Geosynthetics and

Reinforced Soil Structures

Accelerated Pre-consolidation
using geosynthetics

Dr. K. Rajagopal
Professor of Civil Engineering
IIT Madras
Madras, Chennai
Chennai, India
e-mail: gopalkr@iitm.ac.in

Some Problems and Solutions in

soft clay soils
PROBLEMS
Low bearing capacity
Large
L
settlements
ttl
t
Lateral flow of soils/slip circle failure
Difficult to move construction equipment

SOLUTIONS

Replace the soil

Pre consolidation: sand drains
Pre-consolidation:
drains, PVDs or vacuum assisted
Stone columns
Piles and reinforced concrete slab
Geocell mattress
Piles with geosynthetic reinforced platform (piled embankment)

Pre consolidation Methods

Pre-consolidation
Sand drains
Pre-fabricated
Pre
fabricated vertical drains
Vacuum assisted pre-consolidation

Schematic of
Sand Drain Principle
surcharge fill

cv t
Tv 2
d

sand
columns

Accelerated drainage achieved by reducing drainage path

Soil embankment placed as surcharge to drive the

consolidation process

PVDs for pre-consolidation

pre consolidation
Corrugated plastic core for
drainage
L
t

Geotextile filter

Connection arrangements
for wick drain installation

Rig for installing the PVDs

M
Manufacture
f t
off PVDs
PVD

General view after installation of PVDs at a site

Advantages of PVDs
Continuous flow path even after shear
movement
No clogging due to geotextile filter
Reinforcement
R i f
action
i due
d to the
h tensile
il
strength of the PVD

PVD arrangement Plan view

Square pattern

Triangular pattern
s

Influence radius = 1.128

1 128 s

Influence radius = 1.05

1 05 s

Hansbos equation (Hansbo, 1979)

Time for consolidation,
2

2
ln D d 3 d D
D
t

2
8ch 1 d D
4

ln 1
1U

Neglecting the small quantity (d/D)2

D
D
1

t
ln
0
.
75
ln

8Ch
d
1U
Where ch Coefficient of consolidation (Horizontal)
Where,
d Equivalent diameter of the PVD
D Diameter
Di
off the
h influence
i fl
area
U The avereage degree of consolidation

Design Example
PVD
V ssizee = 100mm
00
5 mm
Consolidation to be achieved = 80%
Coefficient of Consolidation ch = 10 m2/year

Given

Equivalent
q
diameter off circular drain havingg same circumference
f
,
d

2 100 5

66.84 mm 0.0668 m

Design of PVD

Byy Hansbos equation

q

2
ln
D
D
1
Time,, 1 yyear
0.75 ln

8 10
0.0668
1 0.8

D
47.706 D 2 lln
0.75

0.0668
D

LHS

10.59

53.46

3.5

39.3

3.85

48.96

RHS

Diameter of the influence area, D = 3.85 m

Design of PVD
Time for Consolidation Vs Spacing of drains
Time foor consoliidation (ddays)

1000

750

U=90%
U
90%
U=80%
U=70%
U 60%
U=60%
U=50%

500

250

0
0

2
3
4
Wick drain spacing, D (m)

Design of PVD
Spacing of PVDs
1. By rectangular pattern = 3.85/1.128 = 3.4 m
2 By triangular pattern = 3.85/1.05
2.
3 85/1 05 = 3.66
3 66 m
Triangular pattern is preferred as spacing is greater and overlapping
off areas iis less.
l

Pre consolidation
Pre-consolidation
by
Vacuum Application
li i

Increase in effective Stress due to

vacuum application
horizontal vacuum
pipelines
10m
1.0
sand layer
cut-off walls

30m
3.0

Let dry and saturated unit weights of both soils be 17 and 20 kN/m3.

Stresses in sand layer before the application of vacuum

Total stress, v = Pa + dry* z = 100 + 18*z kPa
Pore pressure u = Pa = 100 kPa
Effective
ect e st
stress,
ess,
v = v-u
u = 18*z
8 kPa
a

Stresses in sand layer after the application of vacuum

After the application
pp
of vacuum,, water level will raise from 3.0 m to 1.0 m below the
ground level.
Total stress, v = Pa + dry* 1 + sub*(z-1) = 100 + 18*1 + (z-1)*(20) kPa = 98+20*z kPa
Pore pressure,
pressure u = (z-1)*w
(z-1) w = (z-1)*10
(z-1) 10
Effective stress, v = v-u = 98+20*z 10z+10 = 108 + 10*z

Increase in effective stress in sand layer

increase in effective stress within sand layer due to vacuum =
= 108+10*z 18*z = 108 8*z

i.e. change in effective stress is 100 kPa at 1 m depth

and 84 kPa at 3 m depth.

Stresses in clay layer (below water table) before

the vacuum application
pp
Total stress, v = Pa + 3*18+20*z, (z is measured from top of clay
layer)
Pore pressure, u = Pa + 10*z
Effective stress, v = v-u =54+10*z

Stresses in clay layer after vacuum application

Total stress, v = Pa + 18+ 2*20+20*z = Pa + 58 + 20*z
Pore pressure, u = 20+10*z
Effective stress, v = v-u = Pa+38+10*z=138+10*z
increase in effective stress in clay layer,
= 138+10*z-54-10*z=84 kPa

This increase in effective stress is constant with

depth!!!!!

Advantages of vacuum consolidation

Increase in effective stress is isotropic and is constant with
depth
No inherent increase in shear stress. Lateral ground
g
movements are compressive rather than expansive.
Vacuum consolidation creates more uniform surface
settlements.
ttl
t
No surcharge fill is necessary to drive the system.
Because of the increase in effective stress in the drainage
layer above the ground level, this layer acts like a semi-rigid
mat and hence construction equipment
q p
can be moved on the
site without waiting for consolidation to take place.
Can get rid of secondary compressions which is not possible
with conventional pre
pre-consolidation.
consolidation

Piled Embankments
R il/R d embankment
Rail/Road
b k
t

Soft
clay
Pil
Piles

Firm stratum

IInclined
li d
Piles

Schematic view of piled embankment concept .. Purpose of the

horizontal geogrid layer is to transfer the embankment load to
th piles
the
il and
d to
t equalize
li th
the settlements
ttl
t

Embankment Piling

CFA (Continuous Flight Auger) piles

Piled Embankments
Arching action (Terzaghi, 1943)

Soil layer-geosynthetic systems overlying

cavities
iti and
d voids
id (Giroud
(Gi d ett al.
l 1990)

Benefits of the geosynthetic

reinforcements over the piles
Allows the piles to be spaced at greater spacing,
Enhances efficiency of load transfer to the piles
piles,
Prevents the soil yielding near the edges of the
piles,
Reduces total and differential settlement
Prevents the lateral spread of piles at the
extremities
t
iti
Eliminates the necessityy for raking
g of the p
piles.

Geosynthetic reinforced piled

embankment
Embankment
Gabion block to counteract
the lateral thrust

Lateral Thrust
Geosynthetic
reinforcement
i f

H
GL

a
s

Pile
cap
Piles

Analysis steps
1. Estimation of the degree of arching in the
fill.
2. Calculation of the tension in the
geosynthetic
h i reinforcement
i f
llayer
3 Lateral thrust by the embankment fill at
3.
the extremities

For successful design of piled

embankments
1 Th
1.
The area ratio
ti to
t be
b adopted
d t d for
f pile
il
caps.
2. The lateral thrust on the piles at the
extremities due to lateral soil movement.
3. Relating the settlements at the pile head
level and at the embankment base (no
analytical solution for this)
4 The effect of properties of the soil fill in
4.
the embankment.

Stress reduction ratio

- A quantity used for the comparison of various methods
=

Average vertical stress acting on the reinforcement

Overburden pressure due to the embankment fill

S3D

H
After Russell and Pierpoint (1997)

Terzaghi Approach
q
z

dz

Geosynthetic
reinforcement

Width of
Infinitely
long void,
(s-a)

Stress reduction ratio, S3 D

2
2
s

4 aHK tan

s 2 a 2

1 e

4 HaK tan

British Standard 8006 Method

Stress reduction ratio

Tensile force in the

geosynthetic per unit width,

Cc a

v H
pc

S3 D

Tr

2
2 pc

s
a

H
2

s a H
2.8 s

WT s a
2a

pc=stress on pile cap

Cc=arching coefficient
v=H

1
1
6

Design of Geosynthetic reinforced

Piled Embankment - Example
Puverised flyash filled
embankment
= 14kN/m3

Pile caps
( m square)
(1.1
q
)

Soft clay
(Without piles
settlement = 700 mm))

9m

4m

Embankment Details

Geotextile details
Low creep geotextiles
Tensile safety factor = 3.0
Peak
P k extension
i at ffailure
il
= 12%
Geotextiles

Longitudinal
Transverse
Strength
g ((kN/m)) Strength
g ((kN/m))

300

50

1000

50

Circular arc Deformation analysis

A

a = 4-1.1
4 1 1 = 2.9
29m

Assuming

Geosynthetic
RG

b = 0.2 0.7= 0.14 m

From the geometry
b
a

1
2

tan

TT

TT

11.03
a 2 RG sin
RG 7.58m

Weight of the fill, WT

W 52.08 kN m
T

1
2

RG b

Circular arc method..

Considering the reaction force as
WB 0.15 h 18.9 kN m
The tension in the geosynthetic
geosynthetic,
TT RG

WT WB 251.5 kN/m

With two layers of geotextile, B laid in cross direction

The total strength = 1050 kN/m
The strain in the geotextile, G 251.5 12% 2.9%
1050
From the geometry G RG 90 a 0.6%

Circular arc method..

As G < the predicted
Try with b = 0.19 m
= 14.93
RG = 5.63 m
WT = 38.08 kN/m
TT = 108 kN/m

For this the strain G, from the load deformation data = 1.2%
1 2%
From the geometry, G = 1.2%
As these two are compatible the tension in the geosynthetic
TT = 108 kN/m.
G = 1.2 %

Catenary Deformation analysis

From the Equation of the catenary
Tension in the geosynthetic
2
1
a
TT WT WB a 1
16b 2
2

1 G 1
2

2
16
b
1

a2

2
4b

16
b
log e
1
2
8b
a
a

Loading coefficient Cc 1.69h

Bc

0.12

Catenary Deformation analysis.

1D Arching: Pressure ratio = CcBc/h

2D Arching Pressure ratio = (CcBc/h)2

Catenary Deformation analysis.

Loading Coefficient,

Cc 1.69h

Pressure ratio (1D) = CcBc/h = 1.676

Pressure ratio (2D) = (1.676)2 = 2.809
In any 4 square piles,
Pile area = 1.21 m2
Total area = 16 m2
Soil area = 14.79
14 79 m2

Total load = 16149 = 2016 kN

Load on the pile = 1.211492.809
1 211492 809 = 428 kN
Load on soil = 2016-428 = 1588 kN = 107.4 kN/m2

Bc

0.12 13.71

Catenary Deformation analysis.

WT = 107.4 kN/m
WB = 0.15 h = 18.9 kN/m
A per th
As
the equations
ti
shown
h
earlier
li
TT = 309.8 kN/m
From load-extension data G = (309.8/1050)12 = 3.5 %
Using the equation for 1+
1+G as shown earlier
earlier, G = 3.4
34%
As the two values are in close agreement further iteration is not
necessary.

BS 8006
8006-1995
1995 Method

To minimise the differential settlement at the top of the embankment

H 0.7

sa

In the present case, H = 0.7(4 1.1) = 2.03 m < 9 m

The Arching coefficient (considering end bearing pile)

Cc 1.95H 0.18
a
= 15.77

The vertical stress on the pile cap

2

2
Cc a
.
.
15
77
1
1

468.1 kN/m 2
pc v
14
9

BS 8006
8006-1995
1995 Method
F
For H > 11.4(s-a),
4( ) The
Th distributed
di t ib t d load
l d carried
i d by
b the
th
geosynthetic reinforcement
1 .4 s s a
WT

s2 a2

2
2 pc

s
a

= 176.85 kN/m

Tension
T i in
i the
h reinforcement
i f
(for
(f 5% strain)
i )

Tr

WT

sa
2a

1 1 486
486.22 kN/m
6

Tension due to lateral thrust, TL 0.5Ka H 170.1 kN/m

Total tension = 656.3 kN/m

Results of Design
By Circular arc method
TT = 108 kN/
kN/m; G = 1.2
1 2 %;
% WT = 38.08
38 08 kN/
kN/m

Byy Catenaryy deformation method

TT = 310 kN/m; G = 3.4 %; WT = 107.4 kN/m

By
B BS 8006 method
th d
TT = 656.3 kN/m;; G = 5 %;; WT = 176.85 kN/m