DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF 1.

5KVA
INVERTER CIRCUIT

BY
ALADE DAMOLA VICTOR
ENG 0011185

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE

DEPARTEMENT OF ELECTRICAL ELECTRONIC,
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING.

UNIVERSITY OF BENIN

BENIN CITY

NOVEMBER 2006

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF 1.5KVA

INVERTER CIRCUIT

BY
ALADE DAMOLA VICTOR
ENG 0011185

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF BENIN.
BENIN CITY.
ii

IN PARTIAL FULFMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF THE BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING DEGREE
IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
(B.ENG)

NOVEMBER 2006

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project work was carried out by ALADE DAMOLA
VICTOR in the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of
Benin, Benin City

iii

Prof. Edeko F. O.

Engr. Onohaebi S. O.

Supervisor

H. O. D. Elect/Elect Dept.

Date: -----------------------

Date: --------------------------

DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated to the Almighty God for His loving kindness and
fulfillment of His word towards me during my years of study in this university.
Also to my beloved wife and my little boy for their encouragement, understanding,
love and support during the course of my study.

iv

AKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my immense gratitude to the Almighty God for His protection,
journey mercy, wisdom and understanding that has kept me throughout this
project work.
v

My sincere gratitude also goes to Prof. F. O. Edeko, for his keen supervision in
making this work a success. I also wish to express my warm heartfelt to entire
lecturers and staff of Electrical / Electronic Department for their time and
support in the course of this project work. My sincere appreciation also goes to
my immediate family and the extended family for their understanding and
encouragement all the way. May God bless you all.

Benin, November 2006

ABSTRACT

vi

The aim of this project work is to design a 1.5KVA inverter circuit capable of
inverting 12Volts d.c. from a car battery to 220volts a.c. In the design, some basic
electronic components are employed.
In generating frequency of 50hertz a bipolar transistor BC107 in
conjunctions with resistors and capacitors were used to achieve an astable
multivibrator circuit. The capacitors were carefully selected after the necessary
design criterion, considering the frequency of pulse in question. The selection of
the resistors is at the range of that to generate a high current from the
multivibrator. The 12volts d.c from the battery supply biasing voltage to the
transistor.
Having generated high current pulse train. The two output of the
multivibrator are fed into the source of two parallel MOSFET IRFZ44. The
MOSFET are four in all with each two in push pull arrangement to achieve current
amplification. IRFZ44 has drain current of 51A, this helps in achieving the
required high output current. Also adequate caution was taken during the
soldering and connection of components. The MOSFETs are screwed to heat sink
to take care of heat dissipation.
Output of IRFZ44 is being fed to secondary winding of the transformer and
the 220volts a.c. output is obtained from primary winding of the transformer. The
transformer is designed to carry 1500watt load. With 60A.h fully charged car
battery the inverter was tested with laptop for almost three hours. However the

vii

inverter was tested with tape recorder, 60watt bulb and television set. All this
items worked for some hours.

Table of Contents.
Title page

---------------------------------------------------------------------

Certification

-------------------------------------------------------------

Dedication --------------------------------------------------------------------

iii

Acknowledgement

iv

Abstract

-----------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------

ii

Table of contents ------------------------------------------------------------

vi

vii

Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1

Aims and Objectives----------------------------------------------------

1.2

Scope of work

---------------------------------------------

The Block Diagram

----------------------------------------------

2.
2

4.
1.3

Chapter Two:
2.0.

4- 6.

Literature Review and Analysis of Components.

Literature Review ---------------------------------------------------viii

6 7.

2.1.

Component Analysis-------------------------------------------------

7 8.

2.2.

Pulse Width Modulation -------------------------------------------

8 10.

2.3.

Multivibrator

-----------------------------------------

10 11.

2.4.

Oscillators

----------------------------------------------------

11 13.

2.5.

Operational Amplifier

---------------------------------------------

2.6

Transistors

---------------------------------------------

2.7

MOSFET

13

17.
17 20.

------------------------------------------------------------

20

25.
2.8

MOSFET Drivers -----------------------------------------------------

26 28.

2.9

Capacitor and Capacitance

29 30.

-------------------------------------

2.10 Transformer----------------------------------------------------

30 - 41

Chapter 3: Design
3.0.

Designs

------------------------------------------------------------

41.
3.1.

Transformer Design

---------------------------------------------

41

Design of multivibrator ---------------------------------------------

49

3.3

Wire gauge table ----------------------------------------------------

51 53.

3.4

Complete circuit diagram

53 - 54

48.
3.2.
50.

ix

Chapter 4 Construction, Testing and Result

4.1.

Construction----------------------------------------------------------55.

4.2

Fabrication of Circuit Board

4.3.

Packaging

-------------------------------------

55.

------------------------------------------------------------

55.
4.4

Testing

------------------------------------------------------------

56.
4.5

Testing of Mosfet -------------------------------------------------------

57.

4.6

Testing of Bipolar Transistor

----------------------------------------

58 - 59

4.7

Transformer Testing

-----------------------------------------------

59 60.

4.8

Test Result --------------------------------------------------------------

60.

4.9

Engineering Bill of Quantities & Evaluation

60.

Chapter 5

-----------------

Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1

Conclusion

5.3

Recommendation ------------------------------------------------------

Appendix

-----------------------------------------------------

61.
62

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

References -------------------------------------------------------------------

63

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

1.0

Inverter Bases:
Basically it is required of the power utility company to supply continuous,

uninterruptible power to appliance and sundry usage. But many a times even in
developed countries where this is achievable the need of basic inverter still finds
its usage. An inverter allows the use of 220v electrical appliances from a car
battery or a solar battery. It must therefore supply a voltage that corresponds to
an rms of 230volts sine wave like the household supply or similar. Sine -wave
voltages are not easy to generate. The advantage of sine-wave voltages is to soft
temporal rise in voltage and the absence of higher-frequency oscillation portions,
which cause unwanted counter forces on engines, interferences on radio
equipment and surge currents on condensers. On the other hand, very simply
switches e.g. electronic valves like mosfet transistors can generate square-wave
voltage. The efficiency of a square wave inverter is higher than that of appropriate
sine-wave inverter due to its simplicity. With the help of a transformer the
generated square wave voltage can be transformed to a value of 230volts or even
higher as in the case of radio transmitter.

One of the fundamental challenges to face in generating square wave voltage

is the ability to obtain a perfect upper and lower threshold value of the duty cycle.
This must be adequately looked into in order to obtain square wave signal that is
free of chatter effect. Of course chatter effect will lead to lose of useful voltage and
this may be of great influence after amplification stages. Also the higher

Percentage of the duty cycle obtained the better, this is of great important because
the output transistor is either on or off, not partially on as with normal regulation,
so less power is wasted as heat and smaller heat-sinks can be used. The present
day electronic circuit uses appropriate pulse width modulation (PWM) circuitry to
generate the pulse-wave voltage.

1.1 Aims and Objectives:

The main aim of this project is the design and construction of 1.5 KVA
inverter circuit.
The multivibrator circuit will be design to generate a high current pulse
waveform of frequency 50 hertz. The outputs of this shall be feed to a push pull
amplifier configured IRFZ44. The output a.c is achieved via a step up transformer.
The input 12V d.c shall be from car battery.

1.2

Scope of work:
2

Since d.c. are be inverted to a.c. signal in inverter circuit it applications

comes majority in mobile office, mobile-fan and in picnic environment. This is
because simple or portable 12v car battery or 12v dry cell are only required
alongside with the inverter circuit to achieve a.c. voltage for turning on appliances
like television, laptop, useful model computer accessories, games, compact disc
player and so on. This versatile nature of an inverter power supply has made it to
evolve through technological developments. Over the time some simple and
inexpensive circuit that can produce a dual (positive and negative) voltage from a

single supply input extremely useful for powering op amp and other circuits that
require a dual voltage from a single battery has been developed. This circuit
operates at an input voltage from around 5v to 20v and produces an output from
2.5v to 10v.
However, in powering some high-powered appliances we have to careful design
the circuit to develop higher current compensate for the higher power
requirement. Recall that power (p) = IV. Since our voltage is stable at 220v to
230v the only physical factor is the current. Hence the choice of appropriate
Component to handle this higher current is another challenge when it comes
to high power inverter circuit. In overcoming this either ladder network of bipolar
transistor is used or some view stages of mosfet. Mosfet has better advantages
over bipolar transistor due to its inherent construction advantage. Mosfet

dissipate lower heat than its equivalent bipolar transistor. The output power is
ultimately the function of the transformer; the transformer design has to put into
consideration the power rating of the inverter. Circuit. In achieving this care will
be taking in transformer winding and the gauge of copper wire to be used.
The focus of this project is to generate 230v from a 12v battery. Attention
shall be given to the required output power of 1.5.KVA, reliability of the whole
unit, safety to the user and appliances. Also maintainability while in use shall
also be taking care off. Another main issue to be considered is the issue of
economic aspect of the unit.

1.3

The Block Diagram:

This project block diagram explains the various basic unit/stages. The

source voltage is the 12v battery, which shall supply the biasing voltage for the
electronic components and also serving as the input voltage for the transformation
component. The first major stage is the frequency generation stage. This consist
of a 555 timer pulse width modulation arrangement with carefully selected RC
arrangement to cater for 50HZ voltage frequency required by appliances (using
Nigeria Power Standard). Here, pulse-wave signal are generated via the oscillator
circuit.
4

Closely following frequency-generating stage is the duty cycle shaper stage

where the lower and upper threshold are maintained and corrected for the pulsewave voltage. Here the possible effect of chatter is been taking care of:

12V
Battery

Frequency
Generation

Power
Driver
(Optional)

Power
Amp.

Power
Transformation

Feed Back

Figure 1:

Block Diagram of the Inverter Circuit.

The power driver stage involves the amplification of the current to achieve the
goal of higher power. This is achievable with the use of two stages MOSFET. Here

the advantage in field effect transistor (FET) most especially MOSFET shall be
explored.
The final main stage is the power transformation stage, which mainly
comprises of step up transformer. The transformer should be carefully designed
to accommodate the required power of 1.5KVA. Current and voltage

transformation should be carefully doctored during design of the transformer.

Also proper winding and the former compatibility are necessary to prevent
unnecessary noise from the circuit. The battery and the earthing technique in the
unit provide a feedback network for effective output control.
For better smooth power i.e. to take off harmonies and smoothen the
waveform. The block diagram for the inverter circuit above is figure 1. The scope
or aim of this project is to generate 220v with 1.5KVA power rating from a 12v
battery source.

Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW AND ANALYSIS OF COMPONENTS

2.0

Literature Review:
Power inverter is exactly the opposite of power converters. A power converter

is an electronic device that converts a.c voltage to d.c. Voltage to a.c voltage. In
this work we are converting store energy in form of d.c. Voltage in a battery to a.c.
voltage using appropriate circuiting and step up transformer.
Power inverter as source of power source means that the output a.c has the
same frequency as the utility power supply (i.e. 50Hertz) in Nigeria. The
generation of the rights frequency and high waveforms is of high importance.
There are inverters that use a square wave and step waveforms instead of sine
waves. Those other waveform is easier and economical than sine wave. For sine
wave it is expensive and more complicated in generating. Different load response
at difference degree of performance with square or sine wave. Some response like
inductive loads. So the type of waveform used depends on the load or target. For
this project square wave is employed and the target is common electronic
appliances, computer system and other picnic gadget.
The inverter basically involves a signal generating stage with desired square
waveform and frequency of 50HZ. The signal is inverted to form two alternate
waveforms (pulses) usually employed in push pull fashion or configuration. This
inverted alternate pulses then allows to drive two sets of power devices either
transistor in ladder network (depending or power aiming at) or power MOSFET.

The power transistor or MOSFETs then drives current (i.e. d.c. source) through
the step up transformer. The current is driven through the transformer
alternately by the two stage of MOSFETs, emf is generated at the output of the
Step-up transformer.

2.1 Component Analysis:

The basic component in this inverter circuit comprises of i.c. CD 4047 or
better still multivibrator circuit. But the advantage of using the i.c. is that enough
current will be generated, hence aiding the output power.
Also the capacitor and resistor to form the tune circuit for frequency generation is
of very importance. A careful designed R.C circuit we give appropriate frequency
together with i.c. in use.
Again i.c. LM324 further help to shapes the output pulse from the frequency
generation stage. The upper and lower threshold value of the duty circuit is
maintained at this stage. In other words chatter effect is eliminated with help of
this device.
Then the output of the above is subjected to current amplification with the
aid of transistor or power mosfet. If transistors are employed the collector is
shorted to collector in order to prevent heating i.e. thermal runaway. If we employ
MOSFET (as in the case of this project. The push pull arrangement is employed to
aid the power development.
8

Finally, the MOSFET output goes to the carefully designed step-up

transformer. This transformer essentially determines power-handling capability of
the inverter circuit. The secondary must have thicker gauge of wire at to give
tolerant for its current handling capacity. Here the transformer is designed to
accommodate 1.8.KVA even though we required 1.5KVA.
Now a little review of the components and devices employed shall be analyzed vise
a vise their function in the circuit.
2.2 Pulse Width Modulators:
A pulse width modulator is a device or circuit that has an oscillatory circuit
that generates or produces a train of pulses having widths that arc proportional to
the level of the amplifier input signal. When the input signal level is small, a
series of narrow pulses is generated and when the input level is large a series of
wide pulses are generated figure 2.1 shows some typical outputs of a pulse width
generator or modulator used in voltage regulator application. As the input signal
increases and decreases, the pulse width increases and decreases in direct
proportion. Figure 2.1.(b) also shows how a pulse width modulator can be
constructed using a saw tooth generator and voltage comparator.
Voltage
Ref.

Saw

Output

9
Figure 2.1

time

Saw tooth
Generator

+
Voltage
Comparat or

Figure 2.1(b)
A pulse width modulator does not necessarily have to be driven by a saw
tooth generator, any waveform could be used. Pulse width modulator can also be
constructed by driving an oscillator by another oscillator circuit. This produces a
pulse output that has width dependent on the driving signal of the first oscillator.
Majority of nowadays inverter circuits are of the pulse width modulator
(PMW) type. This technique varies the conduction time of the switching. In PWM
control, the power supplied is be switched on and off very rapidly. The d.c. voltage
is converted to a square-wave signal, alternating between fully on (nearly 12v) and
12V

zero. By adjusting the duty cycle of the signal (modulating the width of the pulse,
0V

20%
Dutythe
Cycle
hence the PMW) i.e. the time fraction it is
on
average power can be varied.
12V

Voltage
0V
50% Duty Cycle
12V

0V

10
80% Duty Cycle

time

The following advantages are derived from PWM; the output transistor is
either on or off, not partly on as with normal regulation, so less power is wasted
as heat and smaller heat-sink can be used, the full power pulsing action will run
fans at a much lower speed than an equivalent steady voltage.

2.3 Multivibrator:
A multivibrator consists of two inverters joined together as show in fig 2.3
below. The output of one is joined to the input of the other. The way the combined
circuit behaves depends on the way in which the inverters are coupled together.

Inverter o/p

1/P
Inverter B

A 1/p

0/P

Figure 2.3: Two Inverters Connected to make a Multivibrator

11

Multivibrator are two stages switching circuits in which the output of the first
stage is fed to the input of the second vise visa. When one output is high the
second is low i.e. their output are complimentary. Switching between the two logic
levels is so rapid that the output voltage waveforms are square. The term
multivibrator arises from this, since a square wave consists of a large number of
sine waves with frequencies that are odd multiples of the fundamental. There are
three types of multivibrator (monostable, bistable, and Astable.) depending on the

feedback element used. For this project RC feedback is used to achieve the Astable
multivibrator.

2.4 Oscillators:
Discussion on waveform generation cannot be completed without talking
about oscillators. A device without an oscillator either does nothing or expected to
be driven by something else (which probably contain an oscillator). Apart from the
obvious case of signal generation. Every oscillator has at least one active device
be it a transistor or even the old valve. This part of discussion shall be confine to
LC oscillators or oscillator basics.
At turn on, when power is first applied, random noise is generated within
our active device and then amplified. This noise is fed back positively through
12

frequency selective circuits to the input where it is amplified again and so on. A
state of equilibrium is reached where the losses in the circuit are made good by
consuming power from the power supply and the frequency of oscillation is
determined by the external components, be they inductors and capacitors (L.C.) or
a crystal. The amount of positive feed back to sustain oscillation is also
determined by external components.
2.4.1 Hartley Oscillator:
The figure 2.3 below shows the Hartley oscillator. It is about the simplest
form of oscillator.

L1
R
C

Load
L2

Figure 2.3 Schematic of a Hartley Oscillator

13

2.4.2 Collpitts Oscillator:

The basic Collpitts oscillator circuit looks as shown in figure 2.4 below and
you can observe some similarities.

C1

L1

Load
C2

Figure 2.4 Schematic of a Collpitts Oscillator

If you consider positive feedback is applied to compensate for the losses in

the tuned circuit, the amplifier and feedback circuit create a negative resistor.

When Z1 and Z2 are capacitive, the impedance across the capacitors can be
estimated from a formula which I may not go into here, hie as well as XC1 and XC2.
Suffice to say it can be shown that the input impedance is a negative resistor in
series with C1 and C2. And the frequency is in accordance with

F0

14

2 [LC1 C2 / (C1 + C2) ]

2.4.3 Quart Crystal Oscillator:

For real stability there is no substitute for a crystal oscillators. This uses a
piece of quartz (same chemical glass, silicon oxide) that is cut and polished to
vibrate at a certain frequency. Quartz is piezo electric, so acoustic waves in the
crystal can be driven by an applied electric field and in turn can generate a voltage
at the surface of the crystal equivalent circuit contains two capacitors, giving a
pair of closely spaced (within 1%) series and parallel resonant frequencies. The
quartz crystals has high Q factor and good stability makes it a natural source for
oscillator control, as well as high filters. Just like L.C. oscillator, the crystals
equivalent circuit, provides positive feedback and gain at the resonant frequency
leading to sustained oscillations.

2.5 Operational Amplifiers:The op-amp is basically a differential amplifier having a large voltage gain,
very high input impedance and low output impedance. The op-amp has a
inverting or (-) input and non-inverting or (+) input and a single output. The op-

amp is usually powered by a dual polarity power supply in the range of 5volts to
+15 volts. A simple dual polarity power supply is shown in the figure below which
can be assembled with two 9volts batteries.
15

2.5.1

Inverting Amplifier:

The op-amp is connected using two resistors Ra and Rb (see figure 2.6) such
that the input signal is applied in series with Ra and the output is connected
back to the inverting input through Rb. The non-inverting input is connected to
the ground reference or the center tap of the dual polarity power supply. In
operation, as the input signal moves positive, the output will move negative and
vise visa. The amount of voltage change at the output relative to the input
depends on the ratio of the two resistors Ra and Rb. As the input moves in one
direction, the output will move in the opposite directions, so that the voltage at the
inverting input remains constant or zero volt in this case. If Ra is IK and Rb is 10k
and the input is +1volt then there will be 1mA of current flowing through Ra and
the output will have to move to 10volts to supply the same current through Rb
and keep the voltage at the inverting input at zero. The voltage gain in this case
would be Ra/ Rb or 10k / 1k = 10. Note that since the voltage at the inverting
input is always zero, the input signal will see input impedance equal to Ra, or 1k
in this case. For higher input impedances, both resistor values can be increased.

Rb

Ra

16
Figure 2.6 Inverting Op
Amp

2.5.2 Non-Inverting Op-Amp:

The non-inverting amplifier is connected so that the input signal goes
directly to the non-inverting input (+) and the input resistor Ra is grounded in
this configuration. The input impedance as seen by the signal is much greater
since the input will be following the applied signal and not held constant by the
feedback current. As the signal moves in either direction, the output will follow in
phase to maintain the inverting input at the same voltage as the input (+). The
voltage gain is always more than 1 and can be worked out from Vgain = (1 + Rb /
Ra )

Rb

Ra

Figure 2.7 Non Inverting

Op Amp
17

2.5.3 Voltage Follower Amplifier:

The voltage follower also called a buffer provides high input impedance, a low
output impedance, and unity gain. As the input voltage changes, the output and
inverting input will change by an equal amount
+ 9v

- 9v

Figure 2.8 Voltage Follower Amplifiers

Simple Bipolar Power Supply

2.5.4 Differential Amplifier:

Basically differential amplifier amplifies different between two input signals.
Assuming V1 and V2 are the two input, output voltage Vo = Ad (V1 V2) where Ad is
the differential amplifier gain. This implies that any signal, which is common to
both inputs, will have no effect on the output voltage.
V1

V0
V2

18
Figure 2.9 Schematic of Differential
Amplifier

However, a practical differential amplifier can not be describe by equation

stated above, because the output depends not only on differential signal (Vd), but
also upon the average level called the common mode signal.

Vc = (V1 + V2 )

Voltage gain = Ad

Vd

V0

Vc = Acm Vd
Acm = Vc
Vd

Common mode rejection ratio CMRR =

Ad
Acm

2.6.0 Transistors:
Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small
output current from a logic chip so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high
current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current
to a changing voltage. So the transistor is being used to amplify voltage.
A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current,
or fully off with no current) and as an amplifier. The amount of the current
amplification is called the current gain, symbol hfe.
19

2.6.1 Types of Transistor:

There are two types of standard transistor, NPN and PNP, with different circuit
symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semi-conductor material used to make
the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest
type to make from silicon.

C
B

C
B

NPN

E
PNP

Figure 2.10 Transistor Circuit

Symbols

2.6.2 Darlington Pair:

This is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain.

20
Figure 2.11 Darlington Pair

Figure 2.12 Transistor leads for Some Common Case Styles.

Here the collector is shorted to collector in order to prevent heating.
In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect
transistors, which are usually referred to as FETS. These have different circuit
symbols and properties, but detail on this may not be included here.

2.6.3 Connecting a Transistor:

Transistor has three leads, which must be connected the correct way round.
Adequate care must be taken with this because a wrongly connected transistor
may be damaged instantly when you switch on. Some transistor orientations are
cleared from the PCB or strip board layout diagram, otherwise you will to refer to a
suppliers catalogue to identify the leads. Figure 2.12 below show the leads for
some of the most common case styles.
B

T018

T092A

T039

T092B

T092C

Views are from below with the leads towards you.

21
C is the Metal Case Itself T03
E

Fig. 2.12 Leads for some most common case styles

2.6.4 Soldering a Transistor:

Heat when soldering so if you are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sink
clipped to the lead between the joint and the transistor body can damage
transistor. A standard crocodile clip can be used as a temporary heat sink.

2.6.4 Heat Sinks:

Waste heat is produced in transistors due to the current flowing through
them. Heat sinks are needed for power transistors because they pass large
currents. If you find that a transistor is becoming too hot to touch it certainly
needs a heat sink. The heat sink helps to dissipate (remove) the heat by
+

transferring it to the surrounding air.

P
2.7.0 MOS FET
N

22
-

Fig. 2.13 MOSFET symbol

The full spelling of MOS FET is metal oxide semiconductor field effect
transistor. It is the structure that stacked up metal, oxide and semiconductor.
There are NPN types and PNP type as the semiconductor part type is called P
channel. An oxide film is put to the semiconductor of NPN or PNP and metal is
put onto it as the gate. In case of NPN, the part of N is a source pole and a drain
pole. In case of PNP, the parts of P are the poles.

Drain
MetalTransistor
Oxidean
controls

Semiconductor
Drain However, in case
output
current by the input current.

of FET, it controls an output current by input voltage (electric field). The input
current doesnt flow. To handle an MOS FET, it needs an attention. Because the
N

oxidation insulation film is thin, this film

D is easy to destroy in the high voltage of
the static electricity and
so on.
P

Gate

Gate

G
S

23
Source

N channel 1 FET

Source

P channel 1 FET

Fig. 2.14 MOSFET structure

2.7.1 The Operation Principle of P-N Junction Diode:
First of all, I will explain about the operation principle of P-N junction diode
simply.
The N-type semiconductor has Electrons (Negative) and the P-type
semiconductor has Electron holes (Positive).

When the positive voltage to the side of p-type and the negative voltage to the
side of N-type applied respectively, the electron in N-type is pulled with the
positive voltage on the side of P-type and the electron flows through to the P-type
beyond the boundary of the semiconductor. Also the hole in P-type is pulled with

24

the negative voltage on the side of N-type and the hole flows through to the N-type.
In this way, the electric current flows through the semiconductor.
As the opposite case, when the positive voltage to N-type and the negative
voltage to P-type are applied respectively, the electron in N-type is pulled with the
positive voltage on the side of N-type and the hole in the P-type is pulled with the
negative voltage on the side of P-type. In this case, the electron in the
semiconductor doesnt move through the boundary and the electric current
doesnt flow.

2.7.2 The Operation Principle of MOSFET:

The semiconductor part of MOS FET consists of NPN or PNP. So, when not
applying voltage to the gate, the electric current doesnt flow between drain and
source.
When positive voltage is applied to the gate of the N-channel MOS FET, the
electrons of N-channel of source and drain are attracted to the gate and go
into the P-channel semiconductor among both. With the move of these electrons,
it becomes the condition like spans bridges for electrons between drain and
source. The voltage to apply to the gate controls the size of this bridge.
D
D
N

Open
OR
Same as S
S

25

Fig. 2.15 mosfet operation

In case of P-channel MOS FET, the voltage is opposite but does similar
operation. When negative voltage is applied to the gate of P-channel MOS FET, the
holes of P-channel of source and drain are attracted to the gate and go into the Nchannel semiconductor among bith. With the move of these holes, a bridge for
holes is spanned and the electric current flows between drain and source.
D
D
P
G
G

Open
OR
N

Same as S

P
Fig. 2.16 Holes and electron movement.
26

Because there is an oxide film between gate and semiconductor, the electric
current doesnt flow through the gate. An electric current flow between drain and
source is controlled only with the voltage when is applied to the gate.
+

S
S
G

Fig. 2.17 principle of operation in mosfet.

2.7.3 The Operating Principle of C-MOS FET:

C-MOS FET is the abbreviation of complementary MOS FET. C-MOS FET is
the circuit which combined a P-channel MOSFET and a N-channel MOSFET.
When the input is an L level, the P-MOS FET becomes ON condition and when the

27

input is H level, the P-MOS FET becomes ON condition. At the C-MOS FET
circuit, the N-MOS FET and the P-MOS FET do the operation that is always
opposite.

The important characteristic of this circuit is that the comparatively big

current can be controlled. When the input becomes an L level, the output is
Connected with the power supply by the P-MOS FET and becomes H level. Also,
When the input becomes H level, the output is connected with the grounding by
the N-Mos FET and becomes an L level. Phase of the input and the output is
opposite.
The drain current of MOS FET is cut off even if the gate voltage doesnt
become 0 V. It may depend on the kind of the FET but a drain current is cut off
when the gate voltage is lower than 1V or 2V. So, in case of C-MOS circuit, P-MOS
FET and N-MOS FET and N-MOS FET dont become ON condition at the same
time.

2.7.4 Choosing a MOSFET:

In choosing a mosfet is better we first examine mosfet parameters that
determines factors to be considered.
(i)

On resistance Rds (ON) is the resistance between the source and

drain terminals when the MOSFET is turned fully on.

28

(ii)

Maximum drain current Id(max) is the maximum current that the

MOSFET can stand passing from drain to source. It is largely
determined by the package and Rds (on).

(iii) Power dissipation (Pd) this is the maximum power handling capability of
the MOSFET, which depends largely on the type of package it is in.

(iv) Linear derating factor is how much the maximum power dissipation
parameter above must be reduced by per 00, as the temperature rises
above 250C.
(v)

Avalanche energy (EA) is how much energy the MOSFET can withstand
under avalanche conditions. Avalanche occurs when the maximum
drain-to-source voltage is exceeded and current rush through the
MOSFET. This does not cause permanent damage as long as the energy
(power x time) in the avalanche does not exceed the maximum.

(vi) Peak diode recovery dv/dt is how fast the intrinsic diode can go from the
off state (reverse biased) to the on state (conducting). It depends on how
much voltage was across it before it turned on. Hence the time taken, t=
(reverse voltage / peak diode recovery).
(vii) Drain-to-source breakdown voltage Vdss is the maximum voltage that
can be placed from drain to source when the MOSFET is turned off.
29

(viii) Thermal resistance Ojc this is the function of the heat sink.
(ix) Gate threshold voltage Vas(th) is the maximum voltage required between
the gate and source terminals to turn the MOSFET on. It will need more
than this to turn it fully on.
(x)

Forward transconductance gfs; as the gate-source voltage is increased,

when the MOSFET is just starting to turn on, it has a fairly linear
relationship between Vgs and drain current. This parameter is simply
((Id/Vgs) in this linear section.

(xi) Input capacitance Ciss is the humped capacitance between the gate
terminal and the drain terminals. The capacitance to the drain is the
most important.

2.7.5 Power and Heat:

The power that the MOSFET will have to contend with is one of the major
deciding factors. The power dissipated in a MOSFET is the voltage across it times
the current going through it. Even though it is switching large amounts of power,
this should be fairly small because either the voltage across it is very small (switch
is closed MOSFET is on), or the current going through it is very small (switch is
open-MOSFET is off). The voltage across the MOSFET when it is on will be the
30

resistance of the MOSFET, Rds (on) times the current going through it. This
resistance, Rds (on), for good power MOSFETs will be less than 0.02ohms. The
then the power dissipated in the MOSFET is
P

ia2 Rds on

Another source of power dissipation in MOSFET occurs when the MOSFET is

switching between states. For a short period of time, the MOSFET is half on and
half off. However, the MOSFET is only dissipating this for the short period of time
that the MOSFET is switching between states. Any power dissipate above 1 watt
requires that the MOSFET is mounted on a heat sink. Power MOSFETs comes in
a variety of packages, but normally have a metal tab, which is placed against the
heat sink, and used to conduct heat away from the MOSFET semiconductor.

2.8.0 MOSFET Driver:

To turn a power MOSFET on, the gate must be set to a voltage at least 10volts
greater than the source terminal (about 4volts for logic level MOSFETs). This is
comfortably above the Vgs (th) parameter. On feature of power MOSFETs is that
they have a large stray capacitance between the gate and the other terminals,
Ciss. The effect of this is that when the pulse to the gate terminals arrives, it
must first charge this capacitance up before the gate voltage can reach the 10volts
required. The gate terminals then effectively do take current. Therefore the
31

circuit that drives the gate terminal should be capable of supplying a reasonable
current so the stray capacitance can be charge up as quickly as possible. The
best way to do this is to use a dedicated MOSFET driver chip. Often you will see a
low value resistor between the MOSFET driver gate terminals. This is to dampen
down any ringing oscillations caused by the lead inductance and gate capacitance
which otherwise exceed the maximum voltage allowed on the gate terminal. It also
slows down the rate at which the MOSFET turns on and this can be useful it the
intrinsic diodes in the MOSFET do not turn on fast enough.

2.8.1 Paralleling MOSFETs:

Mosfets can be placed in parallel to improve the current handling capability.
Simply join the gate, source and drain terminals together. Any number of
MOSFETs can be parallel up. But note that the gate capacitance adds up as you
parallel more MOSFETs, and eventually the MOSFET driver will not be able to
drive them.

2.9.0 Capacitor and Capacitance:

A capacitor consists of two conductive electrodes or plates, separated by an
insulator. The capacitors capacitance is a measure of the amount of charge (Q)
stored on each plate for a given potential difference or voltage (v) which appears
between the plates.
32

Charge
Plate Area

+
-

Electric
Field E

Fig.2.18Plate Separation d

The capacitance is proportional to the surface area of the conducting plate

and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. It is also
proportional to the permittivity of the dielectric (that is, non-conducting)
substance that separates the plates.

Impedance:
The ratio of the phase voltage to the phase current is called the impedance
of a capacitor and is given by:

33

Zc

Where

-J
2 fc

Xc

-JXc

I
is the capacitive reactance,
WC

2 f is the angular frequency

frequency

capacitance in farads, and

-1 is the imaginary unit.

Hence

Xc

1
.
2c

1
.
Xc2c

This implies that for a specific frequency (e.g. 50Hz). The capacitance (from
impedance) and the capacitor value is specific. This relation helps generating
frequency.

2.10.0 Transformer
A transformer is a device for stepping down, stepping up or isolating AC
voltage or signals.

34

Transformer Symbol
Isolation Transformer

Step Down Transformer

Step Up Transformer

Vpri = Vsec

Vpri > Vsec

Vpri < Vsec

Primary
Coil

Primary
Coil

Primary
Coil

Secondary
Coil

Secondary
Coil

Secondary
Coil

Fig. 2.19 Schematic Symbol

Transformer type Symbol

Europen
Transformer
Symbol

Primary
Coil

Secondary
Coil

Iron
Transformer

Primary
Coil

Secondary
Coil

Ferrite Core
Transformer

Primary
Coil

Tuned Slug Ferrite

Core Transformer

Secondary Primary
Coil
Coil

Secondary
Coil

Fig. 2.20 Types of transformer symbol

2.10.1 Transformer Theory:
A transformer usually consists of 1 primary coil and 1 or more secondary
coils wound around a common metallic core (iron for low frequency, and ferrite for
high frequency). Some very high frequency transformers are air cored only. A
transformer works by inducing a voltage from the primary coil to the secondary
coil. When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary coil, and alternating
magnetic field is created around this coil since it acts as an electromagnet. Since
the secondary coil is in the alternating magnetic field, a voltage on the secondary

35

coil depends on several factors: the ratio of primary to secondary turns (often just
called the turns ratio), the core material, the driving frequency and coupling.
The most important utility of transformers is to convert voltages. With AC
(which is supplied by the electricity grid), the voltage is converted several times
between the large electrical generators and your house. At this point is usually
around 120V AC or 240 V AC depending on where you live. When you plug in an
electrical appliance, it may require a different voltage or voltages to operate, these
appliances will usually use a transformer to convert) To obtain several voltages,
transformers can either have several secondary with different winding ratios or a
single tapped secondary (output wires are connected to several places along the
secondary coil, allowing the number of turns to be selected).

2.10.2 Magnetic Shunt:

Shunts can be used to limit current or regulate voltage. This regulation is
accomplished by inserting a ferrous magnetic shunt into the transformer core,
such that the magnetic flux from the primary winding has an alternate (although
High impedance) path around the secondary winding. As the current draw on the
transformer secondary winding increases, more primary magnetic flux diverts
through the magnetic shunt. Selecting different materials with suitable
saturation characteristics it is possible to make transformers with a range of
regulation functions.

36

Transformer Types
Multitap

Isolated Secondaries
Secondary
Coil

Primary
Coil

Secondary
Coil

Primary
Coil

Secondary
Coil

Fig. 2.21Type of Transformer:

2.10.3 Autotransformer
Another type of transformer is known as the autotransformer.

Primary
Coil
Secondary
Coil

Fig.2.22 Autotransformer
It consists of a single tapped primary where the center tap is common to both
primary and secondary (not isolated). Some of the turns on the coil are used
variable autotransformer is known as a variac. A variac is a single coil with a
turn: secondary turns to be altered easily.
37

2.10.4 Current Transformer:

Yet another type of transformer is the current transformer. Central to all of
the AC power transducers is the measurement of current. This is accomplished
using a current transformer (CT), a Donut (toroidal) shaped core through which

is threaded the wire whose current is to be measured. Current transformers are

designed to produce either an alternating current or alternating voltage
proportional to the current being measured.

2.10.5 Ferroresonant Transformer:

These transformers use a tank circuit composed of a high-voltage resonant
winding and a capacitor to produce a nearly constant average output with a
varying input. The Ferro resonant approach is attractive due to its lack of active
components, relying on the square loop saturation characteristics of the tank
circuit to absorb variations in average input voltage. The Ferro resonant action is
a flux limiter rather than a voltage regulator, but with a fixed supply frequency it
can maintain an almost constant average output voltage even as the input voltage
varies widely.
Ferroresonanat transformers output either non-sinusoidal (CVN type
transformers) or sinusoidal wave shapes (CVS type transformers).

38

2.10.6 Potential Transformer:

Potential transformer are used by the electrical industry for smaller power
applications and. They are a step-down transformer and range in wattage. This
is a common Westinghouse 1500VA 12,000V transformer.

2.10.7 Properties of A Transformer:

Transformers have many properties due to construction. The ideal
transformer is lossless, but the losses in a transformer will be elaborated later as
well.
Here we have a simplistic model of our idealized transformer. N1 and N2 are
the number of turns for each winding, e1 and e2 are the voltages in the windings,

and O is the flux.

1

3
+

+
N1

N2

4
39

Fig. 2.23 Model of idealized transformer.

With a load attached to the secondary we now see the currents h and h.

i1

V1

1
+

i2

+
N1

N2

Load V2

40

Fig. 2.24 Idealized transformer with load in the secondary.

Primary induced E.M.F.

e2 = N d
2
dt

d
e1 = N
1 dt

Proportionality of the Transformer

is the transformation Radio.

, And secondary induced E.M.F

e1

e2

N1

N2

= a, where a

v1 1 = V22

Voltage and current relationship

Changing Flux relationship =

m sin wt, where w = 2 which is the

angular frequency in radians/second, f is the source frequency, t is the time at

which the measurement takes place, and m is the magnetizing Flux density.

Load Impedances

V
Z2 = 1

= 1

V1

= 1 Z
1

I2

a2

I1

a2

Induced Primary E.M.F. e1

N1wm costwt,

1
And the R.M.S. value E1 =

N1 m

41

<0 =

4.44N1 m <0o

2.10.8 Realistic Models

So now that the basics are taken care of, we must consider the losses in the
transformer as well as its reactive components.
R1

V1

jX1

jXc2

Ip

I1

+
jXm

Rc

E1

Ic

N1

N2

E2

Im

I2

Fig. 2.25 Transformer realistic model

We will consider the Source-side of the circuit the Low Side, and the Loadside as the High Side. Primary and secondary could also be used as reference s,
but there is some confusion when dealing with these designations because each is
not very specific.
The losses in the system will vary greatly as you will see in the worked
example. This is why a Wattmeter must be used to determine the actual working
parameters of the transformer.

The Low side current

The High side current

IL =
IH =

P
VL
P
VH

42

Excitation current

= c + m, which is the current in the

transformer under no-load condition, and is the sum of the core loss current c
and the magnetizing current m.

2.10.9 Open Circuit Parameters

The additional subscripts o.c. designates the open circuit parameters of the
transformer under test.

Core loss resistance

Power Factor P.F.

Rc1 =

1
Ic

V10.c.2 = VL0.c.2
Po.c.
Po.c

= cos-1 P = cos-1 P.o.c.

V1IL
VLo.c. ILo.c.
= cos< , And

The core current loss

Core loss resistance

I = IL.o.c. sin<

Xm1 =

1
___

Jm

2.10.10 Short Circuit Parameters:

43

VL0.c.
____
I

The additional subscripts s.c. designate the short circuit parameters of the

Ps.c.

transformer under test.

Equivalent winding resistance

R1 = ___
=
I1s.c.2
Ps.c.

jX1 =

Leakage Reactance

Ps.c.

_____
IL.s.c.2

R1

Is.c.
Equivalent secondary winding resistance

Equivalent secondary leakage resistance

R2 = a 2 R1
jX2 = a2 jX1

2.10.11 Referring Loads and Sources:

To fully understand the source, load, and loss, we must introduce a
reference to which our values are referred. This enables the engineer to analyze
the load as one equivalent transformed circuit.
R1
jX
p

Rc2

jXc2

I1

+
Rc

V1

Z1

iX +
E1
m1
-

44

+
E2
-

V2
-

Fig. 2.26 Equivalent circuit referred to primary

R1

jX

I1

jX

Rc

c2

2
+

Rc

V1

iX

m1

+
E1
-

Z1

+
E2
-

Fig. 2.27 Equivalent circuit referred to Secondary

2.10.12 Referred to Primary Parameters

1 =

N1

R2 =

N2

N1

R2

jX2 =

N2

V1 = V2 = N1 V2 2 = N1 E2 I1
N2

N1

jX2

N2
= 2 = N1 2

N2

N2

2.10.13 Referred
= to Secondary Parameter

1=

N2

R1 =

N2

R1 jX1=

N2

jX1

N1
N1
N1
V2 = V1 = N2 V1 1 = N2 E1 I2 = 1 = N1 1

Equivalent = R2 N+ R1
1

, Xequivalent
N
1

45

V2

= X2 + X1

N2

Chapter Three

Designs
3.0

Under this section we shall see to design of various unit of the project. The

main goal is to achieve a frequency of 50Hz and output power of 1.5KVA. In

achieving this, we shall design a transformer that can deliver output power of
1.8KVA. This is to give adequate tolerance for possible losses in various way in
the transformer. The frequency design is be achieved at frequency generation
stage.

3.1.0 Transformer Design:In designing the transformer we first look into the specifications of the
transformer and the required performance. Here we shall consider the KVA rating
of the transformer, the primary and secondary rated voltage, the rated frequency,
the insulation class, the possible losses and efficiency. In order to enhance the
design, the transformer design shall be split into magnetic circuit (core) and the
electrical circuit be the specific magnetic loading and specific electric loading.

3.1.1 Volt Per Turn Design

K S
46

Voltage per turn Vt

----- 3.1

Where S

constant of transformer

Where

output power expected in KVA.

4.44 103r

magnetic loading
Electric loading

IN

K variation thus.
0.35 K 0.45 for core type distribution transformer.
0.35 K 0.65 for core type power transformer.
10 K 1.25 for Shell type power transformer.
For the project work we shall design for shell type power transformer

3.1.2 Specific Magnetic Loading:

When the transformer is excited, by supplying voltage to the primary
windings, flux is produce in the core.
Since Vt

4.44m

Bm Ai (webers)

Where Bm = maximum flux density.

Ai = effective gross sectional area of core (m2)
This implies that
47

Vt = 4.44Bm Ai --------------- 3.2.

Thus by choosing flux density in the core it is possible to find the cross-sectional
area of the core for the flux m required. The flux density that can be used for
the core will depend on the type of material used, for the construction of core,
thickness of the lamination, etc. So that the core does not get over saturated and
the losses are within permissible limits. The specific magnetic loading is about
the maximum flux density (Bm ) of core. For power transformers it is from 15 17
tesla.

Stacking factor, Ks

i.e. Ks

effective cross sectional area Ai

Gross cross-sectional area ag.

Ai
Ag ---------------- 3.3

This stacking factor depicts the relative thickness or size of stack of a group
of lamination put together

0.96

Ks

0.97 cold rolled steel.

0.90

Ks

Stack height h

0.92 Hot rolled steel.

gross cross sectional Area Ag.

Width (w) of central knob

Ag
W

----------------------------- 3.4
48

Number of Laminations n

Stack height (h)

Lamination Sheet thickness (t)

h
-------------------------t
Thickness is usually between 0.35mm to 0.5mm.

3.5

3.1.3 Window Space Factor

This term specifies the amount of copper in the window area and it is the
ratio of the area occupied by the winding placed in the window to area of the
window. It is usually denoted as Kw. The type of construction, voltage and rating
of transformer varies with the window space factor. High voltage transformers
have small window space factor.

Kw

0.1 + 0.08log10

KVA
0.1

- 0.2log10 KV ------- 3.6

Equation 3.5. is the empherical formula for Kw calculation.

3.1.4 Specific Electric Loading

This is the current density used in selecting the size of the conductor in the
windings. It should be such that the winding can carry the current safety and not
overheat. This depends on the type of cooling.
Current density

Current in conductor (A)

----- 3.7
Cross sectional area (mm2) Ai

49

S
A

3.1.5 Design of Windings

When the rating of the transformer are known, the voltage on the high
voltage side low voltage side i.e. V1 and V2
Current in H.V. winding

Ii

Current in L.V. windings

KVA
vI

I2

Amps. . 3.8

KVA
V2

Amps 3.9

Choosing the current density J amps/mm2 the cross section of the

conductor can be determined. For this project work the transformer specifications
are:

Transformer rating

1.8KVA (for tolerant of 200VA)

Frequency ---------------------- 50Hz

Number of phase -------------- Single
Type ---------------------------- Shell
Primary Voltage --------------- 12V
Secondary Voltage ------------- 220V.
50

Cooling medium --------------- Natural air.

3.1.6 Calculating for Power.

P is the active power, P = IV cos ----------------------------3.10.
But IV = S = Apparent power (VA)
And cos is lagging power factor.
Therefore P = S cos O (for a power factor of 0.9)
P = 1800 x 0.9 = 1.620 KVA

3.1.7 Core design

K

Voltage per turn (Et)

KVA

Where
S

power rating in (KVA)

constant which ranges from 1.0 to 1.2

For shell type single-phase transformer.

Taking
Et

K =
=

1.0
1.

1.5
=

1.22 V/turn

3.1.8 Net Core Area Ai

Recall that Et = 4.44Bm Ai
Where = frequency
51

Bm

magnetic flux density

Ai

Not core area.

Ai

Et
4.44Bm , for Bm =

Ai

1.34
.
4.44 x 50 x 1.4 x 10-6

1.4T

4311.45mm2

=
3.1.9 Magnetic flux m
m

Bm

1.4. x 4311.45 x 10-6

=

Ai

6.036 x 10-3wb

3.1.10 Window Area (Aw)

Aw

S 103
2.22Bm Ai kw J

where J is the current density.

Finding Kw we have that.

Kw

0.1 + 0.08log10 (KVA/0.1) 0.2 log10 (KV)

Kw

0.1 + 0.8log10 (1.8/0.1) 0.2log10 (220 x 10-3)

Kw

2.305

52

Using current density (J) of 3A/mm2

Aw

1.8 x 103
.
2.22 x 50 x1.4 x 4311.45 x 2.305 x 3 x 10-6

Aw

1800
4.633

Aw

388.52mm2

Lxw

But Aw

We say L

Therefore

Aw
W

3W

3W2

Aw
3
388.523

3W

11.38m

34.14m

53

Fig. 3.1 lamination sheet.

3.1.11 Stack height h

h=

Ai = 4311.45 = 378.86mm
w 11.38

3.1.12 Number of Lamination n

n = 378.86 = 757.72
0.5

3.1.13 Number of turns

For the primary turns N1

N1

V1
Et

220
0.22

800.79 turns.

For the secondary turns N2 = V2 N1 = 12 x 800 = 43.6 turns

V1
220

3.1.14 Winding calculations

Primary current

KVA rating =
V1

1800
220
= 8.18A

Secondary current

= N1. i2 = N2. i1 =
i2 = 4.7A

54

800 x i2 = 43.6 x 8.18

3.1.15 Conductor size

Current density (J)

current
Area

Cross sectional area

3A/mm2

I
J

For the primary circuit of 8.18A

2. 73mm2

8.18 =
3

d2

1.86mm

4 x 2.73

(AWG. 13 )

For secondary current of 4.7A.

A

4.7A =
3

1.566mm2

4 x 1.566

1.450 (AWG. 15)

3.2.0 Multivibrator Design:

For high current multivibrator Resistance is between 100k 400K so for
this purpose we choose 200k.
The frequency of oscillation for the multivibrator can be find from
55

where

1
1.4Rc

Since T = 0.7Rc . 3.11

200K

The required frequency =

Hence 1.4RCF

50hertz

(Time for complete pulse (cycle is 1.4RC

1
1.4Rf

.. 3.12

1
200 x 103 x 50.4Rf

So we choose C 1

For high current required use R1

Capacitor

470K.

0.1 x 106

0.1f

See Appendix 7 & 8 for BC 107 Parameter.

Choice of Mosfet

For the work required and current handling Capacity Drain Current for IRF244 is
50A.
So we choose n-channel mosfet IRF244.

56

3.3.0

Wire Gauge Tables

American Wire Gauge (AWG) sizes may be determined by measuring the

diameter of the conductor (the bare wire) with the insulation removed. Refer to
the Wire gauge Diameter Table for dimensions. When choosing wire gauge, the
distance the wire must run and the amperage it will be expected to carry must be
determined first. Refer to the Wire gauge Selection Table. Note that you can
always use thicker wire (lower gauge number) than is recommended.

Table 3.1 Metric- to AWG conversion

METRIC-TO-AWG CONVERSTION TABLE

Metric Size
mm2

AWG Size

0.5

20

0.8

18

1.0

16

2.0

14
57

3.0

12

5.0

10

8.0

13.0

19.0

32.0

52.0

Table 3.2 Wire gauge diameter

WIRE GAUGE DIAMETER TABLE

American Wire Gauge

20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
5
4
3

Wire Diameter in Inches

0.03196118
0.040303
0.0508214
0.064084
0.08080810
0.10189
0.128496
0.16202
0.18194
0.20431
0.22942
58

2
1
0
00

0.25763
0.2893
0.32486
0.3648

Table 3.3 American wire gauge in millimeter

Conversion Table American Wire Gauge mm. mm2

AWG No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Diam. mm
7,350
6,540
5,830
5,190
4,620
4,110
3,670
3,260
2,910
2,590
2,300
2,050
1,830
1,630
1,450

Area mm2
42,400
33,600
26,700
21,200
16,800
13,300
10,600
8,350
6,620
5,270
4,150
3,310
2,630
2,080
1,650

AWG No
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

3.4.0 Complete circuit diagram

R1 = R4 = 4.7k.
59

Diam. mm
1,290
1,150
1,024
0,912
0,812
0,723
0,644
0,573
0,511
0,455
0,405
0,361
0,321
0,286
0,255

Area mm2
1,3100
1,0400
0,8230
0,6530
0,5190
0,4120
0,3250
0,2590
0,2050
0,1630
0,1280
0,1020
0,0804
0,0646
0,0503

R2 = R3 = 200k :

Q1 = Q2 = BC 107 :

C1 = C2 = 0.1uf

Q3 = Q4 = Q5 = Q6 = IRFZ44

60

Chapter Four

Construction, Testing and Result.

4.1

Construction:
At the design stage component availability and cost were put into

consideration. The material for constructing the casing was source around in
Warri. These materials can be found anywhere in the country (Nigeria). A factor
considered in constructing involves portability, attractiveness, space for heat
dissipation and maintainability.

4.2

Fabrication of Circuit Board:

61

The entire unit was constructed from the block diagram in chapter one.
Each block was built first on a breadboard and tested before been transferred to
the Vero-board for permanent soldering. After final soldering the entire unit was
tested to ensure that no component was improperly connected, bridged or having
dry joint.

4.3

Packaging:
The inverter unit was packed into the casing, with appropriate heat sink

and connector for easy connection of 12V battery. A metallic casing was used
which

met strength, durability and heat condition requirement. The complete

diagram of the inverter casing is a shown below in figure 4.1.

ON
Net
Space
For
Ventilation

AC

Output

Output Indicator
OFF
Switch

Battery
Input

From View

62

Figure 4. 1. Casing and Dimension

Rear View

4.4

Testing
At the construction or circuit build-up stage various testing were carried out

for transistor, mosfet, diode, capacitor and transformer. Will like to explain some
of them here.

4.5

Testing a MOSFET
This testing procedure is for use with a digital multimeter in the diode test-

range with a minimum of 3.3volt d.u.t. (diode-under-test). If the multi-meter is

less than this it will not do the test.
Connect the source of the Mosfet to the meters negative (-) lead.

63
G

Figure 4.2 A MOSFET

1.

Hold the mosfet by the case or the tab but dont touch the metal parts of the
probes with any of the other mosfets terminals until needed. Do not allow a
MOSFET to come in contact with your clothes, plastic or plastic products,
because of the high static voltages it can generate.

2.

First touch the meter positive lead onto the MOSFETs Gate

3.

Now move the positive still connected to the drain, you should get a low
reacting. The meter has now charged the MOSFETs intenal capacitance on
the gate up and the device is turned on.

4.

With the meter positive still connected to the drain, touch a finger between
source and gate (and drain, if you like, it does not matter at this stage). The
gate will be discharged through your finger and the meter reading should go
high, indicating a non-conductive device.
The above test actually does the testing of the cut off voltage making it
conduct such as simple test is not 100% - but is useful and in most cases
adequate.
64

4.6

Testing a Bipolar Transistor:

Transistor can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit.

It you suspect that a transistor may be damaged there are two easy ways to test it.
Testing with a multimeter or testing in a simple switching circuit. For this project
the first was used.
In testing with a multimeter. Use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery,
Resistor and LED) to check each pair of leads for conduction. Set a digital
multimeter to diode test and an analogue multimeter to a low resistance range.
Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total).
C

B
B

E
Fig. 4.3 Transistor.
E

The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one
way only

The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one
way only

65

The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way. The diagram in
figure 4.3. Shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes
are reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.

4.7

Transformer Testing:
After transformer winding lamp test was conducted on the transformer to

ensure its performance. The secondary i.e. 220V side was connected to the 220v
main while the primary side (12V side) was connected to 60w bulb. The bulb
Could not glow signify that the transformer is okay. If the bulb glows the
transformer should be check for rewinding. The connection is as shown below.

Primary
12V
Side

220V
main

Fig . 4.4: Transformer dark lamp test.

4.8

Test Result
66

Table 4.1 Test result when using a fully charged 60A.h car battery.
S/N
1
2
3
4
4.9

Input Voltage (d.c.)

12
12
12
12

Type of Load

Duration

Output

(Hour)
3
2
6
5

Voltage
218
218
218
218

Laptop
14 T.V.
Tape Recorder
Lighting (60W)

Engineering Bill of Quantities and Evaluation.

Table 4.2 Engineering bill of quantities and evaluation.

S/Nos Component Descriptions

Unit Price

Quantity

Amount

250

1000

1.

IRF244 FET

2.

BC 107 Transistor

50

100

Resistors

10

60

4.

Capacitor

20

40

5.

Switch

100

100

6.

Transformer Winding

1400

1400

7.

Jumper Wires

100

100

8.

Power Indicator

50

50

9.

Vero Board

50

50

10.

Output Socket

50

100

11.

Casing

500

500
3,450

67

Chapter Five

Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1

Conclusion;
In the course of this work a lot of challenges were encountered, but

the prominent ones shall be mentioned here.

First, in the choice of component for frequency generation stage. It was
discovered that usage of IC CD 4047 B/80 is good, but to get a very good one from
the market was a challenge. If after loosing of two of these i.c. that it was resulted
to use multivibrator circuit built by bipolar transistors. Also the driver stage
needs enough current to drive it, but at the same time due to high input
resistance of FET some challenges were encountered. Finally, the transformer
design statements were found not sufficient in winding the required transformer.

The inverter circuit was finally constructed and tested with a 12v car
battery. The hours to which is can last largely depends on the battery.
Using the inverter to power a 21 colour television carried out test and the

68

performance was seen to be all right. So the inverter circuit satisfactorily

inverts 12v d.c. to 220v a.c.

5.2 Recommendation:
Having achieved so far, the following are recommended;
(i)

A better protective circuitry to protect the MOSFET should be

included.

(ii)

Small battery cell that have ability of the chemical car battery in order
to improve on portability.

69

References

1.

Edeko F. O.

Lecture note on Electronic Circuits. (Unpublished) 2005

2.

Theraja B. L. Thearaja A. K. Electrical Technology (3rd Edition)

Construction and Development Company Ltd 1995.

3.

Igbinovia S. O.

Electrical Machinery Series Design and Application of

Electrical Machines. Nobel Publishers 1st Edition, 2000.

4.

Horowitz C.

Electronic Principles and Applications 5th Edition.

Purple Sequence Publisher New York 2001.

5.

Horowitz P. and Winfield H. The art of Electronics Second Edition Press

Syndicate Publishers.

70

6.

Bogart T. F.

Electronic Devices and Circuit Cambridge Publisher 2nd

Edition (1984) London.

71