BIOLOGY UNIT 4

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

AND SPECIES SURVIVAL
Topic 5 On the wild side

Adenosine triphosphate
(ATP)
ATP is a nucleotide with three phosphate groups attached.
The chemical energy stored in the phosphate bonds are
made available to cells to use in synthesising or breaking
bonds.
The third phosphate bond is usually broken by a hydrolysis
reaction, catalysed by the enzyme ATPase and resulting in
ADP and a free inorganic phosphate group (Pi) and
energy.
ATP + H20 + ATPase = ADP + Pi + energy (used in cell).
This is a reversible reaction. Energy to synthesise ATP
comes from redox reactions, providing an immediate
supply of energy when needed.

Making ATP
Formed from ADP and inorganic phosphate
Two hydrogen atoms are removed from a
compound and are picked up by a hydrogen
carrier/acceptor, making it reduced.
Electrons from the hydrogen atoms are then
passed along an electron transport chain
through redox reactions, which each release a
small amount of energy used to drive the
synthesis of ATP.

Chloroplasts
The membranes within a chloroplast
are arranged in stacks called grana. The
individual membrane disks within this
are known as thylakoids. The pigment
molecules are arranged on the membrane.
The light-dependent reaction occurs in the
thylakoids.
The light-independent reaction occurs in the
stroma. The stroma contains all the enzymes
needed for photosynthesis.

The light-dependent
reaction
Two main functions to produce ATP, and to split water
molecules in photochemical reactions (photolysis).
Photons of light hit a chlorophyll molecule which excites
the electrons, causing them to leave the chlorophyll.
The election is then picked up by an electron acceptor ,
which passes down an electron transport chain to
produce energy to synthesise ATP. Electrons return to
the chlorophyll molecule and can be excited again. This
involves only PSI. (cyclic photophosphorylation)
Water always dissociates spontaneously, so there are
plenty H+ and OH- ions in the cell. In non-cyclic
photophosphorylation, an electron from PSI is picked
up by NADP. The NADP also picks up a free hydrogen ion
to form reduced NADP.

The light-dependent
reaction
At the same time, an electron from PSII is picked up by
another electron acceptor and passes down an electron
transport chain, creating energy to make ATP. When it
reaches PSI, it replaced the previously lost electron.
Now PSII is short of one electron, which must be
replaced through photolysis (splitting of water
through light).
There are many hydroxide ions left in the cell
(hydrogen ions have been removed by NADP), which
react together to form this water that can then be split
with light to create free electrons.
This process can then be repeated, but it requires the
presence of light in order for it to take place.

The light-independent
reaction
Uses the reduced NADP and ATP previously formed within the lightdependent reaction.
Consists of a series of reactions known as the Calvin cycle, and takes
place in the stroma.
1 Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) combines with CO2 in the air, with help
from the enzyme RUBISCO, to form a 6-carbon compound which is unstable,
and immediately splits into two molecules of glycerate 3-phosphate (2 GP).
2 - GP is then reduced as hydrogen is added to it from reduced NADP and
ATP, to form glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (2 GALP).
3 - Much of this passes through to replace the RuBP, but some is synthesized
into the 6-carbon simple sugar glucose, used for respiration in the plant.
4 Glucose can also be converted to sucrose for transport, starch for
storage, and cellulose for structural support.

The light-independent
reaction
The Calvin cycle takes place in both the light and
the dark. The reactions only stop when the
products of the light reaction run out, leaving no
reduced NADP or ATP available.
Glucose and nitrates are used as a building block
for amino acids
Glucose and phosphates help create nucleic acids
The products of photosynthesis also produce lipids

Ecology key terms

Ecosystem a life-supporting environment including
all living organisms, the nutrient that cycle through the
system, and the physical and chemical environment in
which they live.
Habitat the place where an organism lives e.g.
tropical rainforest
Population A group of organisms of the same
species living and breeding together in a habitat.
Community all the populations of a different species
of organisms living in a habitat at any one time.
Niche the role of an organism in the community, e.g.
what it eats, how it behaves, place in food chain.
Abiotic factor non-living elements of the habitat of
an organism.

Succession

Succession is the process by which communities of animals

and plants colonise an area and change over time until a
climax community is reached.

Primary succession starts with an empty inorganic

surface such as bare rock or a sand dune, e.g. after a
volcano. The first plants are pioneer species, which help
break down the surface and allow other organisms to
colonise.

Secondary succession the evolution of an ecosystem

from existing soil cleared of vegetation, e.g. after fires or
floods. The soil is already formed, so the number of plants
and animals present at the start is much higher.

In both cases, eventually a climax community is reached.

Abiotic factors

Light the amount of light in a habitat has a direct effect on

the number of organisms found there, as plants are
dependent on light for photosynthesis. Some plants
reproduce early to avoid the shade caused by larger plants.
Other plants are able to photosynthesise in low light.
Seasonal light changes can also affect reproductive patterns
within animals.
Temperature temperature can affect the rate of enzymecontrolled reactions in plants and ectothermic animals. Many
animals have evolved behaviours to allow them to cope with
extremes of temperatures.
Wind and water currents wind increases water and heat
loss from the body and adds to the environmental stress an
organism has to cope with, so fewer species survive in areas
of strong wind. For fast water currents, animals must be
strong swimmers of be able to cling to substrate to resist the
force of the water.

Abiotic factors

Oxygen availability in water, if temperature rises or

water becomes still, the oxygen content will drop, making it
more difficult for organisms to survive. The spaces between
soil often contain plenty of oxygen, but waterlogged soil
refills these spaces and leads to deprivation of oxygen.
Soil structure and mineral content sand has loose,
shifting structure that allows very little to grow on it. Certain
colonising plants will bind the sand together to allow other
plants to thrive, e.g. marram grass. Water also passes easily
through sand, leaching the minerals and reducing population
density of plants. Different types of plants have evolved to
grow well in different soil types, but will not thrive in other
soils.

Biotic factors

Predation following mathematical models, populations will

oscillate in a repeating cycle. As a prey population increases
there is more food for the predator, so the predator
population grows too. The predator will increase to the point
where they eat more prey than are replaced, so prey
decrease, reducing the food supply. In turn, predators will
then produce less offspring, so the numbers will fall.
However, in natural habitats, this is often more complex, as
more factors are present.
Finding a mate the likelihood of finding a mate/achieving
pollination will affect the organisms found in any habitat.
Availability of mates has a big effect on the abundance of
animals.
Territory the type and size of territory will help to
determine which species live in a particular community.
Parasitism and disease diseased animals will be weak
and often cannot produce successfully. Sick predators cannot

Competition

Intraspecific competition competition for a limited

resource between members of the same population or
species.
As a result of this, some individuals may not
survive/reproduce, and so population growth slows. If
resources are plentiful, numbers will increase quickly.
Interspecific competition occurs when different species
within a community compete for the same resources.
Competition will reduce the abundance of the competing
species. If there is a greater density of one species or it has
a faster reproduction rate, then competing species may
become extinct in that area.

Energy transfer

Net primary productivity = Gross primary productivity

respiration

NPP = GPP R

Food chains are made of different tropic levels

Energy used to make new animal biomass is known as

secondary production

Much energy is used to drive respiration, or is lost in heat

energy or through excretion

The carbon cycle

There are massive abiotic and biotic carbon sinks in nature.

These are reservoirs where carbon is removed from the
atmosphere and locked up in organic or inorganic
compounds.
Biotic carbon removed by photosynthesis, stored in living
organisms
Abiotic Rocks, e.g. limestone and chalk, and fossil fuels
hold carbon stores

Greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane and

water vapour
These gases reduce heat loss from the surface of the Earth
through the greenhouse effect

Radiation from the sun reaches the Earth, and some is

reflected back. Infrared radiation in particular warms the
Earths surface, and some of it is reradiated back to the
Earth by greenhouse gas molecules in the atmosphere. The
more greenhouse gases, the more radiation is reflected back
and so the hotter the Earths surface becomes.

Methane is produced by the decay of organic material by

bacteria, and the digestion of some herbivores such as cows.

Measuring climate change

Frozen isotopes Ice cores provide a record of climate

change going back thousands of years. Records of the
oxygen isotopes in melted ice reflect the air temperature at
the time the ice layer was laid down, and so gives scientists
data on the air temperature. Atmospheric carbon dioxide
levels can also be measured.

Dendrochronology the dating of past events using tree

ring growth. When there is plenty of moisture and trees are
growing quickly, new cells are large. As conditions get more
difficult, new cells become smaller. This contrast produces a
ring. Counting the rings allows us to determine an
approximate age for the tree, whilst the thickness of rings
can give information about the conditions within certain
years.

Gene and allele frequency

A genome is all the DNA of an individual. The proteome is

all of the proteins produced from that DNA.

Mutations can increase the gene pool of a population by

increasing the number of different alleles available. The
relative frequency of a particular allele is known as the
allele frequency.

If a mutation produces an advantageous feature, the

frequency of that allele will increase. Changes in allele
frequency can lead to the evolution of new species.

Groups of closely related genes are known as gene

families.

Reproductive barriers

Reproductive isolation is crucial to speciation and occurs

when fertilization is prevented (prezygotic) or when zygote
fails or is unable to breed (postzygotic).

Prezygotic barriers: Habitat isolation, temporal isolation

(mating periods out of synch), mechanical isolation,
behavioural isolation, gametic isolation (male gamete cannot
penetrate female gamete etc.).

Postzygotic barriers: Low hybrid zygote vigour (zygote fails

to develop properly), low hybrid adult viability: (offspring fail
to thrive and grow), hybrid infertility.