Transmission Lines - Basic Theories

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Transmission Lines Basic Theories

1 Introduction
At high frequencies, the wavelength is much smaller than
the circuit size, resulting in different phases at different
locations in the circuit.
Quasi-static circuit theory cannot be applied. We need to
use transmission line theory.
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A transmission line is a two-port network connecting

a generator circuit at the sending end to a load at the
receiving end.
Unlike in circuit theory, the length of a transmission line
is of utmost importance in transmission line analysis.
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2 Common Types of Transmission Lines
metal walls
dielectric spacing
(d) Microstrip line
(e) Waveguide
We focus on studying the coaxial and the two-wire

transmission lines.
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3 AC Steady-State Analysis
3.1
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Distributed parameter representation
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We use the following distributed parameters to

characterize the circuit properties of a transmission line.
R = resistance per unit length, (/m)
L = inductance per unit length, (H/m)
G = conductance per unit length, (S/m)
C = capacitance per unit length, (F/m)
z = increment of length, (m)
These parameters are related to the physical properties of
the material filling the space between the two wires.
G'
=
C'
L'C ' =
(See Text Book No.3,

pp. 432-433)
where , , = permittivity, permeability, conductivity

of the surrounding medium.
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For the coaxial and two-wire transmission lines, the

distributed parameters are related to the physical
properties and geometrical dimensions as follows:
Surface
resistivity of
the conductors
(See Text
Book No.3,
pp. 445-447)
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3.2
Equations and solutions

Consider a short section z of a transmission line
(dropping the primes on R, L, G, C hereafter) :
Load
Generator
Using KVL and KCL circuit theorems, we can

derive the following differential equations for this
section of transmission line.
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i ( z , t )
v ( z , t ) Rzi ( z , t ) Lz
v ( z + z , t ) = 0
t
v( z + z , t )
i ( z , t ) Gzv( z + z , t ) C z
i ( z + z , t ) = 0
t
By letting z0, these lead to coupled equations:
v( z , t )
i ( z , t )
= Ri ( z , t ) + L
z
t
i ( z , t )
v( z , t )
= Gv( z , t ) + C
z
t
General Transmission Line Equations Coupled!

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For sinusoidal varying voltages and currents, we can use

phasor forms.
v ( z , t ) = Re{V (z )e jt }
i (z , t ) = Re{I (z )e jt }
V(z) and I(z) are called phasors of v(z,t) and i(z,t). In

terms of phasors, the coupled equations can be written as:
dV ( z )
= ( R + j L) I ( z )
dz
dI ( z )
= (G + jC )V ( z )
dz
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After decoupling,
2
d V ( z)
2
V (z)
=
2
dz
d 2 I ( z)
2
=
I (z)
2
dz
= + j =
( R + j L )( G + jC )
is the complex propagation constant whose real part is

the attenuation constant (Np/m) and whose imaginary
part is the phase constant (rad/m). Generally, these
quantities are functions of .
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Solutions to transmission line equations:
Forward
travelling
wave.
V ( z) = V + ( z) + V ( z)
+ z
0
=V e
+
z
0
+V e
I ( z) = I ( z) + I ( z)
Backward
travelling
wave.
= I 0+ e z + I 0 e z
V0+ , V0 , I 0+ , I 0 = wave amplitudes in the forward and

backward directions at z = 0. (They
are complex numbers in general.)
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4 Transmission Line Parameters

From the solutions to the transmission line equations, it
can be shown (using the coupled transmission line
equations) that:
V0+
V0 R + j L
= =
+
I0
I0
This ratio is called characteristic impedance Z0.
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Z0 =
R + jL
R + jL
=
=
G + jC
G + jC
= + j =
(R + jL)(G + jC )
Z0 and are the two most important parameters of

a transmission line.
They depend on the
distributed parameters (RLGC) of the line itself
and but not the length of the line.
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Parameters for lossless transmission lines

For lossless transmission lines, R = G = 0.
=0
= LC =
u p = phase velocity = =
1
=
LC
= complex propagation constant

= j = j = j 2f = j
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= jk
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= wavelength along the transmission line

2
1
=
=
=
=
=
f
f
f
f LC
up
Z 0 = characteristic impedance
R + jL
=
G + jC
L
=
C
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Voltage and current along the line:

V ( z ) = V0+ e jkz + V0 e jkz
I ( z ) = I 0+ e jkz + I 0 e jkz
Define a reflection coefficient at z = 0 as L:

reflected voltage at z = 0
L =
incident voltage at z = 0
V0 e jk 0 V0
= + jk 0 = + = L e j L
V0 e
V0
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In terms of the reflection coefficient L, the total

voltage and current can be written as:
V (z ) = V e
+ jkz
0
+V e
+
0
jkz
V jkz V jkz
I (z ) =
e
e
Z0
Z0
V
+ jkz
2 jkz
0
= V0 e 1 + + e
+
V
V
V
jkz
2 jkz
0
0
0
e 1 + e
=
Z0
V0
= V + e jkz (1 + e2 jkz )
0
+ jkz
0
=I e
(1 e )
2 jkz
In subsequent analyses, we will consider only lossless

transmission lines.
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5 Infinitely Long Transmission Line

For an infinitely long transmission line, there can be no
reflected wave (backward travelling wave). So for an
infinite long transmission line, there is only a forward
travelling wave.
V ( z ) = V + ( z ) = V0+ e jkz
I ( z ) = I + ( z ) = I 0+ e jkz
V ( z ) V0+ ( z )
Z ( z) =
= +
= Z0
I (z ) I 0 (z )
L = 0
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6 Terminated Transmission Line
z = -d
=d
()
Z()
z=0
=0
load
source
Note the two coordinate systems and their relation:

z = measuring from the left to the right
= -z
= measuring from the right to the left
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In the z coordinate system,

V0+ e jkz + V0 e jkz = V ( z )
+ jkz
0
I e
+I e
jkz
= I (z )
In the ( = -z) coordinate system,

+
0
V e
jkA
jkA
0
+V e
= V (A )
I 0+ e jkA + I 0 e jkA = I (A )
We will use the coordinate system in subsequent

analyses.
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The characteristic impedance in the coordinate system is:

V0+
= Z0
+
I0
The reflection coefficient at = 0 in the coordinate

system is:
V0 e jk 0
(A = 0 ) = + jk 0 = L
V0 e
As L is obtained at = 0 (the load position), it is

called the reflection coefficient at the load.
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At the position of the load ( = 0), the voltage is VL and

the current is IL. Then we have:
V0+ + V0 = VL
V0+ V0
= IL
Z0 Z0
VL
= ZL
IL
Solve these two equations, we have:

1
+
V0 = I L (Z L + Z 0 )
2
1
V0 = I L (Z L Z 0 )
2
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Putting the expressions for V0 and V0 into the equations

for the voltage and current, we have:
+
1
jkA
jkA
jkA
jkA
(
)
V A = I L Z L (e + e ) + Z 0 (e e )
2
= I L [Z L cos(kA ) + jZ 0 sin (kA )]
1 IL
I (A ) =
Z L (e jkA e jkA ) + Z 0 (e jkA + e jkA )
2 Z0
IL
= [Z 0 cos(kA ) + jZ L sin (kA )]
Z0
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Using V() and I(), we can obtain the impedance Z() at

an arbitrary point on the transmission line as:
V (A )
Z L + jZ 0 tan (kA )
Z (A) =
= Z0
I (A )
Z 0 + jZ L tan (kA )
The reflection coefficient at the load L can be expressed

as:
1
I L (Z L Z 0 )
Z L Z0
V0
2
=
L = + =
1
+
Z
Z
V0
L
0
I L (Z L + Z 0 )
2
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In fact, we can further define a reflection coefficient ()

at any point on the transmission line by:
reflected voltage at point A
(A ) =
incident voltage at point A
V0 e jkA V0 j 2 kA
= + jkA = + e
= L e j 2 kA
V0 e
V0
As we know (by solving the two equations on page 22

with 0):
1
+ jkA
V0 e = I (A )(Z (A ) + Z 0 )
2
1
jkA
V0 e
= I (A )(Z (A ) Z 0 )
2
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Therefore, alternatively we can write,

1
I (A )[Z (A ) Z 0 ]
Z (A ) Z 0
2
(A ) =
=
1
(
)
Z
+
Z
A
0
I (A )[Z (A ) + Z 0 ]
2
Then,
1 + (A )
Z (A ) = Z 0
1 (A )
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At the position of the generator ( = d),

Z L + jZ 0 tan (kd )
Zi = Z ( A = d ) = Z 0
Z 0 + jZ L tan (kd )
Zi Z 0
(A = d ) = i =
= L e j 2 kd
Zi + Z 0
Vg
i
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Example 1
A 100- transmission line is connected to a load consisted
of a 50- resistor in series with a 10-pF capacitor.
(a) Find the reflection coefficient L at the load for a 100MHz signal.
(b) Find the impedance Zin at the input end of the
transmission line if its length is 0.125.
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Solutions
The following information is given
RL = 50, CL = 10 11 F, Z 0 = 100, f = 100MHz = 108 Hz
The load impedance is

Z L = RL j CL
1
= 50 j
= 50 j159
11
8
2 10 10
()
(a) Voltage reflection coefficient is

Z L / Z 0 1 0.5 j1.59 1
L =
=
= 0.76 60.70
Z L / Z 0 + 1 0.5 j1.59 + 1
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(b) d =0.125
Zin = Z ( A = 0.125 )
Z L + jZ0 tan ( 4 )
= Z0
Z0 + jZ L tan ( 4 )
Z L + jZ0
= Z0
Z0 + jZ L
Normalized zin = 0.1437-j 0.2555
()
()
= 14.3717 - j 25.5544
= 29.32 60.65
See animation Transmission Line Impedance Calculation
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6.1 Voltage/current maxima and minima

V (A ) = V0+ e jkA + V0 e jkA
V
+ jkA
j 2 kA
0
= V0 e 1 + + e
V0
= V0+ e jkA (1 + L e j 2 kA )
V ( A ) = V 1 + Le
+
0
j 2kA
= V 1+ L e
+
0
|L|1
= L e j (
L 2kA
= a complex number
= V 1+
+
0
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j ( L 2 k A )
L = L e j
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Im
1+
1
0
V (A )
=L-2k
Re
1 L
= L e j (
L 2 kz '
)
AM
Am
A=0
1+ L
Complex plane of (1+ )

See animation Transmission Line Voltage Maxima and Minima
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V ( A ) is maximum when 1 + = (1 + L
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V ( A ) max = L 2k A = 2n
L n
AM =
+
, n = 0,1, 2,"
4
2
Note:L has to be specified in the range [ , ) .
V ( A ) is minimum when 1 = (1 L
V ( A ) min = L 2k A = ( 2n + 1)
L ( 2n + 1)
Am =
+
, n = 0,1, 2,"
4
4
Note:L has to be specified in the range [ , ) .
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As current is
I ( A ) = I 0+ 1 L e j 2 k A
V0+
=
1
Z0
Current is maximum when voltage is minimum and

minimum when voltage is maximum.
L (2n + 1)
I (A ) max at A M =
+
, n = 0,1,2,", with L
4
4
L n
I (A ) min at A m =
+
, n = 0,1,2,", with L
4
2
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Define a voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) as:

S = voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)
=
V ( A ) max
V ( A ) min
V0+ (1 + L
+
0
(1
) = 1+
) 1
(dimensionless)
S 1
L =
S +1
|V(z)|
|I(z)|
|V|max
|I|max
|V|min
|I|min
lmax
load
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lmax
load
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Special terminations
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ZL
ZL= Z0 (matched)
-1
ZL= 0 (short-circuited)
ZL= (open-circuited)
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6.2 Power flow in a transmission line

Power flow at any point z on a transmission line
is given by:
1
Pav ( z ) = Re{V ( z )I * ( z )}
2
Power delivered by the source:
1
Ps = Re{Vg I i* }
2
Power dissipated in the source impedance Zg:
1
1
1 2
*
*
PZ g = Re VZ g I Z g = Re{Z g I i I i } = I i Re{Z g }
2
2
2
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Power input to the transmission line:

1
Pi = Pav ( d ) = Re{V ( d )I * ( d )}
2
1
1
1 2
*
*
= Re{Vi I i } = Re{Z i I i I i } = I i Re{Z i }
2
2
2
1 Vi * 1 2 1
= Re Vi * = Vi Re *
2 Zi 2
Zi
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Power dissipated in the terminal impedance:

1
PL = Pav (0 ) = Re{V (0 )I * (0 )}
2
1
1
1 2
= Re{VL I L* } = Re{Z L I L I L* } = I L Re{Z L }
2
2
2
1 VL* 1 2 1
= Re VL * = VL Re *
2 ZL 2
ZL
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By the principle of conservation of power:
Ps = PZ g + Pi
Pi = PL
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Example 2
A lossless transmission line with Z0 = 50 and d =1.5 m
connects a voltage Vg source to a terminal load of ZL = (50 +
j50) . If Vg = 60 V, operating frequency f = 100 MHz, and
Zg = 50 , find the distance of the first voltage maximum M
from the load. What is the power delivered to the load PL?
Assume the speed of the wave along the transmission line
equal to speed of light, c.
Zg
Ii
A
Vg ~
Vi
Zi
Z0 = 50
ZL
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Solutions
The following information is given:
Z 0 = 50, d = 1.5 m,
Vg = 60 V, Z g = 50, Z L = 50 + j50,
f = 100MHz = 10 Hz
8
c
up = c = 8 = 3 m
10
The reflection coefficient at the load is:

Z L Z 0 50 + j50 50
L =
=
= 0.2 + j 0.4 = 0.45e j1.11
Z L + Z 0 50 + j50 + 50
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Therefore,
Then,
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L = 0.45, L = 1.11 rad
L n
AM =
+
, when n = 0
4
2
1.11
=
= 0.09 = 0.27 m (from the load)
4
The input impedance Zi looking at the input to the

transmission line is:
Zi = Z 0
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2
1. 5
50 + j50 + j50 tan
3
Zi = 50
= 50 + j50
2
1.5
50 + j (50 + j50 ) tan
3
The current at the input to the transmission line is :
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Vg
60
Ii =
=
= 0.48 j 0.24 A
Z g + Zi 50 + 50 + j50
As the transmission line is lossless, power delivered to the

load PL is equal to the power input to the transmission line
Pi. Hence,
1
1 2
PL = Pi = I i Re{Z i } = 0.288 50 = 7.2 W
2
2
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6.3 Complete solutions for voltage and current

The voltage and current on the transmission line can
be written as:
V (A ) = V0+ e jkA + V0 e jkA = V0+ e jkA 1 + L e j 2 kA
V0+ jkA V0+ jkA V0+ jkA

j 2 kA
e
e
=
e 1 Le
I (A ) =
Z0
Z0
Z0
We still have one unknown V0+ in V() and I(). We

need the knowledge of voltage source Vg to further
determine V0+.
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At = d, V(d) = Vi and I(d) = Ii.
Vi = V0+ e jkd 1 + L e j 2 kd
V0+ jkd
j 2 kd
Ii =
e 1 Le
Z0
Vi and Ii are related to the source voltage Vg as:

Vg = Vi + I i Z g
From the expressions of Vi, Ii, and Vg, we can find V0+.
V0+ =
g =
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(Z
Vg Z 0 e jkd
Z g Z0
Z g + Z0
+ Z 0 ) 1 g L e j 2 kd
= source reflection coefficient

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Putting V0+ into the expressions of V() and I(), we have:

V (A ) =
I (A ) =
(Z
(Z
Vg Z 0 e jkd
+ Z0 )1 g Le
j 2 kd
Vg e jkd
+ Z0 )1 g Le
j 2 kd
(
)
(
)
e jkA 1 + L e j 2 kA
e jkA 1 L e j 2 kA
Now the voltage and current on the transmission line are

expressed in terms of the known parameters of the
transmission line.
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Example 3
A 1.05-GHz generator circuit with a series impedance Zg = 10
and voltage source given by:
vg (t ) = 10 sin (t + 30) (V )
is connected to a load ZL = (100 + j50) through a 50-, 67-cmlong lossless transmission line. The phase velocity of the line is
0.7c, where c is the velocity of light in a vacuum. Find the
instantaneous voltage and current v(,t) and i(,t) on the line and
the average power delivered to the load.
Zg
Ii
A
vg
Vi
Zi
Z0 = 50
ZL
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Solutions
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up
0.7 3 108
= =
= 0.2 m
9
1.05 10
f
0.67
d = 67cm =
= 3.35
0.2
source reflection coefficient g

Z g Z0
10 50
2
=
=
=
Z g + Z 0 10 + 50
3
load reflection coefficient L

Z L Z 0 100 + j 50 50
=
=
= 0.45e j 0.46
Z L + Z 0 100 + j 50 + 50
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vg (t ) = 10 sin (t + 30)
= 10 cos(t 60) = Re 10e j 60 e jt
V (A ) =
(Z
jkd
+ Z 0 )(1 g L e j 2 kd )
10e
j / 3
50e
e jkA (1 + L e j 2 kA )
(3.35 )
4
j (3.35 )
j 0.46
(10 + 50)1 ( 2 / 3)(0.45e )e
e jkA + (0.45e j 0.46 )e jkA = 10.18e j 2.77 e jkA + 0.45e j (kA 0.46 )
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Vg Z 0 e
j / 3
Vg = 10e
Phasor form:
} (V )
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I (A ) =
(Z
Vg e jkd
+ Z 0 )(1 g L e
j 2 kd
e jkA (1 L e j 2 kA )
= 0.20e j 2.77 e jkA 0.45e j (kA 0.46 )
Therefore instantaneous forms are:
v (A, t ) = Re{V (A )e jt }
= Re{10.18e j 2.77 e jkA + 0.45e j (kA 0.46 ) e jt }

= 10.18 cos(t + kA + 2.77 ) + 4.58 cos(t kA + 3.23)
i (A, t ) = Re{I (A )e jt }
= Re{0.20e j 2.77 e jkA 0.45e j (kA 0.46 ) e jt }

= 0.20 cos(t + kA + 2.77 ) 0.09 cos(t kA + 3.23)
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Zi = Z0
2
(100 + j50) + j50 tan 3.35
= 50
2
50 + j (100 + j 50 ) tan
3.35

= 21.9 + j17.4
10e j / 3
Ii =
=
= 0.28e j1.55
Z g + Z i 10 + 21.9 + j17.4
Vg
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Power delivered to the load

= power input to the transmission line at AA
1
= Re{Vi I i* }
2
1
= Re{I i Z i I i* }
2
1 2
= I i Re{Z i }
2
1
= 0.282 Re{21.9 + j17.4}
2
= 0.86 Watt
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7 Special Cases of Terminations in a Transmission Line

7.1 Matched line
For a matched line, ZL = Z0. Then,

Z 0 + jZ 0 tan (kA )
Z (A ) = Z 0
= Z0
Z 0 + jZ 0 tan (kA )
for any length A of the line

Z (A ) Z 0
(
)
A
=
=
0
Note =-z
Z (A ) + Z 0
Thus, there is no reflection on a matched line. There is

only an incident voltage. It is same as the case of an
infinitely long line.
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Normalized voltage magnitude
1
z
z
-1
Normalized current magnitude
Z0
Z0
z
-1
Zin
Normalized impedance (Zin/Z0)
1
z
Note:
Normalized voltage = voltage/max. |voltage|
Normalized current = current/max. |current|
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7.2 Short-circuited line
For a short circuit, ZL = 0. Then
Z insc = jZ 0 tan (kA ) = jZ 0 tan (kz )

Normalized impedance (=-tan(kz))
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7.3 Open-circuited line
For an open circuit, ZL = . Then

Z inoc = jZ 0 cot (kA ) = jZ 0 cot (kz )
Note that:
Z insc Z inoc = [ jZ 0 tan (kA )][ jZ 0 cot (kA )]
= Z 02
Z
sc
in
oc
in
= [ jZ 0 tan (kA )] [ jZ 0 cot (kA )]
Normalized impedance (=cot(kz))
= tan 2 (kA )
Given Z insc , Z inoc , and A, compute Z 0 and k.

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7.4 /4 transmission line terminated in ZL

Z L + jZ 0 tan ( 2 ) Z 02
Zin = Z ( A = 4) = Z 0
=
Z 0 + jZ L tan ( 2 ) Z L
Z0
ZL
Zin
7.5 /2 transmission line terminated in ZL

Z L + jZ 0 tan ( )
Zin = Z ( A = 2) = Z 0
= ZL
Z 0 + jZ L tan ( )
Z0
ZL
Zin
Hon Tat Hui
57
NUS/ECE
EE2011
Example 4
The open-circuit and short-circuit impedances measured at
the input terminals of a lossless transmission line of length
1.5 m (which is less than a quarter wavelength) are j54.6
and j103 , respectively.
(a) Find Z0 and k of the line.

(b) Without changing the operating frequency, find the
input impedance of a short-circuited line that is twice
the given length.
(c) How long should the short-circuited line be in order
for it to appear as an open circuit at the input
terminals?
Hon Tat Hui
58
NUS/ECE
EE2011
Solution
The given quantities are
Z inoc = j54.6
Z insc = j103
A = 1.5m
(a) Z 0 = Z inoc Z insc = 75

1 1
k = tan
Z insc Z inoc = 0.628 rad m
A
2
=
= 10m
k
(b) For a line twice as long, = 3 m and k =1.884 rad,
Z insc = jZ 0 tan kA = j 232
Hon Tat Hui
59
NUS/ECE
EE2011
(c) Short circuit input impedance

= Z = jZ 0 tan (kA )
sc
in
For Z insc = , kA = 2 + n , n = 0,1,2,"

A=
Hon Tat Hui
2 + n
k
2n + 1
=
60

Transmission Lines - Basic Theories

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NUS/ECE

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

Hon Tat Hui

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

A transmission line is a two-port network connecting

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

2 Common Types of Transmission Lines

(d) Microstrip line

We focus on studying the coaxial and the two-wire

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

Hon Tat Hui

Distributed parameter representation

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

We use the following distributed parameters to

(See Text Book No.3,

where , , = permittivity, permeability, conductivity

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

For the coaxial and two-wire transmission lines, the

Hon Tat Hui

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

Equations and solutions

Using KVL and KCL circuit theorems, we can

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

General Transmission Line Equations Coupled!

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

For sinusoidal varying voltages and currents, we can use

V(z) and I(z) are called phasors of v(z,t) and i(z,t). In

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

is the complex propagation constant whose real part is

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

Solutions to transmission line equations:

V0+ , V0 , I 0+ , I 0 = wave amplitudes in the forward and

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

4 Transmission Line Parameters

Hon Tat Hui

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

Z0 and are the two most important parameters of

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

Parameters for lossless transmission lines

= complex propagation constant

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

= wavelength along the transmission line

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

Voltage and current along the line:

Define a reflection coefficient at z = 0 as L:

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

In terms of the reflection coefficient L, the total

In subsequent analyses, we will consider only lossless

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

5 Infinitely Long Transmission Line

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

6 Terminated Transmission Line

Note the two coordinate systems and their relation:

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

In the z coordinate system,

In the ( = -z) coordinate system,

We will use the coordinate system in subsequent

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

The characteristic impedance in the coordinate system is:

The reflection coefficient at = 0 in the coordinate

As L is obtained at = 0 (the load position), it is

Transmission Lines Basic Theories

At the position of the load ( = 0), the voltage is VL and

Solve these two equations, we have: