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Hand Book On Water Supply
Hand Book On Water Supply
HANDBOOK
ON
WATER SUPPLY
2. PROJECT FORMULATION
The objectives of any Water Supply System is to supply safe wholesome water in
adequate quantity at convenient points and at reasonable cost to the users. In order to
encourage personal and household hygiene proper planning is necessary in the
formulation and implementation of water supply projects.
Engineering decisions are required to fix the area and population to be served, the
design period, the per capita water supply, the water required for the other needs in the
area, the nature and location of facilities to be provided and points of water supply
intake and waste water disposal.
Detailed investigation should be carried out in regard to nature of each source
(surface or subsurface) its reliability for quality and quantity, the nature of development
and type of treatment required and mode of the conveyance from the source to the
consumers. Different alternatives should be considered in detail and the economically
viable and technically feasible alternative should be selected by applying financial
analysis techniques.
Four stages are involved in the formulation of a water supply project before the
project is taken up for execution. They are
a. Preparation of preliminary report
b. Conducting detailed Engineering survey
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
b. Impounding reservoir
i.
Sanitary survey of entire catchment or atleast foreshore areas, existing
sources of pollution and possible pollution and remedial measures.
ii.
Survey of soil, vegetation and their effects on water quality.
iii.
Water analysis covering seasonal variations.
iv.
River flow or run off records, stream flow gauging, riparian rights.
v.
Continuous survey of water spread, dam alignment foundation details
and availability of materials.
vi.
MFL, LSWL and other particulars.
c. Infiltration works
i.
Quality of sub surface water.
ii.
Whether river is perennial? What is the lean surface flow in the
river?
iii.
A grid work of tell tale borings at 30-60m intervals for full width of
the river 120m upstream and 120m down steam, of the proposed
site for infiltration works.
iv.
Effective size and uniformity coefficient of sand at different depths.
v.
Maximum flood level and minimum summer water level.
vi.
Scour depth arrived at for the structures nearby constructed, by
PWD, Highways etc.,
d. Ground Water Source
i.
Availability of ground water and its quality.
ii.
Geophysical survey to locate bores.
iii.
Examination of hydro geological and hydrological factors.
iv.
Topographical survey.
e. Pump houses and treatment works
i.
Topographical survey to decide the best location of treatment
plant.
ii.
Trial pit particulars and safe bearing capacity of soil.
f. Transmission main
i.
Alignment Plan
ii.
Longitudinal sections at 150m intervals, along the alignment.
iii.
Details of crossings of river, railway, road (National or State
Highways)
iv.
Trial pit particulars at 1 km intervals along the alignment (at closer
internal when there is vide variation)
v.
Safe bearing capacity of soil at level of pipe support.
vi.
iii.
iv.
v.
4
5
6
7
8
3.4
Items
Storage by dams
Infiltration works
Pumping :
i. Pump house (civil works )
ii. Electric motors and pumps
Water treatment units
Pipe connection to several treatment units and other
small appurtenances
Raw water and clear water conveying mains
Clear water reservoirs at the head works, balancing
tanks and service reservoirs (overhead or ground
level)
Distribution system
Population Forecast (Para 2.2.7 Of CPHEEO)
Design
period in
years
50
50
30
15
15
30
30
15
30
The design population will have to be estimated with due regard to all the
factors governing the future growth and development of the project area in the
industrial, commercial, educational, social and administrative spheres. Special
factors causing sudden emigration or influx of population should also be foreseen
to the extent possible.
A judgment based on these factors would help in selecting the most suitable
method of deriving the probable trend of the population growth in the areas or
areas of the project from out of the following mathematical methods, graphically
interpreted where necessary.
a) Demograph Method of population Projection:
This method takes into account the prevailing and anticipated birth rates
and death rates of the region or city for the period under consideration. An
estimate is also made of the emigration from and immigration to the city, growth
of city area wise, and the net increase of population is calculated accordingly
considering all these factors, by arithmetical balancing.
b) Arithmetical Increase Method
This method is generally applicable to large and old cities. In this method
the average increase of population per decade is calculated from the past records
and added to the present population to find out population in the next decade. This
method gives a low value and is suitable for well-settled and established
communities.
c) Incremental Increase Method
In this method the increment in arithmetical increase is determined from the
past decades and the average of that increment is added to the average increase.
This method increased the figures obtained by the arithmetical increase method.
d) Geometrical Increase Method
In this method percentage increase is assumed to be the rate of growth
and the average of the percentage increases is used to find out future increment in
population. This method gives much higher value and mostly applicable for
growing towns and cities having vast scope for expansion.
e) Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
In this method it is assumed that rate of percentage increase decreases
and the average decrease in the rate of growth is calculated. Then the percentage
increase is modified by deducting the decrease in rate of growth. This method is
applicable only in such cases where the rate of growth of population shows a
downward trend.
f) Graphical Method
In this approach there are two methods. In one, only the city in question
is considered and in the second, other similar cities are also taken into account.
i) Graphical Method Based On Single City
In this method the population curve of the city (i.e. the Population vs. Past
Decades ) is smoothly extended for getting future value. This extension has to be
done carefully and it requires vast experience and good judgment. The line of best
fit may be obtained by the method of least squares.
ii) Graphical Method Based On Cities With Similar Growth Pattern
In this method the city in question is compared with other cities which have
already undergone the same phases of development which the city in questions is
likely to undergo and based on this comparison, a graph between population and
decades is plotted.
g) Logistic Method
The 'S' shaped logistic curve for any city gives complete trend of growth of
the city right from beginning to saturation limit of population of the city.
h) Method of Density
In this approach, trend in rate of density increase of population for each sector
of a city is found out and population forecast is done for each sector based on above
approach. Addition of sector-wise population gives the population of the city.
Final Forecast
While the forecast of the prospective population of a projected area at any
given time during the period of design can be derived by any one of the foregoing
methods appropriate to each case, the density and distribution of such population
within the several areas, zones or districts will again have to be made with a
discerning judgement on the relative probabilities of expansion within each zone
or district, according to its nature of development and based on existing and
contemplated town planning regulations.
Wherever population growth forecast or master plans prepared by town
planning or other appropriate authorities are available, the decision regarding the
design population should take into account their figures.
Note: The calculation sheet for population forecast may be called for and
the correctness of population forecast ensured. In TWAD Board, the population
forecast was approved by CE concerned. A typical example is given in
Annexure1.
In circular No.17/F.11168/JE6/P&D/2005 Dt.29.04.2005. TWAD Board
had prescribed the following modus operandi for population projection for water
supply and sewerage scheme for Rural and Urban Areas.
For Urban :The population forecast cannot be generalized for all towns.
*
The ground reality and present developmental activities of the town and
future developments are to be considered during population forecast.
*
The population projection may be arrived through the following seven
methods on minimum four decade population and the best suitable among
the derivations may be approved by the competent authority. Different
method to be adopted for population projection for Urban Town:
i)
Arithmetic Increase method
ii)
Incremental Increase method
iii)
Line of Fit Method
iv)
Geometrical Increase Method
vi)
Semi Log Method
vii) Exponential Method
viii) Decadal growth Rate Method for state / District average
*
For a normal town the projection arrived by exponential method is found is
to be reasonable and this method may be considered.
*
Justification note should be appended by the approving authority.
10
11
=
=
=
Sl.
No.
1
2
Classification of Towns/Cities
Towns provided with piped water supply but
without sewerage system
Cities provided with piped water supply where
sewerage system is existing / contemplated
Recommended Maximum
Water Supply Levels (lpcd)
Table 2.1
CPHEEO Manual
70
135
12
150
Note:
(i) In urban areas, where water is provided through public standposts,40 lpcd
should be considered:
(ii) Figures exclude Unaccounted for Water (UFW) which should be limited to
15%
(iii) Figures include requirements of water for commercial, institutional and minor
industries. However, the bulk supply to such establishments should be assessed
separately with proper justification.
Per Capita Water Supply Rate Prescribed by TWAD Board.
1 Rural habitations without house service connection (HSC)
40 litres
55
70
4 Municipalities
90
5 Corporations
: 120
The objective of the Water Supply System is to supply safe and clean potable water in
adequate quantity conveniently and as economically as possible. Para 2.1 of
CPHEEO Manual and also guidelines of the Board prescribes the per capita water
supply to the designed period of the population forecast. But while evolving the
CWSS/WSS towns and habitations already covered fully for ultimate stage through
separate water supply scheme were included in the CWSS. The inclusion of those
area already covered under separate Water Supply Scheme in the CWSS was
superfluous, involving extra cost on creation of excess size and capacity of pumping
main, sump, treatment plants, pumps and motor, etc.
By scrutinizing the details of the existing water supply to the towns, habitations
included in the CWSS, we can notice the above type of audit observation.
By examining the water requirement estimate statement, it could be seen that bulk
provision of water was made for many towns and habitations which were already
provided with Separate Water Supply Scheme and the ultimate stage of water supply
had not been completed. In such cases, the necessity for such inclusion should be
analysed. Many cases such bulk provisions were not warranted for and the provision
of bulk provision remained unutilized which would increase the total requirement of
water and ultimately increase the capacity of pumping main, treatment plant, sump,
pump and motors, etc. involving extra cost.
A town may already been provided with water Supply Schemes for ultimate stage. To
meet the shortfall if any, bulk provision was made in another CWSS which was under
execution. In the meantime, another separate water supply improvement scheme was
sanctioned and executed under another scheme. Thus cost involved in execution of
the latter improvement scheme except cost on creation of distribution system was
wasteful. This type could be brought out by close study of various water supply
schemes & CWSS sanctioned and executed.
Duplication in creation of infrastructure due to formulating separate improvement
scheme while existing scheme itself functioning well and had not completed its
designed service life of 30 years (Ultimate stage).
Para 2.2 of CPHEEO Manual stipulates that the water supply projects shall be
designed to meet the requirement for the population forecast at the prescribed per
capita supply over a period of 30 years after their completion and prescribes the
methods of forecasting the population during the period of design on the basis of
latest census. Instead of designing the Schemes as per the provisions of the Manual,
Water Supply Schemes sanctioned upto 2002 were designed taking base year as
1996/1991 and ultimate year as 2026/2021. This resulted in utilisation of
infrastructure created for period much lesser than the prescribed 30 years.
Para 2.2.6 of CPHEEO Manual provides for designing Water Treatment units, clear
water reservoirs at head works, balancing tanks (Sump) and Service Reservoirs of the
Water Supply Projects for 15 years (intermediate Stage) to facilitate carrying out
extensions when required and avoid expenditure far ahead of utility and interest on
capital. But treatment plant, clear water sumps and service reservoirs were designed
and constructed for 30 years (Ultimate stage). Thus creation of infrastructure far
ahead of requirement was avoidable and wasteful.
Appendix 6.5 of CPHEEO Manual and PWD Code stipulates that the life of electric
motor and pump is 15 years. As the electric motors and pump would lose their
efficiency after 15 years of service life, erection of pump and motor for ultimate stage
was wasteful and cost involved on execution of pump and motor for ultimate stage
become wasteful.
Para 7.1 of CPHEEO Manual specifies the water treatment units which includes
aerator, clariflocculator, filter, disinfector, softener, etc. The treatment plant
constructed by Board comprised of those units. But they were constructed for
ultimate requirements as against the intermediate requirements prescribed by
CPHEEO Manual resulting in extra cost.
Clear water is collected in a sump before it is pumped to Service reservoir (vide Para
6.3.7 of the Notes on Water Supply Scheme issued by CE, PWD Chennai in 1971).
Intermediate sumps are also constructed to reduce the pressure in the transmission
main. The sump shall be designed for intermediate stage and its capacity depends on
the discharge into the sump and detention time (discharge in lpm x detention time in
13
minutes). On a audit enquiry, the CE, TWAD Board, Southern Region, Madurai
informed (November 2003) that the capacity of sump are designed generally for 30 to
60 minutes storage and storage period would vary depending on various factors such
as hours of pumping, availability of power, and separate feeder main for power
supply etc. Audit Scrutiny also disclosed that clear water sumps were designed for 15
to 180 minutes eventhough separate feeder main to provide 24 hours power supply
was available and also constructed for the requirement of ultimate stage instead of
intermediate stage involving extra cost.
Para 10.4.2 and Appendix 10.1 of CPHEEO Manual prescribes guidelines for
estimation of storage capacity of the service reservoirs which depends on hours of
pumping, demand and hours of supply, and shall be constructed for intermediate
stage only. Para 19.3 of Notes on Water Supply Schemes issued by the Chief
Engineer (PWD) Chennai in 1971 also indicates that the capacity of Service
Reservoir is fixed on the basis of hours of pumping and the peak rate of supply. The
peak rate of supply is usually taken to be twice the average rate and the capacity of
service reservoir is fixed at 8 hours or one third of a days supply. The guidelines
issued by Board in December 1982 also stipulated that the capacity of overhead
service reservoirs in rural areas of a CWSS should be 50 per cent of the ultimate
daily requirement of the individual habitation considering the limited hours of power
supply. As such the capacity of service reservoir shall be one third of a days supply
for intermediate stage in urban areas and half of the days supply for intermediate
stage in rural areas of CWSS. But it is noticed that service reservoirs were designed
and constructed for the requirement of ultimate stage instead of intermediate stage.
In rural habitation covered under CWSS, the service reservoirs were designed and
constructed for ultimate stage adopting the norms prescribed by Board in May 1998.
For construction of overhead tank (OHT), service reservoirs in rural water supply
power pump scheme which prescribed the capacity of OHT/SR on the basis of
ultimate population of the range 150-500, 501-1250 and 1251-2500 at 10000, 30000
and 60000 litres capacity respectively. Construction of SR for ultimate requirement
and also not observing the norms resulted in extra cost on construction of Service
Reservoirs of higher capacity.
Para 2.2.8.3 of CPHEEO Manual recommends, per capita supply level for designing
water supply schemes. The norms prescribed by Government of India under Rural
Water Supply Schemes and also by Board in July 1998 stipulated for 40 lpcd.
Whereas in case house service connection was provided for, it can be increased to 55
lpcd. But cases where all infrastructures were created adopting 55 lpcd, but house
service connections were not effected subsequently. It should be verified whether
specific undertaking was obtained from the local bodies before designing the CWSS
adopting 55 lpcd. If not extra capacity involved could be objected to.
Cases where water supply scheme was designed adopting 1991 population as base
year and actual requirement of the water in the initial reaches was not correctly
worked. At the time of completion of the Scheme, the people in the initial reach
would draw more water than the designed level. Cases of non-estimation of the
actual requirement of water to the intended habitation were also available.
Consequently water could not reach the tail end or intermediatary reaches. This
necessitates laying far separate feeder main, intermediatary sump to regulate water
14
supply. The extra cost involved on this could be analysed and commented. This was
due to poor investigation, defective design and execution and failure to assess the
actual requirement before executing the work.
DESIGN:
Appendix 11.1 of CPHEEO Manual stipulated for designing the pumping main for
23 hours of pumping considering loss of one hour due to tripping and other minor
interruption. Para 19.1 of the Note on Water Supply Schemes issued by the Chief
Engineer (PWD), Chennai in 1971 also stipulates that pumping main can be designed
to discharge 24 hours if service reservoirs are provided. In June 2002, Board had
also instructed to design the CWSS for 20 hours of pumping if separate feeder main
for power supply was provided. But with a view to provide cushion, pumping mains
were designed for 16 to 20 hours pumping eventhough separate feeder main for
power supply to pumping station connected with industrial line having 24 hours
power supply. Due to reduction in hours of pumping the size of pumping main, pump
sets and sumps had to be designed and constructed for higher capacity/size. Had 23
hours of pumping adopted, the discharge for the ultimate requirement would be much
lesser and the infrastructures viz. Pumping main, Pump sets and Sump could have
been designed and constructed at lesser capacity.
NOTE: Upto 1998-99, TWAD Board had prescribed unit rate for various items of
work which was dispensed with from 1999-2000 and comprehensive common
Schedule of Rates for each items . Hence it is not possible to work out the extra cost
on creation of assets for ahead of the requirement easily. Hence the unit rate
prescribed by Board is adopted as basis from which the proportionate cost is worked
out on the agreement value adopting ratio of proportion which would give the cost of
construction of the required capacity of assets. The difference would give the extra
cost. In letter No.101/P&D/98 dated 29.9.1998, TWAD Board communicated unit
rates for various items of work for preparation of outline proposals for various
components of urban and rural water supply schemes for the year 1998-99.
15
16
4. SOURCE OF WATER
(Chapter 5 of CPHEEO Manual & chapter VII of Manual for Quality Control in
Water supply works)
The sources for the water supply scheme are generally of the following two
categories;
1. Surface water sources
2. Sub surface water sources
1.Surface water source
Surface Water sources are from rivers lakes and reservoirs. The water from
these sources are drawn and supplied the beneficiaries after proper treatment. If
the river is not perennial, the storage of water is necessary for supplying during the
dry period. Generally surface water is preferred for the following reasons.
1. When quality of ground water available in and around the
beneficiary is not potable.
2. When large quantity of water is required for the scheme.
2. Sub surface water source
In geological nature, Tamilnadu State can be categorized as hard rock areas,
and sedimentary areas. The hard rock areas cover 73% area of the state and the
sedimentary formations cover the remaining 27% area of the state.
The sub-surface water is being tapped from the following sources.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Open wells
Bore wells
Infiltration wells and
Collector wells
1.Resistively survey with geophysical equipment are carried out in grid pattern in the
river bed/bank to assess the apparent resistively of the sub-surface strata and fixing
location.
2.After conducting geo survey, probing is to be done to assess the sand depth where
the maximum is seen.
3. In the selected location of the probing where the maximum sand depth exist, the
trial bore wells are to be drilled and soil samples analysed. The water sample
should also be collected and analyzed for assessing the potability of water.
4. From the trial bore well, location of the proposed infiltration well have to be
located.
5. At the selected point, the confirmatory bore well to be drilled not only at the
centre of the infiltration well but also in the periphery atleast six borewells.
6. Lithology of the trial bore wells should be prepared and the depth of the saturated
sand is analyzed.
7. The summer water level of the area of the investigation with reference to the
saturated thickness is correlated.
8. The depth of the infiltration well depends on the saturated thickness of the area.
9. Yield from an infiltration well sunk for 3.5 m diameter in saturated aquifer of 4m
depth for a draw down of 2m is computed approximately as 1000 lpm.
10. The location of the infiltration well should be located in such a way to avoid
interference between structures
Size of laterals
4 to 6
45 to 60cm
8 to 16 (in radial directions)
20 to 60m depending
(upon the saturated thickness of
aquifer)
200 to 300mm dia slotted pipes.
17
3. Safe Yield
In all type of wells after completion of the construction, yield tests have to be
conducted and safe yield has to be arrived after applying the correction factors.
Depending upon the yield the required number of wells may be decided to supply
the quantity required for the scheme. The CPHEEO Manual prescribes two types
of safe ;yield tests for determining safe yield of the well viz. Pumping (Discharge)
Test & recuperation test.
3. 1 Safe yield in Bore wells (Datamatrix of TWAD Board Engineers)
For power pump schemes, the following multiplication factors have been
evolved to arrive safe yield for the borewells drilled in hard rock area.
When the yield test is conducted during summer months i.e. April August a
factor of 0.9 may be adopted to the observed yield for determining the safe yield
from borewell.
For the yield tests conducted during other months a correction factor of 0.6
may be applied, for arriving at the safe yield.
In case of Kanyakumari district the correction factor will be 0.9 for the
months from March of June and it will be 0.6 for other months.
3.2.Pum ping Test (Discharge Test)
Pumping test is the most accurate, reliable and commonly used method to
evaluate the hydraulic parameters of an aquifier, efficiency of a well, safer
operational rates of pumping and selection of suitable pump. The methodology of
a pumping test is highly varying in its application. The objective is limited to
determine the aquifer parameters such as transitivity (T), Storage co-efficient (S),
hydraulic conductivity (K) and well performance and safe yield for execution of
water supply scheme.
To study the parameters of transitivity, storage co-efficient and hydraulic
conductivity, generally a constant discharge pumping test (aquifier performance
test) is conducted. An aquifer performance test consists of pumping a well at
certain constant rate and recording the drawdown both in pumping well and in the
near by observation wells at specific times. To analyze the well performance, the
step drawdown test (well performance test) is carried out. In step drawdown test,
the drawdown in a pumping well is recorded at variable discharge in steps.
18
Efficiency of the well is the ratio of the critical drawdown (drawdown just
outside of the casing) and actual drawdown measured in a well at a designed
discharge of continuous pumping for a given period.
Recuperation Test
After the constant discharge test, when the pump is shut down, the water
column in the well or borewell started rising. This rise in water column has to be
noted in close intervals. The data collected on recouping water column will be
useful to compute the aquifer parameters. Recuperation test are recommended for
large diameter open wells.
The bore wells/ open wells executed for major schemes are subjected to
pumping tests. Pumping tests are also conducted before and after the hydro
fracturing operations.
Note:The result of discharge test of the well measured in V notch would be
recorded in the prescribed table and the specific yield in lpm per cm of draw down
derived from the table. This would be verified from the pumping test report and
ensure safe yield of the well. In a similar manner specific yield obtained from
Recuperation test in the well should be ascertained and the safe yield adopted by
comparing both the report.
Minimum Distance of well from source of Contamination
Contamination of
Sources
Building sewer
Septic tank
Disposal field
Seepage pit
Cesspool
Recommended
distances (in metres)
15
15
30
30
45
Audit Approach
19
Whether proper investigation and test carried out to ensure reliable source to
the designed quantity and factors affecting contamination of source which
subsequently resulted in making the water not potable examined. The remedial
measures proposed/taken has also to be analysed.
5.Transmission of Water
(Chapter 6 of CPHEEO Manual)
Water supply broadly involves transmission of water from the sources to the
area of consumption through free flow channel or conduits or pressure main.
Pipe line normally follow the profile of the ground surface quite closely.
Gravity pipelines have to be laid below the hydraulic gradient. Pipes are of Cast
Iron, Ductile Iron, mild steel, Prestressed concrete, reinforced cement concrete,
GRP asbestos cement, plastic, etc.
5.1 Hydraulic of Conduits ( Pipe ) (PARA 6.2. OF CPHEEO Manual)
The design of supply of conduits is dependent on resistance to flow,
available pressure or head allowable velocities of flow, scour, sediment
transport, quality of water and relative cost..
Velocity:There are a number of formulas available for use in calculating the
velocity of flow. However Hazen William formula for pressure conduits
and Mannings formula for free flow conduits have been popularly used.
a) The Hazen William formula is expressed as
V= 0.849 C r0.63 S0.54
For circular conduits, the expression becomes
V= 4.567 x 10-3 C d 0.63 S 0.54
And Q = 1.292 x 10-5 C d 2.63 S0.54
Where Q = discharge in cubic metre per hour
d.=diameter of pipe in mm
V = Velocity in MPS
r.= hydraulic radius in m or hydraulic mean depth in meter = water area
wetted perimeter
S = Slope of hydraulic gradeline
C= Hazen-William co-efficient
5.2 Coefficient of Roughness (`C Value) (Para 6.2.2 of Cpheeo)
20
Recommended `C Value
New Pipes
Design purpose
130
140
120
120
100
100
100
55
140
145
140
145
130
110
140
145
150
150
140
145
140
145
21
In which,
V = velocity of flow in m/s ;
CR = pipe roughness coefficient; ( 1 for smooth pipe; < 1 for rough pipes);
r = hydraulic radius in m;
S = friction slope;
D = internal diameter of pipe in m;
H = friction head loss in m;
L = length of pipe in m; and
Q = flow in pipe in m3/ s.
A nomograph for estimation of head loss by Modified Hazen - Williams
formula is presented in the Appendix 6.3 of CPHEEO manual
22
scope for reduction in diameter of the pipes used in that section. If the quantity of
discharge and head lose were kept constant, the diameter of the pipes would be
reduced using Hazen-Williams formula.
The following expression may be used to determine the reduced diameter of
pipes when `C value is increased.
.d1= [c/c1 d2.63]1/2.63 (derived from Hazen William formula)
where d= Diameter of pipe in mm as adopted in the design
d1 = reduced diameter when `C value is increased
c= `c value adopted in the design
c1= Correct `C to be adopted as per CPHEEO manual
Illustration:
Consider a pumping main with following parameters:
Water to be discharged (k) = 4365 lpm
Head loss
(s) = 1/700
`C Value adopted ( C) = 100
Pipe used CI pipes (lined ) = 400 mm dia
Velocity (v) = 0.579 m/sec
Since `C value for lined pipes is 140 ,there would be scope for reduction in
diameter of the pipe. It is to be noted that while reducing the diameter of the pipe
we have to keep the Quantity of water to be discharged as constant. The hydraulic
gradient may be kept constant or it may be increased.
(1)
Note: Hazen William formula : Q = 1.292 x 10-5x, cd2.63 x S0.54
If Q (Discharge) and S (hydraulic gradient are kept constant and C value is
changed
Then Q = 1.292 x 10-5 x C1d2.63 xS0.54 .(2)
(1) divided by (2) 1= cd2.63/c1d12.63
d12.63=c/c1 d2.63 : d1= [c/c1 d2.63]1/2.63
The hydraulic gradient should not be reduced as it would cause increased
pressure head which necessitate higher capacity pump sets and consequent
additional expenditure. Hence while attempting reduction of size of pipe by
increasing the `C value, care should be taken to keep both quantity of discharge
and head loss as constants.
Adopting the formula d1 =[c/c1 d2.63]0.38
Diameter of the pipe for C value of 140 would be d1=[1/1.4 (400)2.63]0.38
(4980693)0.38=350.73 mm or 350mm
Thus the dia meter of the pipe is reduced from 400 mm to 350 due to
increase of C value from 100 to 140. However we must ensure that due to
reduction of size of pipe, the velocity should not be increased beyond limits. For
23
this, another expression of Hazen William formula (i.e.) V= 4.567 x 10-3c d0.63 x
s0.54
Where d=350 mm and s= 1/700
Therefore V = 4.567 x 10-3 x 140 (350)0.63 x (1/700)0.54
4.567 x 10-3 x 140 x 3500.63 x (1/700)0.54 =
4.567 x 10-3 x 140 x 40.06 x 0.029
= 0.745 m/sec which is within normal limits adopted by TWAD Board.
A typical discharge table for different size of pipe is given in Annexure IV
24
iii)
To
CR value
when New
0.3
1.8
1.00
CR value
for Design
period of
30 years
1.00
600
0.3
2.0
1.00
1.00
20
100
0.3
1.8
1.00
1.00
100
1000
0.3
1.8
1.00
0.85*
100
1000
0.3
1.8
1.00
0.53 *
100
2000
0.3
2.1
1.00
1.00
100
600
0.3
2.1
1.00
1.00
15
100
0.3
1.5
0.87 (*)
0.74
Sl.
No
Pipe material
From
To
RCC
100
2000
AC
100
4
5
6
7
8
Velocity ( m/s)
From
25
ii) In design of distribution systems, the design velocity should not be less than
0.6m/ s to avoid low velocity conditions which may encourage deposition and / or
corrosion resulting in deterioration in quality. However, where inevitable due to
minimum pipe diameter criteria or other hydraulic constraints, lower velocities
may be adopted with adequate provision for scouring.
iii) In all hydraulic calculations, the actual internal diameter of the pipe shall be
adopted after accounting for the thickness of lining, if any instead of the nominal
diameter or outside diameters ( OD).
iv)In providing for head loss due to fittings, specials and other appurtenances,
actual head loss calculations based on consideration included in subsection 6.2.9.
should be done instead of making an arbitrary provision.
26
The life and durability of the pipe depends on several factors including
inherent strength of the pipe material, the manufacturing process along with
quality control handling transportation laying and jointing of the pipeline
surrounding soil conditions and quality of water. Normally the design period of
pipelines is considered as 30 years.
Lined metallic pipelines are expected to last beyond the normal design life
of 30 years. However, the relative age of such pipes depends on the thickness and
quality of lining available for corrosion. The cost of the pipe material and its
durability or design life are the two major governing factors in the selection of the
pipe material. The pipeline may have very long life but may also be relatively
expensive in terms of capital and recurring costs and, therefore, it is essential to
carryout a detailed economic analysis before selecting a pipe material.
The metallic pipes are being provided with internal lining either with cement
mortar or epoxy so as to reduce corrosion, increase smoothness and prolong the
life.
Underground metallic pipelines may require protection against external
corrosion depending on the soil environment and corrosive ground water.
Protection against external corrosion is provided with cement mortar guiniting or
hot applied coal-tar asphaltic enamel reinforced with fiberglass fabric yarn.
The determination of the suitability in all respects of the pipeline for any
work is a matter of decision by the Engineer concerned on the basis of the
requirements for the scheme. It is necessary that a quantitative and qualitative
assessment is made to arrive at the most economical and reliable pipe materials.
The check list for selection of pipe materials prescribed in table 6.7 of
CPHEEO is to be prepared to the facilitate the decision makers in selecting the
27
economical and reliable pipe materials for the given condition and it is strongly
recommended for large and medium projects more than 15 mld.
Risk factors should be identified clearly in the project report. Risk analysis
should be carried out to arrive at the correct decision in selecting the pipe
material.
1. Cast Iron (CI) Pipe (Para 6.4. CPHEEO)
CI pipes are vertically cast or centrifugally cast. Vertically cast Iron pipe
shall confirm to IS 1537 1976 and the centrifugally cast spun iron pipe shall
confirm to IS 1536: 2001. Vertically cast Iron pipes has been largely superceded
by centrifugally spun cast iron pipes. Centrifugally cast iron (spun) pipe is
available and manufactured to a diameter of 80mm to 1050mm. The CI pipe have
been classified as LA, A and B classes according to their wall thickness. Class LA
pipe have been taken as the basis for classification of pipe Class A pipe more 10%
and Class B have 20% increase in thickness over Class LA.
Widely used because of its good casting qualities and continue to
give satisfactory service even after a century of use.
The pipes are Spigot and socket type
Several type of joints such as rubber gasket joint known as Tyton
joints, Mechanical joint and conventional joint know as Lead joints
are used.
used for carrying potable water, sewer main etc.
2. Steel Pipe ( Para 6.5 of CPHEEO)
Manufacture of steel pipes shall be with mild steel plate grade Minimum
tensile strength of 330 mpa, 410 mpa & 450 mpa confirming to IS 2062. ( Steel
plate of Minimum tensile strength of 410 mpa is normally used)
Larger size of pipe are made by welding together the edges of suitably
curved plates as per IS 3589: 2001.
IS 3589 : 2001 stipulates the nominal size of steel pipe ranging 168.3mm
to 2540mm outer diameter with varying thickness of plate 2.6mm to
25mm.
To be provided protection against corrosion.
As against internal
corrosion rich cement mortar or epoxy lining should be done internally by
centrifugal process. The outer coating for under ground pipe line may be
in cement - sand guiniting or not applied coal-tar asphaltic enamel
reinforced with fibre glass fabric yarn.
Small size of pipe having threaded ends could be joined with jointed
materials like yarn.
28
29
30
Required for water distribution system ranging from 15-150mm dia and
occasionally upto 350mm
Conforming to IS 4984 1987.
They can withstand movement of heavy traffic
HDPE pipes can be jointing by welding.
10. Medium Density ( MDPE) PIPE ( para 6.11)
Manufactured conforming to ISO 4427 specification for carrying potable
water.
The pipes are supplied in coil.
11. Glass fibre reinforced plastic (GRP)Pipes ( 6.12 of CPHEEO)
GRP pipes are now manufactured in India conforming to IS 12709.
The diameter range is from 350mm to 2400mm. The pressure class is
3,6,9,12 & 15 kgs / Sq.cm. The factory test pressures are 4.5,9,13.5, 18,
22.5 kg / sqcm. The factory test pressures are 6, 12, 18, 24 and 30 kgs /
sq.cm.
Standard length are 6 and 12 meter.
Widely used in foreign countries.
GRP pipes are corrosion resistant and have smooth surface and high
strength, lighter in weight.
Pipes are jointed by using double bell coupling.
12. G.I. Pipe.
The pipe shall be galvanized mild steel not finished seamless or welded or
screwed and socketed conforming to the requirement of IS 1239 (Part.I) for
medium grade
Shall with stand a test pressure of 50 kg / cm2
Normally used for hill areas.
5.10.Structural Requirements ( Para 6.13.1)
Structurally closed conduits must resist a number of different forces
singly or in combination.
a)
Internal pressure equal to the full head of water to which the
conduit can be subjected ( ie. Hydrostatic Test pressure).
b)
Unbalanced pressure at bends, constructions and closures which
have been discussed in 6.16.18 of CPHEEO Manual.
c)
Water hammer
d)
External load in the form of back fill, traffic and their own weight
between external supports (Piers or hangers).
e)
Temperature induced expansion and contraction.
Internal pressure including water hammer creates transverse stress or hoop
tension. Bend and closures as dead ends of gates produce unbalanced pressures
31
and longitudinal stress. When conduits are not permitted to change length,
variations in temperature like wise create longitudinal stress. External loads and
foundation reactions ( Manner of support ) including the weight of the full conduit
and atmospheric pressure produce flexural stress.
5.11 Depth of Cover: ( 6.13.4 Of CPHEEO)
One meter cover on pipeline is normal and generally sufficient to protect
the pipe lines from external damage. When heavy traffic is anticipated, depth of
cover has to be arrived at taking in to consideration of the structural and other
aspects as detailed in 6.13.2 CPHEEO Manual. When freezing is anticipated
1.5m cover is recommended.
5.12. Testing of the Pipe Line ( Para 6.4.4. Of CPHEEO)
After laying and jointing, the pipe line must be pressure tested to ensure
that pipes and joints are found enough to withstand the maximum pressure likely
to be developed under working conditions.
The yield test pressure to be imposed should be not less than the maximum
of the following.
1 times the maximum sustained operating pressure.
1 times the maximum pipeline static pressure.
Sum of the maximum sustained operating pressure and the maximum
surge pressure.
Sum of the maximum pipeline static pressure and the maximum surge
pressure subject to a maximum equal to the work test pressure for any pipe
fitting incorporated.
The field test pressure should wherever possible be not less than 2/3 work
test pressure appropriate to the class of pipe except in the case of spun iron
pipes and should be applied and maintained for atleast four hours.
Where the field test pressure is less than 2/3 the work test pressure, the
period of test should be increased to atleast 24 hours. The test pressure
shall be gradually revised at the rate of 1 kg / cm2/minutes.
In case of gravity pipe, maximum working pressure shall be 2/3 work test
pressure.
The hydrostatic test pressure at works and at field after installation and the
working pressure for different classes of pipes are given in Annexure 5
5.13 Water Hammer (Surge Pressure ) (Para 6.17 CPHEEO)
Occurrence
If the velocity of water flowing in pipe is suddenly diminished, pressure
would be develop in the pipe line due to frictional resistance and wave
propagation. This pressure rise or water hammer is manifest as a series of shocks,
32
sounding like hammer blows, which may have sufficient magnitude to rupture the
pipe or damage connected equipment. It may be caused by the nearly
instantaneous or too rapid closing of a valve in the line or by an equivalent
stoppage of flow which would take place with the sudden pressure. The pressure
wave due to water hammer travels back upstream to the lintel end of the pipe,
where it reverses and surges back and forth through the pipe , getting weaker on
each successive reversal. The Velocity of the wave is that of an acoustic wave in
an elastic medium, the elasticity of the medium in this case being a compromise
between that of the liquid and the pipe. The excess pressure due to water hammer
is additive to the normal hydrostatic pressure in the pipe and depends on the
elastic properties of the liquid and pipe and on the magnitude.
Causes for Water hammer
The Causes of water hammer are
i)
rapid closure of valves
ii)
Sudden shut off or unexpected failure of power supply to centrifugal
pump.
iii)
Pulsation problems due to hydraulic rams and reciprocating pumps.
Computations for Water Hammer
Maximum water pressure (which occurs at the critical time of closure Tc or
any time less than Tc ) is given by the expression.
H max = C Vo
G
Where,
H max = maximum pressure rise in the closed conduct above the normal pressure
in m,
C
= Velocity of pressure wave travel in m/sec.,
G
= acceleration due to gravity, 9.81m/Sec2
Vo
= normal velocity in the pipeline, before sudden closure. in m/sec.
C
= 1425
1+kd
ECt
Where,
k
= bulk modulus of water (2.07 x 108 kg/m2)
d
= diameter of pipe in m
Ct
= wall thickness of pipe in m and
E
= modulus of elasticity of pipe material in kg/m2
Table below gives of E that may be adopted for different materials.
Values of E for Different Materials
33
34
Material
Polyethylene soft
Polyethylene hard
PVC
Concrete
Asbestos Cement
Reinforced Cement Concrete
Prestressed Concrete
Cast Iron
Ductile Iron
Wrought Iron
Steel
E (kg/m )
1.2 x 107
9 x 107
3 x 108
2.8 x 109
3 x 109
3.1 x 109
3.5 x 109
7.5 x 109
1.7 x 1010
1.08 x 1010
2.1 x 1010
If the actual time of closure T is greater than the critical time Tc, the actual
water hammer is reduced approximately in proportion to Tc/T.
Water hammer wave velocity may be as high as 1370 m/s for a rigid pipe or
as low as 850 m/s for a steel pipe and for plastic pipes may be as low as 200m/s.
Control Measures
The internal design pressure for any section of a pipeline should not be less
than the maximum operating pressure or the pipeline static pressure obtaining at
the lowest portion of the pipeline considering any allowance required for surge
pressure. The maximum surge pressure should be calculated and the following
allowances made:
(a) If the sum of the maximum operating pressure or the maximum pipeline
static pressure which ever is higher and the calculated surge pressure does
not exceed 1.1 times the internal design pressure, no allowance is
required.
(b) If the sum exceeds 1.1 times the internal design pressure, then protective
devices should be installed and
(c) In no case sum of the maximum operating pressure and the calculated
surge pressure should exceed the field hydrastatic test pressure.
(d) Effect of water hammer could be controlled by
(i) installing special devices in the pipe lines (automatically controlled
quick closing valves, bypasses and pressure relief valves.
(ii) employing surge tank- simplest of form of surge tank is a stand pipe
placed at the end of the line next to the point of velocity control.
5.14 Economic Size of pumping :
Structural loads on Rigid Pipes are due to (i) fill material (ii) concentrated
load and (iii) superimposed uniformly distributed load.
Elaborate procedure has been developed by Matson for calculation of
structural loads under conditions of pipes in trench, which will be worked out by
the designers.
35
Audit Approach
PIPE
According to Para 6.3.1 of CPHEEO Manual, the cost of the pipe materials
and its durability are the two major governing factors in the selection of pipe
materials and the exercise prescribed in Ttable 6.7 of the ibid Manual the
selection of pipe materials had to be carried out for selecting the economical
and reliable pipe materials. The Manual also stipulates that selection of pipe
for water supply works should be done economically as it involves major part
of the project cost and designed on the basis of procedure stipulated in
Appendix 6.5 Design for Economic Size of pumping main of ibid Manual.
But while selecting the pipe materials for pumping main and conveying main
of water supply schemes, techno-economic selection of pipe materials
stipulated in the CPHEEO Manual was not adopted involving extra cost.
Cases will be available in designing pumping main adopting MS Pipe/CI
Pipe/DI pipe instead of adopting PSC Pipes by erroneous adoption co-efficient
of roughness (C value) for both metallic pipe lined with cement mortar or epoxy
and prestressed concrete (PSC) pipe (ie. Value in both cases is 140). Para 6.9
of ibid Manual also stipulates that PSC pipe competes economically with
metallic pipe for diameter 600 mm and above and ideally suited for water
supply main where pressure is in the range of 6 kg/cm2 to 20 kg/cm2.
Cases for adoption of DI pipe instead of CI pipe or MS pipe where the designed
pressure of pumping main is much below the working pressure of CI or MS
Pipe.
According to TWAD Board Circular of February 1999, AC class 15 pipes upto
to size of 300 mm dia could be used for pumping main. But cases of using PSC
pipes/CI pipes/DI pipes could be identified and commented.
While designing the pumping main it would be verified whether intermediary
sump was at higher ridge point so as to reduce the pressure head was provided
so that comparatively lesser class of pipe could be used for the pumping main
Failure to provide intermediary sump and suitable device to control surge
pressure resulting in frequent burst and leakage of pumping main leading for
interruption in power supply. Such defective design and cost involved on
rectification work had to be analysed and commented.
NOTE: While objecting use of metallic pipe the Board used to contend that the
metallic pipe was used to avoid illegal tapping of water from main, to complete
the work within the time schedule and prevalency of rocky reaches. Those
contentions were not tenable due to the fact that illegal tapping was not possible
in PSC pipes also and the Board had allowed the same time for manufacturing,
supplying, laying, jointing PSC Pipes and MS pipes. Further Board used PSC
Pipes in pumping main even for hard rock reaches in other similar water supply
36
Even where higher class of pipes are used than the actual requirement to
withstand the designed pressure on the pumping and distribution main,
cases of leakages were noticed.
Consequently, water could not be
pumped to the designed level and supply effected. This was due to
distortion at flexible joint. Thus due to defective joints, water could not
be supplied. This could be commented. On non achievement of the
objective due to defective execution of work
6. SELECTION OF PUMPS
(Chapter 11 of CPHEEO Manual)
1. In a water supply system pumping machinery serves the following purposes:
a) lifting water from the source (surface or ground ) to purification works or
the service reservoir;
b) boosting water from source to low service areas and to the upper floor of
the storied buildings; and
c) transporting water through treatment works, draining of settling tanks
and of treatment units, withdrawing sludge, supplying water especially
water pressure to operating equipment and pumping chemical solutions to
treatment units.
While deciding the type of pump for the specific requirements, it is necessary to
analyze different type of pumps and their suitability to meet the requirements.
2.
37
3. The selection of pump sets for different types of sources and conditions are as
follows:
4.1. Borewells (Chapter 7 of Quality Control Manual)
Sl.No. Site condition
Preferable
Pump Selection
i.
100mm dia Bore well
Jet pumps (Packer type )
Ii
Iii
Iv
Submersible pumpsets
Submersible pumpsets.
V
Vi
Vii
Viii
Ix
X
Site Condition
Inside the river one or more number of
Infiltration wells.
Inside the river one/more Infiltration wells with
foot bridge arrangements.
Collector well connected the bank with foot
bridge
Low lift raw water pumping, dry well built in
the river / dam bank with suction head not to
exceed 6m
For the above site condition when suction head
exceeds 6m
Clear water ground level reservoir / sump
Preferable pump
selection
- Submersible pumpsets
- Turbine pumps
- Turbine pumps
- Centrifugal pumps
- Turbine pumps
- Centrifugal/Turbine
pumps
Clear water/raw water booster pumping station. - Centrifugal pumps
Line booster (small discharge < 1000 lpm)
- Centrifugal pumps
Line booster (large discharge )
Not desirable (sump has
to be constructed )
Open well with suction head less than 6m in
- Centrifugal pumps or
38
xii
xiii
xiv
Turbine pumps
-
a. Urban areas
Submersible pumps
b. Rural areas
Major schemes.
39
This is the energy head destroyed in the suction passage of pumps during entry.
b. NPSH available
This is the head available after deducting from the atmospheric pressure the
sum of static head, friction loss and vapour pressure at the attitude
Always NPSH available should be more than NPSH required.
5. Life of Pump and Motor
The life expectancy of electrical pumping machineries is 12 years as per
TNPWD Code Appendix VII-A . The pump set and motors will start losing it
efficiency year by year. However by doing upkeep preventive measures and
doing necessary special repairs, the efficiency can be maintained with
extension of life period upto 15 years.
If they are replaced after 15 years, the advantages of latest technology
available at that time of replacement can be made use of which will improve
the efficiency of the system.
(vide CE/SR/MDU Letter 15.12.2003 )
Appendix 6.5 of CPHEEO Manual stipulates the life of electric motor and
pump are 15 years.
40
41
Centrifugal,
Horizontal end
suction
Centrifugal
horizontal axial
split casing
Centrifugal,
horizontal
multistage
Jet-centrifugal,
combinations
Centrifugal,
vertical turbine
Head range
Mediu
High
m 10above
40m
40m
Ok
No
Discharge range
Low
Mediu
High
upto 30 m upto
above
L/s
500 L/s
500L/s
Ok
Ok
No
Ok
Ok
Ok
Low
upto
10m
Ok
Ok
No
No
Ok
Ok
No
No
Ok
Ok
Ok
Ok
No
No
Ok
Ok
Ok
Ok
No
Ok
Ok
No
Ok
No
No
Ok
Ok
Ok
Ok
Ok
Ok
Centrifugal,
vertical
submersible
Positive
displacement
pumps
Ok
Ok
Ok
Ok
Ok
Ok
Ok
No
Easy adoptation for dosing or
metering
To provide margin over BKW or BHP at the operating point so that the
overloading would not be happen as HWL, the following margins are
recommended:
BKW/BHP required at the operating point
BHP
BKW
Upto 2
2 to 5
5 to 10
10 to 20
20 to 100
Above 100
Upto 1.5
1.5 to 3.7
3.7 to 7.5
7.5 to 15
15 to 75
Above 75
Ok 42
43
7. TREATMENT
Treatment of water (Chapter 7 of CPHEEO Manual & Data Matrix)
a. Aim : To improve the raw water quality to the drinking water standards
and stop water borne transmission of epidemics .
b. Methods of treatment : Depends on the nature of source and its water quality .
Subsurface source Generally Chlorination will be sufficient except where
iron is present .
Surface source :
Aeration ( if required) Pre chlorination ( optional )
Sedimentation either plain or with coagulation and flocculation , and
post chlorination .
1. Aeration
Aim : i. to remove objectionable tastes and odours .
ii. for expulsion of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide .
iii. to precipitate impurities iron and manganese present.
iv. For increasing the dissolved oxygen content to water for imparting
freshness.
Types of aeration
i. Spray Type
Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai
Loading rate:
4 Chemical dosing
Aim :
i.
For coagulation, flocculation .
ii.
disinfection and softening .
iii.
algal and corrosion control .
iv.
for fluoridisation .
Types
Strength of solution :To be not more than 5% for manual feed and not more than
10% for mechanical feed.
Alum is the most common coagulant used and economical.
Lime is also added when PH and alkalinity are low
Dosage for alum : 20-100 mg / 1 (1-5 grain / gallon )
Dosage for lime: About one third that of alum
Density of lime = 670 kg / m3
Density of alum = 980 kg / m3
5 Flash mixing
Aim :
44
45
Detention Period
Dosage
7. Sedimentation
Aim:
To remove readily settling sediments such as sand, silt, coagulated
impurities such as colour and turbidity and precipated
The range of surface loadings and detention periods for average
design flow for different types of sedimentation tanks are as follows:
Tank type
Plain
Sedimentation
Horizontal
flow, circular
Vertical flow
(upflow)
clarifier
Surface
loading
m3/m2/d@
Detention
period
Range
Typical value
for design
Range
Typical value
for design
Upto
6000
15-30
0.01-1.5
3-4
25-75
30-40
2-8
2-2.5
40-50
1-1.5
Particles
normally
removed
Sand, silt &
clay
Alum and
iron floge
Flocculant
8. Filtration
Aim i. to separate the suspended and colloidal impurities in the water .
ii. to produce sparkling and aesthetically attractive water free from disease
producing organism .
Types : Slow sand filters, Rapid sandfilters
Filtration rate
: initial 1.0 m
Final (minimum) 0.4 m
Depth of gravel
: 20 cm.
: 2.7 m
20-30 mm
Number
of
bed
2
2
3
4
5
6
Filtration rate
1.8 to 2.0 m .
Depth of sand
Depth of gravel
60-75 cm thick
46
No. of Units
Overall depth
: 1.25-1.33
11.Pressure Filters
Same principle as gravity type rapid sand filters; but
water is passed through the filters under pressure.
Disadvantages:
pumping.
(i).
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Advantages :
47
Aim :
Dosage:
Contact period
: 30 minutes (minimum).
Residual Chlorine
PH Value
Residual or free
Available chlorine
In ppm
:
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
10-11
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.8
0.8
3.214 g/litre.
48
III)
Power Factor
a) Power Factor means the ratio of the real power to the apparent power. Real power is
expressed in KW and the apparent power expressed in KVA.
Average Power Factor means the ratio of the kilowatt hours to the kilo volt ampere
hours consumed during the month.
IV.
Voltage
a) Low Voltage means a voltage which does not exceed 250 volts under normal
conditions subject to the percentage variation allowed under the Indian Electricity Rules
1956.
b) Medium voltage means a voltage which is higher than 250 volts but which does not
exceed 650 volts under normal conditions.
c) High voltage means a voltage which is higher than 650 volts but which does not
exceed 33 KV.
d) Extra High Voltage means a voltage which is higher than 33 KV under normal
conditions.
V. System of Supply
a)
49
N.B. : 1) A consumer shall avail only. Low Tension supply if the connected load is 75
HP (56 KW ) or below,
2) A consumer shall avail only. High Tension supply if the connected load exceeds 130
HP ( 97 KW)
3) When the connected load is between 75 HP and 130 HP, the consumer has the option
to avail either Low Tension or High. Tension supply. In calculating the connected load
for the purpose, the lighting load upto the permissible limit as laid in the Tariff
Notifications will be excluded.
General
Normally for High Tension Service, H.T. metering will be provided on the H.T. side.
In case where L.T. metering is provided for a H.T. service, the average losses in the
transformer would be calculated as follows and this would be added to the energy
consumption indicated by the meter, when the transformer capacity is above 50 KVA.
720 x 1.0 x KVA of the transformer / 100 units per month. Similarly the following
percentage will be added to the recorded maximum demand on the L.T. side to arrive at
the equipment H.T. demand.
1% of the transformer capacity for transformer above 50 KVA 1
50
For all L.T. service Electricity Board will provide L.T. metering on the consumers
premises at a suitable place.
Installation of Capacitors
All L.T. consumers with a connected load of motors of 25 HP and above (Total of the
ratings of the installed motors) all L.T. consumers using welding transformer
(irrespective of their rating) shall install capacitors of rating not less than these specified
below : (Clause 17.01)
Rating of motor (HP)
1
2
3
4
6
8
9
10
15
20
24
30
39
If the L.T. consumers with a connected load of 3 HP & above do not install
capacitors as required above, they will be charged a compensation amount at 10% of the
current consumption charges for the two preceding assessment periods i.e., four months.
If still capacitors are not provided within 2 nonths, services will be disconnected.
In respect of H.T. service connections, the average power factor of the consumers
installation shall not be less than 0.90 lag.
Where the average P.F. of a H.T. service connection is less than the stipulated limit of
0.90 lag, compensation charge at the rate of 1% of the current consumption charges of
that month for every 0.01 reduction in P.F. will be levied 9(Clause 17.04).
In the event of the average P.F. of H.T. service connection going below 0.70 lag
consecutively for three months, in addition to the levy of compensation charges at the
above rate, the service connection will be disconnected after giving seven days notice.
The service connection will be reconnected after the P.F. correction is carried out. An
discount of 1% for maintaining power factor above 0.95 lag is allowed to the consumers
by TNEB.
Tariff & Billing
51
a)
Water supply & drainage come under Tariffs II LT & HT
b)
The maximum demand charges for any month and at the point of supply shall be
based on the KVA demand recorded in that month or 100% of the sanctioned demand
(Now 90% of the sanctioned demand) whichever is higher, In addition, for exceeding the
sanctioned maximum demand, the charges per KVA exceeded shall be at double normal
rate (Clause 18.02)
Audit Approach
The following points could inter alia be seen
Whether higher capacities of pumps and motors were installed. This can
be verified with the designed capacity with actual capacity used over a
period of time.
Whether the recorded demand was more or less equal to the contract
demand. If wide variation collect the recorded demand for the past
period (say 1 to 3 years) and comment the excess with financial
implication.
Verify the current consumption bill and ensure whether penalty paid for
low power factor if so it may be commented with money value on the part
of failure to improve the stipulated power factor with suitable capacitors.
9. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
(Chapter 10 of CPHEEO Manual)
The purpose of the distribution system is to convey wholesome water to the
consumer at adequate residual pressure in sufficient quantity at convenient points.
Water distribution usually accounts for 40 to 70% of the capital cost of the water
supply project. As such proper design and layout of the system is of great
importance. Metering is recommended for all cities.
52
water could be conveyed by gravity or by pumping, or gravity-cumpumping. Any of these three modes could be selected based mainly on the
elevation of the source of supply with respect of the town
General Design guide lines for Distribution System (Para 10.3 OF CPHEEO)
1.Peak Factor:
The per capita rate of water supply indicates only the average consumption of
water per day per person over a period of one year. In the design of water supply
distribution system, it is to be recognized that consumption varies with the season,
month, day and hour. As far as the design of distribution system is concerned, it is
the hourly variation in consumption that matters. The fluctuation in consumptions
accounted for, by considering the peak rate of consumption ( which is equal to
average rate multiplied by a peak factor) as rate of flow in the design of
distribution system.
The following peak factors are recommended for various population figures:
For population less than 50,000
3.0
For a population range of 50,000 to 2,00,000 2.25
For population above 2,00,000
2.0
For Small Water Supply Schemes
(Where supply is effected through
standposts for only 6 hours)
3.0
53
54
Note
Fire demand can be assessed as per the norms given in section 2.2.8.3.
Reference can also be made to IS 9668-1980
2. Residual Pressure:
Distribution system should be designed for the following minimum residual
pressures at ferule points:
Single storey building =
Two storey building =
Three storey building =
7m
12m
17m
4. Elevation of Reservoir
The elevation of the service reservoir should be such as to maintain the
minimum residual pressure in the distribution system consistent with its cost
effectiveness. The hydraulic gradient in the pipe should normally be between 1
and 4 per thousand at peak flow. A suitable combination of pipe sizes and staging
height has to be determined optimization of the system. The staging height of
service reservoirs is normally kept as 15-20m.
5. Boosting:
For distant localities, boosters may be provided instead of increasing the size
of mains or height of the reservoir unduly for maintaining the required pressure.
6. Service Reservoirs ( Para 10.4 Of Cpheeo)
55
56
The down take system of water supply in high rise buildings may be one or a
combination of the following systems viz., overhead storage system, break
pressure tank system and hydro-pneumatic system.
9. Clear Water sump (Datamatrix of TWAD Engineers)
Capacity :
If point of supply is near the filter plant, clear water reservoir may be a
service reservoir of 8 hours storage capacity, if gravity is possible or of 30 minutes
storage in case of continuous pumping. If pumping is intermittent, the capacity should
be such that the filtrate could be drawn during non-pumping hours from a continuously
worked filter.
If point of supply is at a distance from the filter plant, capacity of clear
water reservoir may be for 30 minutes storage either for gravity or for pumping if the
transmission main carries average discharge of 24 hours basis. Otherwise the capacity
should be increased to absorb the difference between the rate of inflow and rate of draw
down in the clear water reservoir.
At Head works / Treatment works site, a storage capacity varying from 2
to 12 hours is recommended depending on length and size of main and nature and
frequency of power failures.
Note :
Distribution system should be designed economically since it involves more than half the
cost of water works.
Distribution system should not be designed for residual pressure more than 22m.
Distribution by direct pumping is to be avoided.
Audit Approach
57
Cases where
58
6 hours) Techniques are available for the optimization of rural water supply
distribution system.
Background
Drinking water supply is a state subject. In the Forth Five Year Plan,
Government of India provided assistance to the States to carry out identification of
problem villages and to accelerate the pace of coverage of problem villages. In 197273, GOI introduced the Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) to
assist the State and Union Territories with 100% grants in aid to implement the
schemes in such villages with the introduction of Minimum Needs Programme
(MNP) during the Fifth Five Year Plan (from 1974-75), it was withdrawn. ARWSP
was however, reintroduced in 1977-78 when the progress of supply of safe drinking
water to the identified problem villages under MNP was not found to be satisfactory.
The entire programme was given a mission approach when Technology Mission on
Drinking Water and Related Water Management also called National Drinking Water
Mission (NDWM) was introduced as one of five Social Mission in 1986. NDWM
was renamed as Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission (RGNDWM) in
1991. ARWSP was continued till 1998-99. But the objectives of the programme
could not be attained as envisaged due to lack of sufficient funds and re emergence of
not covered habitations etc. In March 1999, GOI approved Major Policy changes for
implementation of Rural Water Supply Programme during the 9th Plan period and
Sector Reforms Project (SRP) was launched on a pilot basis in the year 1999-2000
with the objective of institutionalizing community participation in capital cost
sharing, operation and maintenance and water quality monitoring and surveillance in
identified pilot district. 67 districts in 26 States were selected under SRP. The SRP
was slightly improved and is being now launched as `Swajaldhara from 25th
December 2002.
59
60
At least 10% capital cost sharing and 100% sharing of O & M cost by
the user (Community). This contribution can be in the form of cash or
kind (labour, land or material) and cash compound should be atleast
50% of the contribution.
Institutional Set up:
(i)
61
d. Support Services
The following are support services
S.No
1
2
3
4
Name of Service
Funding pattern
Water
quality
monitoring 100% funding as per the approved norms
surveillance
by GOI
Rigs and Hydrofracturing units
GOI and State Government share the cost
an 50:50 basis on purchase of rigs on a
very selective basis for remote and difficult
access area. The expenditure will however
be counted as matching provision for
central assistance under ARWSP
Human Resource Development
100% assistance from GOI
Information
Education
& 100% assistance from Central funds
Communication
62
5
6
7
8
9
e. Swajaldhara
The Sector Reforms Project has been slightly improved and is launched as
Swajaldhara on 25th December 2002. Swajaldhara will have two streams. First
(Swajaldhara I) will be for a Gram Panchayat (GP) or group of GPs or intermediate
Panchayat at Block level and the Second (Swajaldhara II) will have a district as the
Project area and is being implemented by respective agencies. Specific proposals
under Swajaldhara I will be sanctioned by the District Water and Sanitation
Committee (DWSC). The District is the unit for implementing the reforms initiative
under Swajaldhara II. In order to avail funds under Swajaldhara I & II, the State
Govt. would enter into Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the Department
of Drinking Water supply, Ministry of Rural Development, GOI.
63
In case
scheme cost, the excess amount shall be taken into operation and
maintenance fund.
GOI may provide upto 10% of the Capital cost as a one time incentive
to the O & M Fund created by the Panchayat Raj Institution/user group
and the State Government should also make an equal matching
contribution to the O & M Fund.
64
Wide publicity and proper time should be given for all the major tenders before
fixing up the contracts.
The source creation shall take precedence over all other sub heads of the
sanctioned project in the normal courses. There were instances, where Service
Reservoir and distribution system are ready but the source is not created.
Unless it is satisfied with the existence of a proper source with adequate
quantity and quality to cater the needs there is no point in rushing up with the
other components of the project.
(G.O. Ms. No. 644 PWD dt: 31.3.80 read with B.P.Ms.No. 75 TWAD dated:
25.3.90)
11.2. Guidelines for adoption in preparation of Rural, Urban and Combined
Water Supply scheme.
(TWAD Board Lr. No. F. HOTC / AE-9/ P&D / 2001 dt: 7.6.2002 and
Technical committee meeting held on 30.5.2002)
Population Forecat:
Revised provision please sees in chapter 3.4
Demand Projection:
After arriving at required quantity of water based on the per capita supply
level. Provision may be made for industrial and commercial requirement at a
minimum of 10% of total requirements. In places where there are only
industries, this can be increased to actual requirements based on committed
requirements from the industries. Transmission losses at 10% of total
requirement may be provided.
Water available from existing other water sources may be deducted from the
calculated requirements after ascertaining the sustainability of the quality and
quantity of source from Hydrological reports.
Yield from the existing hand pumps need not be taken into account for demand
projection.
While designing a new river water based project, all the wayside habitations
irrespective of their status are to be included in the scope. The per capita
supply to be adopted for the wayside habitations are as detailed below.
For fully covered habitation -15 lpcd
For partially covered habitation - The extent to which shortage in level of
supply.
For not covered habitations
-as per norms.
Source
As far as possible source with sustainable quality and quantity for the
design period of the project should be selected. The selected source shall
not be susceptible to pollution and damage due to sand quarrying at any
65
66
Air valves may be introduced at every 1000m for pipe lines upto 600mm dia.
For pipe line with size of main above 600mm dia air valves may be introduced
at 500m intervals.
To prevent pollution and damage to air valves by the public, air valve may be
fixed above a 2.75m standard DF pipe and the DF pipes may be encased with
concrete.
Scour valves should be provided at valley points with facility for easy disposal
of scoured water. For diameter more than 300mm the size of line valves may
be fixed at 2/3rd of pipe diameter. For line valves of diameter 500mm and
above by pass and gears arrangements and air valves on either side should be
provided for easy operation. Provision of reflux valves may be restricted to the
bearest minimum. By pass valves should be provided across the reflux
valves. Air valves should be provided on either side of the reflux valve in the
transmission main.
Economical size of pumping main factor to be adopted ( on 15 years loan with
rate of interest 12.5%)
Capital cost factor
- 0.153
Equivalent cost factor
- 0.165
Annuity factor
0.153
Pumping Plants ( Sump & Pump sets)
Detention time for sump with an inflow of less than 1 mld may be taken as
8 hours subject to a minimum of 30000 litres.
For inflow more than 1 mld the sump capacity may be fixed at 4 hours
storage subject to a maximum to 50 lakh litres.
The sump need not be circular shape. Suit to site condition. Priority may be
given for constructing the pump house over the sump.
For centrifugal, turbine and submersible pump 50% stand by may be
adopted except in the case of borewells.
Efficiency of pumps for design purpose may be taken as 60% for
centrifugal pump and 70% for turbine pump and submersible pumps.
Inside the pumping, plant butterfly valves with valve actuators may be
provided for valves of size 300mm and above.
For pumping plants with 100 HP and above provisions may be made for
SCADA with sensor for water level flow and pressure for collection of field
operating information and control from the central location.
Treatment Plant:
The treatment plant should be designed based on raw water quality.
Slow sand filter are easy to operate and maintain. These plants can be
maintained even by local bodies with unskilled labours. The operating
cost will be less when compared to rapid and sand filter. Even in places
with limited land availability feasibility of providing multi- storeyed
filters may be examined.
67
In case of raw water with turbidity level less than 100, preference shall
be given for provision of slow sand filters. For turbidity level between
60 and 100, a settling tank of 3 to 4 hours detention time may be
provided.
For water drawn from hill sources an aerator has to be provided.
Service Reservoir (SR):
The capacity of Service Reservoirs may be fixed on the following lines
(i)For Rural habitations
Population - ultimate
Less than 150
- 5000 lit. GLSR with spot supply
151 to 500
- 10000 lit. OHT 6m staging.
501 to 1250
- 30000 lit. OHT 6m staging.
1251 to 2500
- 60000 lit. OHT 7.5m staging.
2501 to 5500
- 100000 lit. OHT 7.5m staging.
Above 5000 as per requirement subject to a maximum of 1.50 lakh lit. with
suitable staging height.
(ii) For Urban Areas.
The capacity of Service Reservoir may be fixed at 1/3rd of daily
requirements. The staging height has to be fixed in such a way that a
minimum residual head of 8m is available in the distribution
system.
Whenever the ground terrain of the town area varies more than
8m zoning may be resorted to proposing separate Service
Reservoirs for each zone or providing more than 1 outlet from the
Service Reservoir.
Note:
68
751 1500
- 2250m
1501 3000
- 3000m
above 3000
- 3750m
The above norms are maximum limits. The distribution system length should
be restricted to actual street length. As house service connections are proposed
in the rural areas also , one public fountain for every 250 population ( present )
may be provided. In case of SC/ST areas the above norms may be relaxed.
For urban areas, the distribution system should be designed for ultimate
stage requirements to supply the requirements in 24 hours.
The following peak factor may be adopted for arriving the design
discharge.
Population ( Ultimate)
Upto 50000
- 3
50001 2 lakh
- 2.5
Above 2 lakh
-2
Rural areas ( Where water supply is effected through stand post : 3 only)
Per capita cost:
The following per capita norms may be followed for sanction of estimate
by Chief Engineer/Superintending Engineer/Executive Engineer.
In plains
- Rs. 1750/In hilly areas
- Rs. 2000/Cost per litre
- Rs. 20/Implementation of the project
Land required for different project components should be identified and
availability ensured before finalising the project. .
For implementation, the source creation work should be completed first
before commencement of other components.
Field particulars
All field particulars have to be furnished for preparation of detailed
estimate.
The alignment plan should be drawn with reference to FM sketches or
plain table survey or compass survey.
11.3. House service connection ( HSC)
New water supply schemes may be taken up in rural habitations only after
obtaining a firm commitment from the respective panchayat for giving House
Service Connection to atleast 30% of the house holds in the habitation. ( MD/
TWAD Lr.No. 1202/ AE3/PM/R/2002/ dt: 21.6.2002)
11.4.Water utilization committee
All water supply schemes and irrigation schemes involving drawal of
water of less than 1 mgd (million gallon daily) shall be approved by the District
69
Collector concerned. 1 mgd and above shall be placed before the water utilization
committee and the clearance obtained. ( G.O.Ms. No. 543 / PWD dt: 24.3.1980.)
11.5. Sustainability of water-designing infrastructure to wayside habitation of
cwss.
The existing level of supply should be assessed and its sustainability
should be certified by the Deputy Hydrogeologist of the respective Circle. The
per capita supply may be reduced from the 55 lpcd to the extent of sustainable
present level of supply for which sustainability certificate has been issued by
Deputy Hydrogeologist. If the present level of supply is not at all sustainable, a
per capita supply of 55 lpcd may be adopted for designing the scheme. (TWAD
Circular No.60/ DO / P&D / dated: 8.8.2002)
11.6. Guidelines for improvements and augmentation of existing water supply
facilities.
( TWAD circular No. 38/ PO / P&D / 2001 / dt; 22.4.2002)
Improvements and augmentation of the existing water supply facilities
should be considered whenever there is failure of potable source, prevalence of
inadequate supply and there is an actual need for augmentation / improvements.
On the contrary in the several cases it has been noticed that habitations/town with
sufficient level of potable water supply with level sources are being considered
under river bed water supply project just to facilitate river water supply to the
fully covered habitations / town. This practice not only results in unnecessary
expenditure on the limited budgetary allocation, but also cuts the supply intended
for other needy areas. Hence water supply scheme should be designed to benefit
the actual needy areas and should be implemented mainly to benefit the needy
population.
70
71
5.
The State Land Selection Committee (SLSC) may monitor/review from time
to time the physical and financial progress of the schemes already approved
by GOI before selecting new towns so as to assess/identify the shortcomings
and suggest remedial measures to complete the schemes as per the schedule.
6. While selecting project towns by SLSC, priority must be accorded to towns
with special problems like:
a)
Very low per capita supply
b)
Very distant or deep water source
c)
Drought-prone area
d)
Excess salinity, fluoride, iron content in the water source
e)
High incidence of water born diseases
7.
Priority is to be given by the SLSC to rehabilitation and augmentation
schemes rather than new schemes
8. No change/alteration in the priority list of towns selected by the SLSC will be
permitted.
9. The DPR should contain:
A commitment to launch the scheme immediately after receiving
technical approval of Government of India/Administrative Approval of
the scheme by the State Government with necessary budgetary provision
Commitment from the State Power Department / Statement Electricity
Board to ensure interrupted power supply to the scheme
A certificate/commitment to the effect that, the works for different
components of the scheme included in the DPR have not commenced and
no expenditure has been booked.
Whether any Government of India fund from any other Central
Development Programme was obtained during the last five
years/proposed to be obtained or not. If yes, details may be indicated in
the DPR.
Details of the total annual and expenditure of the agency responsible for
O&M for the last 5 years in order to assess their financial soundness to
take over the scheme for O&M after its commissioning.
Permission/action initiated to obtain permission from various
departments, e.g. Revenue, Water Resources, Forest, Rural, Highways,
Railways, etc. wherever necessary, for implementation of the scheme.
Technical Guidelines:
2. While preparing the DPRs, technical guidelines stipulated in the revised
Manual on Water Supply & Treatment published in May 1999 by this
Ministry may be considered in addition to AUWSP guidelines.
3. The design period for 20 to 25 years as per guidelines of AUWSP may be
considered for the scheme. In addition, a gestation period of 2 to 3 years
may be adopted to decide upon the base year, intermediate stage and
ultimate stage of the scheme.
72
73
(ii)
12. MISCELLANEOUS
12.1. Preventive maintenance (Para 10.10 of CPHEEO Manual):
Preventive maintenance of water distribution system pipelines assures the
twin objectives of preserving the hygienic quality of water in the distribution
mains and providing condition for adequate flow through the pipe lines. Some of
the main functions in the management of preventive aspects in the maintenance of
mains are assessment, detection and prevention of wastages of water from pipe
lines, maintaining the capacity of pipe line and cleaning of pipe line .
a) Wastage:
Wastage is due to leakage in water mains due to corrosion, fracture, faulty
joints, ferrule connection, service pipes and fittings inside the consumers
74
premises due to joints corrosion faulty washers on glands in valves and taps,
abandoned service pipes and ferrule connections in mains; and failure to turn off
taps in premises willfully or inadvertently.
b) Leakage Detection :
Leakage detection survey is confined only to the areas with heavy leakages
as arrived at by the waste assessment survey. The survey consists of :
i) Finding leaks in the pipes by visual determination of surface; and
ii) Traversing the sub zone in the night by sounding rod, or electronic
leak locator for pinpointing of leaks in pipes .
C. Cleaning of pipes
The necessity for systematic and periodic cleaning of pipelines is borne out
by the fact that the carrying capacity of the pipes gets reduced due to growth of
slimes, incrustation deposits. Flushing and swabbing of pipes, which are simple
and inexpensive can go a long way in maintaining the capacity.
The old cast iron and steel pipes which are cleaned can be protected from
further incrustations or corrosion by cement lining. Insertion of a plastic pipes has
also practiced with success .
d. Protection against pollution near sewers and drains
A water main should be laid such that there is at least 3 m separation,
horizontally from existing or proposed drain or sewer line. If local conditions
prevent this lateral separation of water main may be laid closer to a storm or
sanitary sewer, provided that the main is laid by separate trench or on an
undisturbed earth shelf located on one side of the sewer at such elevation that the
bottom of the water main is at least 0.5m above the top of the sewer.
In situations where water mains have to cross house sewer; storm drain, or
sanitary sewer then it should be laid at such an elevation that the bottom of the
water main is 0.50 m above the top of the drain or sewer with the joints as remote
from the sewer as possible. This vertical separation should be maintained for a
distance of 3 m on both sides measured normal to the sewer or drain it crosses .
Where conditions prevent the minimum vertical separation set forth above,
or when it is necessary for the water main to pass under a sewer or drain, the water
main should be laid with flanged cast iron pipe, with rubber gasket joints for a
length on either side of the crossing to satisfy the lateral separation of 3 m. A
vertical separation of 0.50m between the bottom of the water main and the top of
the sewer should be maintained with adequate support for the larger sized sewer
lines, to prevent them from settling on or breaking the water main. In making
such crossings, it is preferable to have the sewer also of casting flanged pipe with
75
rubber gasket joints and both the water and sewer mains pressure tested to assure
water tightness before back fillings.
Where a water main has already been laid and where a new sewer is to be
laid, the above aspects may also be taken into consideration and the water main
may be realigned, when it is not possible to lay the sewer consistent with the
above recommendations.
Since water expands nearly about 10% in volume with an irresistible
pressure, freezing solid conditions should not be allowed in any pipe system to
avoid interruption of service and prevent damage to the pipes .
11.2. Method of raising revenue (Para 17.4 of CPHEEO Manual)
The sources of revenue are the funds received by general taxation such as
water tax or a portion of the general property tax which is realized by assessment
on all taxable property and water rates paid by those who use the water, more or
less in proportion to the amount consumed .
Water tax
Since the provision of a water supply to a town enhances the value of the
property, a water tax is justifiable on the annual rental value of the property.
This may be a separate tax or included in the general property tax but it is
desirable that the revenue under this head is earmarked for water supply purpose .
Water rates
The revenue from the sale of water or water rates recoverable from parties
actually consuming the water such as for domestic purposes or for commercial and
industrial purposes is utilized to meet the annual recurring cost of operation and
maintenance and to provide for a reserve for meeting the capital expenses for
future improvement to the system .
Any major augmentation of the system should, however, be dealt with by
the new scheme for which the capital is to be raised in the usual manner .
The most equitable method will be based on metering of all the supplies.
The quantity actually accounted for by the meters is invariably less than the
quantity produced since there is a considerable wastage as unaccounted water,
which should also be considered in fixing the water rates. The water rates are to
be carefully fixed taking into account the following:
i)
The rate should be high enough to fetch the necessary revenue and not
excessive as to discourage consumers from making needed use of the water
for domestic needs and for personnel hygiene in particular .
ii)
The rate should be such as to make the amenity more or less self paying
and worked on a no profit no loss basis .
iii)
The rate should be such as to provide for generating source for expanding
the system to take care or increasing requirements .
76
77
78
79
In the Project Appraisal Technique , the costs and benefits of the project in
financial / economic terms are evaluated. It is easy to identify costs and benefits
in financial terms where as it is difficult to identify in economic terms. The
project incurs expenses on capital investment, such as machinery and equipment,
operation and maintenance cost, purchase of raw materials, payment of wages and
import of goods and services etc. In addition the projects has to pay taxes, import
duties, fees, repay the loan with interest and allow for the depreciation of fixed
assets . The project gets its return from the sale of goods and services and also
receives subsidy, if allowed by the Government, which reduces the costs or add to
the income .
80
Two types of costs and benefits are encountered in the appraisal of a project
one involves the use of resources, and the other which does not involve use of
resources, but it is a transfer of resources from the project to the Government or
any other institution / individual ( taxes, fees, duties, loan repayment and interest )
or vice versa ( subsidies ).
Audit approach on Implementation
Water supply scheme designed with drawal of source from another water
supply scheme. Though all infrastructures were created for supply of water,
the scheme held up due to non completion of the scheme from which source
was proposed to be drawn.
81
put into optimum use. Head works, pumping main completed which provided for
bulk provision of water to supply various other habitations. But evenafter
commencement of the water supply scheme, the work of distribution system was
not sanctioned and taken up for execution, to those habitations for which bulk
provision was made for.
82
83
ANNEXURE 1
Population
40,185
44,522
60,395
75,614
98,886
1,24,230
1,58,800
Total
Average
Increment
4,337
15,873
15,219
23,272
25,344
34,570
1,18,615
19,769
Solution
Arithmetical Progression Method
Increase in population from 1921 to 1981
i.e. in 6 decades
= 1,58,800
-40,185
1,18,615
or increase per decade
=1/6 x 118,615 = 19769
Population in 2001
=Population in 1981 + increase for 2 decades
= 158,800+2 x 19769
=158,800 + 39538
=198,338
Population in 2016
=Population in 1981 + Increase for 3.5 decades
= 158,800 + 3.5 x 19,769
= 227,992
2. Geometrical Progression Method
Rate of Growth (r)
= 4337/40185= 0.108
Per decade between
1931 and 1921
1941 and 1931
= 15873/44522= 0.356
1951 and 1941
= 15219/60395= 0.252
1961 and 1951
= 23272/75614= 0.308
1971 and 1961
= 25344/98886= 0.256
1981 and 1971
= 34570/124230=0.278
_____________________________________
6
| 0.108 X 0.356 X0.252 X 0.308 X 0.256X0.278
84
Geometric mean, rg =
Assuming that the future growth follows the geometric mean for the period 1921
to 1981 rg = 0.2442
Population in 2001
= Population in 1981 x ( 1 x rg)2
= 245,800
= 158800 x (1.2442)2
Population in 2016 = Population in 1981 x (1+ rg)3.5= 1.58,800 x
(1.2442)3.5=3,05,700
Methods of Varying Increment or Incremental Increase Methods
In this method a progressively decreasing or increasing rather than a
constant rate is adopted. This is a modification over the Arithmetical Progression
method.
Year
Population
1921
1931
1941
1951
1961
1971
1981
Increase (x)
40,185
44,522
60,395
75,614
98,886
1,24,230
1,58,800
Total
4,337
15,873
15,219
23,272
25,344
34,570
1,18,615
Incremental
increase (Y
11536
654
8053
2072
9226
30233
6047
Pn =P1+ nX + n(n+1)Y
2
P2001 = P1981 + 2x 19769 + 2x3x6047
2
= 158800 + 39538 + 18141 = 216479
P 2016 = P1981 + 3.5.x 19769 + (3.5 x 4.5 x 6047) /2
= 158800 + 699192 + 24,188
= 252180
85
ANNEXURE II
Recommended guidelines for physical and chemical parameters.
Sl.
Characteristics
* Acceptable
**
Cause
No.
Rejection
1
Turbidity (NTU)
1
10
2
25
Unobjectionable
Objectionable
PH
7.0 to 8.5
<6.5 or >9.2
500
2000
200
600
200
1000
200
400
Fluorides(as F)(mg/1)
1.0
1.5
10
Nitrates(as NO3)(mg/1)
45
45
11
75
200
12
530
150
for
0.05
0.5
15
0.05
1.5
16
0.03
0.2
17
Alkalinity (mg/1)
200
600
18
0.2
>1.0
19
5.0
15.0
20
0.001
0.002
21
0.2
1.0
22
0.01
0.03
Toxic materials
23
0.01
0.01
24
0.01
0.01
25
0.05
0.05
26
0.05
0.05
27
0.05
0.05
28
0.01
0.01
29
0.001
0.001
30
Polynuclear
aromatic
hydrocarbons 0.2
0.2
(PAH ) (mg/1)
31
Absent
Refer
to
WHO
guidelines
for
drinking
water
quality Vol.I.-1993
Radio activity +
32
Gross Alpha activity (Bq/1)
0.1
0.1
33
1.0
1.0
NOTES
* The figures indicated under the column Acceptable are the limits upto
which water is generally acceptable to the consumers.
** Figures in excess of those mentioned under Acceptable render the water not
acceptable, but still may be tolerated in the absence of a alternative and better
source but upto the limits indicated under column Cause for Rejection above
which the sources will have to be rejected.
+ It is possible that some mine and spring waters may exceed these radio activity
limits and in such cases it is necessary to analyze the individual radio-nuclides in
order to assess the acceptability or otherwise for public consumption.
b) Bacteriological Guidelines
The treated water should be bacteriologically in good quality and any trace
of bacteria of any kind must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample.
86
87
ANNEXURE III
Unit cost
Description of work
2. Unit cost as per 1998-99 rates for RCC elevated Service Reservoirs
(including pipe connections)
S.No.
Description of work
9.90
7.40
8.90
6.60
7.00
5.60
6.30
5.40
10
6.60
11
5.30
12
4.60
13
4.20
14
3.85
15
3.50
16
3.45
17
3.40
88
Description of work
Upto 2 mld
5.72
4.85
3.30
1.90
1.75
1.65
1.55
1.45
0.90
Description of Work
12650
BHP 3 to 5
10350
BHP 6 to 10
8625
BHP 11 to 15
7475
BHP 16 to 35
6325
BHP 36 to 50
5750
BHP 51 to 100
5175
13800
11500
89
II
Standby Pumpsets
(Rate for only pumpsets for jet, centrifugal and
turbine pumpsets)
1 to 2 HP
4025
6 to 10 HP
3800
11 to 15 HP
3450
16 to 35 HP
3400
36 to 50 HP
3275
51 to 100 HP
3225
above 100 HP
3100
ANNEXURE IV
90
2)
3)
628
505
383
319
263
212
181
146
125
111
100
92
86
76
69
63
59
55
52
42
36
29
100
125
150
200
250
2031 3280
907
1631 2635 5616 10100
689
1238 2000 4263 7687
574
1032 1667 3555 6393
474
851
1375 2932 5272
381
684
1105 2355 4236
326
586
946
2017 3626
262
470
760
1620 2914
224
403
651
1387 2495
199
357
577
1229 2211
180
324
523
1114 2004
166
298
481
1025 1844
154
277
448
954 1716
137
246
397
846 1521
124
223
360
766 1378
114
205
331
705
1268
106
191
308
656
1180
100
179
289
616
1108
94
169
273
582
1046
242
515
927
75
136
219
467
840
202
430
773
65
116
188
400
719
166
355
638
52
93
151
321
578
300
350
400
450
12390
10330
8517
6842
5859
4707
4030
3572
3238
2979
2771
2457
2226
2048
1905
1788
1690
1498
1357
1249
1162
1030
934
15490
12779
10260
8786
7058
6043
5357
4835
4467
4157
3684
3339
3072
2859
2682
2534
2247
2035
1874
1743
1545
1404
22010
18150
14580
12480
10030
8588
7612
6900
6348
5906
5235
4744
4365
4061
3812
3600
3193
2893
2662
2477
2196
1990
29980
24730
19860
17010
13670
11700
10370
9399
8648
8046
7132
6465
5947
5534
5193
4906
4349
3941
3626
3375
2990
2771
This table is prepared using Hazen Williams formula, taking the Hazen
Williams Coefficient C as 100
Adopt the appropriate Value for C particular pipe material.
The head loss factor and discharge factor for various values of C are as
follows : value of C:
80
100 120 130 140
Head Loss Factor
:
1.511 1.000 0.713 0.615 0.536
Discharge Factor
:
0.80 1.00 1.20 1.30 1.40
Explanation: The initial pressure with which water is pumped in a pumping main
would get reduced due to friction. This pressure loss due to friction is termed as
head loss and normally expressed as head loss as 1 m over a distance. For instance
if the head loss due to friction is 1m over a distance of (ie length of pumping main)
1000 m it is expressed as 1/1000 or 1 over 1000.
91
ANNEXURE V
Hydrostatic test pressure OF Pipe
S.No
1
1
Cast
Iron
IS:1537-1976
LA
A
B
A-dia(mm)
Upto 600
600-1000
1000-1500
20
15
10
B-dia (mm)
Upto 600
600-1000
1000-1500
25
20
15
Usual Dia in
mm
Pipe IS No
2
Spun
Iron
IS:1536-1989
3114-1985
Test Pressure
at works
Kg/Cm2
=10m of
water
5
35
35
35
Pipe
&
Pipe
3
80,100,125,
150-50-500
600,700,750,
800,900,1000
1050
80,100,125 15050-500
600,700,750
800-100-1200
1500
Class
AC Pressure Pipes
IS:1952-2003
10
15
20
25
10
15
20
25
RC Pipes
1988
80,100,150
250-50-500100-1200
P1
80,100,150,
250-50-500600,700,800,
900,1000
P2
80,100,150,250,
300,350,400,
500,600,700,800
20 mm to 315
mm OD
P3
Cl.2.5
4
6
10
5
8
12
20
PVC Pipe
IS:458-
MPA
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Maximum
working
pressure at field
kg/cm2
6
12
18
24
92
6
Steel cylinder RC
pipes IS 1916-1963
200-50-500, 600
700,900,1100,
1200-200-1800
Prestressed concrete
pipes IS 784-2001
80,100,125,15050-500-1001200-200-1800
Electrically Welded
steel pipes IS:35892001
6-100
6-150
6-150
200-2500
10
Ductile Iron
IS:8329:2000
Pipe
80-2000
1
2
3
4
5
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Light
Medium
Heavy
1
2
3
5
10
15
20
25
1.5
times
design
pressure
K7
K9
K10
Separately
given
50
50
50
15
20
25
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Depending upon
thickness of steel
plate & tangible
strength
given
separately
As applicable to
CI/DI pipe
93
Tensile strength in
mpa.
330
410
450
The Hydraulic test pressure of different size of MS pipe adopted by TEAD board
is worked out given below for ready reference.
94
Sl.
No
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
Outer
Specified
diameter of
thickness
the pipe in
in mm (t)
mm (D)
2
460
462
510
512
560
562
612
614
712
714
764
766
814
816
864
866
916
920
1016
1020
1066
1070
1116
1120
1166
1170
1216
1220
1270
1272
1320
1322
1370
1374
1420
3
5
6
5
6
5
6
6
7
6
7
7
8
7
8
7
8
8
10
8
10
8
10
8
10
8
10
8
10
10
11
10
11
10
12
10
198
Mpa
246
Mpa
270
Mpa
410
mpa
8
5.348
6.390
4.824
5.766
4.393
5.253
4.824
5.609
4.146
4.824
4.508
5.138
4.231
4.824
3.986
4.545
4.297
5.348
3.874
4.864
3.692
4.598
3.527
4.393
3.376
4.205
3.237
4.033
3.874
4.255
3.727
4.094
3.591
4.297
3.465
450
mpa
9
5.870
7.013
5.294
6.328
4.821
5.765
5.294
6.156
4.551
5.294
4.948
5.640
4.644
5.294
4.375
4.988
4.716
5.870
4.252
5.294
4.053
5.047
3.871
4.821
3.705
4.615
3.553
4.426
4.252
4.670
4.091
4.493
3.942
4.716
3.803
36
37
38
39
40
1424
1470
1474
1520
1524
12
10
12
10
12
3.337
2.694
3.224
2.605
3.118
4.146
3.347
4.005
3.237
3.874
4.551
3.673
4.396
3.553
4.253
of Allowable operating
in excluding surge
K7
80
100
125
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
600
700
750
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1400
1500
1600
1800
2000
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
K9
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.2
5.4
4.9
4.5
4.2
4.0
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.1
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.7
2.6
2.6
K10
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.4
6.5
5.9
5.4
5.1
4.8
4.6
4.3
4.1
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.1
3.1
1 Mpa
10.2 Kg / cm2
1 Kg/cm2
K7
1.7
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
K9
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
7.9
7.0
6.4
5.9
5.6
5.3
5.1
4.8
4.6
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.6
K10
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
7.8
7.2
6.6
6.3
5.9
5.8
5.4
5.1
4.9
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.3
4.3
4.2
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.0
95
Hydrostatic test for Bar Wrapped Steel Cylinder (BWSC) pipe (IS 15155:2002)
The hydrostatic pressure is determined by the following formula:
2Sty
P=
D yi
Where,
P
= Minimum hydrostatic test pressure in N/mm2
S
= Stress in pipe wall during hydrostatic test in N/mm2, which shall be
0.75 times the specified minimum yield stress of the steel used, or as
specified by the purchase;
ty
= Cylinder thickness in mm; and
D y i = Inside diameter of steel cylinder in mm.
Note: Normally the specified minimum yield stress of steel used for BWSC pipe
Fe = 250 N/mm2
The Hydrostatic test provision is worked our adopting minimum yield stress of steel
Fe = 250 N/mm2
Factory test pressure
= 75% of the minimum yield strength of steel used in the
cylinder or stress not exceed 187 N/mm2
Site test pressure
= 66% of the minimum yield strength of steel used in the
cylinder or stress not exceed 165 N/mm2
Working pressure
= 50% of the minimum yield strength of steel used in the
cylinder or stress not excess 125 N/mm2
Clause 7.31 of IS 15155: 2002
Nominal Internal Diameter, Minimum wall thickness (t min) and Minimum thickness
of the Cement Mortar Lining (t i min) , Inside diameter of steel cylinder ( Dyi) in mm
factory test pressure, working pressure for difference size of pipe is given below
Nominal
Internal
Diameter
of Pipe
t min
Minimum
wall
thickness
250
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
40
40
40
45
45
45
45
45
45
50
50
50
50
50
50
t i min
Minimum
thickness of
the cement
mortar lining
15
15
15
20
20
20
20
20
20
22
22
22
22
22
22
Minimu
m
Cylinder
Thickne
ss
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.5
2.5
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
Minimum
Thickness
of Joint
Rings
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
Inside
diameter
of steel
cylinder
(Dyi)
280
330
430
540
640
740
840
940
1040
1144
1244
1344
1444
1544
1644
Factory
test
pressure
N/mm2
Working
pressure
N/mm2
2.1429
1.8182
1.3953
1.1111
1.1719
1.0135
0.8929
0.9973
0.9014
1.3112
1.2058
1.1161
1.0388
0.9715
0.9124
1.4286
1.2121
0.9302
0.7407
0.7813
0.6758
0.5952
0.6649
0.6010
0.8741
0.8039
0.7440
0.6925
0.6477
0.6083
96
97
2
(2) Pipe with internal diameters other than those mentioned in this table and
pipes for working pressure higher than 28 Kg/ Cm2 can be supplied by mutual
agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer.
ANNEXURE VI
98
Ultimate stage
Qty. Grade frictional
1pm
Loss
The initial choice of pipe size is with reference to the velocity range
normally between 0.3 and 0.6m/sec
Static Lift *
m
Intermediate stage
Frictional
Other. Total
Ultimate stage
Frictional
Other.
Total
Loss
Losses Head
Loss
Losses Head
* Static head is the difference in level between foot value level of pumping installation at
Head works and hydraulic level at reservoir at 2m above the maximum water level of
reservoir or maximum ridge in the pumping main alignment, whichever is higher.
Intermediate stage
Oty
Head BHP*
1pm
m
Ultimate stage
Qty Head BHP*
1Pm m
* BHP
(For 50%
Qty . to lifted in 1pm X total head in m x 2
Efficiency) = 60 X 76.06
Table IV-cost of pump sets
Size
mm
Intermediate stage
Ultimate stage
Total
Cost
9
(4+8)
Col.8 = Col.7x Equivalent cost factor (for 15 years at the prevailing rate of interest)
99
Table V Electrical Energy
Size
mm
1
Intermediate stage
Ultimate stage
Total
Cost
Note : 1 In calculating the electrical energy, the average working hours should be taken
into account, for example : if the working hours or pumping hours is 16
Present population
16 + ------------------------- x 16
Intermediate. Population
------------------------------------------2
Intermediate Population
16 + ------------------------------ x 16
Ultimate population
-------------------------------------------2
2. HT Supply shall be availed when connected load as per table III is 75 HP and above
and LT supply shall be availed when connected load as per table III is less than 75 HP
Average working hours at ultimate stage
3. The head loss due to friction in pipe line is calculated by referring to velocity discharge
table or using the following formula
Frictional loss per m length of pipe as per Hazen Williams formula
.hf
= 1.13 x 109 Q1.85
C1.85 d4.87
Where .hf = frictional loss inm
Q = discharge in m3/hr
.d= diameter of pipe in mm
c = Hazen-William Co-efficient of smoothness
Table VI.
Size of main
mm
Length of
main
m
Rate
Rs/m
Amount
Rs.
Table VII.
Size of
main
mm
Cost of
pumping
main
(Amount from
Table VI)
100
Cost of Installation
Cost of
pumpset
(Total Cost)
Total
Cost of
installation
from
Table IV)
3
4
(2+3)
Total cost
of installation
(from Table
VII)
1
Cost of
electrical
energy
(Total cost
From Table V)
3
Total cost
of installation
and maintenance
4
(2+3)
The size corresponding to minimum cost from the Table VIII is the most economical
size of the pumping main.
ANNEXURE VII
101
CI
CI
CI
CI
CI
CI
CI
CI
CI
CI
CI
CI
CI
CI
CI
CI
CI
CI
CI
ACCL15
ACCL15
ACCL15
ACCL15
ACCL15
ACCL15
ACCL15
ACCL15
ACCL15
ACCL15
ACCL15
ACCL15
ACCL15
ACCL10
Refilling
quantity
0.098
0.118
0.144
0.170
0.170
0.222
0.222
0.274
0.326
0.378
0.378
0.429
0.48
0.532
0.532
0.635
0.738
0.738
0.790
0.104
0.124
0.151
0.178
0.178
0.235
0.286
0.340
0.396
0.452
0.502
0.559
0.658
0.104
0.780
0.777
0.771
0.765
0.765
0.841
0.841
0.901
0.997
1.193
1.193
1.251
1.519
1.628
1.628
1.938
2.332
2.332
2.573
0.779
0.775
0.770
0.763
0.763
0.837
0.896
0.989
1.182
1.235
1.502
1.605
1.915
0.779
0.79
0.79
0.79
0.79
0.79
0.88
0.88
0.96
1.08
1.31
1.31
1.40
1.70
1.85
1.85
2.26
2.76
2.76
3.06
0.79
0.79
0.79
0.79
0.79
0.88
0.96
1.08
1.31
1.40
1.70
1.85
2.26
0.79
ACCL10
ACCL10
ACCL10
ACCL10
ACCL10
ACCL10
ACCL10
ACCL10
ACCL10
ACCL10
ACCL10
ACCL10
PVC
PVC
PVC
PVC
PVC
PVC
PVC
PVC
PSC
PSC
PSC
PSC
PSC
PSC
PSC
PSC
PSC
GI
GI
GI
GI
GI
GI
GI
GI
GI
GI
GI
100
125
150
175
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
600
40
50
63
75
90
110
125
140
350
400
450
500
600
700
800
900
1000
15
20
25
32
40
50
65
80
100
125
150
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.80
0.80
0.80
0.90
0.90
1.00
1.00
1.10
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.90
0.90
1.00
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.25
1.40
1.50
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.10
1.20
1.35
1.45
1.55
1.70
1.85
2.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.45
1.55
1.70
1.85
2.05
2.30
2.45
2.60
2.70
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
0.124
0.149
0.175
0.175
0.229
0.281
0.333
0.389
0.436
0.486
0.541
0.648
0.04
0.05
0.063
0.075
0.09
0.11
0.125
0.14
0.464
0.514
0.564
0.614
0.724
0.824
0.934
1.054
1.164
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.09
0.11
0.14
0.16
0.79
0.79
0.79
0.79
0.88
0.96
1.08
1.31
1.40
1.70
1.85
2.26
0.63
0.63
0.63
0.63
0.63
0.63
0.63
0.63
1.31
1.40
1.70
1.85
2.26
2.76
3.06
3.64
4.05
0.788
0.788
0.788
0.788
0.788
0.788
0.788
0.788
0.788
0.788
0.788
0.775
0.770
0.763
0.763
0.839
0.898
0.993
1.186
1.246
1.515
1.620
1.925
0.629
0.628
0.627
0.626
0.624
0.621
0.618
0.615
1.136
1.188
1.450
1.554
1.844
2.227
2.378
2.768
2.986
0.787
0.787
0.787
0.786
0.786
0.785
0.784
0.781
0.778
0.772
0.767
102