APPLIED

PHYSICS

Text Books
Book 1: Applied Physics by Dr. M.
Chandra sekhar & Dr. Appala naidu,
V.G.S. Book links
Book 2 Introduction to Solid State Physics
by C. Kittel, Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Book 3Nanotechnology by Mark Ratner
and Daniel Ratner, Pearson Education

Suggested / Reference Books

Book 1 Material science and Engineering
by V Raghavan PHI publishers
Book 2 Material Science by M Arumugam,
Anuradha agencies
Book 3Solid state physics by Ashcroft,
Mermin, Thomson learning
Book 4Solid state physics by Gupta &
Kumar,K.Nath & Co.
3

Book 5: Applied Physics by

P.K.Palaniswamy,Scitech
Publications(India)Pvt.Ltd.
Book 6: Material Science by MS Vijaya & G
Rangarajan, Tata Mc Graw Hill
Book 7: Applied Physics by K. Vijay Kumar &
T.Srikanth, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
Book 8: Nano materials by A.K. Bandyopadhyay,
New Age International Publishers
4

UNIT-1
Bonding in solids
Crystal structures
X-ray diffractions
5

APPLIED PHYSICS
CODE : 07A1BS05
I B.TECH
CSE, IT, ECE & EEE
UNIT-1: CHAPTER1
NO. OF SLIDES :31

UNIT INDEX
UNIT-I
S.No.

Module

Lecture
No.

PPT Slide
No.

Introduction

L1

Types of bonding

L2

9-29

3.

Estimation of
cohesive energy.

L3

30

4.

Made lung constant.

L4

31
7

Introduction

Lecture-1

Introduction: Generally matter consists in three

states i.e., depending on their internal structure.
Normally the states are solid state, liquid state,
and gaseous state. In solids stated as the closer
collection of atoms result in bulk materials called
solids. Solids are usually strong and exhibit
elastic character. Solids can be broadly classified
as either crystalline or Non-crystalline. The
arrangement of atoms in a solids is determined
by the character, strength and directionality of the
binding forces. The bonds are made of attractive
and repulsive forces.

Types of Bonding

Lecture-2

An atom consists of positively charged nucleus

surrounded by negatively charged electron cloud. When
two atoms are brought closer there will be both attractive
and repulsive forces acting upon. The value of the energy
need to move an atom completely away from its
equilibrium position is a measure of Bonding Energy
between them.
This energy varies depending on the type of bonding.
The bonds are made up of attractive and repulsive
forces. Different charge distributions in the atoms give
rise to different types of bonding.
9

Bonds generally classified into five

classes.
1. Ionic bonding
2. Covalent bonding
3. Metallic bonding
4. Hydrogen bonding
5. Vander walls bonding.
10

Ionic Bonding: An ionic bonding is

the attractive force existing between
a positive ion and a negative ion
when they are brought into close
proximity. These ions are formed
when the atoms of different elements
involved lose or gain electrons in
order to stabilize their outer shell
electron configurations.
11

Properties of ionic solids:

1.Ionic solids are crystalline in nature.
2.They are hard and brittle.
3.They have high melting and boiling
points.
4.Since all the electrons are tightly
bound with the ions, ionic solids are
good insulators of electricity.
12

5.They are soluble in polar solvents and

insoluble in Non-polar solvents.
6.In an ionic crystal, a cation is surrounded by
as many anions as possible and vice-versa.
Examples of ionic solids:
NaCl, KCl, KBr, MgO, MgCl2,KOH, and
Al2O3 are few examples of ionic solids.
13

Covalent Bonding:

The arrangement
of electrons in an
outer shell is
achieved by a
process of valence
electron sharing
rather than electron
transfer.

14

Properties of Covalent solids:

1.Covalent bonds are directional. Change in the

direction of the bond results in the formation of
different substance.
2.Since different covalent solids have very much
different bond strengths, they exhibit varying
physical properties. For example, the diamond is
the hardest substance with very high melting
point. It is a very good insulator of electricity.
3.Covalent solids are hard and brittle. They posses
crystalline structure.

15

4.When compared with ionic solids, these solids

have relatively low melting and boiling
points.
5.Pure covalent solids are good insulators of
electricity at low temperatures.
6.When covalent crystals are doped with certain
impurities, they becomes semi-conductors.
Examples of Covalent solids:S,I, Ge, Si,
diamond and graphite.

16

17

Metallic Bonding: The valence electrons

from all the atoms belonging to the
crystal are free to move throughout the
crystal. The crystal may be considered as
an array of positive metal ions embedded
in a cloud or sea of free electrons.
This type of bonding is called metallic
bonding.

18

Properties of Metallic solids:

1.Metallic bonds hold the atoms
together in metals.
2.Metallic bonds are relatively weak.
3.Metallic solids are malleable and
ductile.
4.Metallic bond is non directional.
19

5.They have high number of

free electrons.
6.They possess high electrical
and thermal conductivity.
7.Metals are opaque to light.
Examples of metallic solids:
Sodium, Copper, Gold, Silver,
Aluminum.
20

Hydrogen Bonding:
Covalently bonded atoms often produce an
electric dipole configuration with hydrogen
atom as the positive end of the dipole if
bonds arise as a result of electrostatic
attraction between atoms, it is known as
hydrogen bonding.

21

Properties of Hydrogen solids:

1.The hydrogen bonds are directional.
2.The bonding is relatively strong as compared
to other dipole-dipole interactions.
3.Hydrogen bonded solids have low melting
points.
4.Since no valence electrons are available in
such solids they are good insulators of
electricity.
5.They are soluble in both polar and nonpolar
solvents.
22

6.They are transparent to light.

7.Since elements of low atomic numbers form
such solids, they have low densities.
8.When water is in the form of ice, hydrogen
bond results in lower density; but when it
melts, it becomes more closely packed liquid
and hence its density increases.
Example of hydrogen bonded solids: Water
molecule in the form of ice, ammonia
molecules.
23

Van der Waals(Molecular) Bonding:

Weak and temporary (fluctuating) dipole
bonds between hydrogen are known as
van der Waals bonding and they are
nondirectoinal. (OR)
Secondary bonding arising from the
fluctuating dipole nature of an atom with
all occupied electron shell filled is called
van der waals bonding.
24

Properties of Van der waals bonding:

1.Van der waals bonds are nondirectional.
2.Van der waals bonding is weaker than the
hydrogen bonding.
3.Van der waals bonded solids have low melting
point.
4.Since no valence electrons are available, such
solids are good insulators of electricity.

25

5.They are soluble in both polar and

non polar liquids.
6.They are usually transparent to
light.

Examples of Van der Waals

bonded solids: Solid neon, Solid
argon.
26

1. The mechanical, thermal,

electrical and other properties of
materials are related to chemical
bonding and structure.
2. The atoms/molecules in solids
are very strongly held together
by interatomic/ intermolecular
forces called bonding in solids.
27

3. The force that holds atoms together is

called bonding force. Under the bonded

condition the potential energy is
minimum.
4.The amount of energy required to separate
the atoms completely from the structure is
called cohesive energy. This energy is also
called energy of dissociation.
28

Primary Bondings have bond

energies in the range of 0.110eV/bond. Ionic, Covalent and
metallic bondings are the examples.
Secondary Bondings have energies
in the range of 0.001-0.5eV/bond.
Hydrogen bonding and van der waals
bonding are the examples.
29

Cohesive energy of NaCl molecule:

30

Lecture-3

Lecture-4

The Madelung constant is a

function of crystal structure
and can be calculated from
the geometrical arrangement
of ions in the crystal.
31