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12
FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
PETER K. ONNIGIAN, P.E.
ERIC DYE
INTRODUCTION
This chapter is for broadcast engineers, technicians
and station managers who must make important
decisions regarding FM transmitting antennas. To
ensure the best possible signal strength in the stations
service areas, the site location, antenna height, antenna type and propagation conditions must all be
considered.
FM broadcasting was first authorized in the United
States in 1940 by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The first FM station began operation
in 1941. In 1945, the FM service was assigned to the
88 to 108 MHz band and divided into 100 channels,
each 200 kHz wide. In 1991, there were over 5,400
commercial and 1,700 educational FM stations.
Most FM antennas are nonsymmetrical, that is they
are mounted on one side of a steel supporting tower
or pole. FM antennas outside the western hemisphere
on the other hand are usually symmetrical, that is
installed on all faces of a tower. However, both methods are capable of providing excellent omnidirectional
azimuth patterns.
Antennas for FM broadcasting use horizontal polarization (H-pol), vertical polarization (V-pol), or circular polarization (CP).1 Cross polarization is used as
a means to prevent co-channel interference in some
European countries but not in the western hemisphere.
CP, together with its special form, elliptical polarization (E-pol), was introduced in the United States in
the early 1960s as a means to provide greater signal
penetration into the many different forms of FM receiving antennas, which are now found in the service area.
H-pol is the standard in the United States, CP or
E-pol may be used if desired. V-pol only is permitted
for noncommercial FM stations seeking to limit interference to TV channel 6.
Between 1980 and 1990 there were over 300 million
radios sold in the United States. Over 140 million were
automobile AM/FM radios.2 FM radio receivers use a
variety of antennas including extendable monopoles
(whips), dipoles and capacitive coupling to power lines
and headphone leads.
Antennas for FM broadcasting must be chosen carefully in order to cover the service areas properly with
adequate level and quality signals. For economic and
technical reasons, the desired effective radiated power
(ERP) should be produced with a balance between
antenna gain and transmitter power. It is the purpose
of this chapter to provide sufficient technical information for the broadcaster to achieve this.
The height of the antenna over the service area,
distances to areas of population, the ERP and the economics are items that must be considered.
Antennas currently available in the United States
differ considerably from those to be found in Europe.
The various American types are discussed so that the
engineer will be informed on the subject. Considerable
advances have been made in recent years in the design
and fabrication of FM antennas. These improvements
provide greater penetration of signals into automobile
FM radios as well as popular small FM transistor radios
of all kinds.3 The newer FM broadcasting antennas
must meet the more stringent requirements for FM
stereo and subcarrier broadcasting. Most FM stations
in the United States are using CP antennas.
PROPAGATION
FM broadcasting has some distinct advantages over
AM (medium wave) broadcast service. These advantages stem from the propagation characteristics of FM
frequencies as well as the modulation system.
There is essentially no difference between day and
night FM propagation conditions. FM stations have
relatively uniform day and night service areas. FM
propagation loss includes everything that can happen
to the energy radiated from the transmitting antenna
during its journey to the receiving antennas. It includes
the free space path attenuation of the wave and such
factors as refraction, reflection, depolarization, diffraction, absorption, scattering, Fresnel zone clearances,
grazing, and Brewster angle problems.
Propagation is dependent upon all these properties
out to approximately 40 miles (65 km). Some additional factors enter the picture at greater distances.
Radio wave propagation is further complicated because some of these propagation variables are functions of frequency, polarization, or both, and many
have location and time variations.
The technical intent of the broadcaster is to put
a signal into FM receivers of sufficient strength to
overcome noise and to provide at least 20 dB carrierto-noise ratio, which will provide at least 30 dB of
stereo separation. The required RF signal level varies
from about 2 mV/m (microvolt per meter) for high
sensitivity FM stereo tuners in the suburbs to about
500 mV/m for less sensitive transistorized portables.
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FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
Figure 4.12-3. Magnitude of reflection coefficients showing differences for H-pol and V-pol, and the Brewster angle.
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FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
Soil Conductivity
The conductivity and permittivity of the soil, together with the vegetation on it, play a small part in
the attenuation of FM signal strength. Average soil
has a dielectric constant of about 15 millisiemens per
meter at 100 MHz.9
Linear Height Gain Effect
By raising the receiving antenna above the immediate effects of the soil, the signal level will be increased.
Actual field measurements have proven a 9 dB increase
in signal when the dipole was raised from 3.28 ft
(1 m) to a level of 30 ft (9.1 m). This is due to reflection
phenomena in the foreground of the receiver, not
ground conductivity.
FCC Service Contours
From the FCC coverage prediction charts, it is possible to draw contours of the various grades of service
for a given ERP and antenna height above average
terrain. These predictions, at 50% of the locations,
50% of the time, constitute the basis for the service
contours. The city grade contour is 70 dBm (3.16 millivolts per meter) and primary service contour is 60
dBm (1.0 millivolts per meter).
The FCC Rules, Section 73.333 charts for these
predictions have a built-in terrain roughness factor, as
explained above.
Table 4.12-1
Recommended minimum antenna heights (for flat terrain and 98 HMz)
Service Area
Radius
Required
Fresnel Zone
Six-tenths
Clearance
Recommended
Min. Antenna
Height
Miles
Km
Feet
Meters
Feet
Meters
Probable
FCC 8090
Class
5
71/2
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
57
8
12
16
24
32
40
48
56
64
72
80
92
155
189
218
267
309
346
378
409
437
463
488
522
47
58
66
81
94
105
115
125
133
141
149
159
310
378
426
534
618
700
756
818
875
925
975
1,043
95
115
130
167
188
213
230
250
267
282
297
318
A
A
A
A, B, C-2
B-1, C-2
B-1
B
B
C-1
C-1
C-1
C, C-1
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Table 4.12-2
FM station classes, zones, and ERP
FM
CLASS
ZONE
MAX. ERP
In kW
MAXIMUM
Feet
HAAT
Meters
DISTANCE TO
Miles
60 dBu
km
A
B
B-1
C
C-1
C-2
I, I-A
I, I-A
I, I-A
II
II
II
3
50
25
100
100
50
328
492
328
1,969
984
492
100
150
100
600
300
150
15
32
24
57
45
32
24
52
39
92
72
52
talk problems with SCA channels. Outside FM receiving antennas generally provide good reception.
Field strength measurements should not be used to
determine the transmitting antenna radiation pattern or
efficiency except under carefully controlled conditions.
The propagation factors discussed previously camouflage the true antenna performance. The only technically acceptable way to determine the antennas characteristics is on an antenna test range.
See Chapter 4.15, AM and FM Field Strength Measurements for more information. This information may
be used to determine the actual quality of service and
the areas where useable signal levels in fact exist.
Predicted contours may be considerably different from
actual measured values.
Required Signal Strength
What is the minimum satisfactory signal strength?
What is the maximum above which it is wasteful?
The history of FCC proceedings provides some of the
following levels:
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FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS
Antenna gain can be increased by adding additional
radiating elements (bays) to the antenna at the cost
of narrowing the radiated beam. High-gain antennas
concentrate the energy into such a narrow beam that
often null fill must be employed to achieve the desired
signal strength within the first few miles to the tower.
Directional antennas achieve increased gain over
nondirectional antennas by limiting the radiated energy
in various directions. Directional antennas are useful
when the tower is located near a large body of water,
mountain range, or other areas where energy radiated
in those directions is otherwise wasted. They are also
employed to avoid interference where stations are insufficient distances apart.
Antenna gain is expressed in power ratio or in dB.
For example, an antenna with a power gain of 2 is
also said to have a gain of 3.0 dB.
FCC Rules, Section 73.310(a) defines antenna gain
as the inverse of the square of the root mean square
value of the free-space field strength produced at one
mile in the horizontal plane, in millivolts per meter
for 1 kW antenna input power to 137.6 mV/m. (In
metric units, 1 km and 221.4 mV/m).
Notice that this gain is in reference to a horizontally
polarized half-wave dipole. For a CP antenna, the gain
is half for the same input power.
A two-bay H-pol antenna has a power gain of approximately two. But a two-bay CP antenna in FCC
terminology has a gain of about one because the other
half of the power is V-pol and is not considered
in the gain calculations. Only the horizontal polariza-
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Figure 4.12-6. Twelve bay Cpol antenna with 0.3 beam tilt showing ERP distribution with coverage from 492 foot (150 m) tower
over flat land. Degrees below the horizon are based on 4/3rd
earths curvature. Horizon is 10.341 at 32 miles (52 km).
H(ft)
Number of Bays/5280 ft /mi
VSWR Bandwidth
According to theory, the bandwidth of an FM signal
is infinite if all the sidebands are taken into account.
Also, at certain modulation indices, the carrier amplitude goes to zero and all the transmitted power is on
frequencies (sidebands) other than the carrier frequency. Practical considerations in the transmitter and
receiver circuitry make it necessary to restrict the RF
bandwidth to less than infinity.
Prior to 1984 the maximum deviation for FM stations was 75 kHz, representing 100% modulation. In
that year the FCC changed the maximum deviation to
82.5 kHz (110%) for those stations with 10% injection
of subcarrier channels. This additional deviation requires greater antenna system bandwidth than previously needed.
System bandwidth is measured at the point in the
antenna system where the transmitter is connected.
This usually includes the harmonic filter, the main
coaxial transmission line, and the antenna.
The significant sidebands are usually considered to
be those whose amplitude exceeds one percent of the
unmodulated carrier. With 110% modulation (82.5
kHz deviation) these side bands produce a bandwidth
of 260 kHz.11,12
The VSWR bandwidth is the range over which the
system under consideration has a reflection coefficient
of less than five percent; a VSWR of 1.1:1.
Checking System VSWR
From time to time, the VSWR of the narrow-band
antenna system should be checked and adjusted. If the
exciter has thumb wheel exciter frequency adjustability
in 10 kHz or 50 kHz steps, it can be used to change
the frequency to check VSWR on different frequencies
(with the transmitter operating at low power during
the overnight experimental period). The reflectometer
may be used as the indicator.
Alternately one of several methods for checking
VSWR in coaxial line systems using test equipment
may be used. These include a signal generator test
setup, an impedance test set, or a network analyzer.
The VSWR should be measured to ensure that the
reflection response is balanced to 130 kHz on each
side of the carrier frequency. With transmission lines
longer than 300 ft (100 m) it is suggested that the
VSWR bandwidth be under 1.08:1 all the way out to
6130 kHz. The additional delay due to increasing line
length becomes more of a problem, so the amplitude
of the reflection must be reduced, for best operational results.
Importance of Low VSWR
The VSWR shown by the transmitter reflectometer
does not increase or decrease the range of the signal.
It has nothing to do with coverage. But VSWR values
above 1.1:1 may decrease the final amplifier efficiency.
Other definite negative effects of VSWR are increased
intermodulation products and AM synchronous noise.
Stereo separation is also degraded with increased
VSWR.13
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FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
ANTENNA POLARIZATION
Radio waves are composed of electric and magnetic
fields at right angles to each other and to the direction
of propagation. When the electric component (E) is
horizontal, the wave is said to be horizontally polarized, as shown in Figures 4.12-7(b) and 4.12-7(d).
Such a wave is radiated from a horizontal dipole. References are with respect to the earth plane. If the
desired electric component is vertical as in Figures
4.12-7(a) and 4.12-7(e), a vertical dipole could be used
to produce the vertically polarized wave.
Circular Polarization
When the two plane waves are equal in magnitude,
and if one plane wave lags or leads the other by 90
electrical degrees, the field will rotate as shown in
Figure 4.12-7, at the speed of the carrier frequency
and will be polarized circularly.
Only in the special case where the horizontal and
vertical components are equal in strength with a 90
phase difference is the radiation said to be CP.
The direction of rotation shown by the vector arrows
in Figure 4.12-7 depends on the relative phase of the
two components. Thus the polarization of the wave will
appear to have either clockwise or counter-clockwise
rotation, as shown. The FCC has set clockwise rotation
as the technical standard, in order that similar sense
of rotation antennas may be used for reception in
the future.
Notice that in Figure 4.12-7 the polarization rotates
as the field propagates in time and space. Importantly,
vertical and horizontal components are in quadrature
phase. It is this rotation which enhances the signal
penetrating qualities of CP, so useful in FM broadcasting.
The axial ratio as shown in Figure 4.12-8 is that
between the maximum and minimum voltage component at any orientation of the reference measuring test
Figure 4.12-7. Circularly polarized wave propagation in one wavelength of travel, showing right hand rotation. Note vector rotation
with wave travel.
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Table 4.12-3
Transmitter power versus antenna gain
Class A 3 kW ERP Zones 1 and 1-A
Maximum HAAT 328 Ft (100 m)
SIGNAL LEVEL IN mV/m
Service
Miles
Distance
Km
Vertical
Angle
7.5 kW Transmitter
1 Bay Antenna
1 kW Transmitter
6 Bay Antenna
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
1.6
3.2
4.8
6.4
8.0
9.6
11.3
12.9
14.5
16.1
19.3
22.5
25.7
28.9
32.2
35.4
38.6
41.8
3.58
1.80
1.21
.92
.74
.63
.55
.49
.44
.41
.36
.33
.31
.29
.28
.28
.27
.27
275
88
42
24
16
11
8.5
6.2
5.0
3.7
2.5
1.8
1.4
1.1
.85
.70
.55
.40
210
81
40
22
16
11
8.5
6.2
5.0
3.7
2.5
1.8
1.4
1.1
.85
.70
.55
.40
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FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
Table 4.12-4
Transmitter power versus antenna gain
Class B, C-2 50 kW EFP
Zone 1, 1-A & C-2
SIGNAL LEVEL IN mV/m
Service
Miles
Distance
Km
Vertical
Angle
55 kW Transmitter
2 Bay Antenna
10 kW Transmitter
10 Bay Antenna
1
1.55
2
3
4
4.6
5
7.5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1.6
2.5
3.2
4.8
6.4
7.4
8.0
12
16
24
32
40
48
56
4.97
3.25
2.49
1.67
1.26
1.15
1.02
.70
.55
.41
.36
.33
.328
.332
900
562
310
153
92
71
57
22
13
6.5
3.1
1.9
1.1
.7
140
165
230
135
88
71
57
22
13
6.5
3.1
1.9
1.1
.7
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Table 4.12-5
21/2% Null fill in 10 bay antenna
Null
First
Second
Third
Angle
ERP
Distance
Field
15.75
111.50
117.25
31 w
31 w
31 w
4,800 Ft
2,240 Ft
1,512 Ft
31 mV/m
70 mV/m
109 mV/m
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FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
0.5 would serve the far reaches well, but would not
lay down a moderate signal at 113.
Section 73.211 of the FCCs Rules limits the ERP
for overheight antennas such as those on Mt. Wilson
with 2,900 ft (884 m) HAAT. New stations using
that height must reduce ERP in accordance with the
equivalence calculation, so that the predicted signal at
the 1 mV/m contour does not extend beyond 32 miles
(52 km) for Class B stations.
In these situations a moderate gain antenna should
be considered. From Mt. Wilson several existing four
and 5-bay antennas now provide excellent service.
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Most sidemounts are comprised of a series of radiating elements, or bays, which are fed via a rigid innerbay feed line. The most typical feed lines used are
158 in. O.D. for applications with less than 10 kW
antenna input power, and 318 in. line for up to 40 kW.
Most antenna elements come in high and low power
versions. These antennas are mounted directly to the
side of a tower or pole. Leg and face mounts are typical
on tower structures.
Some manufacturers with test ranges offer sidemount antennas with custom directional patterns. The
pattern shaping is accomplished by optimizing its
mounting and adding parasitic reflectors which are on
the order of 12 wavelength. Repeated range tests have
shown that the sidemount antennas have largely distorted patterns due to feed lines, mounting structures,
and other conductive media in the antenna aperture.
Sidemount antennas are inherently narrow banded.
The bandwidth of a single element rarely exceeds 1
MHz. Although diplexing two stations on a single
sidemount is occasionally done, the spread between
stations must be small (a few MHz), and compensation
tuning (such as long stubs must be used). In addition,
none of these antennas are symmetrical, and each type
has uncontrolled radiation from booms and feed lines
in the aperture. This distortion deteriorates the antennas axial ratio and circularity.
Series-Fed V-Dipole Antennas
This antenna has similar bandwidth to its shunt fed
counterpart, but the array is typically intentionally
tuned high in frequency. The combination of this tuning scheme, and the internal protection of its feed allow
this antenna to be somewhat resistant to light icing.
This model is larger in size and heavier than other
types of sidemount antennas. Care should be taken in
determining tower constraints. The antenna is typically
field tuned for an optimized match. Careful placement
of ceramic slugs can produce a good VSWR over the
stations useful bandwidth.
Ring Radiators
There are several antennas that are simple adaptations of ring radiators and were designed and manufactured in the 1950s and 1960s for horizontal polarization. By adding vertical stubs to the ends of the radiator
or twisting the ring, elliptical polarization (of sorts)
is achieved.
Both the ring and the ring stub suffer from temperature variations which tend to change the spacing between the ring openings and thus the electrical capacitance and resonant frequency. The ring stub and the
twisted ring are not really circularly polarized because
the axial ratio varies considerably with azimuth. At
best they may be said to be elliptically polarized.
Over the years the design has improved by adding
a second horizontal ring and improving the feed. Reducing bay spacing reduces high axial side lobes. The
antenna has very good circularity in free space, but
like other types of sidemount antennas, it is strongly
affected by its support structure and feed line.
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FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
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FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
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PATTERN OPTIMIZATION
Single-station FM antennas are usually sidemounted on
a pole or tower. This is economical and it frees the tower
top for other possible uses. Unfortunately the pole or
tower tends to distort the radiation pattern, seriously affecting station coverage in some directions.19
This problem can be serious if the FM antenna has
been randomly attached to a support tower. FM antenna makers do not manufacture and sell towers. A
few have made supporting poles on which the FM
antenna has been affixed, adjusted and pattern tested.
TV antenna makers, on the other hand, usually build
the antenna as a complete self-supporting structure to
be mounted on top of a support. They are usually not
faced with this sidemounting problem. The logical but
more expensive solution would be to make the FM
antenna a self-supporting structure just like TV antennas.
Improper FM antenna sidemount installation on a
tower can cause serious pattern problems. Measured
patterns have indicated that, in some cases, the maximum radiation can actually be in the opposite direction
from the desired direction.20
Need To Optimize
It is not wise to gamble with an FM stations antenna
coverage. Nulls may be toward important service areas.
Nulls as low as 1% of the RMS power have been
measured with towers varying in width from 18 to 120
in. (0.5 m to 3 m).
Another problem is that with nulls come lobes.
Lobes as great as 9.8 dB over RMS have been found.
When used without pattern optimization, this lobe
would produce an ERP in a given direction nearly ten
times the FCC licensed value.
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FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
Figure 4.12-11. Vertically polarized current lv flow over the supporting structure members as ls and reradiate in all directions.
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FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
STATION DIPLEXING
Diplexers are passive devices used to combine the
power of two or more stations and feed the combined
power to a common transmission line and/or a common
transmitting antenna. This system of utilizing one wellsited, high-quality antenna has become popular, convenient and economical.
Wideband panel antennas, although expensive for
use by one station, are cost-effective for two or more
stations. These antennas maintain their omnidirectional
horizontal plane patterns and VSWR throughout the
FM broadcasting band from 88 to 108 MHz. Thus,
they make the ideal antenna for multi-station diplexing.
Diplexer Economics
Diplexers permit several stations to be combined
into a single master antenna. New channels at any
power level may be combined in any order by connecting another diplexer in tandem to the previous unit.
The first channel may be fed into a wideband antenna
without a diplexer. When two stations are to be combined, the first diplexer is put into service. When the
third station is added to the system, a second diplexer
is required and so forth. Figure 4.12-14 shows this arrangement.
Each diplexer contains a pass through broadband
input port and an injected frequency port. Nearly all
uncombined diplexer power and other undesired products are absorbed by a dummy load connected to the
fourth port. The third port goes to the antenna or to
the next diplexers broadband input port.
The combining of two different stations must be
done without degradation to station. The important
factors are amplitude, group delay, VSWR bandwidth,
isolation, and insertion loss. Insertion loss is a continuing cost item as it consumes RF power that is generated
by the transmitter at considerable expense. Table
4.12-7 shows the measured performance of a typical
three-diplexer installation.
Constant Impedance Type Diplexers
The constant impedance type takes its name from
an operating characteristic of one of its components,
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FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
Figure 4.12-14. Three diplexers connected to provide combining facilities for three different stations for one community antenna. Note
spare emergency wideband input port.
Table 4.12-7
Typical measured diplexer performance
(Three channels into one antenna)
Channel frequency
93.5 MHz
99.3 MHz
100.5 MHz
1.1:1
159 dB
180 dB
156 dB
1.04:1
180 dB
1
150 dB
144 dB
1.04:1
180 dB
150 dB
1
139 dB
0.15 dB
0.25 dB
0.35 dB
25
0.23 dB
27
0.24 dB
38
0.23 dB
Figure 4.12-15. This Senior Road, Houston, Texas ten-port diplexing system, combines nine FM stations into one community
antenna. It is capable of 350 kW total input power. (Courtesy
Harris Corp.)
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FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
FM ANTENNA INSTALLATION ON AM
TOWERS
The current trend is to locate FM transmitters in places
where the best service may be rendered to the most
listeners. This usually permits the maximum possible
height to be used. Sometimes however, it may be economical and convenient to install the FM antenna on
a tower used for AM broadcasting. If the steel AM
tower is not base insulated but is grounded and shunt
fed, the FM coaxial line may be connected to the tower,
without any further problems.
Transformer Isolation
If the AM tower is insulated at the base, an isolation
transformer may be used to couple the FM power
across the base insulator without introducing objectionable mismatch into the FM antenna feed line. An
isolation transformer is especially desirable for feeding
high impedance AM radiators or AM radiators which
are part of an AM directional antenna system which
might be adversely affected by a quarter-wave isolation system.
These transformers have two tightly coupled RF
coils which are resonant at the FM operating frequency. An air gap is provided for the AM power to
pass through the two resonant loops. The capacity is
quite low, resulting in a very high capacitive reactance
placed across the tower base insulator.
Figure 4.12-17 shows the internal basic construction
of a typical isolation transformer. The insulation for
AM under the top of the box may be high density
polyethylene, teflon, or fiberglass. The metal top provides a rain shield as well as protection from dust,
mud, or snow.
The use of these isolation transformers permits the
AM tower to operate undisturbed by the presence of
the FM antenna. It also allows the FM coaxial line
to be connected in the usual manner, except for the
placement of the isolation transformer. These have
internal gas blocks and permit the passage of dry air
pressure through the transformer via a plastic tube.
In addition to lower cost, the isolation transformer
method has another advantage in directional AM tower
use. It does not distort the AM radiator current distribution which may adversely affect the AM radiation
pattern.
Quarter-Wavelength Isolation
A less popular and older method is to use the technique of quarter-wavelength transmission lines. Sim-
ply stated, the opposite end of a shorted quarter-wavelength line has high impedance. This high impedance
is placed across the AM tower base and may be successfully used to provide the necessary isolation. It is
more difficult to physically accomplish this as the
tower should be at least one quarter-wavelength high,
and the FM antenna coax line must be insulated
all the way down the tower. In practice the insulated
part may be as short as 75 of line, as the line
hangers and distributed capacity of the line tend to
electrically increase the physically shorter line. For
best results, the FM line should be placed within the
tower body.
Guy Cable Considerations
The presence of continuous steel guy cables going
through the FM antenna level on a steel supporting
tower was studied by Jampro Antenna Company in
1968. It was found that guy cables had an effect of
less than 0.6 dB in the azimuth pattern of a H-pol
antenna. On V-pol the maximum variation was 1.8 dB
on the azimuth pattern. The strongest effect is on CP
where the azimuth pattern change was as great as 3.4
dB. The elevation pattern was also affected since the
first and second nulls were filled as much as 4 dB.
In addition to pattern anomalies, the steel cables
reradiate near the ground. This may cause RF feedback
problems in some high power installations with low
level audio equipment located in a building near the
base of the tower.
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Figure 4.12-18. A roll of plastic guy cable with eye and jaw end
connectors in place. Diameter strength is equal to EHS steel
stranded guying cable. (Courtesy Phillystran, Philadelphia Resins Corp.)
Nonconductive Guys
In order to eliminate FM pattern distortion, any guy
cable going through the antenna level should be of
non-conducting material. Plastic fiberglass (GRP) insulating rods as well as flexible plastic rope covered
with a PVC plastic jacket can be used. The black
jacket prevents deterioration due to ultra violet sunlight
radiation, which may be injurious to the plastic strands
of the rope. Plastic rope has been successfully used
for more than 25 years.
The idea is to remove metallic RF conducting steel
guy cables from within the antenna aperture. The rest
of the guy may be of steel construction. The length of
the steel guy from its attachment point near the antenna
to a point well below the antenna is simply replaced
with an equal length of fiberglass rods, or plastic rope.
Plastic rope is available in continuous lengths of up
to 1,000 ft (304 m) and kits are available for installing
the end fittings. The cable is quite flexible as the Figure
4.12-18 shows a 225 ft (69 m) length coiled up with
its end fittings installed at the factory.
The cable may be purchased in strengths exceeding
similar diameter steel guy cable. These strengths are
shown in Table 4.12-8 for corresponding size of com-
Table 4.12-8
Phillystran type HPTG plastic guys
Outside Diameter
Break Strength
Jacketed Weight
Inches
mm
Pounds
Kgs
1,000 Ft
300 m
EHS
Equivalent
0.20
0.29
0.42
0.46
0.53
0.58
0.63
0.68
0.73
5.1
7.4
10.7
11.7
13.5
14.7
16.0
17.3
18.5
4,000
6,700
11,200
15,400
20,800
27,000
35,000
42,400
58,300
1,815
3,039
5,080
6,975
9,435
12,247
15,876
19,235
26,445
18
31
55
69
93
115
142
167
195
8.2
14.1
24.9
31.3
42.2
52.2
64.4
75.8
88.5
3/16
1/4
5/16
3/8
7/16
1/2
9/16
5/8
3/4
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FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
INSTALLATION PROCEDURES
If the installation is not properly planned and carried
out, there may be unwarranted delay and cost associated with putting the FM antenna on its support tower.
The following suggestions are offered to avoid unnecessary delays and expenditures.
Planning The Installation
Because of the extremely high cost of rigging services, it is essential to carefully plan the installation.
Make sure that all parts are on hand.
The installation of the antenna should be planned
by a technically qualified person who must supply
accurate tower construction information to the antenna
manufacturer. If this information contains errors, these
will be carried through the design and fabrication of
mounting hardware, and finally show up in the field
to plague the installing crew, wasting time and money
at every stage of the process.
The station should consider hiring a tower rigging
firm that is financially qualified and mechanically well
equipped to do the work. A written contract should
exist between the station and rigging firm, with a fixed
price. The rigging contractor should be licensed as a
contractor in your state, and should post a completion
bond. He should also supply an insurance policy holding the station harmless, and making the station and
its personnel co-insured. Only in this manner will the
broadcaster be protected in the event of injury or property damage.
The riggers should be knowledgeable about antennas and coax line, and should inspect the tower and
check out the mounting design of the brackets before
the full rigging crew arrives.
If any factors are discovered which appear to negate
the installation design, contact the factory immediately. Particular attention should be paid to the following:
antenna installations should be checked. This is usually required by the company carrying insurance on
the tower.
Receiving And Unpacking
The boxes are usually numbered and the total number is indicated on each box; contact the shipper if not
all boxes are delivered, or if equipment is received
damaged. Do not store the material outdoors, boxed
or otherwise.
As soon as the antenna is received, open and examine for shipping damages so that any necessary claims
may be filed with the shipping company immediately.
Check the material against the parts list and installation drawing.
The box with the installation drawing and instructions is usually marked. Open it first, so that the balance
of the items may be easily identified and counted.
Contact the factory immediately if any material appears to be missing or is damaged during transportation.
Do not call the riggers until all antenna and coaxial
line at the site. Otherwise, unnecessary delays and
costs may result.
Installation Tips
Broadcast antenna manufacturers furnish detailed
installation procedures with their products. These instructions should be closely followed by the rigger.
Together they will ensure a perfect installation saving
time and money.
The following items are specifically called to the
attention of the broadcast engineer (in addition to all
those stated before) to permit proper installation and
good performance for many years.
Follow manufacturers instructions. See that the riggers also read these instructions
Do not leave antenna parts where rain or moisture
can enter. Store indoors and keep units capped as received
Do not allow dirt or other foreign matter to enter
any coaxial part
Protect all antenna parts from physical damage
and abuse
Hoist antenna members carefully, with a tag line to
prevent damage by striking against the tower
Install on the tower as indicated by the manufacturers instructions, remembering that bay number 1
is the uppermost top unit
Riggers should lubricate O-rings with a small amount
of silicone grease before mating flanges
The full complement of flange bolts must be used
and they should be as tight as possible
Tuners or individual element devices, if used, should
be adjusted only after the entire antenna and tower
installation has been completed
Rigid transmission lines should be properly installed
with two hangers per 20 ft (6 m) length, and with
the inner conductor retaining pin on the top of
each section
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STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
Most FM antennas in the western hemisphere are installed on the sides of a steel tower, between 18 and
60 in. (45 to 152 cm) wide. The antenna and its transmission line together with all mounting brackets introduce wind loading, in addition to their dead weight.
The live wind loading is a result of the amount of
physical surface presented to the wind. It is sometimes
called the wind catch area. This consists of either flat
or round antenna members, coaxial lines, mounting
brackets, and hardware, all represented as surfaces
which are exposed to the wind.
The dead weight of the antenna system is fixed and
is always present on the tower. The live load is a
variable, depending on the wind velocity, and is added
to the dead load for the total amount present.
The standard wind load starts with an assumed wind
velocity of 87 mph (139 m), which will produce a
push of 35 lbs per square foot. (170.8 kgs/sq.m) With
lesser wind speeds the wind push is less, and more with
higher velocities. Various building codes determine the
rated winds to be considered in the design of the tower
system. While most of the United States has a 35 lb
per square foot minimum rating, some parts of the
country have higher requirements due to higher wind
velocities. Some insurance companies may require
even higher safe wind ratings.
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FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
Table 4.12-9
Coaxial transmission line
(Characteristics At 1000 MHz)
Line Type
& Number
Nominal
EIA Size
Attenuation
in dB
100 Ft
Eff. %
Safe FM
Power-kW
-FoamLDF5-50
LDF7-50
7/8
1-5/8
.385
.231
91.5
94.8
5.2
13.1
-AirHJ5-50
HJ7-50A
HJ8-50B
HJ11-50
HJ9-50
7/8
1-5/8
3
4
5
.373
.205
.142
.115
.078
91.7
95.4
96.7
97.4
98.2
6.4
14.2
36.8
56.1
73.9
-Rigid1213-1
1313-1
1413-1
1613-1
1-5/8
3-1/8
4-3/8
6-1/8
.191
.096
.070
.050
95.7
97.8
98.4
98.8
10.0
40.0
81.0
161.0
AIR PRESSURIZATION
If the antenna is operated without positive pressure of
dry air or nitrogen, the manufacturer will not assume
responsibility for failure under power. Moisture or
even the accumulation of water within the coaxial
transmission line is a very serious matter. Its presence
causes the VSWR to rise. When a sufficient amount
of moisture is present, arcing will take place burning
the line or antenna radiating elements. High humidity
or moisture will cause the inside of the coaxial transmission line to corrode over time, thereby increasing
the line loss. For this and other reasons, the entire
antenna system must be dry air pressurized.
After the antenna is installed and the transmission
line connected, the system is purged with dry gas or
dry air to remove trapped moisture before RF power
is applied. A manually opened or pressure actuated
purge valve is installed in nearly all FM antennas made
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FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
LIGHTNING
Because FM towers are usually located on high ground,
hilltops, or high buildings, they require lightning protection since they are likely recipients of lightning
strikes. The type of damage that can be caused by
lightning to a FM tower varies. Smaller coaxial lines
will usually melt; larger coax (158, 318) will also melt
in some cases, and others will conduct the heavy current into the transmitter building to do damage there.
The FM antenna itself may heat, arc, melt, and
otherwise be damaged. Holes in the outer conductor,
burns, and melting at flanges are common. Teflon or
polyethylene insulation will burn, depositing a film
of carbon, causing further damage if RF from the
transmitter continues after the strike.
Protection of the FM antenna system may be provided to some degree, by taking several precautions.
The top of the tower should have a lightning rod, about
1 ft (0.3 m) higher than the uppermost obstruction
light part. The FM antenna itself should be firmly
grounded to the tower. If the coaxial cable is buried
between the tower and the transmitter building, it must
be at least six ft away from any tower base grounding
system copper wire or strip.26
A ground system should be located immediately
around the base of the tower. This should have a direct
current loss of less than 10 V to earth ground. This
low resistance may be obtained by using ground wires
buried in the soil. Six radials spaced 60 if possible,
buried as deep in the soil as possible and running out
up to 150 ft (46 m) each, should provide a suitable
ground of less than 10 V, even if the soil is shallow
or rocky.26
Guyed tower anchors should also be grounded. This
is covered in the chapter on Design, Erection, and
Maintenance of Antenna Structures. It is important to
install the proper number of ground rods and/or copper
wire radials in order to obtain a connection to earth
ground of less than 10 V. In any event these ground
rods or radial wires must be tied together with number
AWG 4 or larger copper wire, or copper strap 2 in.
(5 cm) minimum width. This is to provide for thousands of amperes of current flow for less than one
second in the event of a direct lightning hit.
If the FM antenna is located on an AM insulated
base tower, then the spark gap should be set at the
lowest point providing protection for the highest AM
modulation peak voltage.
Another way to protect the FM transmission line
isolator (if one is used), as well as the tower and FM
antenna, is to use a RF choke across the insulated
tower base. This tends to reduce the static build-up
voltages due to passing thunderstorm clouds, snow,
hail, or dust storms. Arcovers due to these sources
usually do not cause damage, but may trip the FM
transmitter reflectometer since they will create a current flow through the reflectometer circuitry.
If the base insulated tower supporting the FM antenna is located in an area of regular thunderstorms,
another way to protect both antennas from lightning
is to ground the AM tower at the base, and shunt feed
it. Several excellent methods exist. The folded unipole
method not only grounds the tower for lightning purposes, but improves the VSWR bandwidth, so necessary for AM stereo. (See Chapter 4.8, AM Antenna
Systems, for several suggested methods.)
FM SCA MULTIPLEXING
With a 92 kHz subcarrier and 110% modulation, intermodulation products may be created due to mixing of
the various subcarriers with their own harmonics
within nonlinear devices. One such nonlinear device
can be the antenna system.
Antenna linearity is determined by its VSWR response curve versus frequency. Phase delay in the
antenna system is also important. In the past, with 67
kHz being the highest SCA frequency, the 6100 kHz
bandwidth was considered sufficient. Now with a 92
kHz subcarrier and 110% deviation (82.5 kHz), the
minimum bandwidth is 6130 kHz under 1.1:1
VSWR.27 (See VSWR Bandwidth in this chapter for
more specific requirements and recommendations.)
Tests have shown that 92 kHz is the frequency of
choice for a new aural SCA service after 67 kHz.28
The 92 kHz subcarrier produces lower intermodulation
product levels and less interference to the main channel
stereo service than 67 kHz.29 It may be successfully
operated in addition to stereo and existing SCA services.
Other nonlinearities in the exciter, and transmitter,
plus multipath reception, receiver misalignment, and
user mistuning are contributions to the received intermodulation distortion of the baseband signals. In addition these products can cause small levels of audible
swishing beat notes in some types of FM receivers.
SPURIOUS FREQUENCIES
Interference to other stations within the FM broadcast
band as well as to other services outside the band
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HARMONIC FILTERS
FCC Rules Section 73.317(d) calls for the harmonics
of FM transmitters to be up to 80 dB or more below
the transmitter output. This requirement is usually met
by using a low-pass filter which passes the station
carrier frequency power but attenuates its harmonics.
The transmitter provides some harmonic attenuation
of course, and is usually 25 to 38 dB for single ended
amplifiers. The worst case harmonic is the third. Harmonic filters by several firms provide a minimum of
50 dB for harmonics from the second through the tenth.
Adding the transmitter attenuation to that of the filter
normally provides more than the required level.
The high level of rejection is made possible by using
high-impedance (inductance) and low-impedance (capacity) coaxial sections for m-derived three to five
section filters, with half-pi end sections. Harmonic
filters are commonly made in three production schedules. One firm actually adjusts them to the customers
operating frequency, so that there are no attenuation
gaps in the higher harmonics. They are not tunable
Dummy Loads
A very useful test device in an antenna system is
the terminating load. At least one is needed when two
amplifiers are combined and fed to the antenna, or
when a number of diplexers are used in a community
antenna arrangement. Dummy loads are available in
several power levels up to 50 kW or more and are
cooled by air or water.
RF Switches
Often used with a dummy load, coaxial line switches
are available to provide electrical or manual switching
of transmitter power to diplexers, antennas, standby
transmitters, etc. They typically are not pressurized.
REFERENCES
1. H-pol, V-pol, and E-pol are unofficial abbreviations used for clarity and brevity in this chapter.
2. Broadcasting Yearbook 1991. Broadcasting Publications, Inc. Washington, D.C.
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FM BROADCAST ANTENNAS
3. Onnigian, Peter, A Study into the Effects of Vertically Polarized Radiation in FM Broadcasting,
Technical monogram. Jampro Antennas, Inc.,
1965.
4. Freeman, Roger, Telecommunications Transmission Handbook, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
pp. 180186, 1975.
5. Head, Howard, Influence of Trees on TV Field
Strengths, Proceedings of the Institute of Radio
Engineers, Vol. 48, pp. 10161020, June 1960.
6. Armstrong, A., Study of Electromagnetic Wave
Propagation at 112 MHz. Proceedings of the
IREE Australia, pp. 105110, April 1969.
7. Moeller, Adolph, Effects of Ground Reflections
on Antenna Test Range Measurements. Microwave Journal, pp. 4754, March, 1966.
8. Reed, Russel, Ultra High Frequency Propagation. 2nd edition, Boston Technical Publishers,
pp. 223238, 1964.
9. Skolnik, Merril, Radar Handbook. McGraw Hill
Book Company. New York, New York, pp. 398
to 399, 1970.
10. Saveski, Peter, Radio Propagation Handbook.
TAB Books Inc. Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania. pp. 148159, 1980.
11. Gray, Lawrence, Radio Transmitters. McGraw
Hill Book Company. New York, New York, pp.
181186, 1961.
12. Mendenhall, Geof, Study of RF Intermodulation
Between FM Broadcast Transmitters Sharing
Diplexed Antenna Systems. Technical Monograph. Broadcast Electronics, Inc. Quincy, Illinois, 1983.
13. Onnigian, Peter, Stereo Degradation as a Function of Antenna System VSWR Audio Engineering Society Annual Meeting, Audio Engineering Society, New York, New York, 1976.
14. Mendenhall, Geof, The Composite SignalKey
to Quality FM Broadcasts. Technical Monograph. Broadcast Electronics, Inc. Quincy, Illinois, 1984.
15. Cohen, Jules, Proposed Solutions, Channel 6
Educational FM Broadcast Interference Problem.
Proceedings of the 38th Annual Broadcast Engineering Conference, NAB, Washington, DC,
1984.
16. Onnigian, Peter, Circularly Polarized Antenna,
U.S. Patent 3,541,470.
17. DuHamel, Ray, TV and FM Transmitting Antennas. Antenna Engineering Handbook. Johnson
and Jasik, 2nd edition. McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, New York, Chapter 28, pp.
89, 1984.
18. Bock, E., Sleeve Antennas. VHF Techniques,
Vol. 1, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York,
New York, Chapter 5, pp. 119137, 1947.
19. Knight, Peter, Re-radiation from Masts at Radio
Frequencies. Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 114,
pp. 3042. January, 1967.
20. Jampro Antennas, Inc. International Technical
Communication. Sacramento, California.
21. FCC Public Notice. Criteria for Licensing of FM
Broadcast Antenna Systems. Notice 84437
25004, September 14, 1984, Federal Communications Commission, Washington, D.C.
22. Rudge, A.,Handbook of Antenna Design. Vol.
2, Peter Peregrinus Ltd., London, England, pp.
917922, 1983.
23. Onnigian, Peter, Multi-Station FM Antennas.
Paper presented at the 23rd Broadcast Symposium,
IEEE Group on Broadcasting, Washington, DC
1973.
24. Fisk, Ronald, Design and Application of a Multiplexed Nine-Station FM Antenna, Senior Road
Tower Group. Technical Monograph, Harris
Corporation, Quincy, Illinois, 1983.
25. Gregorac, L., Electrical and Mechanical Analysis
of Plastic Guys of Broadcast Towers. Technical
Monograph. Radio-Television Ljubljana, Yugoslavia. 12 pp. 1973.
26. Marshall, J.L., Lighting Protection. Canadian
Broadcasting System, John Wiley & Son, New
York, New York, pp. 5354, 1973.
27. Kean, John, Distortion of FM Signals Caused by
Mismatched and Limited Bandwidth Transmitting
Antennas. National Public Radio, Washington,
D.C. pp. 3742, 1984.
28. McMartin, Ray B., Super Eight Proceedings of
the 38th Annual Broadcast Engineering Conference, NAB, Washington, D.C. pp. 160166, 1984.
29. Denny, Robert, Report on SCA Operation. Proceedings of the 37th Annual Broadcast Engineering Conference, NAB, Washington, D.C. pp.
187196, 1983.
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