ha l k. Xc
nh k nh nht sao cho nh s nhn c c chi bin i lin tc trong mt ngi
quan st. c bit mt ngi ch phn bit c hai vng nh tch bit, khi chi
gia hai vng chnh lch trn 10%. Biu din nh nhn c khi k=2.
Bi 4
H thng truyn hnh cht lng cao vi s dng z=1080, kh nh 16:9, tn s qut l
60 mnh/giy (qut xen k). Tn hiu video c s ha vi phn gii ging nhau
theo chiu ngang v chiu dc. nh c ly mu theo tiu chun 4:2:2. Mc lng t
l 256 cho thnh phn chi v 128 cho hai thnh phn mu. Tm khi lng thng tin
s nhn c sau khi s ha chng trnh truyn hnh c thi gian l 2 gi.
Bi 5
Cho ma trn im nh sau:
2
8
I =
1
2 1 3
1 3 4
4 2 9
1 7 5
Bi 6
Xt hai vng nh S1 v S2 trn mn hnh:
Cho V {1} , xc nh xem S1 v S2 c phi l hai vng lin kt 4,8 hay m khng.
Bi 7
Cho V {0,1} , tm khong cch D4, D8 nh nht gia 2 im nh (p) v (q):
206
1
pr =
e
2
( r m )2
2 2
b) f ( x, y ) g ( x, y )
d) f ( x, y ) / g ( x, y )
207
0 1 0
1
1 0 1
4
0 1 0
h ( x , y ) = e
2
2
( x ) +( y )
208
H ( u, v ) = 2 ( u 2 + v 2 ) e
2 2 2 u 2 + v 2
/2 2
r 2 = x 2 + y 2 th hm truyn t ca n l H ( u, v ) .
Bi 31
Vit chng trnh thc hin bin i Hough cho nh nh phn (gm cc im trng trn
nn en)
Bi 32
Xc nh v tr ca mu xm trn tam gic mu n v XYZ (hnh 3.2.58).
Bi 33
Tm cc bc sng tri v sch mu ca im mu "PINK" trn hnh 3.2.58, ly
mu trng chun l mu "COOL WHITE"
Bi 34
Cho ba mu c1 ( x1 , y1 ) , c2 ( x2 , y2 ) , c3 ( x3 , y3 ) nm trong tam gic mu XYZ (hnh
3.2.55). Ba mu trn to ra mt tam gic mu con. Tm cng thc trn mu biu
din cc mu trong tam gic con thng qua ta ca ba mu c1 , c2 , c3 .
Bi 35
Trong khng gian mu RBG, mi mu c bn c s ha vi 256 mc lng t (t 0
n 255). Cho bit c bao nhiu mc xm th hin c trong khng gian mu ny?
Bi 36
Khng gian mu RGB c m t di dng khi lp phng (hnh 3.2.56b).
1- M t qu trnh thay i chi ca cc im mu nm dc theo cc
cnh pha trc ca khi mu.
2- Chng ta i ba mu RGB thnh CMY. nh khi mu mi c hin
th ln mn hnh RGB. Xc nh cc mu nm nh hnh khi trn mn hnh.
Bi 37
Xc nh biu thc cho php tm mu b xung trong khng gian CMY
Bi 38
M t hm bin i cho php lm gim tng phn trong khng gian mu RGB.
Bi 39
nh mu c nhiu c biu din trong khng gian mu HSI. M t v gii thch hin
tng bin i mu di tc ng ca nhiu trong cc thnh phn H v S.
Bi 40
209
210
211
212
213
Chun DTF (Digital Tape Format) vi bng t 1/2 inch ca hng Sony cng c s dng
tng i rng ri trong cc h thng lu tr dung lng ln. Khc vi bng LTO, d liu s
c ghi ln bng DTF trn cc ng cho so vi chiu chuyn ng ca bng t. Tc
ghi/c d liu trn cc bng DTF-2 c th ln ti 24 MBps. Dung lng mt bng DTF c ln
(Large Size) l 200GB.
4.1.1.2 a quang
Lu tr d liu tng t cng nh s trn bng v a t c rt nhiu nhc im, c th
lit k mt s vn chnh nh sau:
- Nhy cm vi tc ng c hc
214
215
1GiB = 230 =
216
217
218
219
220
ng truyen
He thong
truyen
thanh
cap
Thue bao
Khuech
ai
He thong
vo tuyen
truyen
thanh
May thu
221
ms ( t ) nhn
c sau b tch sng s c a qua cc mch lc thng thp v thng di phn tch thnh
tn hiu mono R+L v tn hiu AM SC mang tin tc v knh R-L. Tn hiu R-L c khi phc ra
bi mch tch sng ng b (TSB). Tn s sng mang ph 38 MHz c ti to v n nh nh
mch kho pha vng bao gm mch to sng, mch chia tn, mch nhn v b lc thng thp
(hnh 4.1.6c).
Tn hiu m thanh c truyn i trong h thng FM stereo c b rng di tn t 50 dn
15000 Hz, ph tn hiu FM nm trong di 50-53000 Hz. Theo tiu chun ca FCC, Bng tn dng
php tn hiu FM stereo 88-108 MHz, mt knh FM chim 200 kHz. lch tn s cc i l
75 kHz.
H thng FM stereo s dng phng php iu tn hai ln khc vi h thng trn ch tn
hiu R-L c iu ch bng phng php iu tn, tn s sng mang 33.5 MHz.
Song song vi tn hiu m thanh FM stereo ngi ta cn c th truyn i d liu s trn
sng mang ph 57 kHz (hoc 67 kHz). H thng thu pht tn hiu ph RDS (Radio Data System)
thng c s dng truyn i cc thng tin ngn .
Ngoi cc h thng truyn thanh stereo 2 knh cn tn ti h thng truyn thanh 4 knh.
Microphone v loa trong h thng ny c phn b theo chu vi ca phng thu m. Tn hiu t 4
knh ring bit mang li cm gic m thanh vng (hiu ng hin din), tuy nhin h thng truyn
thanh 4 knh c gi thnh tng i cao nn cha c ph bin.
222
Tn hieu FM stereo mS ( t )
L + R = mono audio
LR
S FM ( t )
May
phat FM
Bo tao song
fsc= 38 kHz
Chia tan
1:2
Pilot signal
Pho tn hieu
audi mono
0
15 19
kHz kHz
Pho tn hieu
DSB-SC
38
kHz
mS ( t )
S FM ( t ) May thu
FM
LTT
0-15 kHz
Tn hieu mono
L+R
LR
LTT
0-15 kHz
LTD
23-53 kHz
Kenh trai
(2L)
Kenh phai
(2R)
TSB
LTT
19 MHz
1:2
MTS
38 MHz
223
Hnh 4.1.7 M hnh trung tm truyn hnh v mng li phn phi tn hiu
Cc trung tm truyn hnh ln c kh nng t sn xut chng trnh:
- Ca nhc, kch ti phim trng dng cnh
- Cc chng trnh tin tc ti phim trng o
- Chng trnh c khn gi ti phim trng
Cc trung tm truyn hnh nh ch c kh nng tip nhn v pht li tn hiu phc v cho
mt vng nht nh.
Vic thc hin chuyn tip cng nh phn phi cc chng trnh truyn hnh gia cc trung
tm hay trc tip n khn gi c th s dng ng truyn radio, ng truyn v tinh, vi ba,
hoc cp quang, h thng cp ng trc. Hin nay, nc ta cc chng trnh truyn hnh trong
nc v quc t c th thu qua h thng truyn hnh mt t, truyn hnh s v tinh (DTH- Direct
To Home), truyn hnh s mt t DVB-T (VTC), truyn hnh MMDS (Multimedia Microwave
Distribution System), h thng truyn hnh cp thnh ph CATV (Community Access Television)
v truyn hnh qua internet (IPTV).
H truyn hnh dn dng s dng di tn t 47 MHz n khong 960 MHz. Trong cc tiu
chun truyn hnh khc nhau, bng tn trn c phn chia cho cc knh truyn hnh mt cch
khc nhau. Di tn trn c chia thnh bng tn VHF, v bng tn UHF (di tn VHF nm trong
khong 30 300 MHz, di tn UHF 300 3000 MHz).
Di tn quy nh dnh cho h thng truyn hnh i chng theo tiu chun FCC c phn
chia nh sau:
VHF -L:
VHF -H:
224
Di tn quy nh dnh cho h thng truyn hnh i chng theo tiu chun OIRT c phn
chia nh sau:
48-64
MHz (2 knh)
(VHF)
(VHF)
(VHF)
(UHF)
(UHF)
4.1.2.3.1
Phn b knh truyn hnh trong cc bng tn nu trn ph thuc vo tiu chun ca cc h
truyn hnh. Di thng ca mi knh theo tiu chun OIRT l 8 MHz, theo CCIR (y ban t vn
quc t v thng tin v tuyn) l 7 MHz, cn theo FCC l 6 MHz. Trn hnh 4.1.8 trnh by phn
b ph ca tn hiu truyn hnh mu y trong mt knh truyn hnh theo ba tiu chun FFC,
CCIR, OIRT.
Tn hiu m thanh c iu ch tn s v truyn i cng mt lc vi tn hiu hnh nh.
Trong mt knh truyn (theo chun OIRT) c b rng bng thng 8 MHz, ph ca tn hiu m
thanh FM nm pha trn ph ca tn hiu hnh v chim khong 0.25 MHz. Khong cch gia tn
s sng mang hnh v sng mang m thanh l 6.5 MHz (
chnh xc t pha pht. Tn hiu m thanh c iu tn di rng, c kh nng chng nhiu cao,
do gim nh hng ca tn hiu ny ti knh hnh, cng sut tn hiu m thanh pht i c
gim nh hn cng sut tn hiu hnh 10 ln.
Tn hiu video tn cao c to ra bng phng php iu ch bin sng mang bi tn
hiu hnh mu. Tn hiu hnh nh v m thanh c iu ch theo cc phng php khc nhau
n gin ho vic tch chng ti my thu.
Hnh 4.1.8 Cu trc mt knh truyn hnh mu (bao gm knh m thanh) theo ba tiu
chun FFC, CCIR, OIRT
Trong h thng truyn hnh, do b rng di ph tn hiu hnh rt ln v tit kim bng
225
Pht ln (GHz)
Bng thng
(MHz)
Pht xung
(GHz)
5.925-6.425
500
3.7 4.2
Ku
14.0 14.5
500
11.7 12.2
17.3 17.8
500
12.2- 12.7
226
Hnh 4.1.9 V tinh Measat dng truyn tn hiu DTH cho lnh th VN
Truyn hnh v tinh DTH c nhng u im sau:
- Vng ph sng rng, khng ph thuc vo a hnh, cht lng cao - cng trng ti
227
228
229
230
s dng cc dch v xDSL, thu bao cn lp t modem hoc router xDSL, thng c
gi l ATU-R (ADSL Transceiver Unit - Remote terminal) c ngha chung l thit b u cui.
Trong khi nh cung cp dch v (v d nh Ngnh Bu in) cn c DSLAM hoc n v ng
dy bng rng (theo thit b tng i) hoc t tip cn thu bao bng rng (c lp vi thit b
tng i), tt c gi chung l thit b trung tm kt ni xDSL (ATU - C hay ADSL Transceiver
Unit Central).
Thng thng, cc thit b u cui c th kt ni vi thit b khch hng qua cng USB,
cng Ethernet 10 Base T hay qua giao tip PCI bn trong my tnh. i vi nh cung cp dch v
DSL, h thng DSLAM thc hin tip nhn v tch hp cc kt ni DSL, a vo ng truyn
chung dung lng cao n mng din rng (WAN) hay Internet. H thng ATU-C c th h tr
231
y l dch v mi
m gy ch vi khch hng, tuy nhhin cn thiu cc dch vv a
dngg nh: phim cht
c
lng ccao, xem cc chng trnnh truyn hnnh, ca nhc theo
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
[2.]
Mark Kahrs, Applications of Digital Signal Processing to Audio and Acoustics, Kluwer
Academic Publisher, 2002.
[3.]
[4.]
Yiteng (Arden) Huang Jacob Benesty, Audio Signal Processing for Next-Generation
Multimedia Communication System, Kluwer Academic Publisher.
[5.]
239
[7.]
[8.]
Website: http://www.dcs.shef.ac.uk/~stu/com326/index.html
[9.]
Website: http://www.generation5.org/content/2001/markov.asp
[10.]
[11.]
J. R. Parker, Algorithms for Image Processing and Computer Vision, Wiley, 1996.
[12.]
Alan C. Bovik , Handbook of Image and Video Processing, Academic Press, 2000.
[13.]
[14.]
[15.]
[16.]
William K. Pratt, Digital Image Processing: PIKS Inside, Third Edition 2001 John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
[17.]
[18.]
Hong Tin, Dng Thanh Phng Truyn hnh k thut s. NXB Khoa hc v k
thut, 2004.
[19.]
MC LC
CHNG 1 GII THIU CHUNG V X L TN HIU
1.1 CC KHI NIM V L THUYT C BN ......................................................... 3
1.1.1 Tn hiu v phn loi tn hiu ................................................................................... 4
1.1.2 Tn hiu ri rc ......................................................................................................... 4
1.1.2.1 Biu din tn hiu ri rc ....................................................................................... 5
1.1.2.2 Cc php bin i tn hiu ri rc .......................................................................... 5
1.1.3 Phn loi h thng .................................................................................................... 6
1.1.3.1 H thng tng t .................................................................................................. 6
1.1.3.2 H thng ri rc ..................................................................................................... 8
1.2 NG DNG K THUT X L M THANH V HNH NH VO MNG BNG
THNG A DCH V ............................................................................................................... 11
1.2.1 c im ca multimedia ......................................................................................... 11
1.2.2 Nn tn hiu trong mng a dch v ......................................................................... 12
1.2.3 Lu tr ...................................................................................................................... 12
240
241
242
243
244
245