Geodesy, GPS and GIS

Assist. Prof. Dr. Himmet KARAMAN

Distance Measurement

Chaining

Electronic Distance Measurement

GPS and other space techniques

Istanbul Technical University

Chaining
In many instances, it is easiest to simply measure the horizontal
distance by keeping both ends of the chain (steel tape) at the same
elevation. This is not difficult if there is not a big elevation change
between points.

When the difference in elevation along the measurement becomes too

great for level chaining, other methods are called for. One option,
break chaining, involves simply breaking the measurement into
two or more measurements that can be chained level. This works well
for measurements along a gentle slope where a reasonable distance
can be measured between break chaining points.
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Electronic Distance
Measurement (EDM)
INTRODUCTION
Electronic distance measurement instruments (EDMI) determine
lengths using phase changes that occur as electromagnetic energy
of known wavelength travels from one end of a line to the other
end and returns.
The first EDM instrument was developed in Sweeden in 1948,
which was called geodimeter (geodetic distance meter) based on a
modulated light beam. The second one was designed in South
Africa

in

1957,

called

tellurometer

employs

microwaves.
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modulated

Modern EDMs display distances in digital form, and many have

microcomputers which calculate horizontal (DX & DY) and vertical
components (DH) of measured slope distances.

EDMs are now being incorporated with theodolites having automatic

angle readout capabilities to create, so called total stations
(electronic tacheometers). These systems are also called field-tofinish systems. They can simultaneously and automatically measure
both distances and angles. They record field notes electronically and
transmit them to computers, plotters and other office equipment for
processing.
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CLASSIFICATION OF EDM INSTRUMENTS

They are mainly two types of EDM instruments:

Electro-optical

instruments:

They

transmit

light

having

wavelengths in the range of 0.7 to 1.2 micrometers within or

slightly beyond the visible region of the spectrum.

Microwave

instruments:

They

transmit

microwaves

with

frequencies in the range of 3 to 35 GHz corresponding to

wavelengths of about 1.0 to 8.6 millimeters.
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FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF EDMI OPERATION

Electromagnetic energy propogates through to atmosphere in
accordance with the following equation:
V = f.

Where V is the velocity of electromagnetic energy, in meters per

second; f the modulated frequency of the energy, in hertz; and
the wavelength, in meters. This propogation can be represented by
the sinusoidal curve illustrated in the following figure, which
shows one wavelength or cycle. Portions of wavelengths or the
positions of points along the wavelength are given by phase
angles.
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FIG. A wavelength of electromagnetic energy

illustrating phase angles
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The generalised procedure of measuring distance electronically is

shown in the following figure. An EDM device, centered by means of
a plumb bob or optical plummet over station A, transmits to station
B a carrier signal of electromagnetic energy on which a reference
frequency has been superimposed or modulated. The signal is
returned from B to the receiver, so its travel path is double the slope
distance AB. In the following figure, the modulated electromagnetic
energy is represented by a series of sine waves, each having
wavelength .

EDM devices in surveying are operated by phase shift measurement.

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Reflector

Electromagnetic wave
Z

EDM
Instrument

SA,B,

SLOPE

SA,B, HORZ

Generalized EDM procedure

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Prisms

The reflector, or prism, is a corner cube of glass in which the

sides are perpendicular to a very close tolerance. It has the
characteristic that incident light is reflected parallel to itself,
thus returning the beam to the source. This is called a
retrodirective prism or retro reflector.

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These reflectors have a so-called

effective center. The location of the
center is not geometrically obvious
because light travels slower through
glass than air. The effective center will
be behind the prism itself and is
generally not over the station
occupied. Thus there is a reflector
constant or prism constant to be
subtracted from the measurement.
Some manufacturers shift the center of
the EDM forward the same amount as
the prism offset to yield a zero
constant.
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ERRORS IN EDMs
Total error = Constant (+5 mm) + 5 ppm
ppm = part per million
ppb = part per billion
Constant error is negligible for long baselines, but is significant for
short baselines. The proportional part varies depending on the
distance measured.
The errors in EDM can be summarised as follows:
Personal errors
inaccurate setups of EDMs and reflectors over
stations.
faulty measurements of instrument and reflector
heights.
errors in determining atmospheric pressures and
temperatures (and humidity if microwave
instruments are used).
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Instrumental errors

calibration.

they become maladjusted from time to time, and

generate errors in frequencies.

errors in reflectors (especially corner cube reflectors).

constant offsets between electrical center and effective

center in both instruments and reflectors.
Natural erros

atmospheric variations in temperature, pressure and

humidity.

multiple refraction of signals (ground swing).

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COMPUTATIONS HORIZONTAL LENGTHS FROM

SLOPE DISTANCES
S

he

L
hr-he
hr

elevA

Datum

elevB

FIG Reduction of EDM slope distance to horizontal

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Horizontal
v

FIG. Correction for vertical offset between theodolite and EDMI

mounted on standards
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1.

Reduction of short lines by elevation differences

d = (elevA + he) - (elevB + hr)
S

2.

L2 d 2

Reduction of short lines by vertical angles

( hr he ) cos t
"
* 206 265 sec/ rad
L
3.

Considerations for different theodolite mounts

v cos m

* 206 265 sec/ rad
L
"
v

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4.

Reduction of long lines to horizontal

N GR .P.10 6 1.5026 .e.10 5

n 1

273.2 t
273.2 t
N GR (287.604

E 10
'

237.3 t '

0.068

)0.359474

0.6609)

P
e E 0.5(t t )
755
'

18

7 .5t '

4.8864

'

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where
no
P
t
t'
e
E'
NGR
n

: refractive index of light or microwaves(given by

manifacturer)
: pressure
(measured)
: dry temperature
(measured)
: wet temperature
(measured)
: partial pressure of water vapour
(computed)
: saturation pressure of water vapour (computed)
: group refractive index
(computed)
: refractive index in other conditions (computed)

Other parameters
D' : distance
he
: height of instrument
ht
: height of reflector
HA : height of point A
HB : height of point B
R
: earth radius of curvature
19

(measured)
(measured)
(measured)
(known)
(known)
(6373394 m)

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Computations
H1 = HA+he

H2 = HB+ht

Velocity correction (K1)

Corrected slope distance (D)

DH = H2 - H1
K1 = D' (no-n)
D = D'+Ko+K1 (Ko is
the zero constant)

Distance on mean sea level (S)

= D / (R+H1)

DH

2
S 2 R 1 (
cos( )) DH
2
D
2

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Projection correction (ds)

S
2
2
ds
(
Y

Y
A
B YA Yb )
2
6R

Distance on projection

s = S+ds
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EXAMPLE
Refractive index of the instrument
Group refractive index
Zero constant
Height of instrument (tripot)
Height of reflector
R = 6373394 m.
Meteorological Observations
Instrument
Wet temperature
22o.2
Dry temperature
16 o.9
Pressure
773.5

n = 1.0003108
NGR = 107.925
Ko = 0.124 m.
he = 0.320 m.
ht = 0.450 m

Reflector
21 o.5
15 o.5
757.4

Mean
21 o.85
16 o.20
765.45

Measured
Lengths
7357.473
467
465
474
468
470
462
470
472
467
469
459
468
463
462
Mean = 7357.4673

E' = 13.81589692,
e = 13.81215662,
n = 1.000279287
Velocity correction (K1)
= D' (no-n)=0.232 m.
Corrected slope distance (D)
= D'+Ko+K1=7357.823
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Electro-optical EDM instruments

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Total Stations
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Total stations with data collectors

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Single Reflectors
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Multiple reflectors
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