-

2013

:
:

Higgs.

.
:

Klein-Gordon Dirac

.

.
Noether
. ,
, Klein-Gordon
Dirac Schrodinger.
.
Lie- Lie
SU(2) SU(3). Lie
, .
,
Klein-Gordon,
Yang-Mills .
,
Goldstone Higgs
.

SUMMARY
My Master's thesis is entitled: QUANTUM FIELD THEORY and GAUGE THEORIES. It
consists of two parts:
In the first part there is a brief reference regarding the fundamental principles of
Quantum Mechanics and a historical retrospection of how physicists and mathematicians
each made their own contribution in order for us today to reach to the discovery of the
Higgs particle. In parallel, there is a conceptual overview that describes the boundaries
and contents of Modern Physics, which includes Quantum Theory and its relation to
Classical Physics.
In the second part there are five chapters:
The first chapter describes the Klein-Gordon and Dirac relativistic equations,
explaining the advantages and drawbacks that each of them have.
The second chapter refers to the field theory as a solution to the problems posed by
the equations of the first chapter. It continues with a study of the Noether theorem and its
consequences in Physics, as well as the quantization of classical fields. In particular, the
concepts of normal quantization are given out, the real and the complex field of KleinGordon is examined, as well as the quantized Dirac and Schrodinger fields. It ends with
the quantized electromagnetic field.
The third chapter describes the Lie-groups and the Lie algebras, as well as the SU (2)
and SU (3) groups. In order to present the Lie group theory, definitions, suggestions and
examples are given out.
The

fourth

chapter

deals

with

the

Gauge

Theories,

the

global

and

local

transformations in the real and complex field of Klein-Gordon, the Yang-Mills field theory
and the unification theory.
Finally, the fifth chapter examines the spontaneous symmetry breaking, the Goldstone
theorem and especially with the Higgs mechanism, explaining how the gauge bosons of
the Standard Model acquire mass.

. Planck
Nobel 1918

.

. Born
Nobel 1954




.

P. Debye
Nobel 1936

.

. Bohr
Nobel 1922

.

Bose
Einstein

.

P. Dirac
Nobel 1933


.

D. Bohm


.
,

.

L. Broglie
Nobel 1929

P. Ehrenfest




.

. Einstein
Nobel 1921


.

Gamow
,

,

.

W. Heisenberg

W. Pauli

Nobel 1932



.

Nobel 1945

.

E. Schroedinger
Nobel 1933


.

. Sommerfeld

,
"
".


.

S. Goudsmith
spin

. Purcell
Nobel 1952


.

. Wigner
Nobel 1963




.


............................................................................................................................ 3
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 4
.................................................................................. 5
................................................................................................................ 12
1: .................................................................. 13
1.1. ................................................................................................................ 14
1.2. .................................. 15
1.2.1. ....................................................................................... 15
1.2.2. ................................................................................. 16
1.2.3. ....................................................................... 17
1.3. ........................................................................ 19
1.3.1. ................ 19
1.3.1.1. ............................................................... 19
. ........................................................... 21
. Planck ......................................... 22
1.3.1.2. To ................................................................ 24
. ........................................................... 24
. ..................................... 25
1.3.1.3. Compton ........................................................................ 27
. ........................................................... 27
. ............................................................................. 28
1.3.1.4. ............................................. 29
1.3.2. ........ 30
1.3.2.1. ................................................................................. 30
. ............... 32
. Thomson ....................................................... 32
C. Rutherford .................................................... 33
1.3.2.2. Bohr .................................................................. 35
A. Bohr ................................................................. 35
. Bohr .............................................................. 36
C. Wilson Sommerfeld ............ 39
1.3.2.3. -
De Broglie .............................................................................. 40

 2: ............................................................... 42
2.1. ................................................................................................................ 43
2.2. ............................................................. 45
2.2.1. Schrodinger .................................................................... 45
2.2.2. H Schrodinger ................................................. 46
2.2.3. ...................................................................... 46
2.2.3.1. .......................................................................... 48
2.3. ........................................................... 49
2.3.1. ........................................................ 49
2.3.2. .......................................................................... 51
. .................................................................................................... 51
. ....................................................................... 51
C. ................................................................ 52
2.4. ......................................................................... 52
2.4.1. ...................................................................... 52
2.4.2. .............................................................. 53
2.4.3. .................................................................... 54
2.5. ..................................................................... 54
2.5.1. .......................................................................... 54
2.5.2. .................................................................... 55
2.5.3. ............................................................... 57
2.6. .................. 59
2.7. : ............................... 61
2.8. ................................................................ 63
2.8.1. Schrdinger ........ 63
2.8.2. ..................................................................... 64
2.9. ......................................................................................... 65
2.9.1. - ............................................................. 65
2.9.2. - ...................................................... 66
2.10. ................................................. 69
.............................................................................................................. 71

 ............................................................................................................. 78
.............................................................................................................. 79
3: ...................................................................... 86
3.1. ................................................................................................................ 87
3.2. Klein-Gordon .......................................................................................... 87
3.2.1. Klein-Gordon .......................................................... 88
3.3. Dirac ..................................................................................................... 89
3.3.1. Dirac ............................................... 90
3.3.2. Dirac .................................................. 91
4: ............................................................................................ 94
4.1. ................................................................................................................ 95
4.2. .................................................................................... 95
4.2.1. .................................... 95
4.2.2. .................... 97
4.3. ............................................................................ 99
. ............................. 103
. .................................................................................103
C. ....................................................................................... 204
D. CP ............................................................................................. 104
E. ................................................................................ 104
F. CPT ............................................................................................. 105
4.3.1. ....................................................................................... 106
4.3.2. Noether .................................................................................... 107
4.3.3. Noether ..................................................... 109
4.3.4. ....................................................................................113
4.4. ................................................ 115
4.4.1. Klein-Gordon ............................................................. 117
. .............................................. 117
. Klein-Gordon ...................... 117
C. To Klein-Gordon ..................................................................127
D. Klein-Gordon ............................ 129
4.4.2. Dirac ......................................................................... 130
. Dirac.................................................. 130
. Dirac .......................................................................... 131
C. ........................................................... 133

4.4.3. Schrodinger ..................................................................135

. ..................................136
. ........................... 136
4.4.4. ............................................................................139
. ............................ 139
.
...................................................................................... 140
C. .............143
5: ......................................................................................... 145
5.1. ...............................................................................................................146
5.2. ............................................................................................. 147
5.2.1. ....................................................................................... 147
5.2.2. ....................................................................... 148
5.2.3. ...................................................................148
5.2.4. ........................................................................................... 149
5.2.5. ....................................................................................................149
5.2.6. ............................................................... 149
5.2.7. ........................................................... 150
5.2.8. ........................................................ 150
5.2.9. ....................................................................................151
5.3. ......................................................................................... 152
5.3.1. ............................................................ 153
5.3.2. ..............................................................................154
5.3.3. ....................................................................................155
5.3.4. ............................................................... 155
5.3.5. ............................................................................................ 155
5.4. .....................................................................................................158
5.4.1. ....................................................................... 158
5.4.2. ....................................................................................... 158
5.4.3. ...................................................................... 159
5.4.4. Lie ....................................................................................................160
5.4.5. ....................................................................162
5.4.6. Lie Lie ..................................................................... 163
5.4.7. SU(2) ..................................................................... 165
5.4.8. Un SUn ............................................................ 168
5.4.9. SU(2) ....................................................... 171
5.4.10. SU(3) ...................................................................171
10

 6: ....................................................................................... 173
6.1. ...............................................................................................................174
6.2. ...................................................... 175
6.2.1. ........................................................................................ 175
6.2.2. .................................................................................176
6.2.3. ...................................................................................177
6.3. ....................................................................................179
6.3.1. .........................................................................180
6.3.2. QED ....................................................................... 181
6.3.3. .......................................................................................... 182
6.4. .....................................................................................183
6.5. ................................................................ 186
6.6. Yang-Mills................................................................................................ 191
6.7. ............................................................................197
6.8. ........................................................................................ 203
7: ..................................................................207
7.1. ...............................................................................................................208
7.2. Higgs ............................................................................... 208
7.3. Goldstone ............................................................................................... 212
7.4. ............................................................... 216
7.5. Higgs ............................................................................. 218
7.6. Glashow-Weinberg-Salam .................. 219
7.7. ........................................................................................ 234
7.8. .........................................................................238
.............................................................................................................240

11

, -

.

.

, , -

.
E. Rutherford

13

1.1

.
. 18
19 ,
.
19 20
.
,
.
,
. ,


, .
,
.
-
, .

:
(1900 - 1923) ,
(1924-1927) .
,
,
.



: .

.
, .

.

.
14

1.2.

,
,
, .
A. Michelson (1899)

19 ,
, .
.

.

. ,
,

Maxwell
,
. 19 20

.
:
( ) (
). :
1.
2.
3.
1.2.1.

:

: ,
.
Isaak Newton (Principia)

[1].

15

: F=dp/dt,
, [1].


( , ).
:

1 2
2 2 0
u t
2

(1)

.
.
, [2],
. Michelson-Morley
. ,
. ,
.

[1] :


.
.
, , ..,
( ).
,
. ,
(, ) .

-
.
1.2.2.
,
,

,

.
James C. Maxwell (1864)

16


; [3,4,5].
:

F G

m1m2 ^
r
r2

(2)

Maxwell [6]:

E 4

xE

B 0

xB

1 B
c t

1 E 4

J
c t
c

(3)

(4)

Maxwell .
Maxwell

.
.
: .

.
1.2.3.

,
. ,
,

. ,
,
,
,
.
Ludwing Boltzmann

,
[7,8,9].
:
17

 (~10 23)

.
,
, .. ,
.
.

, [10,11],
(
) .
.
:

S k log W

(5)

k Boltzmann W
. W
.
, ,

:
E

dN
Ae kT d
N

(6)

dN/N d .
(6) :

P Ae E / kT

(7)

T.
Boltzmann
[10,11,12].
,

, :
, ,
( ) .
, ( 1)
. 20 ,
, ,
, ,
,
.
18

 1:
1.3.

. ,
( , ,
Compton)
.


.
1.3.1.
1.3.1.1.

,
: ,
.

.
M. Planck

19

 , (100%)
.
. ,

,
[13].
1.

1:

2:

T ( 2).

.
.
,
. ,
,
.
() .
.
( )
:

u ( v, T )

(1)

[13]:

20

1. :
,
.
2. Wien:
:

u (v, T ) 3e

av
T

(2)

, , ,
.
3. Wien:
:

vmax ( )

(3)

.
4. Stefan-Boltzmann:
:

U ~ 4

(4)

.
Rayleigh Jeans ,
1.
Rayleigh Jeans
T 3.

3: -
Rayleigh Jeans:

u ( v, T )

8 2
kT
c3
21

(5)


,
.

[13].

:
1/2kT. ,

Maxwell.
, ,
:
= ( ) x ( )
_

() = kT =

(6)

=kT ,
, .
,
,
( ) ,
.
. : Planck

.

.
.
, ,
M. Planck

Max Planck
.
- Planck :
.
[14-19],
hv, :

n nhv ,

n=0, 1, 2, 3

22

(7)

 h = 6.626 x 10-34 Js Planck [20],

hv n,
v [21,22,23].

, nhv.


"" .
En=nhv Boltzmann

: exp(-En/kT)
[24,25,26]:

E u ( , )d 4
0

2 5 k 4

5, 6705 x108Wm2 K 4
2 3
15c h

(8)

u(v,T) , ,
()=8 2/c3
. :
_

u ( )

hv

8 2

ehv / kT 1 c

8 h 3
c3 ehv / kT 1

(9)

h, Planck,
[20]. Planck
Rayleigh-Jeans .
hv/kT , ehv/kT , :
u 0 v , .
hv/kT<< 1, ehv/kT-1 hv/kT
Planck Rayleigh-Jeans.
Planck Stefan-Boltzmann Wien.
,
=0 =, :

E u ( , )d 4

2 5 k 4
5, 6705 x108Wm2 K 4
2 3
15c h

(10)

Wien dE/d=0,
.
max :
23

T max

hc
0, 2898 x102 mK
5k

(11)

1.3.1.2.


. 4.

4:

.

.
[27]:
1.

.
2.
,

.
3.

. vmin.
4.
.
.

, ,
24

 . ,
,
(F=-eE) , ,
.
.
, [28,29]:
1.
.

, .

.
2.
,
. .
,
.
3. vmin .
,
.
4.

.
(10 -9 sec),

.
.
,
, ,
,
,
,

.
A. Einstein (1905)

[28,29]:
25

 ( f) " " ()

E=hv.
( )

, .
,
:
.
.

[30]:
hv=W+1/2m2

(12)

(hvW).
:
hvmin=W

(13)

, .

.

.

.
-
.
,
vmin, .


. .
,
( ),

.
,
Rayleigh-Jeans .

26

1.3.1.3. Compton
Compton
( ) [31,32].
Compton ( 5).

.
.
:
.
.

5: Compton
.

( )
:
.

, .
, ,
. , ,
[33].
.

27

.
, Compton
.
:
,
6.

6: Compton
Compton [33] :

Planck (=h)
, ,



,
.

. , , ' , '
:
> ' hv > hv' v > v'

(14)

=c/v '=c/' ' > .

, = ' ,
:

'

h
(1 cos )
me c

(15)

h Planck, me c
. h/mec Compton c .

28

 .
=c, =hv=hc/ mc2
. Compton

[34-36].
Compton 1923,

.
1.3.1.4.


. ,
[37].
, -
m :
2=p2c2 +m2c4

(16)

, ,
(16) m=0, :
= cp

(17)

(, )
(, ) :

E hv

(18)

(18) h Planck.

k:

2
2

(18) :

hv

h
k
2

(19)

h

2

Planck. (19)
:

p k
29

(20)

1.3.2.
1.3.2.1.
,
, , ,
.
( 7)
. 7
( Wien Boltzmann
) .

7:
J. J. Balmer 1885
:

n 3646

n2

n2 4

n=3, 4, 5,

(1)

Balmer, . ,
, ,

. Balmer

.

Balmer, :

R(

1
1
2)
2
m n

(2)

, n,m
R=3,271015 sec-1 , Rydberg.
:

vm vn

30

(3)


:
1,2,n, :
.
, ,
.
( )
. ,
,
(
). ,
, 8.

8:

, m-vn
.
. n ,
n(n-1)/2 . 8
.
:
. Balmer
:

R
n2

(4)

Bohr.
31

.
,

. ,
.

.
,
. .
,
,
, . ,
,

.


.
.
. Thomson
J.J. Thomson,
.
Thomson,
, ,
, 9.

9: Thomson

32

 Thomson
, e, ,
R + e.
, ,
. ,
(~103 )
7.
( )
7
. , Thomson
.
C. Rutherford
.
, 15
.
,
, ,
,

.
E. Rutherford

T Thomson Rutherford,
. Rutherford


.
( He)
Thomson, Rutherford [38]
, 180.
, ,
, ( 10).

10-14 m, , , 10-10 m.
, Rutherford
, ,
( 10). ,
33

 , ,
. ,
R, ,

, .
Coulomb
R.

Thomson.
Rutherford .

10: Rutrherford
:
,

. ,
,
. .
, Rutherford, ,
, .
,

.
.

34

1.3.2.2. Bohr
,

.
.

.
.
N. Bohr

, [39-42], Bohr

:
1. , vm vn

(3)

2. , n

R
n2

(4)

. Bohr
Einstein :
=hv

(5)

(5) h, :
hv=hvm - hvn

(6)

.
,
:
hv=E -

(7)

,
. (6)
(7) :
E=-hvn

=-hvm

(8)

(6)
.

:
En=-hvn

n=1, 2, 3.

(9)

, Bohr :

35

 [43,44].
:
En=-hvn

(10)

.

.
:
hv=En m

(11)

Bohr,
. 11
[45-48].
,
,
. ,
Ritz.

11:
Bohr

. Bohr
[49-52],
n n :
En=-hvn

(10)

R
n2

(4)

n
:

En

hR
13, 6eV

2
n
n2
36

(12)


,
. ,
.

Coulomb:

e2
m 2
r r

(13)

m2=e2/r, :

1
e2
m 2
2
r

(14)

e2
2r

(15)

r , :

e2
e2

2E 2 E

(16)

2E
m

(17)

l m r e2

m
2E

(18)

2 2
h2
rn 2 n 2 2 n 2
me
4 me
:
2
e 1 2 e2 1
n

n
h n

l ln e2

m
Ln
2

L=10-27erg x sec=

(19)

,
L= .
, Bohr :
,
Planck
ln=n

(20)
37

ln=n

, n, rn n
:

rn

2 2
h2
n

n 2 , n=1,2..
2
2
2
me
4 me

(21)

e2 1 2 e2 1
,

n
h n

(22)

n=1, 2

: rn=aon2

2

me2

, Bohr [53,54,55].

= 1.05459 x 10-27 erg sec
m = 9.1096 x 10-28 gr
e = 4.8033 x 10-10 CGS
: =0,529. , n =2, 4 ,
9 , 12.
, :

n
c

e2 1
,
c n

n=1,2..

(23)

e, c ,
1/137. , ,
, :

e2
1

c 137

(24)

12:
Bohr

38

C. Wilson Sommerfeld
H Bohr,
,
,

.
Wilson Sommerfeld 1916
Bohr

[56,57].
Bohr , Planck,
.
Wilson-Sommerfeld :
,
.
q :

p dq nh

(25)

q p .
Bohr
l, :

pdq ld d l 2 nh l n 2 n

(26)

Bohr.
V(x),
:

px dx 4

xmax

px dx nh

(27)

px2 Dx 2

2m
2

(28)

D , :

1
2

D
m

(29)

(28), :

px 2m( E Dx

39

(30)

 (28) :

px2
Dx 2

1
2mE 2 E

(31)

(31) a 2 E / D ,

b 2mE . :

ab

4mE 2
D

(32)

p dx 2 E
x

m E

D v

(33)

(25) :
=nhv
Planck.
1.3.2.3.
De Broglie
Bohr ,
.
1920 Luis de Broglie, ,
, [58-60].
- , de Broglie,
.
(De Broglie, 1923) [61-64]:

. :

p k

(34)

, .
de Broglie,
, .

.
de Broglie ,
. k=2/ p=k :

h
p

(35)

40

 ,
, ,
, .
2re = n, n=1, 2..

(36)

Bohr
, . ,
,
( 13), (36).

13:

Bohr
.
, (36) (35) [65-69]:

2 rn n

h
h
rp n
n
p
2

(37)

l=rp, :

l ln n
Bohr.
C. Davisson
L.H. Germer G.P. Thomson A. Reid .

, -
.
, ,
,
,
.
.
41

, ,
,
.
.


.
,
,
.
()

42

2.1.
20
, ,
,
. ,
,
.

.
,
Einstein, Planck, Bohr, De Broglie
. ,
,
. 1925-1930,

Schrdinger, Heisenberg, Dirac .
,
.
,
. , Einstein,
.
,
(1905),

.
( 14):
, , ,
.
( d
1, d<1 )
c .

.
,
, c.
,
/
.
43

 ( )
.


.

.
,
.
.

14:

. :
1. ( Einstein)
2. ( De Broglie)
3.

.
44

2.2.
2.2.1. Schrodinger

( x, t ) ei ( kxt )

(1)

p
k , .

[70]:

( x, t ) ei ( px Et )/

(2)

(2) t , :

iE

t

ip
x
x

(3)

/ t / x :
^

E i

p i
t
x

(4)

(3) :
^

E p p

(5)

(5), - =p2/2m,
(,t) :
^2

p
E

2m
^

(6)

^2

^ ^

p p p (i

2
)(i ) 2 2
x
x
x

(7)

(6) :

2 2

t
2m x 2

(8)

Schrodinger [71-74].
H Schrdinger (8) :

Ho
t

(9)

^2

Ho

p
2 2

2m
2m x 2

45

(10)

2.2.2. Schrodinger
V(x),
Schrodinger :

H
t

(11)

:
^2

^
p
2 2
H
V ( x)
V ( x)
2m
2m x 2
^

(12)

, (11) :

2 2
i

V ( x)
t
2m x 2

(13)

V(r) :

H
t

px2 p2 pz2
p2

V (r )
V ( x, , z )
2m
2m

(14)

px i

x
^

p i x
^

p i

pz i

^ ^

z , :
x

2 2
2
2
( 2

) V ( x, , z )
2m x 2 z 2

(15)

2 2
V (r )
2m

(16)

2
2
2

.
x 2 2 z 2

, Schrodinger [75] :

2 2

V (r )
t
2m

(17)

2.2.3.
, .

46

 . ,
,

[76,77].
^

A(c11 c2 2 ) c1 (A 1 ) c2 (A 2 )

(18)

(16) , ,
Schrdinger (11) .
- : :
Schrdinger .
:

r, t c11 r, t c22 r, t

(19)

(11) 1 2 . (19)
(11) :

i
c1 (i

(c1 1 c2 2 ) (c1 1 c2 2 )
t

^
^
1

) c2 (i 2 ) c1 ( 1 ) c2 ( 2 )
t
t

(20)

, ,
c11 c2 2 . (20)
1 2 Schrodinger

^

H
t

(1), (2)
. , :
1. Schrodinger
.
Schrodinger
.
2. Schrodinger
.
Schrodinger (r, 0) =
(r) ,
(r, 0) = (r)
(r,0) = g(r).

47

2.2.3.1.
1. Hilbert
^

C A B,

: C (A B) A B

(21)

2.
^

^ ^

C A B,

: C A (B )

(22)

3.
^

D [A, B] D A(B ) B (A )
^

^ ^

^ ^

[A, B] A B B A

(23)

, .
4.
^

^ 1

^ 1 ^

1
^ 1

^ 1

^ 1

( ) ( ) ()

(24)

5.
^

.
^

.
,
n , :
^

n : A n n n

(25)

.
^

,
, .
1, 2,.,k ,

1 1 2 2 ... k k 0

(26)

1 2 ... k 0
48

(27)

6. ()
^

*
*
(x)(A (x))dx (A (x)) (x)dx

(28)

:
^

, ,

(29)

7.
^

*
(A )dx (A ) dx

(30)

, ,

(31)

8. :
^

(32)

.
2.3.
2.3.1.
,

.
; :

, ,


.
(
)
-
(=)
(=).

Schrdinger

[78-80].
49

 (M. Born, 1926):

[81-86]:

.

( )
.
, P(x) :

P(x) (x)

* (x)(x)

(1)

, , t
. ()
(, t) t = to.
x x +
dx :

P(x)dx (x) dx
2

(2)

< x <
+ :

P(x)dx

(x)

(3)

dx

(x) dx 1
2

(4)

(4) ,

(x)

dx

(5)

+ .
(x) .
(x)

.

. ,

0
50

 .
2.3.2.
.
<> A a1,, an,
P 1,, Pn, :

A a n pn

(6)

A P(a)
a
:

A aP(a) aP(a)da

(7)

P(a)da 1

(8)

.
.
,
.
( )
A A ( A) :
A .

()2 ( )2

(9)

(9) , :

()2 2 2

(10)

:
.

51

C.
, ,
:

P(x) (x)

(11)

(7) <x> <x2> :

xP(x)dx x (x) dx
2

x 2

(12)

x P(x)dx x
2

(x) dx
2

x (10):

(x)2 x 2 x 2

(13)

2.4.
2.4.1.

.

.

[87-89].

:

xP(x)dx x dx ()dx
*

()dx
*

(2)

*
( )dx

(3)

A.

52

(1)

2.4.2.
(2),
:
^

xx

(4)

(x)
x.
, :
^

p i

(5)

Schrdinger

H
t

(6)
^

p2
V ( x)
2m

(7)

A = A(x, p),
:
^

A A(x, p)
,
x p .
:
^2

^
p
2 2
H
V ( x)
V ( x)
2m
2m x 2
^

(8)

px i

xx

p i

zz

pz i

,
^

rr

p i

(9)

A = A(r, p) :
^

l r x p ir x)
53

(10)

lr x p
:

lx = ypz - zp y

ly = zpx - xpz

lz = xpy - ypx

z )
z

l i(z x )
x
z
^

l z i(x
)

x
^

l x i(

(11)

,
^

l r x p ir x)

(12)

2.4.3.
, (3)
(A) ,
A2.

^ 2

*
(A )dx

(13)

(A) 2 (10)
2.3.2.

x p
Heisenberg:

xp

(14)

2.5.
2.5.1.

:
=
.

54

(1)


.
, .
,
[90] :

,
,
.
:
:
=

2 ( ) ( ) ( ) 2

(2)

2 2.
:
*

( )dx dx dx

(3)

2 (2 )dx 2 dx 2 dx 2

(4)

()2 2 2 2 0
2

(5)

.
2.5.2.
1, 2,.n,
. ,
, .

.
, ,
.
,
:

55


.
:
1.
2. 1,2, 1, 2
:

(x) (x)dx 0
*
1

(6)

3.
:

cn n

(7)

n 1

(7) *m :

*
mdx cn
n 1

*
m

n dx

(8)

m, n (6) :

*
m

n dx 0

(9)

(8) n=m,
:

*
*
mdx cm m mdx cm

(10)

(10)
:

cn

dx

(11)

*
n

cn
. cn
1, 2,.n .
,
:
*

( )dx

( c*m*m )(A cn n )dx

m

56

 c*m cn *m (A n )dx
n,m

, n = nn :

c*m cn n *m n dx c*m cn n nm cn n
2

n,m

n,m

n dx nm

(12)

cn n

(13)

*
m

:
2

n pn:

pn n

(14)

:
.
,
n :

p n cn

(15)

cn n :

cn n
n

p c
n 1

n 1

.
2.5.3.
:
.

.
(1) ,
(-,+). ,
57

 (7) ,

c() d

(16)

cn (15)
:

p() c()

(17)

,
+d
.
c()
(69) :

* (x)(x)dx

(18)

,
.
(12).

, .
, :

*
1

(x) 2 (x)dx (1 2 )

(19)

(1-2) Dirac.
,

c() * (x)(x)dx

(20)

c(' )' d' ,

* (x)
:

( )c( )d c()
'

'

(21)

'

(x)(x)dx c(' )d' * (x)' (x)dx ( ' )c(' )d' c()

Dirac
Kronecker.
Kronecker

c cn

nm m

58

(22)

 n, m , '
,
Kronecker

( )c( )d c()
'

'

(23)

'

m
' (-') '
-'.


,

c()
2

c() da p()d
2

, .
2.6.


,
.

.
,
.
, .
:
1.
.
2. ,
.
.

59

 .
.

.

.
:
.
=hv=hc/,
, ,
. ,
,

. :
1.
.
2.
.

:
1, 2,.n 1,
2,.n.
:

cn n
n 1

,
,
1, 2,.n ,

,
:

p n cn

n. ,
, ,
. , 1-1
.

60

 ,
.
:
n,
,
.
n. :
n,
n.
.

Schrodinger [83].
2.7. :
, , , .

. ,
, :

* ()dx

(1)

, (1)
.
.
: .
:
.
:

B B

(2)

:
1.
2.

3.
.
, :

* ()dx

(3)

( * ()dx)* ()* dx) ()* dx)

61

(4)

 (3) :

()dx () dx
*

(5)

,
' :

()dx () dx
*

(6)

:
.
:

. : (6), 1, 2
1, 2,

*
1

( 2 )dx (1 )* 2dx

(7)

1, 2 :

1 11 2 2 2
1, 2 , :

*
1

(2 2 )dx (11 )* 2dx

2 1* 2dx 1 1* 2dx
(2 1 ) 1* 2dx 0

(8)

2 1 :

2dx 0

(9)

*
1

.
:
, . ,
(3) :

n cn

n .
:
.
:
.
:

cn n
n

62

(10)

, ,
(10)
.
2.8.
2.8.1. Schrdinger
,

. [91]
:

n (x, t) n (x)eiEn t/

(1)

(1) Schrdinger,

n
H n
t

(2)

n (x, t)
E n n (x)eiEn t /
t

(3)

Hn (x, t) (Hn (x))eiEn t/ E n n (x)eiEn t/

(4)

n(x)
n n= nn. (3) (4)
(2). n(x,t) n=1,2
Schrdinger :

(x, t) cn n (x, t) cn n (x, t)e iEn t/

n

(5)

n(x) . Schrdinger
(x,0)
(x,t). t=0 (5) :

(x,0) cn n (x) (x)

(6)

cn
(,0)()
:

cn

*
n

(x)(x)dx

63

(7)

(8)

n n (8)
(,0) .
,
:

n (x, t) n (x)eiEn t/

(9)

P(x, t) n (x, t) n (x)

2

(10)

.
. ,
,
.
.
2.8.2.

cn n

. :

(x, t) cn n (x)eiEn t/

(11)

n 0

.
(11) (1) 2.7
:

A t * (x, t)((x, t))dx

( c*n *n eiEn t / )( cm (A m )*n eiEm t / )dx
n

c*n cm ei(En Em )t / *n (A m )dx

n,m

A t c*n cm einm t / nm

(12)

n,m

nm En Em / Anm *n (A m )dx

64

(13)

 nm (13) ,

nm A*nm .
. (12) :

nm 0 nm

(14)

(104) n
, n= nn, (13) :

Anm *n (Am )dx m *n mdx

(15)

nm=0.
,
.
2.9.
2.9.1. -
[92-95] - :

(x)(p)

(1)

-
Planck.
. ()
()
. () , .
, .
() Fourier
(p) . p
(p). To p
(p) . (),
(p) ( 15).
, :

(x)(p)

(2)

15:
65

 ,

. k
:

(x)(k) 1

(3)

p= k (3)
(2).
.
( ),
(p ).
(p )
, ()
.
(p=0), :

p (x) ~ eipx/

(4)

:
2

P(x) ~ p (x)

(5)

(=).
2.9.2. -
- [96]:
()(t)

(6)

.
, .

. t (96)
,
.
t .
, (6) :
()()

(7)

(7) :
( ), ( ).
: ( ),
( ).
66


, (=0). (7) :
=
,
.
, ,

.

, 0. :
(x)=c11+ c22

(8)

1, 2 1 2 ,
:

1 2

(9)

(8) :

(x, t) c11 (x)eiE1t/ c22 (x)eiE2t/

(10)

t :

A t cos t

(11)

=(1-2)/ , c1, c2 .
16.

16:
1 2.

=2/.
:

2 1 2

(12)

-.
67

 ,
.
,
.

/.

.
,

. ,
.

.

,

.

(7).

,
=0, .
17.

17:

,
. :

(13)

10 -8 sec,
/10-7eV.
68


-:
()(t)1

(14)

(96) = = . (14)
:
(k)()1

(15)

t k.
2.10.
:
1:

. ,
.
2:
^

,
:

* ()dx

^

, ,
.
:
,
:
p - i

r r,

3:

:
^

* ( )dx
^

c
n

, n

n :

Pn cn
69

 4:

.

, cn n ,
n.
5:

Schrodinger.

H
t

70


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68.

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79.

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37, 863-867.
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Physik 40, 167-192.

84.

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P.

Jordan

(1927a).

Die

Entwicklung

der

neuen

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77

, - Heisenberg

78


20 .
Einstein 1905 [1]
, 1925-1927 Werner
Heisenberg, Max Born, Pascual Jordan, Wolfgang Pauli, Erwin Shcrdinger Niels
Bohr. , ,

. , Paul
Dirac (1928) [2-4], ,

.
, , (
E p 2c 2 m2c 4 ),
Dirac 1930: Pauli,
,
.
, ,
, .
Dirac , ( 1931)

, , [5]. (
1932), Wilson,
Carl Anderson [6-10], o
Dirac.

, Dirac
, .
(0,
1/2, 1)
,
. , ,
, ,

, QED
(Quantum ElectroDynamics).
.
1928-1934,
79

, Dirac, Jordan, Eugene Wigner, Heisenberg, Pauli, Victor

Weisskopf, Wendell Furry Robert Oppenheimer [11-33]. H
:
(x)
,
x. ,
:
. , Maxwell
, ( ) Klein-Gordon
[34,35].
(x)
, ()
.

.

, .
(0, 1/2,
1) a
b ( a b), .
,
. ,
. , ,
,

, Dirac
Pauli [36,37].
,
, . ()
,
. ,
. , Hilbert

.
, Pn n

,
. Pn , ,
80

, . , ,

.
, Q,
. , ,
.
1930,
. ,

. Enrico Fermi
1934 [38,39], Hideki Yukawa
1935 [40-44].
.

,
, .
,
.
(
)
.
.
Heisenberg, 1938 [45] ,
c h ,
L,
L, L
( , ,
).
, John Wheeler 1937
Heisenberg 1943,
, S,
.
,

(QED),
, .

, m e .

81

.
1948-1949 Julian Schwinger, Sin-Itiro Tomonaga
Richard Feynman [46-57]. Schwinger Tomonaga ,
Feynman ,
,
:

To ,
Feynman,
S ,
Feynman. Freeman Dyson
Schwinger Tomonaga Feynman,
(QED).

, ,
.

.

, W. Lamb 1947 ( Lamb) [58-66].

[67-70].
.
.
. ,
:
.
:
,
Emmy Noether (1918) [71]. , (
) ,
( )
.
, :
,
.

82

 .
, [72-90].
,
,

. ,
.
.
, ,
L
H.

1954 Chen Ming Yang Robert
Mills [91],

W, .
W
,
. ,
. , Yukawa

.
1964 Murray Gell - Mann George Zweig
, . H
( ).
,
.
,
S, . ,
1930
,
, (

S).
,
[92-96].
1964 Higgs,
[97-102].
83

 ,
,
. ,

.

.
,
,
( ),
. ,
. ,

,
.
,
. +
- , . ,
.

, Sheldon Glashow 1961.
Yang Mills,
SU(2)xU(1).
, W
, . Steven
Weinberg 1967 Abdus Salam 1968 ,
84

 Higgs [103-183],
Glashow
.
Higgs . ,
1971 Gerard t Hooft [184-235]. H
.
1972-1973
, SU(3)
(QCD),
. 1973
David Politzer Frank Wilczek, ,

( ).
.
1973 .
,
SU(3)xSU(2)xU(1). ,
( )
,
, ,
10 2 GeV.

,
,
. ,

SU(3)xSU(2)xU(1),
102 GeV 10-18 m.
,
Planck ~10 19 GeV.

85

,
.
Rovelli, C., 1996

86

3.1.

[236-237].

Pauli, ,

, ,
. X ,
.


.
3.2. Klein Gordon
Oscar Klein Walter Gordon,
1926 .
,
Schrodinger:

( x , t ) H ( x , t )
t

(1)

H [238-241].
Lorentz.
, :

E 2 c 2 p 2 m2c 4

(2)

m , :

2 2
2 4
i (t , r ) (i) c (t , r ) m c (t , r )
t
2

2
(t , r ) 2c 2 (t , r ) m2c 4 (t , r )
t 2

2 1 2 m2 c 2

2 ) (t , r ) 0
x 2 c 2 t 2

(3)

(3) Klein-Gordon [34,35,242]

. ,

-.
87

3.2.1. Klein-Gordon
.
1. .
(3)

(t , r ) ei ( Et pr )
E ( p 2 m2 )1/2 .
2. .
.

( ) .
3. .
(3) 2 ,
, :

d 3r

. (3)

. :
2

2
2

m 0
2 m2 0
2
2
t
t

2

2

m 0
2 m2 0
2
2
t
t

t
t

t
t
2m

i (kx t )
:
e

88

2
2 1/ 2
(k m )

, Klein-Gordon
!
,
Dirac. Klein-Gordon

.
3.3. Dirac
Klein-Gordon
,
-

2 p 2 m2
.
Dirac

Klein-Gordon .

.
Dirac [2-4]:
H ( P m)

(4)

. (4) :
2 (a p m) (a p m)
i
j j
i
j

2 2
2 2
2
a p (a a a a ) p p (a a ) p m m p
i i
i j
j i i j
i
i i
i
i j
i j

m2

a2 1
i

a a 0
i
i

a a a a 0
i j
j i

2 1

i, ,
. i, Hamiltonian
89

 . 1
i2=1,2=1.
. :
a a 0 a 2 a
i
i
i
i
i
i
2
ra r a ra r a ra ra ra 0
i
i
i
i
i
i
i

1.
.
=4 ( =2 3 ).

Dirac-Pauli Weyl [243,244] Dirac-Pauli:
Weyl:

Dirac-Pauli:

0
a
i

i Pauli:

0
1

0
i

1
0

1
0

3.3.1. Dirac -

ipx
(p=0, E=m). e u ( p)
:

H m
Dirac-Pauli :

mI
0

u Eu

mI
0

m, m, -m, -m,
(spinors):

1
0

u1 (0)
0
0

0
1
u 2 (0)
0
0

0
0

v1 (0)
1
0

90

0
0

v 2 (0)
0
1

 i, 4
. spinors ( u1 (0), u 2 (0) )
( v1 (0), v 2 (0) ) [245-246]. spinors
spin .
spin ,
, [6-10].
3.3.2. Dirac
Dirac :
1. .
2. - spin .
3. . (
Klein-Gordon).
4. .
Klein-Gordon
Dirac. T . Dirac

Dirac ( 1).

1: Dirac
,

, Pauli.
Dirac
, ,
,
91


.
Dirac,
.
, ,

. ,
,
,
.
, ,
, [247-249].
5. .
.
Feynman-Stuckelberg].

.

[250,251].

:
e

i ( E )(t )

eiEt

( 2).

(2)

(2)

2()
.
2().
, () .
.
92

 .

.
, Dirac ,
Klein-Gordon, ,
. Dirac

.

.
,
.

93

In mathematical theories the question of notation,

while not of primary importance, is yet worthy of
careful consideration, since a good notation can be of
great value in helping the development of a theory, by
making it easy to write down those quantities or
combinations of quantities that are important, and
difficult or impossible to write down those that are
unimportant. The summation convention in tensor
analysis is an example, illustrating how specially
appropriate a notation can be.
P.A.M. Dirac 1939

94

4.1.

, ,
.
Dirac,
, .
[252,253].
-
-
,
.

;
.
Klein-Gordon Dirac
(r)
,

.

, .
(, ,
.)
, ,
[254].

[255].

, .


.
4..2.
4.2.1.

Hamilton ( ),
95

 Euler-Lagrange .
Lagrange Hamilton
, ,
, Hamilton,
[256,257].

(L)

(p, q),
.
V , : L=T-V.
, m
:

1 .2 1
L m x m2 x 2
2
2
x .
Hamilton,
, L=T-V,
:
t2

S L(q(t ), q(t ))dt

(1)

t1

q(t) q(t)

dq(t)
. S
dt

t, q(t).
q(t) q(t1) q(t2). qi(t)
q(t)-t ( 3) S. S
.

3:
, S q(t),
. :
t2

S
q( t )
q(t ) dt
t
q(t )
q(t )

96

(2)

 q(t )

d ( q(t ))
(2)
dt

:
t2

L
L

d L

S q(t )

dt
q(t )

q
(
t
)
dt

q(t )
t1

q(t )
t1
t2

t1
t2, q(t1 ) q(t2 ) 0 :

L
d L

S q(t )

dt 0
q(t ) dt q(t )
t1

t2

q(t ) , :

L
d L

0
q(t ) dt q(t )

(3)

Euler-Lagrange [258-260]. (3) q0(t)

2

1 dx
. .. L m V ( x)
2 dt

L
x

m x p , F m x 2 .

4.2.2. -
H Lagrange Hamilton
qr(t) (,t):

rx

qr (t ) q(r , t ) ( x, t )

(4)

.
(,t).
, (,t) , t,
x. x
(,t),
. (4) , L
/ /.
x: L
d/dx, d/dt, :

,
= ,
x

(5)

.
97

 S : S

dt (5):

S[ ] Ldt dt , , dx
x
S=0
S:

S dt [

L
L
L


dx

( / x) x

L
L
L d

[ ( / x) x ( ) dt ( )]dx

dt

x x

d

dt

( ) t,
( ) x
x
dt

S dt [

L
L

x ( / x)
t

dx ( / x)

] [

]xx [ L ]tt
2

( x1 ) ( x2 ) =0
:

S dt [

L
L

x ( / x )
t

dx

S=0 Euler-Lagrange [258-260]:

L

L L

0
x ( / x) t

(6)

(6) 3 :

L L
L

( ) t

(7)

Euler-Lagrange :

L
L

0
( )

(8)

(8) :

L=

1
1
m2 2
2
2

:
98

 1
1

1
1
m2 2
( m2 2 ) 0
2
2
( ) 2
2

1 1
1 2 2

1
1
1
2

( ( )2 m2 2 )
( ) m
2 t 2
2
( ) 2 t 2
2

) (

2
1 1
1 2 2
2
( ) m

t
2
2
2

m 2 2

2
0
t 2

)) 0
(9)

Klein-Gordon (x,t).
(x,t) .
(x,t), ,

(x, t) ( 0 (x, t), (x, t)) .
0.
4.3.


.
Hermann Weyl

.
,
qk, . ,
:

L
0
qk
Euler-Lagrange :

d L

dt qk
pk

L
, qk
qk

.
.
.
99


V(r), r
.
(r,) :

m 2 2 2
(r r ) V (r )
2

,
:

p mr 2
. ,
. ,
.
:
,
()=+, ( )
, rR=r, ,
.
. ,
:

L( ) L( R, R, , ) L(r, r, , )
L( ) L(r , r , , ) .

, .
,
:

L( )
0
0
=0,
( , ),

L
0

p. ,
[261].
, ,
. ,
100

 .
:
. 2
. 2
1
L (m1 x 1 m2 x 2 ) V( x1 x 2 )
2

1 2 .
, ,
:
11() 1+

22() 2+

( Xi () x i i=1,2)
,
. ,
:

0
0

L L

0
x1 x2
:

L 1 ( )
L 2 ( )
L L

2 ( ) 0 x1 x2
1 ( )

, Euler-Lagrange :

d L L

0
dt x. x.
1
2
, ,
:

L
.

x1

L
.

x2

m1 x1 m2 x2

.

,
, V x1-x2
x1,x2.
.
,

101

 , . , ,

,
,
,
.
,
,
Noether (1918) [71].
, ()
,
, ,
.

.
. .

- .

, ,
, .
, , ,
12, 21. , ,
.

, ,
. ,
, ,
- .
.
, [262].
T (ime Reversal), (Space Inversion),
P (Parity) C (Charge Conjugation).
CPT.

102

.
,
,
.

.
.
.
.
,
.
.
. ()
r-r,
.
V(r)=V(-r)
r.
V(r) r, H
.
. parity
(P). 1 (P2=1)
, P(r)=(-r).
,
,
.. ,
, .
, , ,
. ,
Ehrenfest,
, .
,
,
.

, ,
, .
103

 r -r (x, y,
z)(-x, -y, -z), r -r, -,
+. ,
. ,
: r-r, p-p, , , , -, , ,
, JJ, , BB, , P P, ,
- .
.

.

, .
, [Lee-Yang 1956]

60Co.

C. (C)

, Q,
, S ...
C
,
.
.
.
.
D. CP
(P),
(C), CP
k-
0.1%.
E.
,
,

104

 .
: rr, p-p, , -, , , , ,
, BB, , P P, , -
.

.
.
F. CPT

Luders - Pauli, CPT, CPT

C, P T.
Lorentz
.
,
,
spin.
, .. .
.
- - .

P, T CP . ( 1)
P, C, T
. (+) () .

1: C, P, T
105

 .
[263].
Noether :
(
Lagrange) .
[264].
4.3.1.
qi, i=1,2.N,
[265]
.
, . qi Qi(q,),
, =0
: Qi(q,0)=qi.
, ,
, :

Qi
Q i (q, )
q k
q k
qi Qi(q,), :

L(Q, Q , t ) L(q, q, t )

:

Qi (q,0)

Qi

qi K i (q)
0

Qi(q,), .

. ,
(q), .
:

L L
O( 2 )
L(Q, Q , t ) L(q K , q K , t ) L(q, q , t ) K i
Ki
q i
qi
:

Ki

L
L
K i
0
qi
q i

, , , .

, x i . a
106

xi X i ( x, ) xi a . ,

:

1 N
1 N
mi |x i | 2 V (| xi x j |)

2 i 1
2 i j

K i a ,

K i 0 ( 3N K i ,
).
:

L
a 0
i xi

a ,

x
i

0 ,

| xi x j | .
4.3.2. Noether
:

K
i

L
q i

d
L
L
d L
Ki
K i
Ki

dt i
q i
q i
dt q i
i
i
q(t) , Euler-Lagrange
:

d
L
L
L
Ki
K i
Ki
0

dt i
q i
q i
qi
i
i
:

K
i

L
pi K i
q i
i

. ,

pi

L
, .
q i

107

 K i

pK

Noether (1919) [71].

, Noether
:

L
a

i xi

a , :

x p m x
i

MX i

, P MX , X

m x
i

, M

a , .

,
.

n .
:

: x x n x

K n x Noether
:

(n x ) x
i

n xi p i n L
i

pi n .

L .
, Noether ,
,
.

108

4.3.3. Noether
.
(q,t)(Q,T)
K i :

Qi (q, t ) qi K i (q, t )

T (q, t ) t (q, t )

()

.
q(t ) t [t1 , t 2 ]
() Q(T ) T

[T1 , T2 ] ,
T1 t1 (q(t1 ), t1 ) T2 t 2 (q(t 2 ), t 2 )
()
(q,t)(Q,T),
, 4.

4:
:
t2

T2

t1

T1

S L(q, q , t )dt L(Q, Q , T )dT

( ) .
Noether [264].

5: q(t) Q(T)
109

L(q, q ) .

: Q(T)=q(t), T=t+
.

. q(t) Q(T)
5.
,
.
:
T2

T2

T1

T1

S ( ) L(Q, dQ / dT )dT L(q(T ), dq(T ) / dT )dT

(1)

t .
dT=dt q(T-)=q(t),
S() t:
t2

S ( ) L(q(t ), dq / dt )dt
t1

.
(1)
.
.
:
2
L q(T ) L q(T )
T
S ( ) T2

L(q(T2 ), dq(T2 ) / dT ) 1 L(q(T1 ), dq(T1 ) / dT )

dt

T1

q(T )
q(T )
q(T ) q(T ) 2 q(T )

, dT dt

T
T

T
1 , :

2
L q(T ) L 2 q(T )
S ( )
L(q(t2 ), dq(t2 ) / dt ) L(q(t1 ), dq(t1 ) / dt )

dT

T1

=0, :

L d L

q dt q

110

t2

S ( )
d L
L

L(q(t2 ), dq(t2 ) / dt ) L(q(t1 ), dq(t1 ) / dt ) q dt L q 0
0
dt q
q t

t1

E (t )

L
q L ,
q

t1, t2 : (t2)=E(t1).
:

1
L mq 2 V (q) ,
2
:

1
E mq 2 V (q)
2
.

q(t)

Q,T. :

Qi (q, t ) qi (t ) Ki (q, t )

T (q, t ) t (q, t )

, :

Qi

dQi
dt

| dt | q (t) K 1 q (t) (K q )
T

dT

t
:
T2

t2

T1

t1

S L(Q, Q , T )dT L(q(t ) K , q (t ) ( K q ), t )dt 1

t2

S Gdt
t1
t2

L
L
L
S ( )
G(t, )
Ki
K i qi
L ,
G (t , 0)dt .

qi
qi
t
0

t1

Euler-Lagrange
:

d L
L
q
qi
q
i

dt q

G(t, 0)

dN
d L
L
K i L
qi

dt qi
qi
dt

111

N
i

L
L
K i L
qi
q i
qi

:
t2

Gdt 0
t1

N (t 2 ) N (t1 ) .
, :

q K L q q
L

(2)

.
Noether

:

Qi (q, t ) qi T (q, t ) t

, , i=0,
: =1 . (2)
:

L
q i L
q i

(3)

, (3).
, ,
.
, L=T-V,
V,
, :

1
2

M (q )q q
ij

,
.
,


.

112

. ,
, ,
J().
:
J

L ( x) L ( x) a J ( x)

(4)

a
:

a L a

L
L
a
( )

( )

( ) ( )
:

a L a

L
L
a
( ) ..= a

( )

( )

(4) :

a
a J a
J ( x) 0 j ( x) 0
( )
( )

(5)

j ( x)

L
J ( x)
( )

j . (5)
Noether j Noether [265].
Noether,
Noether, :

jd 3x

.
4.3.4.
1.
,
, Noether :

113

 i (i=1,2,N) ,
,
dG(q,t)/dt,
. :

L
L
Ki L
qi G
q i
qi

G
(2) ,
, ,
dG/dt. , ,
(2),
G. ,
.
2. Noether :
Noether, ,
.

, U(1)
, .
Noether

,
.
3. Noether :
Noether, ,

1915, Hilbert , ,
, .

. Noether
, ,
,
.
4. Noether

.

.
114


.

,

.
,
,



.
4.4.


.
xi pi
.
:

[ xi , p j ] i ij [ xi , x j ] [ pi , p j ] 0

(1)

=1 .

(1) xj
qj pi p j

L
.

qj

qj pj
[256, 257] (1).
qj
pj. , :
.

H p j q j L( pi , qi )
.

q j qj
pj. :

pj

L
.

qj

F (q j , q j )
115

(2)


=(qj,pj).
qj, pj. , qj,
pj ,
.
Schrodinger

Heisenberg
.
Heisenberg qj(t) pj(t) .
:

qi (t ), p j (t ) i ij [qi (t ), q j (t )] [ pi (t ), p j (t )] 0

(3)

. (3)
Heisenberg Schrodinger

.

,
:

p j (t ) p( j, t ) ( x, t )

qi (t ) q(i, t ) u( x, t )

j x, p

i x, q u

(x,t) u(x,t) :

( x, t )
p j

L
.

L
.

qj

Kronecker ij
(-),
:

[u( x, t ), u( x , t )] [ ( x, t ), ( x , t )] 0 [u( x, t ), ( x , t )] i ( x x )

(4)

u(x,t) .
,
(4).

116

.
.
4.4.1. Klein-Gordon
A. O

.

Klein-Gordon.

:

1 .2 1
L T V m x m 2 x 2
2
2

(5)

m=1

, :

1 .2 1 2 2
x x
2
2

(6)

Klein-Gordon:

1
1
1
L t 2 x 2 m2 2
2
2
2

(7)

(x,t) x(t), m (5)

2x (t) .
.
p(t) p L

Heisenberg (t) p(t)

(3).
. T Klein-Gordon

Klein-Gordon
[266].
=(x,t)

117

(4).

 ,
Klein-Gordon .

0

ak 0 0 k,


. :

k ak 0
ak ,
k :

k Ek k 2 m2
, , (a, a ) ,
| 0 . (x)
, Fourier :

d 3k
[a(k )eikx a (k )eikx ]
(2 )3 2k

( x)
k k 2 m2

(1)

a(k ) , a (k )

.
. :
Klein-Gordon k 2 k02 k 2 m2 ,
(k0 0) , :

d 4k
d 4k
2
2
2

(
k

m
)

(
k
)

(k02 k2 ) (k0 )
0
(2 )4
(2 )3

d 4k
[(k0 k )(k0 k )] (k0 )
(2 )3

( f ( x))

1
| f ( x) |xi

( x x )
i

xi f(), :

d 3kdk0
d 4k
d 4k
1

[(
k

)(
k

)]

(
k
)

(
k

(
k

)]

(
k
)

(k0 k )
0
k
0
k
0
0
k
0
k
0
(2 )3
(2 )3 2k0
(2 )3 2k0
118

dk0

2k

(k0 k )

1
2k

d 4k
d 3k
2
2
2

(
k

m
)

(
k
)

0
(2 )4
(2 )3 2k
.
:

[ xi , p j ] i ij [ xi , x j ] [ pi , p j ] 0
pi :

pi

L
x

x , p
. , ( x, t) x (t )
. :

( x, t )

L
.

( x, t )

Heisenberg :

[ ( x, t ), ( x , t )] i ( x x ) [ ( x, t ), ( x , t )] [ ( x, t ), ( x , t ) 0 ,

(2)

Equal Time Commutation

Relations.
a, a .
:

f k ( x)

1
eikx
1/2
[(2 ) 2k ]
3

3
[ fk ( x)i0 fk ( x) 0 fk ( x) fk ( x)]d x

i ( k k ) x
1
e
d 3 x 3 (k k )
3
(2 )

d 3k
( x)
f k ( x)a (k ) f k ( x )a (k )

[(2 ) 2k ]

a, a
Fourier:

119

3
i ( p k ) x
1
d 3k
eik0 x0 a (k ) eik0 x0 a(k )
eik0 x0 a (k ) eik0 x0 a(k )
d xe ( x ,t )
d xe
3
[(2 ) 2k ]
2 p
3

ipx

Fourier 0 ( x),

a, a , :
0 ( x)

d 3 xeepx 0 ( x , t )

d 3k
[(ik0 )a(k )eikx ik0 a (k )eikx ]
3
(2 ) 2k

d 3k
d 3 xei ( p k ) x [(ik0 )eik0 x0 a(k ) ik0eik0 x0 a (k )]
3
(2 ) 2k

i ik0 x0
[e a (k ) eik0 x0 a(k )]
2

a a :

a(k ) d 3 x[(2 )3 2k ]1/2 f k ( x)i 0 ( x)

a (k ) d 3 x[(2 )3 2k ]1/2 ( x)i 0 f k ( x)
a a :

[a(k ), a (k )] (2 )3 2 3 (k k ) [a(k ), a(k )] [a (k ), a (k )] 0

:

N (k )

1
a (k )a(k )
3
(2 ) 2k

[ N (k ), N (k )]

1
[a (k )a(k ), a (k )a(k )]
(2 ) 4kk
6

a (k )a(k ) a (k )a (k ) 0 .
:

[ N (k ), a (k )]

1
[a (k )a(k )a (k ) a (k )a (k )a(k )] a (k )
3
(2 ) 2k

[ N (k ), a(k )]

1
[a (k )a(k )a(k ) a(k )a (k )a(k )] a(k )
3
(2 ) 2k

N (k )a (k ) | n(k ) a (k ) N (k ) | n(k ) a (k ) | n(k )

[n(k ) 1]a (k ) | n(k )

N (k )a(k ) | n(k ) a(k ) N (k ) | n(k ) a(k ) | n(k )

[n(k ) 1]a(k ) | n(k )
120

 | n(k ) >

n(k ) ,

a (k ) | n(k ) a(k ) | n(k ) N (k ) n(k ) 1

n(k ) 1 . , N (k ) n(k ) 1 | n(k ) 1 :

[ N (k ) 1]| n(k ) 1 [n(k ) 1]| n(k ) 1

n(k ) 1 . a(k ) | n(k ) >

| n(k ) 1 , :
|| a(k ) | n(k ) || n(k ) | a (k )a(k ) | n(k ) n(k )(2 )3 2k

a(k ) | n(k ) n [(2 )3 2k ]1/2 | n(k ) 1

a :

a (k ) | n(k ) n 1 [(2 )3 2k ]1/2 | n(k ) 1 .

(k)
.
(x) (2) , :

d 3 k k0
[a (k )a(k ) a(k )a (k )]
(2 )3 2k0 2

d 3k
1

(2 )2k0 N (k )
3
(2 ) 2
2

H d 3kk0 N (k )
2

(k0 k ) , :

P d 3kk N (k )
2

k k0 . N (k )
| 0

a(k ) | 0 0

N (k ) | 0 a (k )a(k ) | 0 0 .
| 0 ,
. a(k ) a (k )
, 4-

121

k.
[267].
:

P(k ) k [a(k ) a (k )]
2
1/2

Q( k )

i
(2k )

1/2

[a(k ) a (k )]

2
H d 3 k P 2 (k ) k Q 2 (k )
2
2

.
Klein-Gordon .
N (k ) , ,
.

,

1 3
d kk
2

H d 3kk N (k )

0 | H | 0 d 3kk0 0 | a (k )a(k ) | 0 0 .

. .

. :

( x ) ( ) ( x ) ( ) ( x)

()

d 3k
d 3k
( )
( x)
a(k ) f k ( x) ( x)
a (k ) f k ( x) ,
3
1/2
3
1/2
[(2 ) 2k ]
[(2 ) 2k ]

: ( x) ( y) : ( ) ( x) ( ) ( y) ( ) ( x) ( ) ( y) ( ) ( y) ( ) ( x) ( ) ( x) ( ) ( y)

a a .
Klein

Gordon. a k :
122

a (k ) | n(k ) n 1[(2 )3 2k ]1/2 | n(k ) 1

:

a (ki ) | n(k1 ), n(k2 ),...n(ki ),... n(ki ) 1[(2 )3 2ki ]1/2 | n( k1), n( k2 ),...n( ki ) 1,...
:

a(ki ) | n(k1 ), n(k2 ),...n(ki ),... n(ki )[(2 )3 2ki ]1/2 | n(k1), n(k2 ),...n( ki ) 1,...
, n
k :

| n(k )

1
[a (k )]n | 0 .
3
n /2
n ![(2 ) 2ki ]

, n(k1 ) k1,

n(k2 ) k2 ... :

n ( ki )

| n(k1 ), n(k2 ),...

[
a
(
k
)]
| 0
i
n ( ki )/2
3
i n( ki )![(2 ) 2k ]

n(k).
.

ki. a
n
. Klein-Gordon
[268].
KleinGordon . (2)
Lorentz ,
.
Klein-Gordon
:

( x ) ( ) ( x ) ( ) ( x)

a
.

( ) a ( ) a
:

[ ( x), ( y)] ( x) ( y) ( y) ( x) =
[ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)] [ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)] [ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)] [ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)]

[a(k ), a (k )] (2 )3 2k 3 (k k )
123

[a(k ), a (k )] [a (k ), a (k )] 0
4 , .

[ ( x), ( y)] [ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)] [ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)]

[ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)]

d 3kd 3k
[a(k ), a (k )]eikx iky
6
(2 ) 4kk

d 3kd 3k
(2 )3 2k 3 (k k )]eikx iky
(2 )6 4kk
d 3k

eik )( x y )
3
(2 ) 2k

[ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)]

d 3kd 3k
[a (k ), a(k )]eikx iky
(2 )6 4kk

d 3k

eik )( x y )
3
(2 ) 2k
:

( ) ( x) i

d 3k
eikx
(2 )3 2k

[ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)] i( ) ( x y) [ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)] i( ) ( x y) i( ) ( x y)

:

[ ( x), ( y)] i[( ) ( x y) ( ) ( x y)] ( x y)

( x y )

d 3k
sin k ( x y ) .
(2 )3 k

( x y) :
,
Klein-Gordon
:

(x m2 )(x ) 0
k, :

kx ( ) ( x) 0 kx ( ) ( y) 0
:
124

( x y) i[ ( x), ( y)] i{[ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)] [ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)]}

:

[ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)]

[ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)]

k x

()

d 3k
( x ) ( )
a(k )eikx
3
(2 ) 2k0
2
0

d 3k
(k02 k 2 )a(k )eikx
(2 )3 2k0

kx [ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)] [kx ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)]

(k02 k 2 )

d 3k
eikz
(2 )3 2k0

, :

k x ( ) ( x) ( 02 2 )

d 3k
a (k )eikx
3

(2 ) 2k0

d 3k
(k0 2 k 2 )eikx
(2 )3 2k0

kx [ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)] [kx ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)]

d 3k
(k k )
eikz
3
(2 ) 2k0
2
0

z x y .
:

d 3k
kx [ ( x), ( )] [(k k ) (k k )]
eikxz 0
3
(2 ) 2k0
2
0

2
0

Klein-Gordon
. , ( x y)
, Lorentz.

d 3k
( x y) ( z) i
(eikz eikz )
3
(2 ) 2k
i

d 4k
(k )0 [ (k0 k ) (k0 k )]eikz
3
(2 ) 2k

( f ( x) f ( x0 ))

1
( x xi )
| f ( x0 ) | i
125

 (k02 k2 ) (k 2 m2 )
:

( x y) i

d 4k
(k0 ) (k 2 m2 )eik ( x y )
3
(2 )

, :

[ ( x, t ), ( y, t )] i( x y,0) 0
:

d 3k
( x y )
sin[k ( x y)] 0
(2 )3 2
k

.
, ,
.
Feynman .

i( ) ( x y) [ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)]
.

i( ) ( x y) 0 | [ ( ) ( x), ( ) ( y)] | 0 0 | ( ) ( x) ( ) ( y) | 0

d 3k
0 | ( x) ( y) | 0
eik ( x y )
3
(2 ) 2k
0 | ( x) ( y) | 0

. :

T{ ( x), ( y)} ( x0 y 0 ) ( x) ( y) ( y 0 x0 ) ( y) ( x)

1, t 0
0, t 0

(t )

.
Feynman:

i F ( x y) 0 | T{ ( x) ( y)}| 0
:

F ( x y ) ( x 0 y 0 ) ( ) ( x y ) ( y 0 x 0 ) ( ) ( x y )
Feynmam
( 6).
y x
0

x y
0

i F ( x y ) 0 | ( y ) ( x ) | 0 .

126

i F ( x y ) 0 | ( x ) ( y ) | 0

 6: Feynmam
Klein-Gordon.
Lorentz.
, ( 7).

7: Lorentz Klein-Gordon
:

d 4 keik ( x y )
F ( x y)
k 2 m2
(2 )4 CF
1

,
, Cauchy,
Klein-Gordon [269].
C. T Klein-Gordon
.
,
. Fourier:

( x)

d 3k
[a(k )eikx b (k )eikx ]
3
(2 ) 2k
127

d 3k
( x)
[b(k )eikx a (k )eikx ]
3
(2 ) 2k

b b
. :

[a(k ), a (k )] (2 )3 2k 3 (k k )
[b(k ), b (k )] (2 )3 2k 3 (k k )

b, . :

3
Q J 0d 3 x i

d x
t
t

Q i:
Q

: d 3x
t
t

d 3k
[a (k )a(k ) b (k )b(k )] .
3
(2 ) 2k

: H : d 3kk N (k )

H d 3kk [a (k )a(k ) b (k )b(k )]

:

Q
i[Q, H ] 0
t
.
:

d 3k
Q
[ N a (k ) Nb (k )]
(2 )3 2k
, , ,
.
Q p. p
.
,
, ,
. [ ( x), ( y)] .
:
128

k0 k (k 2 m2 )1/2

[ ( x), ( y)]

d 3kd 3k
[a(k ), a (k )]eikxiky [b (k ), b(k )]eikxiky
(2 )6 2k0 2k0
1

1
d 3k ik ( x y )

e
sin k0 ( x0 y0 )
(2 )3 k0
:

( x y) i

d 3k
sin k ( x y)
(2 )3 2k

[ ( x), ( y)] i( x y)

[ ( x), ( y)]x0 y0 0
Klein-Gordon
,
.
D. Klein-Gordon

Klein-Gordon .
Paulli .
Klein-Gordon
.
:
[270].

. ( )
.
.

Paulli .
.

.
, Dirac
.
129

 .

.
4.4.2. Dirac
A. Dirac
H

Dirac

Euler-Lagrange

i
2

L [ ( ) ( ) ] m
L (i m) J

J
.
:

J 0

L (i m) .
:

( x)

L
i 0 i ( x)
( x)

( x)

L
i 0 ( x)
( x)

L
L

i i 0 i 0 i i i m 0 (i ii m) i 0 0
:

(i ) 0 (i i i m) i 0 0
:

H 0i 0 0 i

130

t
t

.
Klein-Gordon .
. Dirac
, Fourier [266-268]:

( x)

ikx
d 3k m
[ba (k )u ( a ) (k )e d a (k ) ( a ) (k )eikx ]

3
(2 ) k0 a 1,2

(1)

( x)

ikx
d 3k m
[ba (k )u ( a ) (k )e d a (k ) ( a ) (k )e ikx ]

3
(2 ) k0 a 1,2

(2)

u1,2 1,2 spinors .

Dirac,
. :

H d 3 xH = d 3 x[ ( x)i
i

a , a 2

d 3 x

( x) ( x)
i
( x)]
t
t

d 3k d 3k m2

( a )
ikx
( a )
ikx
(2 )3 (2 )3 k0k0 {[ba (k )u (k )e da (k ) (k )e ]

[ba (k )u ( a ) (k )eikx (ik0 ) da (k ) ( a ) (k )(ik0 )eikx ] [ba (k )u ( a ) (k )(ik0 )eikx

da (k ) ( a ) (k )(ik0 )eikx da (k ) ( a ) (k )eikx + da (k ) ( a ) (k )eikx ]}..

d x 3 (k k ) ,
3

d k :

d 3k
m [b (k )ba (k ) d a (k )d a (k )]
3 a
(2 )
a

,
d , d .
,
.
:

{A, B} AB BA
:

{ba (k ), ba (k )} {da (k ), d a (k )} (2 )3

131

k0 3
(k k ) aa
m

{ba (k ), ba (k )} {ba (k ), ba (k )} {da (k ), da (k )} {da (k ), da (k )} 0

dd 1 d d , Dirac,
, :

: dd : d d
:

H d 3 x : H :

d 3k
m [ba (k )ba (k ) d a (k )d a (k )]
3
(2 )
a

{ba (k ), ba (k )} 0 ba (k )ba (k ) 0

ba (k )ba (k ) | 0 0
, Dirac
. Dirac
Pauli, [270].
, Dirac
.
Dirac

Q d 3 x : J 0 ( x) : d 3 x : ( x) ( x) :

Q
b

d 3k m
[ba (k )ba (k ) da (k )da (k )]
(2 )3 k0 a

d , b, d

.
{ ( x, t ), ( x , t )} . :

{ i ( x, t ), j ( x , t )}
a , a

d 3kd 3k m2 ( a )
[ui (k )uk( a ) (k ) kj0 {ba (k ), ba (k )}e ikx ikx +
(2 )6 k0 k0

i( a ) (k )k( a ) (k ) kj0 {da (k ), da (k )}eikxikx ]..

{ i ( x, t ), j ( x , t )} 3 ( x x ) ij .
{ a ( x), b ( y)} .
(1,2) :

{ a ( x), b ( y)}

d3 p 1
[ p m)ab eip ( x y ) ( p m) ab eip ( x y ) ]
3
(2 )
2E p

:
132

 p i x
:

{ a ( x), b ( y)} (i x m)ab [ ( x), ( y)]

{ a ( x), b ( y)} i(i x m)ab ( x y)

( ) ( x)
( ) ( x)

d 3km
(2 )3 k0

b (k )u

d 3km
(2 )3 k0

b (k )u

(a)

(k )eikx

(a)

(k )eikx

Feynman. Feynman
:

iSF ( x y) 0 | T{ ( x) ( y)}| 0

SF ( x y) ( x0 y 0 )S ( ) ( x y ) ( y 0 x 0 )S ( ) ( x y)
(i m) F ( x y)
,
Lorentz x 0 y 0 x 0 y 0 ,
( 8).

8: iS F ( x y ) 0 | T { ( x) ( y )} | 0

C.
:

H (1 / 2) t2 x2 m2 2 dx
( H )dx

133

(Klein-Gordon)
(Dirac)

 . ,
Klein-Gordon ,
Dirac, .
, Klein-Gordon

.
. Dirac, , ,
.
.
, :

AB BA 1

=0

, , ,
,
,
.

.
. ,
.

.
.
, :
AB BA 0

.

.
Klein-Gordon
Dirac. ,
. Klein-Gordon

. Dirac,
Schrodinger,
,

.

134


[266-270].
4.4.3. T Schrodinger

Schrodinger [266,267]. (x,t)

:

[ ( x, t ), ( x , t )] [ ( x, t ), ( x, t )] 0
[ ( x, t ), ( x , t )] ( x x )
:

{ ( x, t ), ( x , t )} { ( x, t ), ( x , t )} 0
{ ( x, t ), ( x , t )} ( x x )
Schrodinger
(i t H ) i .
Schrodinger i

H :
t

( x, t ) n n eiE t
n

, n
. n
:

n n ( x )eiE t
n

( H )dx :

a a E

n n

E | an |2 En
:
Schrodinger
. .
, ,
Schrodinger .

135

A. -
:

| x1 , x2

1
( x1 ) ( x2 ) | 0
2

| x2 , x1 | x1 , x2

(+) (-)
( x1 ), ( x2 ) .
n m,

| n, m anam | 0
:

( x1, x2 ) x1, x2 | n, m

( x1 , x2 )

1
t ( x1 ) k ( x2 ) 0 |at ak anam | 0

2 i ,k

( x1 , x2 )

1
m ( x1 ) n ( x2 ) n ( x1 ) m ( x2 )
2

.
.
Schrodinger [268]. ,
, .

.
( )

. ..
, , ,
.
.
( )

.
,
. .
136


,
-,
. -
Klein-Gordon -
, .
( ) ( )
.

. ,
. ,
( ),
( ) ,
.

.
.

. Dirac, Schrodinger
eia ,
:

Q ( x ) ( x )dx


, :

Q anan N n N
n

.
, Schrodinger,
Dirac

Schrodinger,
:

( x) ( x)dx

(1)

v.
:
137

| x0 ( x0 ) | 0

(2)

,
- - v
x0 . , (2) (1) :

N | x0 ( x) ( x) ( x0 ) | 0 dx

(3)

[ ( x), ( x0 )] ( x) ( x0 ) ( x0 ) ( x) ( x x0 )

(4)

( x) | 0 0 , (4) :

( x) ( x0 ) | 0 ( x x0 ) | 0
(3) :

N | x0 ( x x0 ) ( x) | 0 ( x0 ) | 0 | x0 1 |x0

: v, x0 ,
. v.
. .
:

| x1 ,..., xN

1
( x1 )... ( xN ) | 0 .
N!

Ni | x1 ,..., xN 1 | x1...xN

(i 1,...N )

v1...vN
( v1 x1, v2 x2, ...). v :

N | x1 ,..., xN m | x1...xN
m x1...xN .
, ,
.
,
Schrodinder .


(, ,
). ,
, ,
(, )
[266-270].
138

4.4.4.
.
.
.
, ,

.


.
.
.
[268].

, ,

.
Maxwell

.
Maxwell :

E 0
E

(1)

1 B
c t

B 0
B

(2)
(3)

1 E
c t

(4)

(3) :

B A

(5)

.
(5) (2), :

1 A
E
0
c t

1 A
1 A
E
c t
c t
139

(6)


, (6) E .
( A, ) .
:

A A f

1 f
c t

(7)

f ( r , t ) .

A A f A f A
A , B

1 A
1 f 1
1 A

A f

c t
c t c t
c t

(7)
,

.
:

A 0

(8)

Coulomb
[266-270].
. T -

.
,
Schrodinger E B .

.
, ,

A 0 ,

(
).
,
, ,
E 0 B 0 .

140

 E

, .
:

1
8

B 2 dV

(9)

B E
(4) Maxwell, .

. E B (9) ()

A .

A,

k ,s

f k , s ak,s f k,s

k ,s

1 A
B A
c t

,
(9). :

a k

k ,s k ,s

(10)

k ,s

ak, s ak , s
.

f k , s . :

f k , s Nk ek ,s

ei ( k r k t )
V

(9) :
:

1 A
1

ak ,s f k ,s ak,s fk,s

c t
c t k , s

ik
i
ak , s f k ,s k ak,s f k,s
c
k ,s c

141

E 2 dV .

 bk ,s f k , s bk, s f k, s
k ,s

bk , s

ik
i
ak , s bk, s k ak, s
c
c

E dV , b
2

k ,s k ,s

k ,s k ,s

bk,s f k,s bk ,s f k ,s bk,s f k,s dV

bk , s bk ,s f k ,s f k ,s dV bk,s bk,s f k,s f k,s

(11)

bk , s bk,s f k ,s f k,s dV bk,s bk ,s f k,s f k ,s dV

(12)

(11) ,
. (12) :

k ,s

1 ik r ik r
e e dV =..
V

f k ,s dV Nk Nk ek ,s ek ,sei (k k )t

. Nk2 ss k ,k
V
k.
:
2
2
E dV Nk
k ,s

k2
c2

k ,s k ,s

ak , s ak, s

1
2k2ak,sak ,s
2 c 2 k ,s k

(13)

(13) (10)
, N k , :

1
c 2
Nk 2k2 k Nk
c 4
2
2 c
k

1
.
2k

( )
.
:

1
SdV
c2

c
EB
4
142

(14)

 Poynting
( ).

:
= x
( )
:

P( r )

S /c S
2
c
c

(14) .
,

Noether.

.
, .
C. O HM
:

ak ,s | 0 0

H | 0 0 P | 0 0

.
k

ek ,s :

| k , s ak,s | 0

H | k , s k | k , s P | k , s k | k , s

E

| k , s

p k .

k1 , s1 k2 , s2 :

| k1 , s1; k2 , s2 ak1 ,s1 ak2 ,s2 | 0

ak1 ,s1 ak2 ,s2 :

| k1, s1; k2 , s2 | k2 , s2 ; k1, s1

143

The universe is an enornous direct product of

representations of symmetry groups.
Steven Weinberg

Steven Weinberg, Sheldon Glashow, and Abdus Salam were awarded the 1979 Nobel Prize in
Physics for their incorporation of the weak and electromagnetic interactions into a single theory.

145

5.1.

.

19 .
Gauss, Cauchy, Abel, Hamilton, Galois, Sylvester, Caley .

1925.

, ,
. .
..
. , .
, [271].

. .
,
Hamilton.
.

:
A. , ..
[272].
B. , ..
.
.
C. .

, .. Lagrange Hamilton,
,
Lorentz [271].
D. .
,



, [273].
146

 . '

.
5.2.
5.2.1.
Z={,-2,-1,0,1,2,}.
, :

(n,mZ)[m+nZ]

Z 0, , : (nZ)[n+0=0+n=n]

nZ n Z n+n=n+n=0,
( n=-n), .: (nZ)(nZ)[n+n=n+n=0]

: (n,m,pZ)[(n+m)+p=n+(m+p)]
, U(n)

. ( U
, .U t=U-1). :

A, B AB
.

U(n) : AI=IA=A
AU(n).

AA=AA=I,
( , , =-1).

,, : ()=()
:

1: G ,
(*), , ,
(group), :
A. (,,G)[()=()]

B. (eG)(G)[e=e=]

C. (G) (G)[==e]

2: (*) G :
D. (,G)[*=*]
G .
3:
, .

147

 .
.
5.2.2.
.
,

[273,274].

.
, .

.
.
5.2.3.

. ,
.
G n
.
. : 2, 3,
n=AAA= n n
. n n+k=k. ,
:
{,2,,n-1, n=}, n,
. G={1,-1,I,-I} ,
{i} , : i 1 ,
2

i3 i , i 4 1 ).
, ,
: 2=3=()2=. , , 2, (
2= 3=), , 2, , , , 2,
2. . .
()2= : ==() =(B) =22=2, =2
. . 2, 2
, 2= 2=. , :
2==()2 2=()() = 2=3= 2=
148

 :
3==()2 3=()() 2= 2=2 2=
6: , , , 2, , .
5.2.4.
G, : 2, 3,.
G, G
n =. n
n=, .
, , .
{,2,,n-1,n=}.
5.2.5.
G G
. G
, , ={} =G.
,G . G
:
( x,y H)[xy-1 H]
5.2.6.
, G.
: =-1,
,
.
=P -1P, =Q-1Q Q=-1
, ,
. , = -1, (
), , =-1 =Q-1CQ
=-1(Q-1CQ)P=(QP)-1C(QP).
, .
.
.
,
-1=. ,
= -1,
=.
149

 .
. -1=-1=.
5.2.7.
G
, G,
(normal, invariant), :
= =-1

, :
i =j -1j =i

1i,jh

i j
i G,
i .
. ,
, . =-1
G ,
.
G {} G.
(simple)
, (semi-simple),
.
G,
,
: ,
=.
.

R=G/H.
5.2.8.
,
. ,
, .
. G={, , , C, } G ={E, A, B, C, }
g, * ,
:
f: G G
150

( ), :
( A,B G)[f(A*B)=f(A)f(B)]
G G f .
G
G G G .
f , ,
G G f .
.
G R=G/H.
5.2.9.

. n
.
, .
, ,
. T ,
n!, ' n n!.
n n Sn.
, 3!=6 :

(1)
.. :
1 2, 2 3
3 1.

151

 1,2,3
. "", :
1=(1 2 3)

2=(2 3 1)

3=(3 1 2)

4=(2 1 3)

5=(3 2 1)

6=(1 3 2)

"" (1) . ..

5.3.
, , ...
. ,
,
,
, ,
""
.
,
,
. .
, ,
. '
:
G A,B,C,, S x,y,z, (S)
S:
M(S)={f / f:SS, f= }
T:
T: G (S)
T: A G T (A) =TA (S)
G, A S, :
TA: S S

(1)

,
TATB T :
TATB=TAB

(2)

, G
S. (2)
G .
,
152

 ,
.

.
S V,
TA,TB, () '
. , '
, n
, n=dimV .
:
. ,
.
[273,274].
5.3.1.
G={E,A,B,C,...} g M
, , , n.
M G M
:
T: G M
:
( A,B G)[T(A)T(B)=T(AB)]
T(A)T(B) T() T(). T,
, G.
M .
, '
V n. : V V,
{e1,e2,,en}, n ij,
:
n

Tei Tije j
j1

ij
G TA '
.

,
. , G
153

 , . T()=T(). ,
. T ,
G . '
. ,
T ,
G .
G
.
G .

.
5.3.2.
G == G,
,
G, :
T(E)T(A)=T(A)T(E)=T(A)
T() .
G
, .
T()T()=T(AB) =-1 :
T()T(A-1)=T(AA-1)=T(E)=E T(A-1)=(T(A))-1
.
T1 T2 G.
S :
( A G)[ T1(A)=S-1T2(A)S ]

(4)

T1 T2 .
1 2
. :

.
154

5.3.3.
V UV
G, :
( A G)( v U)[ T(A)v U ]

(5)

U , G
V G.
5.3.4.
U m V,
n,
:

D1(A), D2() m, n-m , ()

(n-m)m 0 m(n-m).
, T .

U V.
1: T G,
,
,

W :
()=W-1()W

() . () .
5.3.5.
'
.
M (n n) n n . (
, ,

).
,
[275,276]. :

155

1. GL(n), (General Linear Group).

:

.1. GL(n,R),
nxn .
n2,
detA0.

GL(n,C), nxn
. 2n2.

2. SL(n), (Special Linear Group). :

SL(n,R).
+1.
n2-1.

SL(n,C).
+1.
2(n2-1).

3. U(n) (Unitary Group). ,

, , . U +U=E. :
n

U*ik Ukj ij

U
k 1

k 1

ik

U*jk ij

:
) U(n) |U ij|<1

n
2

) : 2n 2 n 2 2 n 2
4. SU(n). U(n) detU=+1.
n2-1
5. (n).
: t=. :

.
(n,R) :

n n(n 1)
2n 2 n
2
2

.
O(n,C) :

n
2n 2 2n 2 n(n 1)
2
156

 , detOt=detO t=, detO=1,

.
6. SO(n).
+1. :

SO(n,C).
(n,C) +1
(n,C) n(n-1)-1.

SO(n,R). o
+1
(n,R), n(n-1)/2-1.

-1 ,
.
(n,R) '
, <Ox|Oy>=<x|OtOy>=<x|y>.
: <x|x>=xi.
(n,C).
7. .

,
:
<x|y>=<x|y>=xJy

Sp(2n,R) Sp(2n,C) .
:

2n
2n 2 n(2n 1)
2

Sp(2n,R)

2n
2(2n 2 ) 2 2n(2n 1)
2

Sp(2n,C)

Sp(2n) t=
. x
y :
x=(x1,x2,. . .,xn,x-1,x-2,. . .,x-n) y=(y1,y2,. . .,yn,y-1,y-2,. . .,y-n)
: xJ

x
i 1

x i i .

157

5.4.

[275,276], .

:
A) , ( )
) , ( ).
5.4.1.

1,2,3,...,n,
' .
. r, (1rn)
. ,
r .
5.4.2.
'
,
,
.

Sr r- Rr
norm ||||. Sr . P(x)
Sr, x G, x 1.
- (P(x)) P(x) Sr,
N(P(x))={P(x) Sr / ||P(x)-P(x)||<}

(6)

- (x) x:
N(x)={x G / ||P(x)-P(x)||<}

1: -
158

(7)


.
x1 x2:
x1x2=x3

(8)

x2 :
( >0)( >0)[x N(x2) x1x N(x3)]

(9)

( >0)( >0)[||P(x)-P(x2)||< ||P(x1x)-P(x3)||<]

(10)

x 1.
:
x1x2 x 3 ( 2).

:
( >0)( >0)[x N(x) x-1 N(x-1)]
x
x-1 ( 3).

.
5.4.3.
x 1 x2 G P(x1)
P(x2) Sr. P(x 1) P(x2)
, ' S r,
, .
G ,
C, P(x 1) P(x2). x G,
P(x) C,
x1 x2.
159

 G G
, ,
.
,
.
. , ..


.

Sr,

.
, , . k,
k- .
r n-r ,
Sr n-r .
G n-r ,
n-r Sr.

.
,
, . .

5.4.4. Lie
x1, x2, ... G r
:
x1x1(1,2,,r) , x2 x2(1,2,,r) ...
x1x2=x3x3(1,2,,r ) x1-1=x4x4(1,2,,r)
x3 x4
x1 x2, :
ii(1,,r ;1,,r)
ii(1,,r) i=1,,r

(11)

G Lie- r
e

, ( ).
160

 i i (11) i i
, x3, x4 x1, x2 N.
,
Lie- e
:
ex(0,0,,0)
, x, ,
Taylor ,
Lie- :
r
x
x(1 , 2 , 3 ,..., r ) x(0, 0, 0,..., 0)

1
0

x
1 r r

2 1 1

x
....

(12)

x
iJ k

(13)

i2=-1 :
r

x(1 , 2 , 3 ,..., r ) x(0, 0, 0,..., 0) i J

1

x, :

: x(0,..., ,...0) x(0,0,0,...,0) iJ e iJ

=(0,,,0) ""
e, :

lim()
0

x(0,..., ,...0) x(0,..., ,...0)x(0,..., ,...0)......x(0,..., ,...0)

(e iJ )(e iJ ).....(e iJ ) (e iJ )
:

x(0,..., ,...0) lim x(0,..., ,...0) lim(e iJ )

0

161

 lim(e i(

k
)J ) exp(i J )
N

: x=x(1,2,,r)= exp(i1J1) exp(i2J2) exp(irJr) .

(14)

Lie-,
e, J
1,2,,r. ' J
. Lie- r r .
J (14), :
r

x(1 , 2 , 3 ,..., r ) exp( i J )

(15)

Lie- .
:
xx(0,,,,0)=e+iJ
xx(0,,,,0)=e+iJ
: xx=xxe+i(J+J) Lie- G.
5.4.5.
(x), Lie- G,
(x1)(x2)=(x3) x1x2=x3 M(x)M(x)=M(e) xx=e.
:

lim M(x) M(x 0 )

x x 0

G ,
G.
,
:
1: ,
.
2: ,
block ..:

M1 (x)

M(x) 0
0

0
0

0
M s (x)

3: .

162

5.4.6. Lie Lie

Lie- G r 1, 2,, r, r J1,
J2,,Jr. Lie-
:
r

x(1 , 2 , 3 ,..., r ) exp( i J )

(16)

G ,
. Lie-
. :
Lie- :
xx(0,,,,0)=exp(ikJk)
xx(0,,,,0)=exp(J)
, exp(i kJk)exp(iJ)
(16)
k. Lie- ,
.
J k J.
exp(i kJk)exp(iJ) [J k,J]=JkJ-JJk
, :
r

[J k , J ]= ckj J j

<k, <r

(17)

j1

c kj . Lie-
Lie-
. c kj Lie-,
.
Lie- .
,
.
r Lie-
L r.
(17)
L
Lie-, , :
(x,yL)[[x,y]=xy-yxL]
(x,yL) [[x,y]=-[y,x]]
(x,y,z,) [ [x,[y,z]]+[y,[z,x]]+[z,[x,y]]=0] ( Jacobi)
163


, [x,y], (
xy-yx), Lie .
(17) Lie- G
, c kj :

ckj cj k
r

[c
m 1

(18)

c cmjcskm c mjk csm ] 0

m s
k jm

Jk , (17)
. (18)

Lie-

Lie- G
Lie- L. r ,
p, (17)
Jk (16), p
Lie- G. ,
: Lie-
Lie-.
SU(2)
. :

0 i
2

i 0

0 1
1

1 0

1 0
3

0 1

(19)

Pauli, spin
:

[ j , k ] 2i jk

(20)

jk, ( Levi-Civita), 3,
:
123=231=312=-213=-132=-321=1

(21)

jk 2i
SU(2). Lie- SU(2)
x, y, z .
SU(2) :

164

0 1 0

1 1 0 0
0 0 0

0 i 0

2 i 0 0
0 0 0

1 0 0

3 0 1 0
0 0 0

(22)

[ j , k ] 2i jk

Lie-,
Lie-.
Lie- Casimir. Racah,
Casimir Lie- .
Casimir
. SU(2)
Casimir 2x2+y2+z2 .
5.4.7. SU(2)
V C 2

u1
. '
u2

u1
v1
v :
u2
v2

v1 a b u1


v2 c d u 2

(23)

a,b,c,d 8
. U
:
u1u1*+u2u2*=v1v1*+v2v2*
(23) U,
:

a b a*
UU E
*
c d b

c* 1 0

d* 0 1

a 2 c 2 a *b c*d 1 0

b*a d*c b 2 d 2 0 1

: a c 1 , b d 1, ac* bd* 0
2

165

(24)

 , (24)
. (24), 4 ,
(23) 8 4. (23) :
a=cosei, b=-sinei(-), c=sinei , d=cosei(-)
U :

cosei
U(, , , )
i
sine

-sinei( )

cosei( )

(25)

,,, .
U(2),
2. U(2)
, , , Lie-.
U(2) +1 .
(25) detU=1, cos2ei+sin2ei=1. H
=0. (25) :

cosei
U(, , , )
i
sine

-sinei

cosei

cosei
U(, , )
i
-sine

sinei

cosei

(26)

(26) a=cosei b=sinei :

a
U(, ) *
b

b
2
2
a b 1
a *

(27)

, (27),
SU(2). detU=+1, SU(2)
3. SO(3) 3-.
. SO(3),
R3 x 2+y2+z2 SU(2)
|u1|2+|u2|2 . SU(2)
x 2+y2+z2. , , 22,
Pauli:

x i
z
x1 y2 z3 M

z
i

(28)

( (x2+y2+z2),
), :
=M+

166

(29)

 a
*
b

b
2
2
a b 1 .
a *

U(, )

(29) :

x iy a
z

z b
x iy

b z

a x iy

x iy a

z b

(30)

1
i
x (a 2 a2 b2 b2 ) x (a 2 a2 b2 b2 ) y (ab ab ) z
2
2

i
1
y (a 2 a2 b2 b2 ) x (a 2 a2 b 2 b2 ) y i (ab ab ) z
2
2

(31)

z (ab ab ) x i(ab ab ) y (aa bb ) z

x, y, z,
x, y, z x, y, z a
b SU(2).
:

d et(M ) det(M ) ( x2 y 2 z 2 ) (( x)2 ( y)2 ( z)2 )

(32)

U x2+y2+z2 .
(32) (31) .
:

i 2
1 2
2
2
2
2
2
2

2 (a a b b ) 2 (a a b b ) (ab a b )

i 2
1 2
2
2
2
2
2
2

(O) (a a b b )
(a a b b ) i (ab a b )
2

(a b ab )
i (a b ab )
(aa bb )

(33)

, SU(2),
3 3 det(O) 1 , :

U (a, b) SO(3)
:

b 0
2

1. a exp i

(a 2 a2 2cos , a 2 a2 2i sin ) :

i 2
e
U (e 2 , 0)
0
i

2. a cos

b sin

cos
0
sin

i
e 2 0

sin
cos
0

0
0
1

2
2
2
2
( a b 1 a b 1 , ab a b

167

sin
) :
2

cos 2
U (cos ,sin )
2
2
sin

cos
2 0

cos
sin
2
sin

0 sin
1
0
0 cos

U i , 0 U cos ,sin U i , 0
2
2 2
2

i ( )/2

cos 2 e

sin ei ( )/2

ei ( )/2
2
R( , , )
i ( )/2
cos e

2
sin

(34)

R( , , ) Euler , , .
2 2 (34) SU(2)
(26). , SU(2)

R(3).
R(3) :

R(0,0,0) R(0, 2 ,0)

1 0
SU(2)
0 1

R(0,0,0) ( )

1 0
R(0, 2 ,0) I
( ) .
0 1
:

U ( , 2 , ) R( , 2 , )
U ( , , ) R( , , )

R( , , ) R( , 2 , )

(35)

U :

U ( , , ) U ( , 2 , )

(36)

R( , , ) U ( , , ) U ( , 2 , )
SO(3) SU(2) , .
5.4.8. U(n) SU(n)
U(n) o , (
), n, SU(n)
n +1. SU(n) U(n).
n n2 , U(n)
168

, , n2-, , Lie-. SU(n)

: +1. SU(n)
, , (n2-1)-, , Lie-.
U(n), n 2, :
, =+,
exp(iH) . , U
, :
U=exp(iH)

(37)

U exp i a j H j H H
j 1

.
. n 2
n, , (
), U.
1, 2,,N n2 =n2 j,
(1j), n2 . n
:

U exp i a j H j
j 1

(38)

U(n) (38)
j.
j U(n).
,
U(n).
, :
det(eA)=etrA

(39)

trA= = .
(37) :
detU=det(eiH)=exp(itrH)

(40)

H ,
trH= detU=exp(i)
1, |detU|=|exp(i)|=1.
SU(n) U 0=exp(iH0) detU0=1
trH0=0. . n2-1
SU(n).
n 2-1 SU(n)

169

 n n 2
U(n).
:

tr ( H ) 0

(41)

(37) (40) 2 2 :

H
i

i
, ,

1 0
0 1
0 i
H

0 1
1 0
i 0

Pauli:

0 1
,
1 0

0 i
,
i 0

1 0

0 1

i, j, k x, y, z

[ i , j ] 2i ijk k

[ si , s j ] i ijk sk

1
si i
2

1
sx x
2

1
sy y
2

1
sz z
2

SU(2), :

U ( , , ) exp(i sz ) exp(i s y ) exp(i sz )

U ( , , ) exp(i

z ) exp(i y ) exp(i z ) .
2

SU(2)
. SU(n). ..
SU(3),
, :

0 1 0
0 i 0
1 0 0
0 0 1

,
1 1 0 0 2 i 0 0 3 0 1 0 4 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0

170

 0 0 i
0 0 0

,
5 0 0 0 6 0 0 1 ,
i 0 0
0 1 0

0 0 0
1 0 0
1

7 0 0 i 8
0 1 0

3
0 i 0

0 0 2

5.4.9. SU(2)
1. (, , , , ..).
:

ms

1
1

2
0

ms

0
1

2
1

2. .
.

1
0

0
1

. . ..

1
quark u
0
0
quark d
1

u
d

3. .

0
eL
1

1
(ve ) L
0

v
e
e L

u L d L .
. .
5.4.10. SU(3)
SU(3) 3 +1.
32-1=8 , 1, 2, , 8
. :

0 1 0
1 1 0 0
0 0 0

0 i 0
2 i 0 0
0 0 0

1 0 0
3 0 1 0
0 0 0

171

0 0 1
4 0 0 0
1 0 0

 0 0 i
5 0 0 0
i 0 0

0 0 0
6 0 0 1
0 1 0

0 0 0
7 0 0 i
0 i 0

1 0 0
1

8
0 1 0
3

0 0 2

(42)

[ j , k ] 2i c jk

c jk :
c123=1
c147=c516=c246=c257=c345=c637=1/2
c458=c678=(3/2)1/2
SU(3)
(42).
3 8 .
3 8 .
SU(3) 2. SU(3) Casimir.
:
8

C i2
i 1

Casimir
.

172

We did not know how to make the theory fit

experiment.It was our judgement, however,that the
beauty of the idea alone merited attention.
C.N. Yang

173

6.1.

.
,
[277].
.

.
.
.
.

,
[278-288].
,
(QED),
.
1920
Heisenberg Schredinger ,
.
,
Maxwell ,


. ,

U(1).

.
,
, ,
.
,
,
.
, SU(3) x SU(2) x U(1).
SU(N),
174

N2-1 . SU(3)
, QCD.
. SU(3)
,
.
SU(2) x U(1) .
U(1) ,
, . , SU(2)
. SU(2)

.
: ,
.
,

.
:
1.
2. 1,
1/2
3. .
,
.
4. H :
A. ,

B.
5.

6.2.
6.2.1.
H ,
u (up) d (down) (
).
.
.
175

 U(1)
.
: . 3
, up
down 3
. ( 1),
Feynman, .

1: Feynman
6.2.2.
4 : up (u) down (d),
(e) (e),
.
SU(2) 3 .
3 - .
: up down
( ). H
,
( W+ W-,
( Z).
- W+, W- Z,
80 90 GeV,
10-18 m, 0.1%
( ). ,
10-4 ,

, ,
.
,
. ( 2) :
W,
. ,
176

2: Feynman
H

SU(2)

. , ,
, ( ),
(udd) (uud). ,
d u ,
( ). down
up. W
.
W,
(- ) ( up
down).
Z .

3: Feynman
6.2.3.
,
.
,
.
,
"" ,
177

. ,
-.
(QCD), ,
Yukawa, .
.

. -
-
.
.
, ,

; .

.
:

, 8
( -)

(--)

"" .

,
.

1. 137
.

1.510-15 m
,

: . ,
3 : .. U R,UB UG,UR,UB dG,dR,dB, R,G,B
, . ,
. ,
. ,
,
,
( 3 ) ( 2 )
,
( 4).
178

 4: .

( )
5
, .

5:

SU(3) 8 ,
. H
. ,
.
6.3. (QED)
(QED)
,
. 1931
, Maxwell,
.
.
Julian Schwinger, Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, Richard
Feynman, Freeman, Dyson Ward [46-57].
1931 Paul Dirac QED

.
179

 '50
.

.

.
.

.
"" ,

.
, '
.
. ,
. ,
' .
6.3.1.
(QED),
. QED
. ,
.
.
,
1946 [47], S. Tomonaga,
. "" ,

.
.

""
.

,
.
. Dirac
180

 ,
1.

1.00115965221
9 .

,
, ( 6).

6:
6.3.2. QED
1. 2p, =1/2,
2s, =1/2,

(QED)
.
Lamb [58-66]
.
181

 ,

-,
.
Feynman.
2. (fs)
3s 1s -.

.
3.
-. (QED)
.

,
.
.
Feynman (
7).

7: Feynman
,
( )
. ,
(1/137)2,
.
6.3.3.
(1/137)2 je 1/137
.
182

 " " .
.
Sommerfeld,
,
. :

e2
a
2 hc

:1/137.0359895 (

: 0,045 ).
:
e =1,60217733 10-19 C
= 8,854187817 10-12 F m-1
h = 6,6260755 10-34 J s Planck
c = 299792458 m s-1
a (h) (c).


, .
.

.

je ,

.
-0,08542455.
, 70 ,
je2, .
6.4.
1 2
:

1
(1 i2 )
2
1
(1 i2 )
2

(1)
(2)

L ( )( ) m2
183

(3)

 * , (3)
Euler-Lagrange:

L
L

0

( )

(4)

Klein Gordon:

L
L
2

2

0 m 0 ( m ) 0

( )

(5)

L
L

0 m2 0 ( m2 ) 0

( )

(6)

(3) U(1):

ei , ei

(7)

. :

L ( ei )( ei ) m2ei ei L

(7)

* (1) (2).

L ( 1 )( 1 ) ( 2 )( 2 ) m2 (12 21 )
2- :

1i 2 j

(9)

L ( )( ) m2

(11)

(7) :

1 i2 ei (1 i2 )

1 i2 ei (1 i2 )

1 i2 (cos i sin )(1 i2 )

1 i2 (cos i sin )(1 i2 )

1 1 cos 2 sin

2 1 sin 2 cos

1 cos sin 1


2 sin cos 2
184

(12)

(8)

 (1,2) ,
( 8).
SO(2). , U(1) SO(2) .

8:
(7)
.
. :

i , i

(13)

( ) i , ( ) i

(14)

,
:

x ,
:

i , i , 0

(15)

Noether,
, , :

L
k k
( )

(16)

(3) (19) :

L
L
(i )
(i )

( )
( )
( )i ( )i

J i( )

(17)

0 .
(5) (6) :

J i[ ]

(m2 ) (m2 )
J 0
185

(18)

Q J 0 dV

Q i

dV
t
t

(19)

, Q=0 .
Q .
, :

dQ
0.
dt
,

. ,

e . ,
, , , .
6.5.
(7) ,
. ,
,
.

,

( x ) .
[289-296].
,
.
1 :

i i

(20)

i( ) i ( ) i( ) i( )

(21)

(22)

( ) i( ) i( )

(23)

(13) (14)

,
186

. .
,
. :

L [( )( )] m2 ( )
[ ( )]( ) ( )[ ( )] m2 ( ) m2
[i ) i( ] [i i( ) ] m2i m2

( )[i i ]

L ( ) J 0

(24)

4- A ,
J .
:

L1 eJ A

L1 ie( ) A
L1 [ Length]4 [ Energy]4 . *
[ Energy]1 , A

,
x

e , A
J . A ,
.
A :

1
A A
e
:

L1 e( J ) eJ ( )
e( J ) J ( )

(25)

(24),
. :

J i ( * * )
2 *
:
187

(26)

 L L1 2eA ( )

(27)

L2 e2 A A
:

L2 2e2 A A e2 A A [( ) ( )]
2eA ( ) *

L L1 L2 0

(28)

U(1),
A . A .
A 4 :

F A A

(29)

F
A , :

1
4

L3 F F

(30)

1
4

Ltot ( ieA )( ieA ) m2 F F

(31)

F .
Maxwell, Heavyside
Lorentz :

1 B
0
c t

0
xB

1 E J

c t c

Lorentz
. 4- A ( x) ,

A( x, t ) ,

A ( A0 A) , A0 , Coulomb.
:

F A A

188

 F
. :

Ei F0i

1
Bi ijk Fjk
2
F :

0
1
E
2
E
3
E

E1

E 2

0
B3
B2

B3
0
B1

E3

B2
B1

, F

1
F F
2
Maxwell :

F J

(32)

F 0

(33)

(32) (33) Maxwell

. (32) (33)
.
U(1)
.
:
1. J e.
e ,
.
2. :

1
4

Ltot ( ieA )( ieA ) m2 F F

(31)

L ( )( ) m2

(11)

( ieA ) .

D : D ( ieA )

, ( ) ,:

( D ) ( ) ie( A ) ieA
189

 i( ) ieA )

i( D )

(32)

3. e ,
:

D ( ieA )

(33)

o e. 1 2
. D
, D ,
.
4. Maxwell uler-Lagrange,
(31) :

L

A

0
( A

F ie( ) 2e2 A | |2

ie( D D ) e J

(34)

J i( D D )

(35)

J F

F 0 J

(36)

,
J .

5. [ Mass]4 . ,
A

1,

L m2 .
(31)

M 2 A A
,

.
,
[293-295].
190

6. . ,
J 0 J 0 ,
( ,

) .

, .

6.6. Yang-Mills

U(1).
SU(2) [297].
2 ,
SU(2)
3 , =(1,2,3),
.
3- , SO(3),
SU(2).
, isospin.
, Yang-Mills 1954 isospin
,
,
quarks
.
, (12) ,
( 9), :

1 (cos 3 )1 (sin 3 )2

2 ( sin 3 )1 (cos 3 )2

(37)

3 3
3, :

1 1 32

2 31 2
3 3
191

(38)

 9: 3
:

(39)

| | / | | .
:

(40)

,
, :

a b b a .
,
.
, , :

( x )
(39)

( )

(41)

, , A .
:

D gW

(42)

W . W
, ,
. g
, e .
(42) (39):

( D ) ( D )

192

(43)

 ,
W . , ,
(1/ g ) . :

W W W (1/ g )

W W 1/ g

(44)

, ,
(39), (41) (42) :

( D ) ( ) g (W ) gW ( )
gW gW
g[W ) W ( )]

( A B) C (C A) B ( B C) A 0

( A B) C B ( A C) A ( B C)

(45)

( D ) g (W )
[ gW ] ( D ) D

(46)

.
(field strength) F, W,
W .

, :

W W

(47)

W W . :

( W W ) ( W
W W

1
1
) ( W )
g
g

1
1
W W
g
g

( W W ) ( W W )

(48)

,
. (45)
:

( gW W ) g ( W

1
1
) W gW ( W )
g
g
193

 ( g W ) W gW (W ) W
( g W ) W W gW (W ) W
g (W W ) ( W W )

(49)

(49) (48)
:

( W W gW W ) ( W W ) ( W W )
g (W W ) ( W W )
( W W gW W )
W

W W W gW W

(50)

U(1), :

1
m2
1

L ( D )( D ) W W
2
2
4

(51)

EulerLagrange:

L

(Wi )

i
( W )

W gW W g[( ) g (W ) ]
(42) :

W g ( D ) gJ

(52)

W. Maxwell,
( 0) :

F 0 E 0 ,

E
B 0
t

. , (52)
:

D W 0 W gW W

(53)

W .
, W, Yang
Mills isospin, isospin ,
. A
.
194

 ( A) , (51)
W WWW. .

10: U(1) .

4: SU(2) ,
.
, ,
, , ,
W, .
,
, .
Maxwell :

F 0
:

F F F 0

(54)

0 ,

B
E 0
t

. :

DW DW D W 0
:
195

 B 0
B , .
,
.
.
W g.
g (50) W
.
W.
,
,
. .
. ,
(51)

Lm m2WW

.
, ,
, -
. Higgs [298-303]
( ) .
Higgs ( 12),
() Higgs [304]
(), .

12: Higgs

196

:
, ,
, ,
. ,
(global)
, , .
, , isospin,
.
6.7.

:

(55)

eiI

(56)

0 0 0

I1 0 0 i ,
0 i 0

0 0 i

I2 0 0 0 ,
i 0 0

0 i 0

I3 i 0 0
0 0 0

SO(3)

( Ii )mn i mn
(56)
iI
m emn
n =
i

(1 iIi i )mn n
m min in
( )m

(57)

( x) , ,
(56):

eiI ( x ) S ( x)

(58)

I SO(3) :

[ Ii , I j ] i ilk I k Cijk I k
Cijk i ilk . isospinor
:
197

i
( x )
2

S ( x)

(59)

S ( x) 2 2 . n :

( x) ( x) eiM

( x) S ( x) ( x)

a ( x )

(60)

1 3, n M a
n n , ,
SU(2) Jacobi:

[[M i , M j ], M k ] [[M j , M k ], M i ] [[M k , M i ], M j ] 0

(61)

spinor . :

( ) [eiM

eiM

a ( x )

( x)]

a ( x )

( x) ( x) eiM

( ) S ( ) ( S )

a ( x )

(62)

( 13).
,
. ()
( x dx) ( x) d ,
d , ,
, x dx .
, ( x dx) ( x) ,
() ,

x dx ,

.
.
+ ,

x dx , .

13: - d ,
+d.
,
( 14).

198

 ; dx,
, .

14:
, ,

,
. Richard Feynman universal influence (
). , g,
:

igM a Aa dx

(63)

x dx ,

d .

D ( d ) ( )
d
d igM a Aa dx

D
D igM a Aa

dx

(64)

(64) ,
,
, .
U(1). (60) (7)
(32) (64)

D ( ieA )
, M 1

D
D igM a Aa

dx

(65)

g e . ,

U(1) -1,
,
. :

U (1) : D ieA
199

 , SU(2).
,

( Ii )mn i mn . ( 1,2,3,
. :

SU (2) : ( Ii )mn i imn (M a )mn i amn

Dm m ig (M a )mn Aan

m g amn Aan

( gA )
D gA

(66)

D gW (42),
W A .
SU(2)
Pauli:

Ma

a
2

i
D A
2

(67)

,
. ,
V

D V V
V

Aa .

, ,
.
,

, :

S
D D SD
,

A M a Aa
200

(68)

 (65) :

D igM a Aa
D ( igA )

(69)

(68) :

D ( igA ) S ( igA )
S :

( igA )S S ( igA )

A SA S 1

i
( S ) S 1
g

(70)

,
.

i
( S ) S 1
g
i

U(1), S e , S i( )ei , (

g e ):

A SA S 1

i
( S ) S 1
g

1
A A
e

(71)

1
A A .
e

SU(2) . M / 2 ,
a

g
g
( i A ) S S ( i A ) ..
2
2
A SA S 1

2i
( S ) S 1
3g

:
i

S e2

i
S S
2
:

A SA S 1

2i
( S ) S 1
3g

201

i
i
2i i
(1 ) A (1 )
2
2
3g 2
A A A

1

g

W W W (1/ g ) , .
, .

x x x
2 x a x

x x x
x x x

.

(69) ( =-1):

[ D , D ] [ igA , igA ]
ig ( A A ig[ A , A ])

(72)

G A A ig[ A , A ]
:

[ D , D ] igG (73)
x x S ,

A,1 (1 ig S G ) A,0
A,1 A,0 A ig S G A

(74)

, ,
, .
U(1), 0
:

F A A
SU(2) M a

[M a , M b ] i abc M c ,

a
G
Aa A g abc Ab Ac

(75)

Yang-Mills

G
A A gA A

(76)

202

 A,0 A,0 S A,0

A,1 A,1 S A,1

:

S A,1 (1 ig S G )S A,0

A,1 (1 ig S S 1G S ) A,0 (1 ig S G ) A,0

G SG S 1

(77)

G .
. ,
,
. ,
a
G
Riemann:

6.8.

. ,
.
. ,
U(1).

. SU(2).
, , ,
SU(2). 3
.
3 SU(3).
SU(3) SU(2) U(1),
3 2
( ).
, 19
( ) ( 15),
, . ,
.
Maxwell .
,
203

 :
.
.
,

, ,
.
.

, .
,

, .

,
.
,
.
(QED) , 40.

15:

. ,
. Gerardus t Hooft Martinus J.G. Veltman
.
204

 ,

.

,
.

- .

,
:
W, W 0.
.
- ,
, Higgs, H0. Higgs
.

9:
Martinus J.G. Veltman, 1960

[212-235].

Feynman,
Feynman,

.
1930, Feynman
, Veltman Schoonship,

.
1971 Gerardus t Hooft
,
205

 [184-211].
.Veltman . -

20
.
''
(SM)
,
. , ,

spin=1,

.

, W . M. Veltman G.t Hooft

W . (1989 )
LEP CERN W
.

M. Veltman G. Hooft.
M. Veltman G. Hooft


. , t,
, LEP
.
(1995) Fermilab ...
.
(quarks),

(quarks) . W
Z 1983
.
.
SU(2)
3 . 3 W+, W,
Zo

).

206

 .
, ,

.
(
k s):

| n(k , s)

1
(ak,s )n | 0
n!

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.

.


, .

144

,

. 100 .
Steven Hawking

207

7.1.

.
,
.
.
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, Goldstone [305],
.
.
,
.
: ,

; ,
.

.
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.
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.
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.
.
,
.
7.2. Higgs
:

1
1
1
m2 2 4

2
2
4

m .
>0
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,
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208


, .
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4[Mass]4.
1, m2 [Mass]2 , .
m2>0 , :

H L T V

0 =0

m
.
2

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, ):

V
(m2 2 2 ) 0

m2

,
1. , :

0 | | 0
Higgs Peter Higgs [298-303].

1:

1
2

() m2>0 () m2<0.

. , ,
, =u2.
:
209

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( x) :
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2

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2
: | 0 | | 0 | a .

, | | a ,
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210

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0 | | 0 0 | | 0 0
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V m2 ( )2
m2 [( a)ei ][( a)ei ] [( a)ei ][( a)ei ]2

m2 [( a)ei ][( a)ei ] [( a)ei ][( a)ei ]2

m2 [ 2 a a a 2 ] [( a)2 ( a)2 ]
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a 2

m2
, :
2

V 4 4 a 3 4 a 2 2 a 4
[( a)2 a2 ]2 a4
:

( )( ) [( a)ei ] [( a)ei ]
211

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i ( a) i ( a) ( a)2
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2 , .

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2

2 , 1 m21 4 a 2 .

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, U(1)
U(1).
, (
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G,
Goldstone ?
,
?

, SO(3).
i (i=1,2,3):
212

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2

L i i

m
ii (ii )2
2

(isospace), G SO(3).
:

G : i eiQkaki eiQkak (eiTkak )ij j Uij j [U ( g ) ]i

i , Qi Ti
Lie .
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(unitary).

. :

m2
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3 a
1, 2 .
:

m2 2
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213

 : m2 8a 2 m1 m2 0 ,
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0

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Goldstone.
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L
Noether:
214

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L ( x)
( ) a a

: ja 0 :

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,

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n

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n

215

(2)

 y0.
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. :

L m2 ( )2 V ( , )
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ei ( x )
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1
4

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1 ( x) i2 ( x)
2

1
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2

L F F e2 a 2 A A ( 1 )2 ( 2 )2 2 a 212 2ea A 2 O( 3 )

216

 1 , 2
A 2 ,
2, 2 .
.
, :

1 i2
2

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4

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2 , spin 1 1 spin 0.
2,
( Goldstone), . ,
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. Higgs.
:
, Goldstone,

[306-308].
.
:
U(1) Goldstone mode,
.

217

 U(1) Higgs mode,

.
, Goldstone mode
Higgs mode
.
7.5. Higgs
SO(3):

1
2

L ( Di )( D i )

m2
1
ii (ii )2 Fi F i
2
4

(1)

Di i g ijk Ai k
Fi Ai Ai g ijk Aj Ak
m2<0, :
1/2

m2
| 0 |

0 ae3
1 , 2 3 a . (1)
:

1
m2
i

ijk
L ( i g ijk Ak )( i g Ai k ) ii 2
2

1
(i )2 ( Ai Ai g ijk Ai Ak )( Ai Ai g ijk Ai A k )
4
1
2

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a2 g 2
1

[( A1 )2 ( A2 )2 ] ( A1i Ai ) 2 4a 2 2 O( 3 ) O( 4 )
2
4
.
, ,

3 :

( x) 3e3 (a )e3
1 2, :
218

D1 1 g123 A23 g123 A32 g (a ) A2

D2 2 g 213 A13 g 231 A31 g (a ) A1
D3 3 g 312 A1 2 g 321 A21
:

( Di )2 ( D1 )2 ( D2 )2 ( D3 )2 a 2 g 2 [( A1 )2 ( A2 )2 ] ( )2 cubic quarticterms

1
4

1
2

1
2

L ( Ai Ai )2 a 2 g 2 [( A1 )2 ( A2 )2 ] ( )2 4a 2 2 cubic quarticterms
,
. Goldstone,
,
.
:
(3) Goldstone mode,
.
(3) Higgs mode,

, .
7.6. Glashow Weinberg Salam
spontaneously broken
[103-183].
Glashow, Weinberg Salam
,
.

W, .
,
. e, ,
.

.
(
) .
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219

100GeV ,
.
:

(1)
,
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Higgs, , ..).

.
Lkin

, :

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:

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L

gauge
kin

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220

(6)
.
Higgs ( ) .
.

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V().
:

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221

 , ,
:

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, :

(14)
Higgs.
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. :

(15)
.

. :

(16)

(16).

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222

(18)
D :

(19)
, , (18),
.
. (18)
(19), ,
.
, :
(20)
:
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(22)
W :

(23)
(18) (19) :

(24)

223

W3
W , :
. , (24)

(25)
Z , A
.
(24).
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M22 0, .

(26)
(25) :

(27)
U .
- -, :

(28)
(27) . :

(29)

224

(30)

(31)
(26) M ,
M11. ,
.

(32)
Weinberg
, w sin2w 0.23.
M 22,
.
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(33)

(34)
(29) (31),
:

225

(35)
(35) (21)
W, Z, A W1,2 ,W3,B, .
(32) sin 2 + cos2 = 1,
Weinberg, g 1, g2. :

(36)
, (35) :

(37)
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Z :

(38)
(27) 1/2
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(39)
, MA = 0.

. ,
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226

(40)
W 3 B.
w = 0, MZ = MW.
, (3)
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(41)

(42)
(43)

(44)

(45)
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SU(2) (41) (42),
B. :
(41)

(46)
227

 (42)

(47)

. ,
.

:
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(46) (47)
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(49)
, (21), :

(50)
, (50):

(51)

228

 Lunch j 3 W3
()- U(1) B,
:
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(52) :

(53)
, L (41) (45),
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UY(1) ( B).
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(54)
(42)

(55)
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(56)
(44)

(57)
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229

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230

 (64) jY , (65) :

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:

(67)
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.
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Higgs. SU(2) L x U(1)Y
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Yukawa, Yukawa. ,
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(68)

H(x) Higgs .
:

(69)
, , (68),
:
231

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(70) :

(71)
:

(72)
(72)
Higgs. me/ ,
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).

.
(d, s, b) (u, c, t),
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(73)

(1/2) ,
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, (74) :
232

(76)

. u, c, t,
, Higgs.

(77)
SU(2)L x U(1)Y
, Y = 1.
gauge-
.
u, c, t
:

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,

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(82)
233

 f(11) , f(11)d , f(11)u ,

, .
Higgs
. ,
H.
7.7.
o ,
,
. 1970 - 1973
,
. ,
,
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, .
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()
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. 3 ().
, .
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. SU(2).
, ,
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.
3 SU(3).
SU(3) SU(2) U(1),
3 2
( ).
, .
, ,
19 ( ),
, .

.
234

 .
,

(
).

.
Yukawa.


.
W Z

. Carlo Rubbia

Nobel.
Yukawa
.

.

; .

.
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, ).

. 3
.
.

12
.

.
.
.
235

 6 . 12

36 .

3:

( 4). 60
Higgs
.
LHC CERN.

Higgs.



.

4: 12
236

 Higgs
. ' , 2012, ATLAS CMS
125 GeV,
Higgs [309-311].
Higgs. ,
,
Higgs .
Higgs 125
GeV .

5: Higgs
, Z ,
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ATLAS ( ) .
Higgs
LHC. ATLAS CMS Higgs (i)
2 Z, ,
(ii) (iii) W
. CERN " Higgs"
Higgs! . '
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, b
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b / -b ( 57%); ,

237

7.8.
:
,

. Feynman
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()

.
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.
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].
(),()

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.
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()


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().

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,
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238


.

:
1. ,
.
2.
.
3. 3 .
1 ,
. 3
, .
4. CP, .

. ,
.
,
.
5. Higgs.
,
Higgs ,
, .
6. ,
.
7. ,
.
.

.
8.
. ,
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( )
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