ORDER NUMBER EA-356

AIRCRAFT
RADIO SYSTEMS
By J. Powell
BA, C Eng, MIERE,
GradIMA

Reprinted in India by

HIMALAYAN BOOKS

New Delhi-110001.
Distributed by:
The English Book Store
The Aviation People

17-L, Connaught Circus New Delhi-110001 (India)

Contents

Preface
1

Historical, technical and legal context 1

Introduction 1
Historical background 1
Basic principles of radio 2
Digital systems 8
Categorization of airborne radio equipments
Navigation nomenclature 13
Interference 13
Maintenance 17
Regulating and advisory bodies 18

Communication systems 20
Introduction 20
V.h.f. communications 20
H.f. communications 29
Selcal 35
Audio integrating systems - (Intercom) 37
Testing and trouble shooting the audio
systems 43
Automatic direction finding 45
Introduction 45
Basic principles 45
Simplified block diagram operation 4.7
Block diagram detail 47
Sources of system error 49
Installation 52
Controls and operation 54
Characteristics 55
Calibration and testing on the ramp 55
V.h.f. omnidirectional range (VOR) 58
Introduction 58
Basic principles
58
Doppler VOR (DVOR)
Aircraft installation

61
63

Controls and operation

65
Simplified block diagram operation 65
Characteristics 65
Ramp testing
67

Instrument landing system

Introduction 69
Basic principles
69

69

Simplified block diagram operation

Installation 74
Controls and operation
76
Characteristics 77
Ramp testing
78
6

Hyperbolic navigation systems

General principles

79

79

Omega navigation system

7

72

Distance measuring equipment

Introduction 105
Basic principles
105
X and Y channel arrangements

83
105

110

The link with v.h.f. navigation

110
Installation 111
Controls and operation
112
Simplified block diagram operation
112
Range measuring and mode control
114
8
ATC transponder
121
Introduction 121
Basic principles
121
Installation 126
Controls and operation
127
128
Simplified block diagram operation
Block diagram details 128
Characteristics 135
Ramp testing
136
9 Weather avoidance 139
Introduction 139
Weather radar
140
Choice of characteristics and features 140
Installation 146
Controls
147
Operation
148

Block diagram operation

Scanner stabilization

150

Aircraft installation delay

Interface 198

157

Other applications for weather radar 160

Weather radar characteristics 162
Maintenance and testing 164
Ryan storniscope 168
Appendix
Factors affecting weather radar performance 169
10

11

197

Multiple installations 199

Characteristics '00
Ramp testing and maintenance 20 0
Appendix
Sinusoidal frequency modulation 201
12 Area navigation 202
Development of airspace organization 202
Generalized area navigation system 202
VOR/DME based RNAV. principles 204
Bendix nav. computer programmer NP-2041A 206
King KDE 566 210
Standardization 213
Testing RNAV 215

Doppler navigation 172

Introduction 172
Doppler effect 173
Antenna mechanization 174
Doppler spectrum 175 `
Beam geometry 175
Transmitter frequency 176
Modulation 177
Over-water errors 178
Navigation calculations 179
Block diagram operation 179
Installation 182
Controls and operation 184
Characteristics 185
Testing 185
Appendix
Relationships between aircraft and earth
co-ordinates 186
The Doppler shifts for a four-beam Janus
configuration 187
The aircraft velocity in earth co-ordinates
expressed in terms of Doppler shifts 188

13 Current and future developments 216

Introduction 216
The state of the art 216
The flight deck 217
Multi-systern packages 219
Data link 219
ADSEL/DABS 2 21
Satcom and satnav 223
Microwave landing system 2 24
Microwave aircraft digital guidance equipment 225
Collision avoidance 2 29
The current generation of ARINC
characteristics 230
Concluding remarks 231

Radio altimeter 189

Recommended reading 232

Introduction 189
Basic principles
189
Factors affecting performance
Block diagram operation
Monitoring and self-test
Indicat or 196
Installation 196

191
192
195

Glossary

234

Exercises

246

Index 252

Preface

The cockpit and equipment racks of modern aircraft,

large and small, are becoming filled with ever more
sophisticated systems . This book attempts to describe
a certain class of such systems, namely those which
rely for their operation on electromagnetic radiation.
The subject matter is complex and wide-ranging,
hence not all aspects can be covered in one volume
In deciding where the treatment should be light or
perhaps non-existent, I have asked myself two
questions: (1) which aspects can most usefully be
covered in a book; and ( 2 ) at which group of people
involved in aviation should a book covering such
aspects be aimed?
The answer to (1) must be `describe the theory'.
One can, and indeed must, read or be told about how
to operate the systems: how to navigate using the
systems; how to solder, crimp and change items;
how to use test equipment, etc. but proficiency is
impossible without practice. On the other hand
gaining an understanding of how a particular system
works is more of a mental exercise which can be
guided in a book such as this. This is not to say that
more practical matters are neglected, since it would
not help one's understanding of the theory of
operation not to see, at least in words and pictures,
how a particular system is controlled, presents its
information, reacts to the environment, etc.
Having decided the main line of attack the more
difficult question of depth of treatment must be
answered: in other words which group should be
satisfied'.' Pilots need a superficial knowledge of how
all the systems work; maintenance engineers on the
ramp and in the hangar a more detailed knowledge;
workshop engineers must have an understanding of
the circuitry for perhaps a limited range of
equipments; while designers should have the greatest
depth of knowledge of a11. It is virtually impossible
to draw dividing lines, but it is hoped that if enough
theory is given to satisfy the aircraft radio
maintenance engineer then the book might be useful
to all groups mentioned.
The depth of treatment varies, it being impossible
to cover everything, or indeed anything, to the depth
I would have liked. In particular few details of

circuitry are given since I feel most readers will be

more interested in the operation of the system as a
whole. Nevertheless, some circuits are given purely as
examples. Should the reader need circuit knowledge,
the equipment maintenance manual is the best place
to find it, assuming he knows the system and he has
a basic knowledge of electronics.
The state of the art of the equipment described is
also varied. 1 did not see the point of describing only
equipment containing microprocessors, since the vast
majority of systems in service do not use them as yet.
On the other hand if the life of this book is not to be
too severely restricted, the latest techniques must be
described. Within the pages that follow, analogue,
analogue/digital, hardwired digital and programmable
digital equipments all find a place.
As stated previously, the book is aimed primarily
at the maintenance engineer. However, I hope several
groups might be interested. This poses problems
concerning the background knowledge required. For
what I hope is a fairly substantial part of the book,
any reasonably intelligent technically minded person
with a basic knowledge of mathematics and a
familiarity with aircraft will have no difficulty that
two or perhaps three readings will not overcome.
There are parts, however, where some knowledge of
electronics, radio theory or more sophisticated
mathematics is needed. In three chapters where the
going gets a bit tough, I have relegated the offending
material to an appendix. Some background material
is covered in Chapter 1, in particular, basic radio
theory and a discussion of digital systems in so far as
coding and computers are concerned.
If you are one of the few people who plough all
the way through the Preface to a book, you may have
decided by now that this book is concerned with
theory and little else. That this is not so may be clear
if I outline briefly the contents of each chapter. An
introduction saying a few words about the history
and function of the system is followed by a fairly
thorough coverage of the basic principles. In some
chapters the next item is a discussion of the
installation, i.e. the units, how they are
interconnected, which other systems they interface

with and any special considerations such as cooling,

positioning, type of antennas and feeders, etc. This,
together with a description of controls and operation,
puts some practical meat on to the bare bones of the
theory which continues with a consideration of the
block diagram operation. In certain chapters the
order: installation - controls and operation -- block
diagram, is reversed where 1 thought it was perhaps to
the reader's disadvantage to break up the flow of the
more theoretical aspects. A brief look at
characteristics, in practically all cases based on
ARINC publications, and -testing / maintenance
concludes each chapter.
Most chapters deal with one system; none of them
is exclusively military. The exceptions are, in reverse
order, Chapter 13 where I look at the current scene
and review some systems we should see in the next
few years; Chapter 12 which is a bringing-together
of some of the previously covered systems: Chapter 6
covering Omega, Decca Navigator and Loran C';
Chapter 2 which covers both radio and non -radio
communications; and Chapter 1 where some chosen
background material is given.
I should point out that this is not a textbook in
the sense that everything is examinable in accordance
with some syllabus. The reader will take from the
book however big a chunk he desires, depend ing on
his background knowledge, his profession, the
examinations he hopes to take and, of course, his
inclination. Some will have, or end up with, an
understanding of all that is included herein, in which
case I hope the book may be seen as a source of
reference.

Acknowledgements
A number of manufacturers have given valuable
assistance including the supplying of material and
granting permission to reproduce data and
illustrations. Without the generosity of the following,
this book would have been of very limited use.
Bendix Avionics Division
Boeing Commercial Aero plane Company
British Aerospace

Communications Components Corporation

The Decca Navigator Company Limited
Field Tech Limited
Hazeltine Corporation
IFR Electronics Inc
King Radio Corporation
Litton Systems International Inc., Aero Products
Division

Marconi avionics Limited

MEL Equipment Company Limited
RCA Limited
Rockwell-Collins (UK) Limited
Ryan Storm scope
Tel-Instrument Electronics Corporation (TIC)
Although I am grateful to all the above, I must reserve
a special word of thanks to Mr Wayne Brown of
Bendix, Mr. A. E. Crawford of King and Mr. T. C.
Wood of RCA, who arranged for the dispatch of
several expensive and heavy maintenance manuals in
reply to my request for information. These manuals,
and indeed all other information received, were used
in the preparation of this book and continue to be
used in the training of students at Brunel Technical
College, Bristol, England.
I also wish to thank all my colleagues at Br unel
who have helped, often unwittingly, in conversation.
In particular my thanks go to John Stokes, Clive
Stratton and Peter Kemp for proof-reading some of
the chapters and also Leighton Fletcher for helping
with the illustrations. May I add that, although I
received technical assistance from the above, any
mistakes which remain are obviously mine. I would
be grateful to any reader who might take the trouble
to point out any errors.
Finally, my thanks to Pauline Rickards, whose
fingers must be sore from typing; to the publishers
who displayed great patience as the deadline for the
submission of the typescript came and went; and,
most of all, to my wife Pat and son Adam who
showed even more patience and understanding than
Pitmans.
Bristol,
England

J. P.

I Historical, technical and legal

context
Introduction

This book deals with airborne systems that depend for

their operation on the generation and detection of
that intangible discovery the radio wave. Such systems
split naturally into two parts: communications and
navigation. The former provide two-way radio
contact between air and ground, while the latter
enables an aircraft to be flown safely from A to B
along a prescribed route with a landing safely
executed at B.
An understanding of such systems requires a
working knowledge of basic electronics, radio,
computer systems and other topics. A book of this
length cannot provide all that is necessary but it was
thought that some readers might appreciate a review
of selected background material. This is the objective
of Chapter 1. It may be that on consulting the list of
contents, the reader will decide to omit all or part of
this chapter. On the other hand, some readers may
decide that more basic information is needed, in
which case, the list of recommended books will help
point the way to sources of such material.
Historical Background

In 1864 James Clerk Maxwell, Professor of

Experimental Physics at Cambridge, proved
mathematically that any electrical disturbance co uld
produce an effect at a considerable distance from the
point at which it occurred. He predicted that
electromagnetic (e.m.) energy would travel outward
from a source as waves moving at the speed of light.
In 1888 Hertz, a German physicist, demonstrated
,hat Maxwell's theory was correct, at least over
distances within the confines of a laboratory. It was
left to the Italian physicist Marconi to generate e.m.
waves and detect them at a remote receiver, as he did
by bridging the Atlantic in 1901. Other notable
landmarks in the development of radio include:
1897

First commercial company incorporated for

the manufacture of radio apparatus: the

1936

Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company

Limited (England), later the Marconi
Wireless Telegraph Company Limited.
Fleming's (British) discovery of the
thermionic valve - the diode.
First patent for a radar-like system to a
German engineer, Hulsmeyer. Workable but
not accepted.
De Forest's (American) invention of an
amplifying thermionic valve (triode).
Direction-finding properties of radio waves
investigated.
Discovery of the oscillating properties of
De Forest's valve.
The first workable pulse radar.

1939

Invention of the magnetron in Britain.

1904
1904
1906
1911
1912

1948

Invention of the transistor by Bardeen,

Brattain and Shockley (Bell Telephone
Laboratories, USA).
To bring us up to date, in the early 1970s the first
microprocessor appeared from Intel (USA) leading
directly to present-day microcomputers.
Paralleling the progress of radio was the second of
the three great developments of the twentieth
century, i.e. powered flight in heavier-than-air
machines. (The other two developments referred to
are electronics and applications of nuclear physics;
the reader is concerned with two out of three.)
There can be few people who have not heard of
Wilbur and Orville Wright; who designed and built the
first successful powered aircraft which Orville flew
for the first time at 10.35 on 17 December 1903,
making a landing without damage after 12 seconds
airborne. Since then landmarks in aviation, with
particular reference to civil aviation, include:
1907
First fatality: Lieut. T. E. Selfridge, a
passenger in a Wright Fly er.
1909
Bleriot (French) flies the English Channel.
1912
Sikorsky (Russian) builds first multi-engined
(four), passenger (sixteen) aircraft.
1914
World War I. The years 1914-18 saw

advances in performance and a vast increase

in
number of aircraft, engines and pilots.
1919
Sustained daily scheduled flights begin in
Europe.
1928
Whittle (British) publishes thesis on
jet
engine.
1929
First blind landing by Doolittle (American)
using only aircraft instruments.
1937
Flying-boat service inaugurated from Britain
to the Far East. Britain to Australia took 8
days in 1938, either by KLM or Imperial
Airways.
1939
First
jet -powered flight by He 178 (German).
1939
Inaugural air-mail service between Britain
1939
World War II. The years 1939 -45 saw the
growth of world-wide military air transport
services, and the USA established as the
postwar leader in civil aviation.
1944
1945

1952
1953
1954

1958

1965
1970
1970

International Civil Aviation

Organisation
formed at Chicago conference.
American Overseas Airlines operate
scheduled flights over North Atlantic with
landplane (DC 4).
First civil jet aircraft, the Comet 1, goes into
service with BOAC.
First civil turboprop aircraft, the Viscount,
goes into service with BEA.
Previously unknown problem of metal
fatigue discovered in Comet 1. Withdrawn.
1956
Tu 104 first jet aircraft to
commence
sustained commercial service.
First transatlantic jet service by BOAC with
the Comet 4. (PAA's Boeing 707 -120
follows three weeks later.)
First short -haul jet to enter service, the
BAC 1 -11.
Boeing 747 introduced; the first of the
Jumbo Jets.
First civil aircraft supersonic flights,
Concorde and the Tu 144.

From the time of the Wright brothers to the present

day, the non -commercial side of civil aviation, known
as general aviation (business and private) has grown
with less spectacular firsts than its big brother, so that
now by far the largest number of civil aircraft are in
this category.
It was inevitable that the new toys of radio and
aircraft should be married early on in their history.
Later the vast increase in air traffic made it essential
that radio aids, in both communication and
navigation, should be made full use of, to cope safely

with the crowded skies. In 1910 the first

transmission of e.m. waves from air to ground
occurred. Speech was conveyed to an aircraft flying
near Brook lands Airfield (England) by means of an
e.m. wave in 1916. By the 1920s, radio was being
used for aircraft navigation by employing rudimentary
direction -finding techniques (Chapter 3). The
introduction of four -course low-frequency range
equipment in 1929 provided the pilot with directional
guidance without the need for a direction -finder on
the aircraft.
Steady progress was made up to 1939, but it was

world War I I which gave the impetus to airborne

Radio innovations . Apart fr om very high frequency
(v.h.f.) communications, introduced during the war,
a number of radio navigation aids saw the first light of
day in the period since 1939. These systems are
described in the following chapters.

Basic Principles of Radio

Radiation of Electromagnetic (e.m.) Waves and
Antennas
If a wire is fed with an alternating current, some of
the power will be radiated into space. A similar wire
parallel to and remote from the first will intercept
some of the radiated power and as a consequence an
alternating current will be induced, so that using an
appropriate detector, the characteristics of the
original current may be measured. This is the basis
of all radio systems.
The above involves a transfer of energy from one
point to another by means of an e.m. wave. The wave
consists of two oscillating fields mutually
perpendicular t o each other and to the direction of
propagation. The electric field (E) will be parallel to
the wire from which the wave was transmitted, while
the magnetic field (H) will be at right angles. A
'snapshot' of such a wave is shown in Fig. 1.1 where
the distance shown between successive peaks is
known as the wavelength.
The velocity and wavelength of an e.m. wave are

Fig. 1.1

An electromagnetic wave

directly related through the frequency of the

alternating current generating the wave. The law is:
c= Y`f
where
:
c is the speed of light (3 X 108 m/s).
Y` is the wavelength in metres.
f is the frequency in Hertz (cycles/s).
A radiating wire is most efficient when its length
is equal to half a wavelength. Thus for a frequency
of 100 MHz the wire should be
(3 X 10 8)/(2 X 100 X 106 ) = 1.5m long, in which
case it is known as a dipole. In practice many
airborne radio systems do not make use of dipole
antennas since their size is prohibitively large, except
at very high frequencies, and the radiation patt ern is
not suited to applications where energy needs to be
transmitted in or received from a certain direction.
A close relative of the dipole is the unipole
antenna which is a X/4 length conductor mounted
vertically on the metal fuselage which acts as a
ground plane in which a reflection of the unipole is
`seen' to form a dipole. Thus a v.h.f. communication
(comm.) unipole would be less than 60 cm long
(centre frequency of the band is 127 MHz). Two
unipoles are sometimes mounted back to back on
the vertical stabilizer to function as a dipole antenna
for use with VOR (Chapter 4) or ILS (Chapter 5).
At frequencies in the region of 2-30 MHz (h.f.) a
dipole would be between 5 and 75 m.
Since the
dimensions of aircraft fall, roughly speaking, within
this range of lengths it is possible to use the aircraft
as the radiating or receiving element. A notch or
slot cut in a suitable part of the airframe (e.g. base
of vertical stabilizer) has a large oscillating voltage
applied across it, so driving current through the
fuselage which in turn radiates. The notch/airframe
load must be `tuned' to the correct frequency for
efficient transmission. Without tuning, little energy
would be radiated and a large standing wave would
be set up on the connector feeding the notch. This
is due to the interaction of incident and reflected
energy to and from the antenna. An alternative type
of antenna for this band of frequencies is a long
length of wire similarly tuned, i.e. with variable
reactive components.
F or frequencies within the range 10-100 kHz the
maximum dimension of even large aircraft is only a
small fraction of a wavelength. At these frequencies
capacitive type antennas maybe used. One plate of
the capacitor is the airframe; the other a horizont al
tube, vertical blade or a mesh (sometimes a solid
plate). The aircraft causes the field to become

intensified over a limited region near its surface.

The resulting comparatively strong oscillating E field
between the capacitor's plates causes a current to
flow in twin feeder or coaxial cable connected across
the antenna. The airborne systems operating in the
relevant frequency band are the receive-only systems
covered in Chapter 6 (Omega, Decca and Loran C).
Although ADF (Chapter 3) receives sign als in the
band of frequencies immediately above those
considered in this paragraph, one of its two antennas
(sense) utilizes the principles discussed.
An alternative to the capacitance antenna is the
loop antenna which is basically a loop of wire which
cuts the H field component of the e.m. wave. The
field is intensified by use of a ferrite core on which
several turns are wound. Use of two loops mounted
at right angles provides a means of ascertaining the
direction of arrival (ambiguous) of an e.m. wave.
Such antennas are used for ADF (loop) and may
also be used for Omega.
At frequencies above, say, 3000 MHz the
properties of waveguides may be used. A waveguide is
a hollow metal tube, usually of rectangular cross section, along which an e.m. w ave can propagate. If
the end of a waveguide is left open some energy will
be radiated. To improve the efficiency, the walls of the
waveguide are flared out, so providing matching to
free space and hence little or no reflected energy back
down the guide. Such an antenna is called a horn and
may be used for radio altimeters (Chapter 11).
Associated with the wave propagated along a
waveguide are wall currents which flow in specific
directions. A slot, about 1 em in length, cut in the
waveguide so as to interrupt the current flow will act
as a radiator. If several slots are cut the energy from
them will combine several wavelengths from the
antenna to form a directional beam. The direction
depends on the spacing of the slots. Such antennas
may be used for Doppler radar (Chapter 10) and
weather radar (Chapter 9).
The theory of some of the more esoteric antennas
used on aircraft is a little sketchy and design is
finalized, if not based, on empirical data. However
the antenna is designed, it will only s ee service if it
performs its function of transmitting and/or receiving
e.m. waves in and/or from required directions. The
directivity of an antenna, or the lack of directivity,
is most clearly defined by means of a polar diagram.
If we take a transmitting antenna and plot points of
equal field strength (one value only) we have such a
diagram. The same antenna used for receiving would,
of course, have the same polar diagram. If the
diagram is a circle centred on the antenna, as would
be the case if the plot were in the plane perpendicular

to a dipole, then the antenna is said to be

omnidirectional in the plane in which the
measurements were made. A practical antenna
cannot be omnidirectional in all planes, i.e. in three
dimensions.

Table 1.3 Approximate bands for

microwave frequencies
Letter
designation

Frequency
range (GHz)

The e.m. Spectrum and Propagation

1-3

As can be seen from the previous paragraph, the

frequency of the radio wave is an important
consideration when considering antenna design.
In addition the behavior of the wave as it propagates
through the earth's atmosphere is also very much
dependent on the frequency.
However, before considering propagation, we will
place radio waves in the spectrum of all e.m. waves
(Table 1.1). In doing so we see that the range of
frequencies we are concerned with is small when

S
C
X
K
Q

2-5-4

Table 1.1 The electro

magnetic spectrum
Hz Region
10 25

Cosmic rays

10 21

Gamma rays

10' 9
X rays
10 17 Ultraviolet
10 15 Visible
10 14 Infra-red
10 11
Radio waves

Abbreviation Frequency

Very low frequency

Low frequency
Medium frequency
High frequency
Very high frequency
Ultrahigh frequency
Superhigh frequency
Extremely high frequency

VIE
l.f.
m.f.
h.f.
v.h.f.
u.h.f.
s.h.f.
e.h.f.

3-30
30-300
300-3000
3-30
30-300
300-3000
3-30

Frequency band

Omega
Decca
Loran C
ADF
h.f. comm.
Marker
ILS (Localizer)
VOR
v.h.f. comm.

10-14 kHz

Weather radar (X)

Doppler (K)

Radio frequency categorization

Name

System

ILS (Glideslope)
DME
SSR
Radio altimeter
Weather radar (C)
Doppler (X)

compared with the complete spectrum. By general

agreement radio frequencies are categorized as in
Table 1.2. There is less agreement about the letter
designations used for the higher radio frequencies
which are tabulated with approximate frequency
ranges in Table 1.3. Finally, Table 1.4 lists the
frequencies used for airborne radio systems by
international agreement.
Table 1.2

3.5-7.5
6-12.5
12.5 -40
33-50
Table 1.4 Airborne radio frequency utilization
(exact frequencies given in relevant chapters)

kHz
kHz
kHz
MHz
MHz
MHz
GHz

30-300 GHz

70-130 kHz
2-25kHz
100
MHz
75 MHz
108-112 MHz
108-118 MHz
118-136 MHz
320-340 MHz
960-1215 MHz
1030 and 1090 MHz
4.2-4.4 GHz

In free space, all radio waves travel in straight

lines
at the speed of light. Such a mode of propagation is
known as the space wave. In addition, two other
modes of propagation are used with airborne radio
equipment: the ground wave and the sky wave.
A fourth mode known as tropospheric scatter is used
only for fixed ground stations since elaborate and
expensive. equipment must be used at both ends of
the link due to the poor transmission efficiency.
The ground wave follows the surface of the earth
partly because of diffraction, a phenomenon
associated with all wave motion which causes the
wave to bend around any obstacle it passes. In
addition, the wave H field cuts the earth's surface,
so causing currents to flow. The required power for
these currents must come from the wave, thus a flow

of energy from wave to earth takes place causing

bending and attenuation. The attenuation is a
limiting factor on the range of frequencies which can
be used. The higher the frequency the greater the
rate of change of field strength, so more attenuation
is experienced in maintaining the higher currents.
Ground waves are used for v.l.f. and l.f. systems.
Radio waves striking the ionosphere (a s et of
ionized layers lying between 50 and 500 km above
the earth's surface) are refracted by an amount
depending on the frequency of the incident wave.
Under favourable circumstances the wave will return
to the earth. The distance between the transmit ter
and point of return (one hop) is known as the skip
distance. Multiple hops may occur giving a very long
range. Above about 30 MHz there is no sky wave
since insufficient refraction occurs. Sky wave
propagation is useful for h.f. comm. but can caus e
problems with l.f. and m.f. navigation aids since the
sky wave and ground wave may combine at the
receiver in such a way as to cause fading, false
direction of arrival or false propagation time
measurements. At v.l.f. the ionosphere reflects,
rather than refracts, with little loss; thus v.l.f.
navigation aids of extremely long range may be used.
Above 30 MHz, space waves, sometimes called
line of sight waves, are utilized. From about 100 MHz
to 3 GHz the transmission path is highly predictable
and reliable, and little atmospheric attenuation occurs.
Above 3 GHz attenuation and scattering occur, which
become limiting factors above about 10 GHz. The
fact that space waves travel in a straight line at a
known speed and, furthermore, are reflected from
certain objects (including thunderstorms and aircraft)
makes the detection and determination of range and
bearing of such objects possible.
Modulation
Being able to receive a remotely transmitted e.m.
wave and measure its characteristics is not in itself of
much use. To form a useful link, information must

be superimposed on the e.m. wave carrier. There are

several ways in which the wave can carry information
and all of them involve varying some characteristic of
the carrier (amplitude or frequency modulation) or
interrupting the carrier (pulse modulation).
The simplest, and earliest, way in which a radio
wave is made to carry information is by use of Morse
Code. Switching the transmitter on for a short
time -interval, corresponding to a dot, o r a longer
time -interval, corresponding to a dash, enables a
message to be transmitted. Figure 1.2 illustrates the
transmission of SOS, the time-intervals shown being
typical.
In radar the information which must be
superimposed is simply the time of t ransmission.
This can easily be achieved by switching on the
transmitter for a very short time to produce a pulse
of e.m. energy.
When transmitting complex information, such as
speech, we effectively have the problem of
transmitting an extremely large number of sine waves.
Since the effect of each modulating sine wave on the
radio frequency (r.f.) carrier is similar, we need only
consider a single sine wave modulating frequency.
The characteristics of the modulating signal which
must be transmitted are the frequency and amplitude.
Figure 1.3 shows three ways in which a pulsed carrier
may be modulated by a sine wave while Figs 1.4 and
1.5 show amplitude and frequency modulation of a
continuous wave (c.w.) carrier.
Both amplitude modulated (a.m.) and frequency
modulated (f.m.) carriers are commonly used for
airborne systems. With a.m. the amplitude of the
carrier represents the amplitude of the modulating
signal, while the rate of change of amplitude
represents the frequency. With f.m. the amplitude
and frequency of the modulating signal is represented
by the frequency deviation and rate of change of
frequency of the carrier respectively.
Both a.m. and f.m. waves have informative
parameters associated with them. With a.m. if the

, Time
y

x = 0 .1s, y=0 -3 s
Fig. 1.2 Morse code:
SOS

Radio frequency
transmitted

--,
Time

Fig. 1.4 Amplitude modulation

Fig. 1.3 Pulse modulation - from top to bottom:

unmodulated carrier, modulating waveform, pulse amplitude
modulation, pulse width modulation and pulse position
modulation

carrier amplitude is Y"e and the modulating signal

amplitude is V, then the modulation factor is
Vt,-,, , 'C.
This fraction can be expressed as a
percentage, in which case it is known as the
percentage modulation or depth of modulation
(note sometimes depth of modulation is quoted as
a decimal fraction). Figure 1.4 shows 100 per cent
modulation. With f.m. the parameter is the deviation
ratio which is given by the ratio of maximum
frequency deviation (fd max) to maximum
modulating frequency (fm max). The ratio fd/fr is
called the modulation index and will only be constant
and equal to the deviation ratio if the modulating
signal is fixed in frequency and amplitude.
In Figs 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5 the modulated signal is
illustrated in the time domain, i.e. with time along
the horizontal axis. It is instructive to look at the
frequency domain representations as shown in

Fig. 1.5 Frequency modulation

Fig. 1.6 where a single sine wave of frequency fT , is

the modulating signal. It can be seen that several
frequencies are present, so giving rise to the idea of
bandwidth of a radio information channel. The most
significant difference between a.m. and f.m. is that
the a.m. bandwidth is finite whereas, in theory, the
f.m. bandwidth is infinite. In practice the f.m.
bandwidth is regarded as finite, being limited by those
extreme sidebands which are regarded as significant,
say 10 per cent of amplitude of the largest frequency

frequency component is 3000 Hz we need only

transmit a sample of the instantaneous amplitude
every 1/6000 = 0-000 166 7 s (= 166.7 ps). Thus we
have time-intervals during which we can transmit
samples of other signals. The number of signals we
can time multiplex on one carrier link depends on
the duration and frequency of each sample. The
shorter the sample duration the greater the bandwidth
required, confirming the statement made earlier that
more information requires wider bandwidths.
Carrier (fc )
Fig. 1.6 Amplitude modulation and frequency modulation
spectrums for a pure sine wave modulating signal of

Basic Receivers and Transmitters

A much simplified transmitter block diagram is shown
in Fig. 1.7. This could be called the all-purpose block
diagram since it could easily be converted to a

frequency fm

component. The relative amplitudes of the carrier

and sidebands depend on modulation factor and
index for a.m. and f.m. respectively.
In any information link there is a relationship
between the bandwidth and the amount of
information which can be carried, hence high-fidelity
stereo broadcasts occupy a wide bandwidth. It is
not, however, desirable to have as wide a bandwidth
as possible since (a) the number of available channels
is reduced; (b) electrical noise, generated at all
frequencies by electrical equipment and components,
and by atmospheric effects, will be present in the
receiver channel at a greater power level the wider
the bandwidth. The signal power to noise power
ratio is a limiting factor in the performance of
receiving equipment.
The information in an a.m. wave is repeated in
each of the sidebands; the carrier frequency
component has no information content. As a
consequence, at the expense of more complicated
transmitting and receiving equipment, we need
transmit only one sideband. Single sideband (s.s.b.)
transmission conserves bandwidth, with attendant
advantages, and is found in airborne h.f. comm.
systems.
Multiplexing
In most airborne systems the required number of
channels is obtained by allocating non-overlapping
bands of frequencies centred on specified discrete
carriers. This is known as frequency multiplexing.
Shannon's sampling theory shows that a sine wave
of frequency fm can be completely specified by a
series of samples spaced at no more than 1/2 f m
second (s). To transmit speech where the highest

Fig. 1.7

Basic radio transmitter block diagram

low-level a.m. transmitter, (little if any amplification

of the carrier before modulation), a high-level a.m.
transmitter (little if any amplification of the carrier
after modulation), an s.s.b. transmitter (introduce a
band pass filter after the modulator) or an f.m.
transmitter (introduce a frequency multiplifer after
the modulator). Obviously in the above examples the
circuit details would vary greatly, particularly in the
modulators, and if detailed block diagrams were
drawn the underlying similarities in structure would
be less obvious.
The most basic type of receiver is a tuned radio
frequency (t.r.f.), however this is rarely used. The
standard receiver configuration is the superheterodyne
(superhet) shown in Fig. 1.8. The desired r.f. is
converted to a constant intermediate frequency by
taking the difference frequency after mixing the
received signal with the output from a local oscillator
(Lo.). Since most of the amplification and selectivity
is provided by constant frequency and bandwidth
stages the design problem is eased.
In both the transmitter and the receiver, r.f.
oscillators have to b e tuned to different frequencies.
In the transmitter it is the m.o. (master oscillator),
while in the receiver it is the Lo. Modern practice is

Fig. 1.8 Basic superhetrodyne receiver block diagram

to usea frequencysynthesizerwith a singlecrystal to

providestability dnd accuracy.

In all of the abovethe logic may be reversed(positive

and negativelogic). Thus we can representa binary
digit (bit) by an electricalsignal,but if the number to
be representedis largerthan l, we must combinebits
into
someintelligiblecode.
DigitalSystems
Binary code hasbeenmentioned;this is simply
counting to the base2 rather than the basel0
Coding
(decimalcode) aswe do normally. Unfortunately,
Most of the airborne systemsin use are basically
binary numberssoon becomevery large,for example
analogue,i.e. they dealwith signalswhich represent
9 l r o = I 0 I I 0 I 1 2( t h e s u b s c r i p t s i n d i c a t i n g t h e
variousquantitiescontinuouslyand smoothly. For
=
examplein DME a very smallincreasein rangeresults base),so octal (base8 23) and hexadecimal
= 24) may be used. The machinemay still
(base
l6
in a correspondingincreasein time;we say time is an
dealwith a 1/0 situationbut the numbersaremore
analogueof distance. With a digital system,
when written down, for example
manageable
information is representedby a numberencodedin
91 ro = l33s = 5816. Note, in the examplesgiven,if
somesuitableway.
Sinceit is difficult to detectmany different voltage we split the binary number into groupsof three from
the right (leastsignificantbit, l.s.b.)we have
or current levelsonly two are used,and this leads
l , 0 l l , 0 1 1 2 = 1 , 3 , 3 s , i . e .e a c hg r o u pi s t h e b i n a r y
naturallyto expressingnumbersto the base2 (binary
code)wherethe only digits are 0 and l. It remainsto code for an octal digit. Similarly
=5,816.
defineelectronicrepresentations
r 1 0 1 ,l 0 l l 2
of 0 and I in an
and
hexadecimalcodesare usedin digital
Binary
unambiguousway. Various methodsare usedwith
code is usedfor the ATC
octal
computers,
(a) beingby far the most common,in the
(Chapter
8). The task of frequency
transponder
non-exhaustive
list which follows.
selectionis one which lendsitself to coding,and
amongseveralwhich havebeenused,the two most
- 0 commonarebinarycodeddecimal(b.c.d.)and two
(a) Voltagelevel
no voltage
- t from five (2/5). Both of thesecodesretain the
high voltage
= l decimaldigit 'flavour' of the number to be encoded
(b) Pulsepolarity
positive
= Q at the expenseof usingextra bits. To represent9l
negative
16
(c) Pulseposition
a time interval is split in we considerthe decimaldigits 9 and I separatelyto
two halves:
give:
= |
pulse in first half
9lro=1001 00016.9.6.,
pulsein secondhalf = 0
(d) Phasechange
at specified read time a
9l ro=10001 11000275
sinewave:
changesphase
Equivalentsfor all the codesmentionedare givenfor
=
(180"C)
|
numbers0 to l5 in Table 1.5.
decimal
.
doesnot change
It can be seenfrom the abovethat more bits than
= Q are absolutelynecessary
phase
are usedfor b.c.d. and2l5.

4. conversionfrom binarYto b.c.d.;

5 . b.c.d. fed to frequencysynthesizer;
6 . conversionfrom b.c.d. to specialcode;
7 . specialcode fed to readoutdevice.

Tabh 1.5 Variouscodeequivalents

Code

Base

1 0 2

8 1 6

0 0000 0 0
I 000r I I
2 0010 2 2
3 00ll 3 3
4 0100 4 4
5 0l0l 5 5
6 0 1 1 06 6
? 0lll 7 I
8 1000 l0 8
9 1 0 0 1I I 9
l0 l0l0 l2 A
ll l0ll l3 E
12 I 100 14 c
13 ll01 15 D
14 lll0 l6 E
15 llll l7 F

2ls

BCD

0001
0001
0001
0001
0001
0001

0000
0001
0010
001I
0100
0l0l
0l 10
0lll
1000
l00l
0000
0001
0010
00lt
0100
0101

11000
11000
11000
11000
11000
u000

0l001
l 1000
10100
0l 100
0 l0 l q
0 0 1l 0
00101
0001I
10010
10001
01001
11000
10100
01100
01010
00110

If the bits are transmitted serially, one after the other

in time down a line, then more time is neededfor the
of a number than would be neededif
transmission.
binary codewere used. If the bits are transmittedin
parallel,one bit per line, then more lines are needed.
This hasa certain advantagein that the redundancy
may be usedto detect transmissionerrors, for
e x a m p l eI 0 I I O c o u l d n o t b e a 2 / 5 c o d e a n d
I 0 I 0 could not be b.c.d.
Error checking can also be used with binary codes.
We will alwaysbe restrictedto a certainmaximum
numberof bits, one of which can be designateda
parity bit usedsolely for error detecting. Supposewe
had eightbits available,eachgroup bf eight-bitswould
be call-eda word of length 8 (commonly calleda
byte). Ttrefirst sevenbits of the word would be used
to encodethe decimal digit (0 to 127) while the
eighthwould be the parity bit. For odd parity we set
the parity bit to 0 or I so as to make the total
numberof onesin the word odd; similarly for even
parity. Thus61e= 00001l0l odd parity or
j
3,o oooot 100 evenparity. Error correcting(as
opposedto detecting)codesexist but do not find use
in airborneequiPmentasYet.
To considera practicalapplicationqf the above
Srpposea particular frequencyis selectedon a
control unit, we may havethe following sequenceof
events:
l. information from controller: 215 code',
2. conversionfrom2l5 to binary;
binary data;
3. microcomputerprocesses

So far we haveonly discussedthe coding of

numericaldata. The ISO (lnternationalStandards
Organisation)alphabetNo. 5 is a seven-bitword code
which can be usedto encodeupper and lower case
letters,punctuationmarks,decimaldigits and various
other charactersand control symbols' The full code
may be found in most of the latest ARINC
and will not be repeatedhere,however'
characteristics
examplesare A = I 0 0 0 0 0 I'
O I 0 0 10,etc. Aparitybitmaybeadded
n=i
to give a byte.
Wh"r. . limited numberof actualwords needto be
'distance','speed','heading',etc' special
encoded,e.g.
codesmay be designated'Suchcodesare describedin
AR INC specification 429'2 digital in fo rm ation
transfersystem(DITS) which is discussedin
Chapter13.
Microcomputers
The microprocessorhas brought powerful computers
on to aircraft to perform a number of functions,
includingthe solution of navigationequations,in a
more sophisticatedway than before' A
microcomputerconsistsof a microprocessorand
severalperipheralintegratedcircuits(chips),to help
the microprocessorperform its function'
There are four basicparts to computers,micro or
otherwise:memory, arithmeticlogic unit (ALU)'
control unit and the input/output unit (l/O)' In a
microcomputerthe ALU and control unit are usually
combinedon a singlechip, the microprocessoror
centralprocessingunit (CPU)' Figure l '9 illustratesa
basicsystem.
The memory containsboth instructionsand data
in the form of binary words' Memory is of two basic
types, ,ead only (ROM) and random access(RAM)'
The ROM doesnot rememberany previousstate
which may haveexisted;it merely definesa functional
relationshrpbetweenits input lines and its output
lines. The RAM could be termed readand write
memory; sincedata can be both readfrom memory
urd written into memory, i.e. its statemay change'
trnformation in RAM is usually lost when power is
switched off.
The ALU contains the necessarycircuitry to allow
it to carry out arithmeticoperations,such asaddition
and subtiaction,and logicalfunctions such as Boolean
algebraoperations(combinationsof NANDs and
NORsetc.).

f':

FA. t.9 Basicmicrocomputer

organization
The control unit providestiming instructionsand
from memory, on the data bus, to the control unit
synchronizationfor all other units. The control
whereit is decoded. The programcounter
signalscausethe other units to move data, manip_ulate automaticallyincrementsby one count, and after the
numbers,input and output information. All this
current instruction has been executedthe next
instructionis fetched. This basiccvcle of:
activity dependson a set of step-by-stepinstructions
(known as the program)which residein memory.
The l/O unit is the computer'sinterfacewith the
fetch
outsideworld.
decode
From Fig. 1.9 it can be seenthat the units are
increment
interconnectedby three main buses. A bus is several
execute
electricalconnectionsdedicatedto a particular task.
A unidirectionalbus allowsdata flow in one direction
only, unlike a bidirectionalbus where flow is two-way. is repeatedcontinuously. During the executionof an
instructiondata may have to be fetched from
ln a microcomputerwe usuallyhave:
memory, for exampleto add two numbersthe
instructionwill need to tell the CPU not only that an
l. address
bus: sixteenunidirectionallirfes;
additionoperationis necessary,
but the location.in
2. databus: eightor sixteenbidirectionallines;
3. control bus: the numberof linesvarieswith the the memory,of the numbersto be added.
The rate at which instructionsareexecuted
systemand may haveboth unidirectionaland
dependson the complexityof the instrtrctionand the
bidirectionallines.
frequencyof the systernclock. Eachpulsefrom the
.:
clock initiatesthe next actionof the system;several
To operate,eachstep-by-step
instructionmust be
actionsper instructionareneeded.Often the clock
fetched,in order,from memoryand executedby the
CPU. To keeptrack of the next stepin the program, circuitis on the CPU chip. the only external
a programcounter is usedwhich incremelts eachtime componentbeinga crystal.
The I/O data flows via logicalcircuits calledporrs.
an hstruction is fetched. Before an instruction can
be executed.it must be decodedin the CPU to
Theseports may be openedin a similar way to that in
determinehow it is to be accomplished.
which memory is addressed.In somesystemsthe I/O
On switch-on,the programcounter is set to the
ports are treated as if they were RAM - an address
first storedinstruction. The address(location) of this opensa particularport and data flows in or out of
first instruction is placedon the addressbus by the
that port dependingon whether a read or write signal
pro$am counter causingthe instruction to be fetched is present. A variety of chips are used for l/O, some
10

of whi_chare very basic; others (programmable ports)

more flexible.
The program which is resident in ROM is
srbdividedinto routines. Someroutineswill be
runningcontinuouslyunlessstopped;others may only
be called for when the need ariseJ. For example, a
navigationcomputer will continuously compute the
aircraft position by running the mainioufini (or
bop) which instructs the ALU as to which
calculationsmust be carried out using data available
in memory. This data must be updated periodically
by acceptinginformation from, siy, u ,"dio
navigationsensor. When data is available from the
extemalequipment,an interrupt sigral is generated
and fed to the microcomputer on an interiupt line.
Such a signalcausesthe computer to abandon the
main routine and commencea serviceroutine which
will supervisethe transfer of the new data into
rrrmory. After transfer the main routine will
rccommenceat the next step, rememberedby a CpU
register.
The topics discussedin the paragraphsabove can
all be classifiedashardware or softwaie. The
hardwareis the sum total of actual components
up the computer: chips,active and passive
T"king
discretecomponents,and interwiring. Software
comprises_programs,
proceduresand the languagesor
codesusedfor internal and external commu-nication.
Softwaredeterminesthe stateof the hardwarear any
particulartime. In an airbornecomputer both the
software and hardware are fixed Uy itre designer.
The operatordoesnot haveto program the computer
in the sensethat he must write a routine; however,
he plays his part in how the computer will function
b1,,for example,selectinga switChposition which
will causecertain data to be preseniedto him by the
computer,insertingatard (hardware),on which
codedinstructionsor data (software)havebeen
*Titten, into a cardreader,etc.
Examplesof the use of microcomputersare
coruideredin someof the chaptersto follow. These
applications,and the abovebrief discussion.should
givethe readera basicidea on how computerswork;
for detailsof circuitry and programminj consult the
readily availablespecialistliteriture.

CaGgorization of Airborne Radio

Eqripments
Frcqucy and Modulation
T* 9" techniquesinvolvedvary greatlywith the
r.f. andtypeof modulationused,itls ofien usefulto
crtegonze
equipmentasto the bandof frequencies
in

which it operates(seeTables1.2 and 1.3) and as

being pulsed, a.m. or f.m. From both the desigr and
maintenancepoint of view, the frequency at which
equipmentoperatesis perhapsmore important than
the modulation used, at least in so far ai the choice of
componentsand test equipmentis concerned.
The higher the frequency the greaterthe effect of
stray capacitanceand inductance, sigral transit time
and skin effect in conductors. In thi microwave
region(s.h.f. and the high end of u.h.f.) wavezuide
replacesco-axialcable,certainly above5 GHz] and
specialcomponentswhosedimensionsplay a critical
part in their operationareintroduced(klystrons,
magnetrons,etc.).
Analogue-Digital
Theseterms have alreadybeen mentioned and certain
aspectsof digital systemshavebeendiscussed.In
modern airborne systemsthe information in the radio
and intermediatefrequencystages,including the
'wireless'
r.f. link, is usually in analogueform (the
exception being secondarysurveillance rcdar (see
Chapter8), to be joined in future by microwave
gtail8 systems,data link and the replacementfor
SSR(seeChapter l3)). In addition Commonlyused
transducerssuch as synchros,potentiometers,
microphones,telephonesand speakersare all analogue
devices.Not all transducersarein the analogue
Tlegory, a shaft angleencoderused in encoding
altimetersis basicallyan analogueto digital converter.
With the exception of the above almost everything
.
elsein current equipmentis digital, whereas
previouslysystemswere all analogue.There is a
further subdivisionwithin digitaliquipment into
thoseusinga combinationof hardwareand software
(computer-controlled)and thoseusingonly hardware
(hardwiredlogic). The trend is towardsthl former.
Function
The two basic categorieswith regardto function are
communicationsand navigation. If navigationis
definedin its widest senseassafe,economicalpassage
from A to B via selectedpoints (waypoints) then
communicationssystemseould be consideredas
belongingto the navigationcategory. If, however,
communicationssystemsare regardedas those
systemscapableof transmittingspeechover radio or
wire links, and all other systemsas navigation,we iue
obeyinga sensibleconvention. The introduction of
data links will requiresomeamendmentto the
definition of communicationssystems,since
, non-navigationaldata will be transmittedbut not as a
speechpattern.
Navigationsystemsmay be subdividedinto radio

t1

category;
landing-aids
landingsystemsbelongto the
category
the
of
subdivisions
these
itfr*t?i',vpes of
in
will be considered Chapters
systems
lf nuuigution
ui9:
systems
r'ndlnc,
Position-fixing
111
"^.,.
S. f f uiO 5 respectively'
ffi; ;;rfieiiht-nndrng,
d and
the latter we nave
ntaine
For
self'co
into
d
environment-monitoring'
I ^"' u.'i" t,ft.i subtlivide
a]tim,etlrs
radio
dead
while
uses
former
systems'
The
-l.i-ghlri"olng
weatheravoidance
categorv andinstrument ilffi;;,i"t-tutta'

systemsconcemls
andnon'radio,but only the radio posit i on-t txmg
is
on
si
i
iv
d
;;;":'-A;;ih.i possiblesub

fi "* ; ;it

(@er4''l.j$*

(VOR/DME/RNAV/ILS)
SYSTEM
NAVIGATION
re{S80 IIITEGRATED

<-NAV & GS RECEIVER

\COI,IPUTER

navigationsystem
Fh. l.l0 KNS 80 integrated
CorP')
Radio
(JurtesY King

12

BOARD

reckoning to compute the aircraft's position while

the latter usesa variety of methods:rho'theta,
rho-rho, rho-rho-rho,theta-thetaand hyperbolic.
The Greeklettersp (rho) and 0 (theta) areusedto
representdistance(range)and angle(bearing)to a
fixed point of known location. The pilot can
determine(fix) his positionif he knows:
(a) p and 0 to one fixed Point:
(b) p to three distinct fixed Points;
(c) 0 to two distinct fixed Points.
A rho-rho systemgivesan ambiguousfix unlessthe
aircraft is at the midpoint of the line joining the two
stationsto which the rangeis known. With
hyperbolicsystemsposition-fixingis achievedby
measuringdifferencesin range;ambiguitymay be
avoidedby varioustechniques(Chapter6).
One item of navigationequipmentoverlapsthe
boundhriesbetweenthe different methodsof positionfixing, namelyOmega;this usesdeadreckoningin
conjunctionwith rho-rho, rho-rho'rhoor hyperbolic
methods. Two systems,VOR (Chapter4) andDME
(Chapter7) are usedtogetherto gfuea rho-thetafix.
With miniaturizationof circuitry, it is now possible
to houseseveralsystems,which were previously
physicallyseparate,into one box' It is still possible
to categorizeby function, but we must bearin mind
that the circuit implementationmay be intimately
connected.Suchan exampleis givenby the
King KNS 80 integratednavigationsystem(Fig. I ' l0)
VOR, DME and ILS (Chapters4,
which incorporates
7 and 5) aswell as areanavigationfacilities(Chapter
l2). Other equipmentmay grouptogethersystems
operatingwithin the sameband of frequenciessuch
asv.h.f.comm.and v.h.f.nav.(VOR and ILS).
Figure l.l I illustratesthe navigationsystemsin use
on a Boeing747 with a typical fit; different operators
may takeop different options. This diagramincludes
non-radio(mainly in the top half) aswell as radio
systems,and illustratesthe interrelationships
betweenthem especiallywith regardto display
(right-handside). A similardiagramfor the
communicationssystemsis includedin Chapter2
(Fig. 2.15). The largenumberof radionavigation
systems,someduplicatedor eventriplicated for
safety,presentthe problem of whereto position the
antennas.The solution for the Boeing747 is shown
i n F i g .1 . 1 2 .

NavigationNomenclature
Figure I .13 and Table I .6 definethe most commonly

usedterms in aircraft navigation. All of the quantities

defined,with the exceptionof heading,can be found
usingradio systems,or areinput by the pilot at some
stageof the flight, usually prior to take off.

Interference
The e.m. environment of an aircraft radio system is
suchthat it may suffer from interferingsignals-and/or
noise,man-madeor natural,ind causeinterference
itself to other systems.Interferencemay be either
radiatedor conducted.
As the aircraft fliei through the atmosphere,it
picks up electricalchargedue to frictional contact
with atmosphericparticles(precipitationstatic) and
alsowhile flying through cloud formations,within
which very strongelectricfieldsexist (electrostatic
induction). An unevendistribution of chargewill
causecurrentsto flow in the aircraft skin; possiblyin
the form of a spark,betweenparts of unequal
potential. Any sparkresultsin a wide band of
radiatedr.f. which will be picked up by radio systems
asnoiseand possiblymaskwantedsigrals. To avoid
this type ofinterference,a bondingsystemis used
comprisingnumerousmetal stripswhich presentvery
low iesistancelinks betweenall parts of the aircraft.
within the aitcraft,a
In addition to discharges
if a sufficiently
to
atmosphere
occur
dischargewill
largedifferencein potential exists. The discharge
cannotbe avoided,but in an attempt to keep the
activity as far from antennasas possible,static
dischaigersare fitted to the trailing edgeof the
mainplane,tailplaneand verticalstabilizerin order to
providean easypath for it. By providinga numberof
dischargepoints at eachdischargerthe voltageis kept
low. The bondingsystemcarriesthe largecurrents
involvedto thoseparts of the airframewherethe
are fitted. Lightningconductors,
static dischargers
such ason the insidesurfaceof the non-conducting
connectedto
noseradome,and lightningdischargers
the lead-inof wire antennasand somenotch
antennas,help conduct any strike to the bulk of the
airframe,so preventingdamageto equipment. A wire
path between
antennawill alsohavea high resistance
static
of
any
leakage
allow
to
airframe
and
the
it
build-up on the antenna.
enginc
Sparksoccur in d.c. motors and generators,
igrition systems,etc. Capacitorsareusedto provide
a low resistancer.f. path acrossbrushes,commutators
and contacts, a form of protection known as
nrppression.
Another form ofinterferenceis capacitiveand
inductive pick-up and cross-talkbetween adjacent

13

Wcathcr radar
systcm

instrurnant

Loran
indicetors
Radio rnag
indic6tors

dircctor in.

lbcrqr

lffic'_l

3yst. I

lbcacon ird.l

Fig. l.l I Boeing747: typical navigationsystemsfit

(courtesyBoeingComntrcial AeroplaneCo.)

cables. Pick-up is the term usedwhen the interfering

sourceis a.c.power (400 Hz in aircraft),while
cross-talkis interferencefrom a nearby
signal-carryingcable. The problem arisesout of the
capacitanceand mutual inductancewhich edsts
betweenthe cables.A pair of wiresmay be twisted
togetherto reduceboth types ofinterference- the
pick-up or cross-talkon adjacentloops,formed by
the twist, tendingto cancelout. An earthedmetallic
screenor shield will provide an effective reduction in
capacitiveinterferencebut low-frequency inductive
14

pick-up is not appreciably affected by the

non-magneticscreen. At high frequenciesskin effect
confines the magneticfields of co-axial cablesto their
cablesareboth screened
interior. Most signal-carrying
and twisted;some,whereintegrity is especially
important, e.g. radio altimeteroutput, may have
double screening.
The screenaround a wire must be earthedin order
to be effective. Howeverif both endsof the screen
are earthed,an earth loop may be formed sincethe
completecircuit through the screen,remoteearth

Wirthor ndu
Locrlizrr No.
Locrlizcr
No. 1 end tlo. 2

Loft tnd right AFT

nos. 9e8r door glidc
slopo tracl end capturr
antcnna sy3tams
Ccntor .furolegcJ
aqulpment cantcr

Low rmgc rrdio altimotrr

ADf loop No. 1

l{rrtrr
batcon
ADF loop
llo. 2
ADF srnse
entcnnaNo. 2

ADF rns.
antoma
t{o. 1

VORNo.1
VOR No. 2

Fig.l.l2 Boeing747..
typicalnavigation
systems
aerial
(courtesy
locations
BoeingCommercial
Aeroplane
Co.)
points and the airframe is of non-zero resistance. As a
consequence,
interferingsourcesmay causea
potential differenceto edst betweenthe endsof the
screen.The resultingcurrent flow and its associated
H field would causeinterferencein the inner
conductor. Earth loops are a particularproblem in
audio systemsand must be avoided.
The earth pointsfor screenedcablesand a.c.power
must be remote from one another. If a screenwereto
be connecteddirectly to an a.c. power earth,
conductedmainsinterferencemay result. Another
form of conductedinterferenceis cross-talkwhere a

number of signalcarryiqg wires are brought together,

e.g.audio signalsbeingfed to an interphoneamplifier.
Suitably designedpotential divider networkskeep
this conducted cross-talkto a minimum (Chapter 2).
Adequateseparationof antennasoperatingwithin
the samefrequencyband is necessary
to prevent
mutual interferenceby radiation. Frequency and
time domain filtering may be usedin helping to avoid
suchinterference,the former in c.w. systems,the
latter in pulsedsystems.Different polarization(E
field direction) will assistin preventing cross-coupling
betweenantennas.

15

,/
WPTO

\Mnd dircction
dnd velocatY

On tnck
\Mnd dircction
and velocity

Fit; l.l3 Navigationnomenclature(courtesyLitton Systems

lnternational lnc., Aero hoducts Division)

16

Navigation nomenclature - abbreviations electrical equipment will interfere with the magnetic
compass. Units are marked with their 'compasssafe
distance'
as appropriate but care should also be taken
Abbreviation
Meaning
with cables,particularlyfor d.c. power.
Table 1.6

HDG

TK

Heading - angle,measuredclockwise
betweenNorth and the direction in which
the aircraft is pointing,
Track - direction in which the aircraft is
moving.
Desired'Track- direction in which the pilot
wishesthe aircraft to move.
Drift Angle - anglebetweenhcadingand
track measuredto port (left) or starboard
(right).
Track Angle Error - angle bctween track
and desiredtrack, usually quoted as left or
rght.
Ground Speed - spdedof the aircraft in the
directionof the track.in the'plane' parallel
to the earth's surface(map speed). .
Comparewith air speedwhich is the speed
of the aircraft relative to the air mass
through which it is moving.
Position.
Waypoint - a significant point on the route
which may t c usedfor reporting to Air
Traffic Control, turning or landing.
Distanceto go from position to waypoint,
CrossTrack - the perpendiculardistance
from the aircraft to the line joining the two
waypoints betweenwhich the aircraft is
flying.
Estimated time of arrival

Maintenance

This is not the placeto go into greatdetail on this

important practicaltopic but somenotesof a general
DA
natureare in order to supplementthe notes included
in most of the following chapters.In practicethe
maintenanceengineerrelieson his training and
TAE
experienceand also regulations,schedulesand
procedureslaid down or approvedby national bodies
responsiblefor aviationin generaland safetyin
GS
particular.
The aircraft maintenanceenginber,of whatever
specialism,is responsiblefor regularinspectionsof
equipmentas laid down in the aircraft schedule.For
the radio engineeran inspection will consist of a
POS
thorough examination of all equipment comprising
WPT
the radio installationfor cracks,dents,chafing,dirt,
oil, grease,moisture,buming, arcing,brittleness,
breakage,corrosion,mechanicalbonding, freedomof
DIS
movement,springtension,etc" as applicable. In
XTK
carrying out specific tasks the engineershould look
for damageto parts of the airframeor its equipment
which are not directly his or her responsibility.
Vigilance is the key to flight safety.
ETA
Carrying out functional tests when called for in th0
schedule,or when a fault hasbeen reported,should
be done in accordancewith the procedurelaid down
Adjacent channel interference occurs when a
in the aircraft maintenancemanual. A word of
receiver'sbandwidth is not sufficiently narrow to
waming should be givenhere,sinceproceduresarenot
attenuateunwantedsigralscloseto the required
alwayswhat they shouldbe: often testingof certain
sigtal. Secondor imagechannelinterferencemay
aspectsof a system'sfunction are omitted and,
occurin superhetreceiverswhen an unwantedsigral
rarely, there m.aybe errors in the procedure.
separated
froin
the
required
sigrral
by
the
twice
A thorough knbwledge of the system is the best
{
intermediatefrequencyand lies on the oppositeside
guardagainstmistakesor omissionswhich, if noticed,
of the local oscillatorfrequency. A high intermediate strouldbe amendedthrough the proper channels.
frequency will help reduce secondchannel
Modern equipmentusuallyhassufficient built-in
interferencesince the image will be outside the r.f.
test equipment(BITE) and.monitoringcircuits to
bandwidth,the separationbeinggreater.
carry out a comprehensive
check of the system. With
Unfortunatelyfor a given Q factor, the bandwidth of
radio systems,however,specialportable test
the intermediate frequency amplifiers will be wide for equipmentmust be usedin addition to BITE in order
this solutionto the secondchannelproblem.
to be in a position to certify the system asserviceable.
Increasingchannelseparationis not really acceptable Test setsshouldbe capableof testingby radiationand
sincedemand for more channelsis forever rising.
of simulating the appropriate sigrals to test all
Somereceiversemploy two intermediatefrequencies functionsnot coveredby BITE.
producedby two mixer stagesand two local
The r.f. circuits,includingantennasand feeders,
oscillators;this can give good adjacent and second
are often neglectedwhen functional tests are carried
drannel rejection.
out. In particulartest set antennasshouldbe
Magrreticfields associatedwith electronic and
correctly positioned if a false impressionof the
DTK

receiversensitivityor power output is to be avoided.

Whenfault-firtdhg a completefunctional test
shouldbe carriedout as far as posible in order to
obtain a full list of symptoms. Naturally symptoms
suchasa smell of burning or no supply must call a
halt to the procedure. Fault-findingchartsin
maintenancemanualsare usefulbut there is no
substitutefor knowledgeof the system.
One shouldnot forget the possibleeffects of
non-radiosystemsand equipmentwhen investigating
reporteddefects.Poorbonding,brokenstatic
dischargers,
open circuit suppressioncapacitors,low
or inadequatelyfiltered d.c. supplies,low voltageor
lincorrectfrequencya.c. supplies,etc. will all give rise
\o symptomswhich will be reportedby the pilot as
radiodefects.
Sometimessymptomsare only presentwhen the
aircraft is airborneand the systemis subjectto
vibration,pressure
and temperaturechanges,
etc.
A functional test during engineruns will gc part way
to reproducingthe conditionsof flight.
One should mention the obvioushazardof loose
articles;so obviousthat many aircraft accidentshave
beencausedin the past by carelessness.
Tools and
test equipment,including leads,must all be accounted
for when a job is finished. A well-run store with
signing-inand signing-outof equipmentis an added
safeguardto personalresponsibility.
Installationof equipmentshouldbe in accordance
with the manufacturer'sinstructionswhich will cover
the following,
l. Weight of units: centre of gravity may be
affected.
2. Current drawn: loadingof suppliesshould be
carefully consideredand the correct choiceof
circuit-breakermade.
3. Cooling: more than adequateclearanceshould
be left and forced air-coolingemployedif
appropriate. Overheatingis a major causeof
failure.
4. Mounting: anti-vibrationmounts may be
necessarywhich, if non-metallic,give rise to a
need for bonding straps.
5. Cables:length and type specified. Usually
maximum length must be observedbut in some
casesparticularlengthsarenecessairy.Types of
.'
cableusedmust provideprotection against
interferenceand be ablerohandle current
drawn or supplied. Current capabiltiesare
reduced for cablesin bunches.
6. Antenna: approvedpositionsfor particular
types of antenna or particular types of aircraft
are laid down by aviation authorities.
t8

Strengtheningof the structurearound the

antennain the form of a doublerplatewill
probablybe necessary.A groundplaneis
essentialand must not be forgotten if the
antennais to be mountedon a non-conducting
surface. If the antennais movable,adequate
clearanceshould be left. Any alignment
requirements
must be met.
7. Interface: qompatibility with other systems/
units must be ensured. Both impedance
matching(including allowing for capacitiveand
inductive effects) and signalcharacteristics
should be considered. Loading of outputs
should be within limits. Particularcareshould
be taken in decidingwhere synchro devices
obtain their referencesupplies. Programming
pins for choiceof outputs and/or inputs must
be correctlyconnected.
8. Compass:safedistance.
9. Radiationhazards.
The last item in the abovenon-exhaustivelist raises
the topic of safety. Electric shock is an obvious
hazardw'ren working on aircraft and it shouldbe
rememberedthat one is liable to receivea shockfrom
radiatingantennas,particularly h.f. antennas.
A radiation hazardexistswith all transmitting
antennas,thus the operator should ensureno-oneis
working, particularly doping or painting, near an
antennawhen the associatedtransmitter is on. The
particularhazardsof microwaveradiation are
consideredin Chapter9. It is up to all personnel
working on aircraft to becomeawareof the dangers
of harmful substances,
the use(and position) of fire
extinguishers,the dangersof mixing oil or greasewith
oxygen,elementaryfirst aid, warning symbols,etc.

Regulatingand Advisory Bodaes

All countriesset up bodieswhich are responsiblefor
mattersconcernedwith aviatione.g. CAA (UK),
FAA (USA), BureauVeritas (France),etc. These
bodiesdraft air law and issueregulationsconcerned
with the hcensingof engineersand aircrew,aircraft
operations,aircraft and equipment manufacture,
minimum equipment fits (including radio), air traffic
control, etc. They are also the bodieschargedwith
seeing,by meansof examinationsand inspections,
that the law is obeyed.
Aviation is an international activity and
co-operationbetweencountriesis essential.This
co-operationis achievedmainly through the ICAO,
an agencyaffiliated to the United Nations. All

nationswhich are signatoriesto the Chicago

Conventionon Civil Aviation 1944 aremember-srates
of the ICAO which was an outgrowth of that
convention.
Table 1.7 Organizations,ordersand conference
concernedwith aircraft radio systems
Abbreviation

Orsanization

ARINC
ATA
AEEC
CAA
CAP
FAA

AeronauticalRadio lnc.
Air TransportAssociation
AirlinesElectronicEngineeringCommittee
Civil Aviation Authority
Civil Aviation Publication
FederalAviation Agency
InternationalCivil Aviation Organization
InternationalFrequencyRegistrationBoard
InternationalRadioConsultativeCommittee
InternationalTelecommunications
Union
TechnicalStandardOrder
World AdministrativeRadioConference

lcAo
IFRB
CCIR
ITU
TSO
WARC

The ICAO issuesannexesto the convention.

Annex l0 beingof particularsignificanceto aircraft
radio engineerssinceit is concernedwith aeronautical
telecommunications
and, amongother things,lays
down a minimum specificationfor airborne radio
systems.The materialpublishedby the ICAO does
not automaticallybecomethe law or regulationsin all
member-states;
ratification is necessaryand may not
take placewithout considerableamendment,if at all.
In particular,systemspecificationsemergdin forms
considerablydifferent from Annex 10, although similar
in content. In the USA specificationsare issuedin the
form of TSOswhile in the UK there is CAP 208.
Volume I with its companionVolume 2 listing
approvedequipmentunder variousclassifications.
Licensingof engineersis one areain which, as yet,
there is little internationalstandardizationin
accordancewith Annex l. The licensedaircraft radio
maintenanceengipeeris unknown in the USA but,
of course,organizationsoperatingwith the approval
of the FAA do so only if they employ suitably
qualifiedpersonnel. In the UK the [censed engineer
reignssupreme,except in the certification of
wide-bodiedjets and supersonictransportswhere a
systemof companyapprovalof personnelexists,the
companyitself being approvedby the CAA for the
operationand maintenanceof such aircraft. France
hasno systemof statelicensing,it being left to the
operatorsto assess
the compettncy of its maintenance
personnelunder the watchful eye of officials.
Of further interestto those concernedwith aircraft

radio, the Chicagoconvration provides that aircraft

registeredin contractingstatesmay carry radio
transmitting apparatusonly if a licence to install and
operatesuch apparatushasbeenissuedby the
appropriateauthoritiesof the statein which the
aircraft is registered.Furthermore,radio transmitting
apparatusmay only be usedover the territory of
contractingstates,other than the one in which the
aircraft is registered,by suitably licensedflight crew.
Various non-regulatory bodies exist with a view to
extendingco-operationacrossnational boundariesin
respectto aircraft equipmentand maintenance.
ARINC is one such organization. It is a corporation
the stockholders of which are drawn from airlines and
manufacturers,mostly from the USA. As well as
operatinga systemof aeronauticalland radio stations
ARINC sponsorsthe AEEC, which formulates
standardsfor electronicequipmentand systems
designedfor usein airlinersasopposedto general
aviation. Characteristics
and specificationspublished
by ARINC do not havethe force of law but
nevertheless
are,in the main, adheredto by
manufacturerswho wish to sell their equipmentto
the airlines.
A specificationrelatingto the presentationof
maintenanceinformation is the ATA 100. A standard
Iayout for technicalpublicationsrelatingto aircraft
hasbeen promulgatedand widely adopted. Of
particularinterestto readersare Chapters23 and34
of the maintenancemanualwhich cover
communicationsand navigationrespectively.In
addition to prescribinglayout, a set ofstandard
symbolsfor electricalwiring diagramshas beenissued.
So far, bodiesconcernedwith aircraft and their
equipmenthavebeenconsidered;in addition
organizationsconcernedwith telecommunications
strouldbe mentioned. The ITU is an agencyof the
United Nations which existsto encourage
internationalco-operationin the useand development
of telecommunications.The CCIR is a committeeset
up by the ITU to deal with radio communications.
Among topics of interestto the CCIR arespectrum
utilization and aeronauticalmobile services.The
IFRB has alsobeen set up.by the ITU for the
assignmentand registrationof radio frequenciesin
a masterfrequencylist. In November 1979 an
internationalconference(WARC '79), with
representatives
from 154 countries,met in Genevato
considerradio regulationsand re-allocate
frequencies.The resultsof WARC '79 will not be
publishedwhile this book is beingwritten but it is
unlikely that the frequenciesallocated to aeronautical
mobile serviceswill suffer significant amendment the cost would be too great.

19

2 CommunicationsYstems

on v.h.f. lrequenciesis often found; unfortunately

aeronauticaliommunicationssatellitesare not to be
found (1979).
There is a fundamental need for communication
The audio integrating system (AIS) complexity
beiweenaircrewand ground controllers,amongthe
dependson the type of aircraft. A light aircraft
aircrew and between aircrew and passengers.External
,yrt.* may provide two transmit/receivechannelsfor
communicationis achievedby meansof
dual u.h.f.iomms and receiveonly for dual v'h'f'
(R/T) link while internal
radio-telephone
nav.,ADF, DME and marker. Each receivechannel
communication'(intercomor audio integratingsystem)
hasa speakeroff'phoneswitch while the microphone
is by wire as opposedto wireless.Although intercom'
canbe switchedbitween v'h.f. comms I and v'h'f'
is not a radio system,it is includedin this chapter
comms 2. A multi-crew large airliner has very many
becauseof its intimate relationship with the aircraft
more facilities,as describedlater.
radio systems.Voice recordersand in-flight
entertainmentsystemsarealso consideredsincethey
areusually the responsibilityofthe aircraft radio
V.H.F. Gommunications
technician/engineerThe first items of radio equipmentto appearon
Basic Principles
aircraftwerelow-frequency(l'f.) communications
An aircraft u.h.f. comrnstransceiveris comprisedof
gap
transmitters.
setsin the World War I daysof spark
either a singleor double conversionsuperhetreceiver
lntercom was by meansof a Gosport(speaking)tube'
and an a.m. transmitter' A modern set provides720
By the 1930sthe early keyed continuouswave(c'w')
channelsat 25 kHrzspacingbetween I l8 MHz and
was beginningto be replacedby
(radio-telegraphy)
'key-bashing'hadits placeaslong as
135'975MHz; until recently the spacingwas 50 kHz
R/T although
givingonly 360 channels.The mode of operationis
aircraft carriedradio operators. Early R/T was within
iinglJ.itutntl simplex(s,c.s.),i.e. one frequencyand
the l.f. and h.f. bands,the setsoperatingon only one
both receiverand transmitter' If
or very few frequencies.With airfieldswidely spaced onJ antennafor
provision for satellite communication is included in
and low-poweredtransmission,there was little
iccordancewith ARINC 566 then in addition to
interferenceand so the need for many channelsdid
a.m. s.c.s.we will have f.m' double channelsimplex
not arise.
(d.c.s.),
i.e. different frequenciesfor transmit and
The situation has drastically changedsinceWorld
ceive..
re
the
with
War II; air traffic and facilities have increased
'line of
Communicationby v.h.f. is essentially
consequentdemandfor extra channelswhich cannot
sight'by direct (space)wave. The rangeavailablecan
be providedin the Lf., m.f. or h.f. bands.
'23 (\/.\ + y'ft1)nm where ftt is
be approximated by I
Fortunatelyv.h.f. equipmenthasbeensuccessfully
*re trilght, in feet, abovesealevel of the receiver
developedfrom early beginningsin World Wu II
while
ftl.is the samefor the transmitter' Thus, with
figtrtercontrol.
the ground station at sealevel, the approximate
The current situation is the v.h.f. is used for
,nr*I*urn range for aircraft at l0 000 and 1000 ft
*tort-range communication while h'f. is used for
(30 000 and 3000 m) would be 123 and 40 nm
long-range. A large airliner, such as aBoeing74T ,
respectivelY.
in
such
carriesthree v.h.f.sand dual h'f. In addition,
are
(Selcal)
facilities
aircraft, selectivecalling
'
trstallation
provided by a dual installation such that a ground
A singlev.h.f. installationconsistsof three parts'
station can call aircraft either singly or in groups
namJy control unit, transceiverand antenna' In
without the need for constant monitoring by the
are connected to the v'h'f' via
crew. Provision for satellite communication (Satcom) addition crew phones

lntrodoction

Frg.2.1 KY 196 v.h.f. comm.transceiver

(courtesyKing
Radio Corp.)

Fi& a2 CN-201Iv.h.f.comm./nav.
equipment
(courtesy
BendixAvionicsDivision)
selectionswitchesin the AIS. Light aircraft v.h.f.s
usuallyhavea panel-mountedcombinedtransceiver
and control unit, an examplebeingthe King KY 196
illustratedin Fig. 2.1. The current trend is for
combinedCOM/NAV/RNAV; Fig. 2.2 illustratesthe
BendixCN-2011,a generalaviationpanel-mounted
unit comprisingtwo commstransceivers,
two nav.
receivers,
glidepathreceiver,marker receiver,

frequency control for internal circuits and d.m.e. and

last but not least,audio selectionswitches.Such
equipmentwill be consideredin Chapter12.
Figure2.3 showsone of a triple v.h.f. comms
installationas might be fitted to a largepassenger
transportaircraft: VHF2 and VHF3 are similarto
VHFI but aresuppliedfrom a different 28 V d.c. bus
bar and feed different selectionswitchesin the AIS.

21

ATE
v.h.f.COMM

liitool

cO

rcool

Freq.

FWD
MTR PWR REF
oFF-\ \ t t . / fPwa

r\

Mic

l \

P.t.t.

Ars

Rcv Audio

\_./
DISABLE
SOUELCH
(o)

fo
Aerial

Sidetone

PHONO
E
v.h.f. No. 2

v.h.f No.

Rcv
Audio
To Selcal

O MIC.
28 V d.c.
Stby
Bus

Fig.2.3 Typicalv.h.f.l installation

The transceiver.which is rack-mounted,contains

all the electroniccircuitry and hasprovisionfor the
maintenancetechnicianto connectmic. and tels
direct, disablethe squelch,and measureVSWR.
Theseprovisionsfor testingareby no meansuniversal
but if the systemconformsto ARINC 566 a plug is
providedto which automatictest equipment(ATE)
canbe connected.A protectivecoverfor the ATE
plug is fitted when the unit is not in the workshop.
The antennacan take variousforms: whip, blade
or suppressed.In a triple vl.f. commsinstallation
thesemay be two top-mountedbladeantennasand
onebottom-mounted:an altemativewould be two
within the fincap dielectric.
bladeand one suppressed
The whip antennais to be found on smalleraircraft.
All antennasaremountedso asto receiveand
transmitverticallypolarizedwaves.
The blade antennamay be quite cornplex. It will
nearthe centreofthe band with
be self-resonant
bandwidthimprovementprovidedby a short'circuited
stub acrossthe feed terminal or a more complicated
reactivenetwork built in which will permit height and
hencedrag reduction.
Controls and Operation
It is common to have in-useand standby frequencies
available,the former controlling the transceiver
frequency. This is the situationin Fig.2.3 wherewe
have two setsof frequency controls and two displays,
the in-useone being selectedby the transfer switch
and annunciatedby a lamp abovethe display.

z2

Frequencycontrol is achievedby concentricknobs,

the outer one of which variesthe tens and units while
the inner pne variesthe tenths and hundredths. An
alternativeis shownin Fig. 2.1 wherethere is one
frequencycontrol and two displays' On rotating the
frequencyknobs clockwiseor anticlockwise,the
standbyfrequencyonly will incrementor decrement
respectively.Standbymay then becomein-useby
operationof the transferswitch. Thereare many
controllersin servicewith only in-useselection.
may
Someor all of the following switches/controls
be providedby manufacturerson request.
Volume Control A potentiometer,which allows
variableattenuationof audio,prior to feedingthe AIS
may be fitted asa separatecontrol or as a concentric
knob on the frequencyselector(s).Sucha volume
control may havesidetonecoupledthrough it on
transmit.
$uelch Control A squelchcircuit disablesthe
receiveroutput when no sigralsare beingreceivedso
preventingnoisebeingfed to the crew headsets
betweenground transmissions.The squelchcontrol is
a potentiometerwhich allowsthe pilot to set the level
at which the squelchopens,so allowingaudio output
from the receiver.Whenthe control is set to
minimum squelch(fully clockwise) the Hi and l,o
leads,brought to the control unit
squelch-disable
from the transceiver,shouldbe shorted,so givinga
definite squelchdisable.

Mode Selector Control Providesselectionof normal

a.m.,extendedrangea.m.or Satcom.If the Satcom
antennahas switchablelobessuchswitchingmay be
includedin the mode switch,or couldbe separate.

ReceiverThe riceiver is a singleconversionsuperhet.

The r.f. stageemploysvaractordiode tuning, utilizing
the tuning voltagefrom the stabilizedmaster
oscillator(s.m.o.). Both the r.f. amplifier and mixer
are dual gatefield-effecttransistors(f.e.t.). The r.f.
amplifier f.e.t. has the input signalappliedto gate I
On-Off Switch Energizesmaster power relay in
transceiver.The switch may be separate,incorporated while the a.g.c.voltageis appliedto gate2. The
in mode selectorswitch as an extra switch position, or mixer connectionsare: gate l, signal;gate2, s.m.o.
gangedwith the volume or squelchcontrol.
The differencefrequencyfrom the mixer, I l'4 MHz,
is passedby a crystalfilter, providingthe desired
narrow bandpass,to the i.f. amplifiers. Two stagesof
ReceiverSelectivity Switch Normal or sharp
i.f. amplificationareused;the first of
selectivity. WhenSatcomis selectedsharpselectivity a.g.c.-controlled
which is a linear integratedcircuit.
automaticallyapplies.
The detectorand squelchgateutilize transistorson
an
integratedcircuit transistorarray. A further array
Block Diagram Operation (KY 196)
is
used
for the squelch-controlcircuitry. Noiseat
Ftgure2.4 is a simplifiedblock diagramof the King
8
kHz
the detectoroutput is sampledand used
from
v.h.f.comm.transceiver.
KY 196 panel-mounted
to closethe squelchgateif its amplitudeis as
general
for
the
aviation
equipment,
intended
This
expected from the receiveroperating at full gain.
since
market, is not typical of in-servicetransceivers
When
a sigral is received,the noise output from the
frequencyand displaycontrol is achievedwith the aid
detector
decreases
due to the a.g.c.action;asa
within the lifetime of
of a microprocessor;however
the squelchgate opensallowing the
consequence
this book suchimplementationwill become
audio signalto pass. The squelchcap be disabledby
commonplace.

Frequencydisplay
118.70
Use

121.90
Standby

t;:
I

F
F

'__--__--.1

kHz Codc

MHz Code

P.t.t.

lncremenV
Decrement

Fig. 2.4 King KY 196 simplified block diagram

a
t
F
A(
F
F,

R.F.
Input

Tuning
Volts
{s.m.o.}

Fig.2.5 KingKY 196simplifiedreceiver

blockdiagram

meansof a switch incorporated in the volume

control. When the receivedsigral has excessivenoise
on the carrier,the noise-operated
squelchwould keep
the squelchgate closedwere it not for
carrier-operated
or backupsquelch. As the carrier
levelincreases,
a point is reachedwhere the squelch
gate is opened regardlessof the noise level.
The meandetectoroutput voltageis usedto
determinethe i.f. a.g.c.voltage. As the i.f. a.g.c.
voltageexceedsa set referencethe r.f. a.g.c.voltage
decreases.
The detectedaudio is fed via the squelchgate,
low-passlilter, volume control and audio amplifier to
the rearpanelconnector. A minimum of 100 mW
-audio power into a 500 O load is provided.

transmitter chain comprisesa pre-driver, driver and

final stageall broad band tuned, operated in ClassC
and with modulatedcollectors. The a.m. r.f. is fedvia
a low-passfilter, which attenuatesharmonics,to the
antenna. On receivethe t.r. diode is forward biased
to feed the receivedsignalfrom the antenna through
the low-passfilter to the receiver.f. amplifier.
The modulator chain comprisesmicrophone
pre-amplifier,diode limiting, an f.e.t. switchingstage,
integratedcircuit modulator driver and two modulator
transistorsconnectedin parallel. The pre-ampoutput
is sufficient to subsequentlygive at least 85 per cent
modulation,the limiter preventingthe depth of
modulation exceeding100 per cent. The mic. audio
line is broken by Jhe f.e.t. switch during receive.

Tiansmitter The transmitter(Fig. 2.6) feeds l6 W of

a.m. r.f. to the antenna. Modulationis achievedbv
superimposingthe amplified mic. audio on the
transmitter chain supply. The carrier frequency
corresponds
to the in-usedisplay.
Radio frequency is fed from the s.m;o. to an r.f.
amplifier. This input drive is switched by the
transmit receiveswitching circuits, the drive being
effectively shorted to earth when the pressto
transmit(p.t.t.) button is not depressed.The

Stabilized Master Oscillator The s.m.o. is a

conventional phaselocked loop with the codesfor the
programmabledividerbeinggeneratedby a
microprocessor.Discretecomponentsare usedfor
the voltagecontrolledoscillator(v.c.o.)and buffers
while integratedcircuits(i.c.) areusedelsewhere.
The referencesigrralof 25 kHz is provided by an
oscillatordivideri.c. which utilizesa 3'2 MHz crystal
to give the necessarystability. Only sevenstagesof a
fourteen-stageripple-carry binary counter are used to

24

R.F.
{s.m.o.}

P.t.t.

Fig. 2.6 King KY 196 simplified transmitter block diagram

Phase
detector

v.c.o.

MHz cont.
lrom pp

MHz cont.
lrom gp

Fig. 2.7 King Ky 196 simplifiedprogrammabte

divider
bkrck diagram
gtve the necessarydivision of 21 = l2g.
This reference, is made;i.e. zerosafter the displayeddecimalpoint.

with the outpur of the programmable

l9e9lner
divider,is fed to the phasedetecior-whichis part
of
an i.c., the rest of which is unused. The pulsating
d.c.
on the output of the phasedetectortrasa a.O.
componentwhich after filtering is used to control
the
frequencyof the v.c.o. by varactortuning.
If there is
a synthesizermalfunction, an out-ofloclisignal
from
"s.m.o.
the phasedetectoris usedto switch off the
feedto the transmitter.
The programmabledivider consistsbasicallyof
.
thrce setsof countersas shownin Fig. 2.7. Tie
v.c.o.output is first dividedUy "ittrei+O o,
!r1f!rea41, the former being so when a discreti MHz
selection

The prescalerwhich perlbrmsthis division is a u.h.f.

programmable
divider(+ l0/l l) followedby a
divide-by-four
i.c. The wholeMHz diviclerusesa
7 4 L S l 6 2 b . c . d .d e c a d ec o u n t e ra n d a 7 4 L S l 6 3b i n a r y
counterwhich togethercan be programmedto divide
by an integerbetweenI l8 and 145,hencethe
prescalerand whole MHz divider give a total division
o,t^llSO(40 X I l8) to 5800 (40 X 145)in stepsof
40. Thus a requiredv.c.o.output of, say, t IO.OOUHz
would be achievedwith a divisionof 5200 (40 X 130)
since130 MHz + 5200 = 25 kHz = reference
frequency.
The 25 kHz stepsareobtainedby forcing the

25

prescalerto divide by 41, the requirednumber of

timesin the count sequence.Each time the division
ratio is 41, one extra cycleof the v.c.o.frequencyis
neededto achievean output of 25 kHz from the
programmabledivider. To seethat this is so, consider
the previousexamplewherewe had a division ratio of
5200 to give 130'00MHz, i.e. 5200 cyclesat
130'00MHz occupies40 ps = periodof 25 kHz.
Now a prescalerdivisionratio of 4l once during 40 ps
means5201 cyclesof the v.c.o.output occupy40 ps
so the frequencyis 5201/(40X 10-6) = 130.025MHz
asrequired. The prescalerratio is controlled by the
fractionalMHz divider, againemploying a 7 4LS| 62
and 74LS163. The numberof divide-by-41eventsin
40 ps is determinedby the kHz control code from the
microprocessorand can be anywherefrom 0 to 39
times. Thereforeeachwhole megacyclecan have
N X 25 kHz addedwhereN rangesfrom 0 to 39. This
produces25 kHz stepsfrom 0 kHz to 975 kHz.

Microprocessorand Display The microprocessor

used,an 8048, containssufficientmemory for the
programand data requiredin this applicationto be
storedon the chip. In addition to this memory and,
of course,an eight-bit c.p.u.,we havean eight-bit
timer/counterand a clock on board. Through
twenty-sevenI/O linesthe 8048 interfaceswith the
programmabledivider, displaydrive circuits and
non-volatilememory.

1024 words
program
memory

Clock

8-bir
CPU

64 words
data
memory

__JI___J
'l
(
8-bit
Timer/
evont counter

27
I/g lines

Fig. 2.8 8048 eieht-bit microcornputcr (courtery King

Radio Corp.)

216

The 8048 has been programmed to generatea

'use' and 'standby' frequencies.
binary code for the
The code,aswell asbeing storedin the 8048, is also
storedin a l40o-bit electricallyalterablereadonly
memory (EAROM). This external memory is
effectively a non-volatileRAM, the data and address
being communicated in serial form via a one-pin
mode being
bidirectionalbus, the read/write/erase
controlledby a three-bit code. When power is
appliedthe microprocessorreadsthe last frequencies
stored in the EAROM which are then utilized as the
'use'and 'standby' frequencies.In the eventof
initial
failure of the EAROM the microprocessorwill display
120'00 MHz as its initial frequencies.The EAROM
will store data for an indefinite period without power.
The 'standby'frequency is changedby clockwise
or counterclockwisedetent rotation of the frequency
selectknobs. I MHz, 50 kHz and 25 kHz changescan
be made with two knobs, one of which incorporatesa
push-pull switch for 50125kHz step changes.The
microprocessoris programmedto incrementor
'standby'frequency
by the appropriate
decrementthe
whenever
it
sensesthe operation of one of the
step
knobs.
frequency-select
The code for the frequency in use is fed to the
programmabledividersfrom the microprocessor.
'standby'
'Use'
frequenciesare exchangedon
and
operationof the momentary transferswitch. When
the transceiveris in the receivemode the
'us' frcquency
microprocessoradds I l'4 MHz to the
code since the local oscillator signal fed to the
receivermixer should be this amount higher than the
desiredreceivedcarrier in order to give a difference
frequency equal to the i.f.
'standby'codesare fed to the
Both luse'and
display drivers. The'use'code representsthe
transmit frequency and is not increasedby I l'4 MHz
in the receive mode. Each digit is fed in tum to the
cathode decoder/driver, an i.c. containing a sevensegmentdecoder, decimal point and comma drives
and programmable current sinks. The decimal point
and comma outputs (i and h) are used to drive the
'.'and 'T' (seeFig. 2.10).
segments
displaying'l',
'T'is
The
illumfrrated when in the transmit mode.
The display is a gasdischargetype with its
intensity controlled by a photocell located in the
display window. As the light reaching the photocell
decreasesthe current being supplied to the
programming pin of the cathode decoder/driverfrom
the display dimmer circuit decreases,so dimming the
display.
Time multiplexing of the display dri'res is achieved
by a clock sipal being fed from the microprocessorto

T
C

n
s

llrito?y
array
IOO x 14

t
d
d

q
C2

e
s
s
LSB

C3

1O-bits
Fig. 2.9 Electrically alterableread only memory, e.a.r.o.m.
(courtesy King Radio Corp.)
Display

A1

A2

A3

A4

A6

&'AA

Anode'
driver

A7

",,
lf"

A5

A8

f l
h l

tl'lo

.Ll.
d

Cathode
decoder/driver

1f

o h
T h

A B C D

I l T I T
B.C.D.
code

Multiplexer

Dimming
current

Clocft

Anode
drive

A1

B.C.D.
code

I l

r_-l

A7

l-l
l-1.

l-ll-ll-t

ll

t_-t ll
U. U

t-l
t:l

l/1lo sec.
Fig.2.l0 King KY 195 simplifieddisplaydrive block
diagram

arulofJurrsr/rrruuP

(Al to A8) are switched scquentially. As the anode

drivesare switchedthe appropriateb.c.d. information
from the microprocessoris beingdecodedby the
cathodedecodery'driver,the result being that the
necessary
segmentsof eachdigit are lighted one digit
at a time at approximatelyI l0 times per second.
A synchronizationpulseis sent to the multiplexer
from the microprocessor
every 8 cyclesto maintain
display synchronization.

dcsiredsignal,ttrc resultantaudiooutput shallnot

exceed-10 dB with referenceto the output prcduced
by a desiredsigralonly whenmodulated30 per cent
(underspecified
conditions).
sigtallevel/offresonance
UndesiredResponses
in band108-135MHzshallbe
All spuriousresponses
includingimage,
downat least100dB otherwise,
at least80 dB down.
Audio Output

Characteristics
The selectedcharacteristicswhich follow are drawn
from ARINC Characteristic566 coveringairbome
v.h.f. communicationsand SatcomMark l. Details
of Satcomand extendedrangea.m. are not included.
System Units
l. V.h.f. transceiver;
2. modulation adaptor/modem- f.m. provision
for Satcom;
3. power'amplifier- Satcomand extendedrange;
4. pre-amplifier- Satcomand extendedrange;
5. control panel;
6. remote frequencyreadoutindicator - optional;
7. antennas- separateSatcomantenna.
Note: I and 2 may be incorporatedin one line
replaceable
unit (l.r.u.).
Frequenry Selection
720 channelsfrom I l8 through 135.975MHz,
25 kHz spacing.
Receivermuting and p.t.t. de-energization
during
channelling.
2i 5 channelselection.
Channellingtime: ( 60ms.
Recciver
Sensitivity
3 pV, 30 per cent modulation at 1000 Hz to give
S+N/N>6d8.
Selectivity
Minimum 6 dB points at I l5 kHz (t 8 kHz sharp).
Maximum60 dB pointsat I 31.5 kHz (t l5 kHz
sharp).
Maximum 100 dB points at i 40 kHz (t l8'5 kHz
-sharp).
Qoss Modulation
With simultaneousreceiverinput of 30 per cent

Gain
A 3 pV a.m.sigralwith 30 per centmodulationat
1000Hz will produce100mWin a 200-500Q load.
Frequmcy Response
Audio poweroutput levelshallnot vary morethan
6 dB overfrequencyrange300-2500Hz.
by at
> 5750Hz mustbe attenuated
Frequencies
least20 dB.
HarmonicDistortion
[.essthan 7'5 percentwith 30 per centmodulation.
Irss than2Opercentwith 90 per centmodulation.
AGC
No morethan 3 dB variationwith input signalsfrom
5 gV to 100mV.
Transmitter
Stability
Carrierfrequencywithin t 0'005 per cent under
prescribed
conditions.
PowerOutput
25-40W into a 52 O loadat theendof a 5 ft
transmission
line.
Sidetone
With90 per centa.m.at 1000Hz the sidetoneoutput
strallbe at least100mWinto eithera 200 or 500O
load.
Mic. Input
of
Mic.audioinput circuitto havean impedance
150O for usewith a carbonmic.or a transistormic.
from the (approx.)20 V d.c.carbonmic.
operating
supply.
Antenna
Verticallypolarizedandomnidirectional.

2A

,J

'i6

,$

To match 52 O with VSWR ( l'5 : l.

Ramp Testing
After checking for condition and assemblyand
making availablethe appropriate power suppliesthe
following (typical)'checksshouldbe madeat each
stationusingeachv.h.f.

l. Disablesquelch,checkbackgroundnoiseand
operationof volume control.
2. On an unusedchannelrotate squelchcontrol
until squelchjust closes(no noise). Pressp.t.t.
button, speakinto mic. and checksidetone.
3. Establishtwo-way communicationwith a
remotestation usingboth setsof frequency
control knobs,in conjunctionwith transfer
switch,if appropriate.Checkstrengthand
quality of signal.

The current and future norm is to use single

sideband(s.s.b.)mode of operationfor h.f.
communications,although setsin servicemay have
provisionfor compatibleor normal a.m.,i.e. carrier
and one or two sidebandsbeing transmitted
respectively.This s.s.b.transmissionand reception
hasbeen describedbriefly in ChapterI and
extensivelyin many textbooks. A featureofaircraft
h.f. systemsis that coverageof a wide band of r.f. and
useof a resonantantennarequiresefficient antenna
tuning arrangementswhich must operate
automatically on changingchannelin order to reduce
the VSWR to an acceptablelevel.

Installation
A typical large aircraft h.f. installation consistsof
two systems,eachof which comprisesa transceiver,
controller, antennatuning unit and antenna. Eachof
NB . Do not transmiton I 2l '5 MHz (Emergency).
the transceivers
are connectedto the AIS for mic.. tel.
Do not transmitif refuellingin progress.
and p.t.t. provision. In addition outputs to Selcal.
Do not interrupt ATC-aircraftcommunications. decodersare provided. Suchan installationis shown
i n F i g .2 . 1l .
The transceivers
contain the receiver,transmitter,
H.F. Communicataons
power amplifier and power supply circuitry. They are
mounted on the radio rack and providedwith a flow
BasicPrinciples
of cooling air, possibly augmentedby a fan. A
The useof h.f. (2-30 MHz) carriersfor communication transceiverrated at 200 W p.e.p.needsto dissipate
purposesgreatly extends the rangeat which aircrew
300 W when operatedon s.s.b.while on a.m. this
canestablishcontact with AeronauticalMobile
figure risesto 500 W. Telephoneand microphone
Servicestations. This beingso, we find that h.f.
jacks may be providedon the front panel,asmight a
comm.systemsare fitted to aircraft flying routes
meter and associatedswitch which will provide a
which are,for somepart of the flight, out of rangeof
meansof monitoring variousvoltagesand currents.
v}t.f. service.Such aircraft obviouslyinclude public
Coupling to the antennais achievedvia the
transportaircraft flying intercontinentalroutes,but
antennatuning unit (ATU). Somesystemsmay
thereis alsoa market for generalaviationaircraft.
employ an antennacouplerand a separateantenna
The long rangeis achievedby useof sky waves
couplercontrol unit. The ATU provides,
which arerefractedby the ionosphereto suchan
automatically,a match from the antennato the 50 Q
extent that they arebent sufficiently to return to
transmissionline. Closed-loopcontrol of matching
earth. The h.f. ground wavesuffersquite rapid
elementsreducesthe standingwaveratio to l'3 : I
attenuationwith distancefrom the transmitter.
or less(ARINC 559A).
Ionosphericattenuationalsotakesplace,being
Since the match must be achievedbetween line and
greatestat the lower h.f. frequencies.A significant
antennathe ATU is invariablymountedadjacentto
featureof long-rangeh.f. transmissionis that it is
part of the
the antennalead-in,in an unpressurized
zubjectto selectivefadingovernarrow bandwidths
airframe. For high-flyinga'ircraft(most jets) the ATU
(tensof cycles).
is pressurized,possiblywith nitrogen. Someunits
The type of modulation used,and associated
may contain a pressureswitch which will be closed
detailssuchas channelspacingand frequency
wheneverthe pressurizationwithin the tuner is
channellingincrements,havebeenthe subjectof
adequate. The pressureswitch may be used for
many papersand ordersfrom users,both civil and
ohmmeter checksor, providingswitch reliability is
military, and regulatingbodies. ARINC Characteristic adequate,may be connectedin serieswith the key
No. 559A makesinterestingreading,in that it reveals line thus preventing transmissionin the event of a
how conflictingproposalsfrom variousauthorities
leak. Altematively an attenuatormay be swit;hed in
(in both the legaland expert opinion sense)can exist
to reducepower.
at the sametime.
Light aircraft h.f. systemsin serviceare likely, for

Mic.

28V---2-

Tcl.

No. 1
Xmit

No. I

t.r.

No. I
p.t.t.
No. 2
interlock
No. I
interlock

28V

2av

No. 2
p.t.t.

Mic.
-

Tel.

28vl ruoz

Fig 2.1I Typicaldualh.f. installatbn

financial reasons,to have a fixed antennacoupler.
Sucha systemoperateson a restrictednumber of
channels(say twenty). As a particular channelis
selected,appropriate switching takesplace in the
coupler to ensurethe r.f. feed to the antennais via
previously adjusted,reactivecomponents,which
make the effective antennalength equal to a quarter
of a wavelength,thus presentingan impedanceof
approximately 50 O. The required final manual
adjustmentmust be carried out by maintenance
personnelon the aircraft.
The antennaused variesgreatly, dependingon the
type of aircraft. For low-speedaircraft a long wire
antennais popular although whip antennasmay be
found on somelight aircraft employing low-powered
h.f. systems. The aerodynamicproblemsof wire

c,

antennason aircraft which fly faster than, say, 400

knots, haveled to the useofnotch and probe
antennaswhich effectively excite the airframe so that
it becomesa radiatingelement.
Modernwire antennasare constructedof
copper-cladsteelor phosphorbronze,givinga reduced
comparedwith earlierstainless.steel
r.f. resistance
wires. A coveringofpolythene reducesthe effectsof
precipitationstatic. Positioningis normally a single
spanbetween forward fuselageand vertical stabilizer.
I:rger aircraft will have twin antennaswhile a single
'V'
configuration,is more
installation,possiblyin a
aircraft.
The r.f. feed is usually
for
smaller
common
at the forward attachment via an antennamast. The
rear tetheringis by meansof a tensioningunit.
The aniennamaqtis subjectto pitting and erosion

of the leadingedge;a neoprpnecoveringwill provide

someprotection,nevertheless
regularinspectionsare
called for. Protection againstcondensationwithin the
mastmay be providedby containersof silicagel
which shouldbe periodicallyinspectedfor a changein
colour from blue to pink, indicatingsaturation.
Hollow mastsare usuallyprovidedwith a water-drain
path which shouldbe kept free from obstruction.
The two most important featuresof the rear
tetheringpoint are that the wire is kept under tension
and that a weak link is providedso asto ensurethat
any break occursat the rear,so preventingthe wire
wrappingitself around the verticalstabilizerand
rudder. On light aircraft a very simplearrangementof
a spring,or rubber bungee,and hook may be used.
The springmaintainsthe tensionbut if this becomes
excessivethe hook will open and the wire will be free
at the rearend. On largeraircraft a spring-tensioning
unit will be usedto copewith the more severe
conditionsencountereddue to higherspeedsand
fuselageflexing. The unit loads the wire by meansof
a metal spring,usuallyenclosedin a barrelhousing.
A serratedtail rod is attachedto the tetheringpoint
on the aircraft and insertedinto the barrelwhereit is
securedby a springcollet, the grip of which increases
with tension. The wire is attachedto a chuck unit
which incorporatesa copperpin servingas a weaklink
desigredto shearwhen the tensionexceedsabout
180 lbf. Someunits incorporatetwo-stageprotection
againstoverload. Two pins of different strengthsare
used;shouldthe first shear,a smallextension(3/ 16 in.)
of overalllength results,thus reducingtensionand
exposinga yellow warningband on the unit.
Notch antennasconsistof a slot cut into the
aircraft structure.often at the baseof the vertical
o
stabilizer. The inductanceof the notch is
series-resonated
by a high-voltagevariablecapacitor
driven by a phase-sensing
servo. Signalinjection is via
matching circuitry driven by a SWR sensingservo.
'Q'
Since the notch is high
the input is transformed to
a voltageacrossthe notch which is ofthe order of
thousandsofvolts. This largevoltageprovides the
driving force for current flow in the airframe which
servesas the radiator.
A probe antenna,which is aerodynamically
acceptable,may be fitted at either of the wing-tipsor
on top of the verticalstabilizer. Againseriestuning
providesthe necessary
driving force for radiation.
The probe antenna,aswell as the wire antenna,is
liable to suffer lightningstrikes,so protection in the
form of a lightning arrester(sparkgap)is fitted.
Any voltagein excessof approximatelyl6 kV on the
antennawill causean arc acrossthe electrodesof the
hydrogen-iilledsparkgap,thus preventingdischarge

through the h.f. equipment. Build-up of precipitation

static on antennas,particularlyprobes,is dealt with
by providinga high resistance
static drain (about
6 MSl) path to earth connectedbetweenthe antenna
feed point and the ATU.
It is important in dual installationsthat only one
h.f. systemcan transmit at any one time;this is
achievedby meansof an interlock circuit. This basic
requirementis illustratedin Fig. 2.11 whereit canbe
seenthat the No. I p.t.t. line is routed via a contact
of the No. 2 interlock relay, similarlywith No. 2
p.t.t. The interlock relayswill be externalto the
transceivers
often fitted in an h.f. accessory
box.
While one of the h.f. systemsis transmittingthe other
systemmust be protectedagainstinducedvoltages
from the keyedsystem.In addition,with some
installations,we may havea probe usedas a
transmitting antennafor both systemsand as a
receivingantennafor, say,No. I system. The No. 2
receivingantennamight be a notch. It follows that on
keying either systemwe will havea sequenceof
eventswhich might proceedas follows.
HF I keyed:
l. HF 2 keyline broken by a contactof HF I
interlock relay;
2. HF 2 antennagrounded;
3. HF 2ATU input and output feedsgounded and
feed to receiverbroken.
HF 2 keyed:
l. HF I keyline broken by a contactof HF 2
interlock relay;
2. HF I probe antennatransferredfrom HF l;
ATU to HF 2 ATU;
3. HF 2 notch antennafeed grounded;
4. HF I ATU input and output feedsgrounded
and feed to receiverbroken.
C,ontrols and Operation
Separatecontrollers are employed in dual installations,
eachhaving'in-use'frequencyselectiononly. Older
systemsand some light aircraft systemshave limited
channelselectionwhere dialling a particular channel
number tunesthe system,includingATU, to a
pre-assigned
frequency,a channel/frequency
chart is
required in such cases.With modern sets,indication
ofthe frequency selectedis given directly on the
controller.
The controlsshownin Fig. 2.1 I arethosereferred
to in ARINC 559A; variationsare common and will
be listed below.
Mode Selector Switch. OFF-AM-SSB Thc'turn off'
function may be a separateswitch or indeed may not

31

be crnployed at all; snritchingon and offbeing

achievedwith the masterradio switch. The 'AM'
positionmay be designated'AME'(AM equivalentor
compatible)and is selectedwhenevertransmission
and receptionis requiredusinga.m. or s.s.b.plus full
carrier(a.m.e.). The 'SSB'position providesfor
transmissionand reception of upper sidebandonly.
Although useof the upper sidebandis the norm
for aeronauticalh.f. communicationssomecontrollers
'USB'
'LSB'positions.
have
and
In addition 'DATA'
'CW'modes
and
may be available.The former is for
possiblefuture use of data links by h.f. using the
uppersideband- the receiveris operatedat
maximumgain. The latter is for c.w. transmissionand
reception,morsecode,by 'key bashing',being the
information-carryingmedium.
Flequency SelectorsFrequency selecton consist of,
typically, four controls which allow selectionof
frequenciesbetween 2.8 and 24MHz in I kHz steps
(ARINC 559A). Military requirementsare for a
frequencycoverageof 2 to 30 MHz in 0.1 kHz steps,
consequentlyone will find systemsoffering 280 000
'channels'meeting
theserequirementsin full or
28 000 channelsmeetingthe extendedrangebut not
the 0'l kHz steprequirement.
When a new frequency is selectedthe ATU must
adjustitselfsincethe antennacharacteristics
will
change.For this purposethe transmitteris keyed
momentarily in order that SWR and phasecan be
measuredand usedto drive the ATU servos.

Indicator A meter mounted on the front panel of the

controller may be providedin order to give an
indication of radiatedpower.
Block Dhgram Operation
Tlansceiver Figure 2.12 is a simplified block diagram
of an a.m./s.s.b.transceiver.The operationwill be
describedby function.
Amplitude Mo dulated Transm issio
n The frequency
selectedon the controller determinesthe output from
the frequencysynthesizerto the r.f. translatorwhich
shifts the frequency up and provides sufficient drive
for the power amplifier(p.a.). The mic. input, after
amptfication, feedsthe modulator which produces
high-levelamplitudemodulation of the r.f. amplified
by the p.a. The r.f. signalis fed to the ATU via the
antennatransferrelay contact.
The PA output signalis sampledby the sidetone
detectorwhich feedssidetoneaudio via the contact
of the deenergizedsidetonerelay and the sidetone
adjustpotentiometerto the audio output amplifier.

Single Sideband Transmission Low-level modulation

is necessarysincethere is no carrierto modulateat
the p.a. stage,hencethe mic. input, /n., is fed to a
balancedmodulator togetherwith a fixed carrier
frequency,/., from the frequencysynthesizer.The
balancedmodulator output consistsof both sidebands
f" + f^ andf" - f^, the carrierbeingsuppressed.
The requiredsidebandis passedby a filter to the r.f.
SquelchControl Normel control of squelch
translatorafter further amplification.
thresholdmay be provided. As an alternativean r.f.
Ifwe consideran audio responsefrom 300 to
sensitivitycontrol may be used,but where Selcalis
3000 Hz we seethat the separationbetweenthe
utilizedit is important that the receiveroperatesat
lowestEs.b. frequencyand the highestl.s.b.
full sensitivityat all timeswith a squelchcircuit being frequencyis only 600 Hz. It follows that the filter
employedonly for aural monitoring and not affecting usedmust havevery steepskirts and a flat bandpass.
the output to the Selcaldecoder.
A mechanicalfilter can be usedin which an input
transducerconvertsthe electricalsignalinto
Audio Volume Control Providesfor adjustment of
mechanicalvibrations,theseare transmittedby
audiolevel. Sucha control may be locatedelsewhere, mechanicallyresonantmetal discsand coupling rods
suchas on an audio selectorpanel, part of the AIS.
and finally convertedback to an electricalsignalby
an output transducer.
C:lanfter This control is to be found on some h.f.
Frequencytranslationis by a mixing process
controllers. With s.s.b.signalswhile the phaseof thc
rather than a multiplicativeprocesssinceif the
re-insertedcarrier is of little consequenceits
u.s.b./, + /n' were multiplied by try'we would
frequencyshouldbe accurate.Should the frequency
radiatea frequencyof//(/c + /n,') rather than
be inconect by, say,in excessof t 20 Hz
ft + f " + /.. The amount by which the u.s.b.is
deterioration of the quality of speechwill result.
translated,fi, is determinedby the frequencyselected
A clarifier allows for manual adjustment of the
on the controller. Final amplification takes place in
re-insertedcarrier frequency. Use of highly accurate
the p.a. prior to feedingthe r.f. to the ATU.
md stablefrequency synthesizersmake the provision
To obtain sidetonefrom the p.a. stagea carrier
of such a control unnecessary.
would needto be re-inserted.A simplermethod,
32

Sidetonc
relay

To r.f./i.f. stages

f"+ff"-

f.

Fq.2.l2 Typicalh.f. a.m./s.s.b.

trmsceiverblockdiagram

which neverthelessconfirms that a sigral has reached

the p.a.,is to usethe rectified r.f. to operatea
sidetonerelay. When energizedthe contact of this
relay connectsthe amplified mic. audio to the output
audio amplifier.
Amplitude Modulated Reception The receivedsignal
passesfrom the ATU via the de+nergized antenna
transferrelay contact to an r.f. amplifier and thence
to the r.f. translator. After the translatornormal.a.m.
detection takes place, the audio so obtained being fed
to the output stage. A variety ofa.g.c. and squelch
circuitsmay be employed.

Single Sideband Reception The circrit action on

s.s.b.is similarto that on a.m. until after the
translatorwhen the translated r.f. is fed t6 the product
detector along with the re-inserted'carrier' /". The
output ofthe product detector is the required audio

signal,which is dealt with in the sameway as before.

Antenna Tuning Unit Figure 2.13 illustrates an
automatic ATU simplified block diagram. On
selectinga new frequency a retune sigrralis sent to
the ATU control circuits which then:
l. keys the transmitter;
2. insertsan attenuatorin transceiveroutput line
(Fig.2.t2);
3. switcheson the tuning tone sigral generator
(Fig.2.l2) and drivesa tune warninglamp
(optional);
4. switcheson referencephasesfor servo motors.
The r.f. signalon the input feed is monitored by a
loading servosystem and a phasingservo system. If
the load impedanceis high then the line current, /L,
is low and the line voltage ZL is high. This is
dctected by the loading srvodiscriminator which

El

Aru

Tune Tx
Rctunc tone keY

Transceiver

p;g.2.13 Typicalh.f. a.t.u.blockdiagrarn

appL:: the appropriate amplitude and polarity d.c.

sigral to a chopper/amplifier which in turn provides
the control phasefor the loading servomotor. The
auto transformertap is drivenuntil the load
impedrnceis 50 O.
Should Iy and Vynot be in phasethis is detected
by the phasingservodiscriminator which appliesthe
approp:iateamplitudeand polarity d.c. signalto a
chopper/amplifier which in turn provides the control
phasefor the phasingservomotor. The reactive
elemenis,inductanceand capacitance,
are adjusted
untri.Il and Vy are in phase.
As a result of the action of the two servo systemsa
resistiveload of 50 O is presentedto the co-axial feed
from the transceiver. When both servosreach their
null positions the control circuits removethe signals
listedpreviously.
Ctaracteristics
The following brief list of characteristicsare those of
a systemwhich conformswith ARINC 559A.
frequency Selection
An r.f. nnge of 2'8-24 MHz coveredin I kHz
increments.
Method: reentrant frequency selectionsystem.
Orannelling time lessthan I s.
Mode of Operation
Singlechannel simplex, upper singlesideband.
g

Tlansmitter
Poweroutput: 400 W p.e.p.(200 W p.e.p.
operatiohal).
Absolutemaximum power output: 650 W p.e.p.
Mic. input circuit frequencyresponse:not more than
I 6 dB variation from 1000 Hz levelthrough therange
350 Hz to 2500 Hz.
Spectrumcontrol: componentsat or below
/" -100 Hz and at or abovef" +29O0Hz shouldbe
attenuatedby at least30 dB.
Frequencystability: ! 2OHz. Shop adjustmentno
more often than vearly. Pilot control (e.g.clarifier)
not acceptable.
lnterlock: only one transmitter in a dual system
'first-come,
strouldoperateat a time on a
first-served'
basis,this includestransmittingfor tuning purposes.
Receiver
Sensitivity:4 pV max.; 30 per cent modulation a.m.
(l pV s.s.b.)for l0 dB signaland noiseto noiseratio.
A.g.c.: audio output increasenot more than 6 dB for
input signalincreasefrom 5 to I 000 000 pV and no
more than an additional 2 dB up to I V input signal
level.
Selectivity:
s.s.b.,6d-Bpoints atf"+ 300 Hz and /. + 3100 Hz,
t 35 dB pointsat f"andf" + 3500 Hz.
A.m.: toensureproper receiveroperation(no
adjacentch4nnelinterference)assumingoperationson
6 kHz spaceda.m. channels.

Overall response:compatible with selectivity but in

addition no more than 3 dB variation between anv
two frequenciesin the range300-1500 Hz (for
satisfactorySelcaloperation).
Audio output: two-wire circuit isolated from ground,
300 O (or less)output impedancesupplying 100 mW
(0'5 Selcal)into a 600 O load.

w h e r e N= 1 2 ,1 3 . . . 2 7 ,

giving a total of sixteen tones betwecn 312'6 and

1479.1Hz. The tonesare desigratedby lettes A to S
omitting I, N and O so a typical code might b,:
AK-DM. The re ue 297Ocodesavailablefor
assigrmentusing the first twelve tones, the addition
of tonesP, Q, R and S (1976) bring the total to
10920. Codesor blocks ofcodes are assignedon
Ramp Testing ard Maintenance
Whilst regularinspection of all aircraft antennasis
requestto air carrier organizationswho in turn assigt
called for, it is particularly important in the caseof
codesto their aircraft'either on a flight number or
h.f. antennasand associatedcomponents. Any
aircraft registration-related
basis.
maintenancescheduleshould require frequent
Figure 2.14 illustrates a singleSelcalsystem
inspection ofantenna tensioning units and tethering
large passengertransport aircraft would norma,ly'
points in the caseof wire antennas,while for both
carry two identical systems. The decoder will
probe and wire antennasthe spark gap should be
recognizea receivedcombination of tones on rny of
in3pectedfor signsof lightning strikes (cracking
five channelswhich correspondsto that combrnation
. and/or discolouring).
selectedon the code selectand annunciator pa:;el.
A functional test is similar to that for vh.f. in that When the correct code is recogrized the chime switch
two-way communication should be establishedwith a and appropriate lamp switch is made. The lamp .witch
remote station: all controls should be checked for
supply is by way of an interrupter circuit so that the
lamp will flash. A constant supply to the chime
satisfactoryoperation and meter indications, if any,
svitch causesthe chimes to sound once. Each lanrp
strouldbe within limits. Safety precautions are
particularly important sincevery high voltagesare
holder, designatedHF I , HF I I etc. incorporatesa reset
presenton the antenna systemwith the resulting
switch which when depressedwill releasethe latched
lamp switch and chime switch. The tone filters in the
dangerofelectric shock or arcing. No personnel
decoderwill typically be mechanicallyresonant
should be in the vicinity of the antenna when
devices.
transmitting, nor should fuelling operations be in
Variations in the arrangementshown and
progress.Rememberwith many h.f. systemsa change
describedare possible. Mechanicallythe control and
of frequency could result in transmissionto allow
annunciator panel may be separateunits. Should the
automaticantennatuning.
operatorrequireaircraft registration-related
codes
there will be no need for code selectswitches.the
appropriatecodebeingselectedby jumper leadson
Selcal
the rear connectorofthe decoder.
Although five resetleadswill be provided they
The selectivecalling (Selcal.) system allows a ground
may
be connectedindividually, all in parallel to a
group
of aircraft using
station to call an aircraft or
singleresetswitch or to the p.t.t. circuit of the
h.f. or vir.f. commswithout the flight crew having
transmitter. In this latter caseisolation
associated
continuously to monitor the station frequency.
(within
the decoder)prevent'sneak'circuits,
diodes
A coded sigral is transmitted from the ground and
keying
one
transmittercausingone or more
i.e.
to
the
tuned
the
v.h.f.
or
h.f.
receiver
rcceivedby
othersto be keyed.
appropriate frequency. The output code is fed to a
The lamp and chime srrppliesshown can be
Selcaldecoderwhich activatesaural and visual alerts
at the operator'soption. Possibilitiesare to
changed
if and only if the receivedcode'correspondsto the
reverse
the
situation and havesteady lights and
the
aircraft.
code selectedin
multi-stroke chimes,or havesteady lights and
Each transmitted code is made up of two r.f.
single-strokechime, in which casethe interrgpt
bursts(pulses)eachof-l t 0'25 s separatedby a
circuit is not used.
period of 0.2 t 0'l s. During eachpulsethe
The Selcalsystemswhich do not comply with
per
with
two
90
modulated
transmitted carrier is
cent
ARINC 596 may not providefacilitiesfor decodingof
tones, thus there are a total of four tones per call; .
five channelssimultaneously. A switch is provided on
the frequenciesof the tones determine the code.
the
control panel with which the singledesired
The tones available are given by the formula
channelcan be selected;in this caseonly Selcalcodes
receivedon the correspondingreceiverwill be fed to
= antilog (0'054(/V- t) + 2O),
[y

35

b L*-ntgs

Sslf test

[amp
drive
(5 wiresl

v.H.F.1

v.H.F.2

V.H.F.3

H.F.2

Fig. 2.f4 Typical Selcalblock diagram

the decodcr. Only one annunciator lamp is required.

Codeselectionin an ARINC 596 systemis achieved
by meansof a 'b.c.d.' format. Eachof the four tone
selectorshas four wires associatedwith it; for any
particular tone an appropriate combination of the
wires will be open circuit, the rest grounded. If the

3G

tones A to S arc numbered I to 16 (0) the open wires

will be as given by the correspondingbinary number;
e.g.tone M-12-l l(X), so with the wires designated
8,4,2 and I we see8 and 4 will be open. Note this is
termed so.
not really b.c.d. but is nevertheless
Testing of Selcalis quite straightforward. If

possiblea test rig,consistingofa tone generatorin

conjunctionwith a v.h.f. and h.f. transmittershould
he used,otherwisepermissionto utilize a
Selcalequippedground station shouldbe sought.
G

Audio IntegratingSystems(AlS) - lntercom

Introduction
All the systemsin this book exhibit a variety of
characteristics
but none more so than AIS. In a light.
aircraft the function of the audio systemis to provide
an interfacebetweenthe pilot's mic. and tel. and the
selectedreceiverand transmitter;sucha 'system'
might be little more than a locally manufactured
junction box with a built-in audio
panel-mounted
amplifier and appropriateswitching. ln contraSta
largemulti-crewpassenger
aircrafthasseveral

sub-systems
making up the total audio system. The
remainderof this chapterwill be concernedwith the
AIS on aBoeing747.
It is unusual to considerall the systemsand
sub-systems
which follow as part of AIS, a term
which should perhapsbe restricted to the system
which provides for the selectionof radio system audio
outputs and inpuis and crew intercommunications.
Howevera brief descriptionof all systemswhich
generate,processor recordaudio signalswill be given.
The following servicescomprisethe complete audio
system:
l. flight interphone: allows flight deck crew to
communicatewith eachother or with ground
stations;
2. cabin interphone: allows flight deck and cabin
crew to communicate:

Attendant's chime
call

PA
bverride
VOR/ILSNAV
systom
Markerbsacon
systom
Low range
radioaltimeter
systom

Visual
Pass.ent.
audio
(motionpic.)
system

ATC system
DMEsystom
ADFsystem
HF comnr
un ication
system

lSatcom
I sysrem

I
I

Headsets
and
microph,

tjgg'"q"rlj
Fig. 2.15 Boeing747: typical communicationsfit
(courtesyBoeingCommdrcialAeroplaneCo.)

37

3. serviceinterphone: allows ground staff to

communicatewith each other and also with the
flight crew;
4. passengeraddress(PA): allows announcements
to be made by the crew to the passengers;
5. passengerentertainment system: allows the
showing of movies and the piping of music;
6. gound crew call system: allows flight and
ground crew to attract each other's attention;
7. cockpit voice recorder: meets regulatory
requirementsfor the recording of flight crew
audio for subsequentaccident investigation if
necessary.
It *rould be noted that the aboveare not completely
separatesysremsasillustratedin Fig. 2.15 and
describedbelow. The dividing lines between
zub-systemsof the total audio system are somewhat
arbitrary, and terminologl is varied; however the
facilities describedare commonplace.
Flight Interphone
This is really the basic and most esential part of the
audio system. All radio equipments having mic.
inputs or tel. outputs, aswell asvirtually all other
audio systems,interface with the flight interphone
which may, in itself, be termed the AIS.
A large number of units and componentsmake up
the totd systemas in Table 2.1 with abbreviated
termsaslisted in Table 2.2. Figuie 2.16 showsthe
flight interphone block diagram,simplified to the
extent that only one audio selectionpanel(ASP),
jack panel etc. is shown. An ASP is shown in
F i g .2 . 1 7 .
A crew member selectsthe tel. and mic. signals
required by useof the appropriate controls/switches
on an ASP. The various audio signalsentering an ASp
a.ie'selected
by twelve combined push selectand
volume controls. Each ASP has an audio bus feeding
a built-in isolationamplifier. The v.h.f. and h.f.
comm. ADF, interphone and marker audio signalsare
fed to the bus via the appropriate selectbuttons and
-volume controls. The vh.f. nav. and DME audio is
fed to the bus when voice and rangeare selectedwith
the Voice pushbutton; with voice only selectedthe
DME audio is disconnectedwhile the vJr.f. nav. audio
is pased through a sharp 1020 Hz bandstop filter
(FLl) before feeding the bus. With the flii-normal
switch in the fail position only one audio channel can
be selected(bypassingthe amplificr) and the pA
audio is fed direct to the audioout lines. Radio
altimeter audio is fed direct tb the audio-out lincs.
The above audio switching arrangementsare illustrated
h Fig. 2.18. Note the sericsresistorsin the input

38

Table 2.1

Flight interphone facilities

UPT

FlO

FIE

ASP

Jack panel

Int - R-T
p.Lt.

Handheld
mic.

llcrdrct

Jack

Jack

Boom mic.
headset

Oxygen
mask mic.

Jack

lnterphone
speaker

OBSI

OBS2

M.E.

Jack Jack

feck

Jack

Jrct

hck

Jac*

Iack

x
trck

lack Jrck

J.ct

A'X'indicates the particular unit or component is fitted

at that station (column),
'Jack'
indicatesa jack plug b fitted to enableuseof the
appropriatemic. and/or tel.

Table2.2 Abbreviations
CAPT F/O OBS m.e. -

Captain
First Officer
Observer
Main Equipment
Centre
mic. - Microphone

a.s.p.int. rlt
p.t.t. tel.

Audio SelectorPanel
Interphone
Radiotelephone
hes to Transmit

- Telephone

a\dio lineswhich,togetherwith loadingresistors

in
the interphoneaccessory
box, form an anti-cross
talk
network;if onecrewmemberhas,say,h.f.l selected
on his ASPthen the resistivenetworkwill greatly
attenuatesayh.f.2 whidr would otherwisebe audible
shouldanothercrewmemberhaveselectedh.f.l and
h.f.2.
Six mic. selectbuttonsareprovidedon an ASP;
threevJr.f. @mm.,two h.f. cornm.andPA. Additiond
sritchesasociatedwith mic. selectand transmission
aretheboom-mask
andr.t.-int.p.t.t. on eachASPand
alsop.t.t. buttonson the hand-heldmicrophones.
jack panelsandthe captain'scontrolwheel
(R/T-int.).
To speakorrerinterphonea crewmembershould
selectinterphoneusingthe r.t..int. switchon the
a.s.p.which will connectmic. high(boom or mask)

c.E@{r-8..|&
r^.&rEr.@*ccrd
'Eg-B

E]
lr.
s
lucu
O'El

or',a..,.r

D+-i

i I

ll ir r t

aaaaa

- - - - l

l l l

l!lri4

t t u g
rrr,r
l:JJ

n ti !r

+=
:l---+i

F.--di

#--i
il'F.'Li"ri-i
il--r---l

|I

iI + Il s # - . "

|i 1,.
i,..*.
L-re'g!'e$!sret-l
:i

i---r'"* T------1
ij-#S-.i
i
I

i
Fi& 2.lt Ardb signelselectbn(courtcsyBoeiru
Aeroplane
Commercial
Co.)

Fig. 2.16 Boeirg ?4?: night intqphonc (courtcry Boeirg

CommercialAeroplaneCo.)

tr trtr trtrtr

i_p-

l l t l l

EOOM

ooooo.
l-oo'l
l-"i"_.]
s o o--fio,,
o CI

rE

,r'i

El

I t

-Gql#

rNr

rrr

**"

atr@

xrt

.3

r'
l l -

F .

Fig.l.l7 Audioselection
panel(curtesy
Boeing
Commercial
Aeroplane
Co.)
to the interphone mic. high output feeding the flight
interphoneamplifier in the interphoneaccessorybox.
Alternativelythe captaincan seiectinterphoneon his
control wheel p.t.t. switch which will energizerelay
K2 thus making the mic. higft connectionas before.
Note that the ASP r.t.-int.p.t.t. switchdoesnot rely
on power reachingthe ASP for relay operation (see

f'

rrcw

rs

s*

*rcx

r|rrrftsa
ro rLrcir

E
r.Mro

IC'Off

{rcaet{d
rrtat,da

hIGN

rg

Fi& 2.19 Microphone signalselection(courtesy Bocing

CommercialAeroplaneCo.)

39

Fig. 2.19). Interphone mic. signalsfrom all ASh are

fed to the flight interphone amplifier which combines
them and feedsthe amplified interphone audio to all
ASPsfor selectionas required.
Pressing
a mic. selectbutton on the ASP will
connectthe correspondingsystemmic. input lines to
relayK2 and to contactson the ASP r.t.-int. p.t.t.
switch. Thus when a p.t.t. switch is pressed,the mic.
lineswill be madeby either the contactsof K2 or by
the ASPp.t.t. switchin the r.t. position. In Fig. 2.19
the h.f.2 selectswitch is shown as typical of all comni.
selectswitches.Whenthe PA selectswitch is pressed
the flight interphonemic. circuit is interruptedand
PA audio is applied to the fail-normal switch; in
additionthe mic. linesto the PA systemare made.
Operationof any p.t.t. switch mutesboth interphone
speakers
to preventacousticfeedback.
Cabin Interphonc
The cabin interphoneis a miniatureautomatic
telephoneexchangeservicingseveralsubscribers:
the cabin attendantsand the captain. In addition
the systeminterfaceswith the PA to allow
to be made.
announcements
Numbersaredialledby pushbuttonson the
telephonetype handsetsor on the pilot's control
unit. Eleventwo-figurenumbersare allocatedto the
plus additionalnumbersfor PA in
subscribers,
'all-attendants'
variousor all compartments,an
call
'all-call'.
and an
Two dialling codesconsistof letters:
P-Pis usedby an attendantto alert the pilot (call
light flasheson control unit and chime soundsonce)
while PA-PAis usedby the pilot to gain absolute
priority over all other usersof the PA system. The
directory is listed on the push-to-talkswitch
incorporatedin eachhandsetto minimizeambient
noise.
All diallingcode decodingand the necessarytrunk
switchingis carriedout in the centralswitchingunit,
CSU(automaticexchange).The CSU also contains
three amplifiers,one of which is permanently
allocatedto the pilot on what is effectivelya private
trunk. Of the five other availabletrunks, two are
allocatedto the attendants,two to the PA systemand
-onefor dialling. (Note a trunk is simply a circuit
which can connecttwo subscribers.)
The cabin interphoneand serviceinterphone
qystemsmay be combinedinto a common network
by appropriateselectionon the flight engineer's
interphoneswitch panel,captain'sASP and cabin
interphonecontrol unit. Any handsetmay then be
lifted and connectedinto the network (dial'all-call').
In a similarway the flight interphonecircuits may be
usedto make specificcallsover.thecabin interphone
system.

Crll light

Attondrnt's .t tion3
(typrcrl)

c.:to!:S"hin!
Itntcrphonc I
lrudio acccrl
lbox
I
Ft. 2.20 Boeing 7rt7: cabin interphonc (courtcsy Boeitg
Commercial Aeroplane Co.)
.** --o;*

The systemis more complex than has been

suggestedabovebut a basic description has been given,
zupportedby Fi1.2.20.
ServiceInterphone
A total of twenty-two handsetjacks arelocatedin
variousparts of the airframein order that ground
crew can communicatewith one anotherusingthe
serviceinterphonesystem. The systemis rather
simplerthan thoseconsideredabove. Mic. audio from
'pressto talk' depressed,
are
all handsets,with
combinedin and amplifiedby the serviceinterphone
amplifier in the interphoneaudio accessorybox.
The amplified signalis fed to all handsettels.
Volume control adjustmentis providedby a preset
potentiometer.
With the flight engineer'sinterphoneswitch
selectedto ON the input summingnetworks for both
serviceand flight interphonesystemsare combined.
All mic. inputs from either systemare amplified and
fed to both systems.
Address'
PassengQr
The systemcomprisesthree PA amplifiers,tape deck,
annunciatorpanel,attendant'spanel,PA accessory
speakerswitch paneland
box, control assemblies,
fifty-three loudspeakers.The variousPA messages
havean order of priority assigredto them: pilot's
ts, attendant'sannouncements,
announcemen
prerecordedannouncementsand finally boarding
music. All PA audio is broadcastover the speaker
systemand also,except for boardingmusic,overrides

L--------

r----- -T----1

,:.*Q
I

*.*A
i

L-

l-*.,^f-J,
.*,,"."

L__------.J
fr

aLaclioir6

cricull

r!r6xr ,i[ma

I ,".",*,.1-liii',T:f..

'
i''' *llF^*.;
^*'
l;n:'6--'"'"" ; *,,*,*
,"*

euo'o

?il6

Fig,2.2l Boeing?47: serviceinterphone(courtesyBoeing

CommercialAeroPlaneCo.)

stethoscope
entertainmentaudio fed to the passenger
emergencyannouncement
headsets.A prerecorded
may be initiated by the pilot or an attendant,or
automaticallyin the event of cabin decompression'
'fasten
A chimeis generatedwhen the pilot tums on
'no smoking' siglts.
seat-belt'or
addressamplifiersare fed via the
The passenger
flight or cabininterphone systemsfor pilot oratiendantannouncementsrespectively.Distribution
of audio from the amplifiersto the speakersin various
zonesdependson the classconfiguration,sincesome
*noun.itntnts may be intended for only a certain
classof passengers.
The necessaiydistribution is achievedby meansof
switcheson the speakerswitchingpanel. Audio is also
fed to the flight interphonesystemfor sidetone
purposes.
Number 2 and number 3 ampliliers ere slavedto
number I for all'classannouncements.Should
be requiredthe parallel
separateclassannouncements
control relay is energized,so separatingthe number I
audio from that of number 2 and 3. The control
assembliesin the PA accessorybox contain
potentiometersused to set the gain of the PA

lf,b__^-rc,

L____r
(courtesy
Boeing
address
F1g.2.22Boeing?4?:passenger
Co')
AeroPlane
Commercial

amplifiers. When the aircraft is on the ground with

;;;i;g gearlocked down and ground powgl applied
the lev-efofspeakeraudio is reducedby 6 dB'
The tape deck containsup to five tape cartridges
apart from the necessarytape'{rive mechanism'
piaybackhead and a pre-amplifier' Boarding musicis
Ltectea at an attendint'spanelwhile prerecorded
imnouncementsare selectedby meansof twelve
pushbuttonson the annunciatorpanel'
PassengerEntertainment SYstem
entertainmentsystemof the Boeing
The pa-ssenger
747 andan! other modern largeairliner is perhaps
also
the mmt complex of 3ll airbome systems'lt is
and,
the systemliklly to causmost trouble
the
fortunatelv, teait litcelyto affect the safety of
or
a
fire
to
leads
aircraft unlessbad servicing
^
loose-articlehazard. Evenon the sametype ol
aircraft a variety of serviceswill be availablesince
different op.r"iott will offer different entertainment
the
in a bid to capturemore customers' In view of
is
description
following
abovecomments, the
particularlybrief and doesnot do justice to the
complexitY involved.

41

Movie
audio

P.A.
override

Other
submultiplexers
Seats
1 2 3
Channel select
Other seat
demultiolexers

Other seat
colurnns

2 3
Seats

Fig.2.23 Boeing747: simplified passengerentertainment

system

'system',
Both moviesand music are provided,the movie
as can be seenfrom the schematicdiagram
audio being fed to individual seatsvia the music
n Fig.2.?4. The horn and flight-deckcall button are
portion of the system.Ten tape-deckchannels,four
locatedin the nosewheel bay while tl'reground-crew
movieaudio channelsand one p.a.channel(total
call(with illumination)and auralwarningbox areon
fifteen) are provided usingtime multiplexing. A time the flight deck. Operation is self-explanatoryfrom
interval,ternreda liame, is divided into fifteen
the diagram. Should horn or chinte sound, the ground
channeltimesduringwhich the signalamplitudeof
crew, or flight crew respectively,will contact each
eachchannelis sampled.The audiosigrralamplitudes other usingone of the interphonesystems.
arebinary coded(twelve bits) and transmitted,
togetherwith channelidentification, clock and sync.
pulses,over a co-axialcablerunning throughout the
aircraft.
The music channels(five stereo,ten monauralor a
mixture)aremultiplexedin the main multiplexer,the
resultingdigitalsignalbeingfed to six submultiplexers
CFO CiCW CALL
+.
in series,the final one being terminatedwith a suitable
load resistor. Movie and PA audio are multiplexed
with the musicchannelsin the zonesubmuliiplexers,
Fig.2.24 Boeing747:groundcrewcall(courtesy
Boeing
eachof which feedsthree or four columnsof seat
Aeroplane
Conrmercial
Co.)
demultiplexers.Channelselectionis madeby the
passenger
who hearsthe appropriateaudio over his
Cockpit Voice Recorder
- stethoscopeheadsetafter digital to analogue
conversionin the demultiplexer. Alternate zone
An endlesstape provides30 niin recordingtime for
submultiplexersare usedasback-upin the event of
audio signalsinput on four separatechannels.The
prime submultiplexerfailure (classpriorities exist if
channelinputs are captain's,first officer's and flight
failuresmean somepassengers
must havethe
engineer'stransmitted and receivedaudio and cockpit
entertainmentservicediscontinued).
areaconversation.Passenger
addressaudio may be
The controls necessaryfor activationof the
substitutedfor the flight engineer'saudio in an
entertainments
systemarelocatedon attendants'
aircraft certified to fly with two crew members.
control panels.
The microphoneinputs should be from so-called
'hot
mics', i.e. microphoneswhich are permanently
Ground Crew Call Syrtem
live regardless
of the setting of ASP or control
Ground crew call is hardly worthy of the title
column switches. The areamicrophone(which may

42

Flt. eng.
hot mic.
tel.
Record
head

lst. off.
hot mic.
tel.

Area Mic.

lo
Q Playback
I head

Pre-amp-

Erase

Test
Jack

4,
Landing

parking

P"::;

ffif

Essontirl
flt. inst.
bus bar

Ft1.2.25 Typicalcockpitvoicerccorderblockdiagram

be s.eparate
from the control panel) is strategically
situatedso that it can pick up night crew speechand
generalcockpit sounds.
While the control panelis situatedin the cockpit,
.,
the recorderunit (CVR) is locatedat .:heother end of
the aircraft where it is leastlikely to suffer damagein
the event of an accident. The CVR is constructedso
asto withstand shock and fire damage,and additionally
is paintedin a fire-resistantorangepaint to assistin
recoveryfrom a wreck.
The recorded audio may be erasedproviding the
landinggearand parking brake interloik relav'
contactsare closed. As a further safeguardaiainst
accidentalerasurea delay is incorporited in the bulk
erasecircuit which requiresthp operator to depress
the 'erase'switch for two secondibefore "r"a*"
commences.
Test facilities are provided for all four channels,

separatelyor all together. A playbackhead and

monitor amplifier allowsa satisfactorytest to be
observedon metersor heardover a headsetviajack
plug sockets. Pressingthe test button on the control
panel or the all-testbutton on the CVR causesthe
channelsto be monitored sequentially.
The power supply for the system should be from a
sourcewhich provideqmaximum reliabilitv. Sincethe
tape is subjectto wear and thus has a limiied life, the
CVR should be switchedoff when nqt in use. A
suitable method would be to remove power to the
CVR wheneverexternalground power is connected.

Testingand Trouble Shootingthe Audio

Systems
Variousself-test
facilitiesmaybeprovided
by which
tl:l

tonesmay be generatedand heardover headsets.

However,to testproperlyall switchesshouldbe
operatedand all mic. and tel.jacks,aswell as
speakers,shouldbe checkedfor the requiredaudio.
This shouldbe sufficiently loud, clearand noise-free.
Amplifier gainpresetsin accessoryboxesmay needto
be adjusted. A full functional test is best done by
two men, althoughit is not impossiblefor one man
with two headsetsand an extensionlead to establish
two-way contact betweenvariousstations.
Faults can be quite difficult to find owing to the
complicatedswitchingarrangements.Howeverthe
wide rangeof switchingcan be usedto advantagein
order to isolatesuspectunits or interconnections.
Disconnectingunits providesa good method of

finding short circuits or howls due to coffee-induced

tel.-mic.feedback(i.e. spilt liquid providinga
conductingpath betweentel. and mic. circuits).
Whereone has a number of units in series,e.g.
demultiplexersin an entertainmentsystem,
disconnectingcan be a particularly rapid method of
fault-finding;it is usually.best to split the run in half,
then in half again,and so on until the faulty unit or
connectionis found. Continuity checkson very long
cablescan be achievedby shorting to earth at one end
and then measuringthe resistanceto earth at the
other. The resistanceto earth should also be
measuredwith the short removedin casea natural
short exists.

3 Automaticdirectionfinding

Introduction
Most readerswill havecome acrossthe principle on
which ADF is basedwhen listeningto a transistor
radio. As the radio is rotated the signalbecomes
weakeror stronger,dependingon its orientation with
respectto the distant transmitter. Of courseit is the
antennawhich is directionaland this fact has been
known sincethe early days of radio.
In the 1920sa simpleloop antennawas usedwhich
could be rotated by hand. The pilot would position
the loop so that there was a null in the signal from the
station to which he was tuned. The bearingof the
stationcould then be readoff a scaleon the loop.
Tuning into anotherstation gaverise to another
bearingand consequentlya fix. Apart from
position-fixingthe direction-findingloop could be
usedfor homing on to a particularstation. This
primitive equipmentrepresentedthe first use of radio
for navigationpurposesand came to be known as the
radio compass.
The systemhas been much developedsince those
early daysand in particularits operationhasbeen
simplified. Within the band 100-2000kHz (I.f./m.f.)
thereare many broadcaststationsand non-directional
beacons(NDB). An aircraft today would have twin

Athwartships
loop

receiverswhich, when tuned to two distinct stations

or beacons,would automaticallydrive two pointerson
an instrumentcalleda radio magneticindicator (RMI)
so that eachpointer gavethe bearingof the
correspondingstation. The aircraft position is where
the two directionsintersect. Sincesucha system
requiresthe minimum of pilot involvementthe name
radio compasshascome to be replacedby automatic
direction finder (ADF).

BasicPrinciples
TheLoop Antenna

'l

he first requirementof any ADF is a directional

antenna. Early loop antennaswere able to be rotated
first by hand and subsequentlyby motor,
automatically. The obviousadvantageof havingno
moving partsin the aircraft skin-mountedantennahas
led to the universaluseof a fixed loop and goniometer
in modern equipments,althoughsomeolder types are
still in service.
The loop antennaconsistsof an orthogonalpair of
coils wound on a single flat ferrite core which
concentratesthe magnetic(H) field componentof the
e.m. waveradiatedfrom a distant station. The plane

Rotot
(sctrch coil)

Forc and aft loop

Fb.3.l

Loop entcnnaand goniometcr

45

ol one coil is alignedwith the aircraftlongitudinal

axiswhile the other is alignedwith the lateralaxis.
The currentinducedin eachcoil will dependon
the directidnof the nragneticfield. Whenthe plane
of the loop is perpendicular
to the directionof
propagation,
no voltageis inducedin the loop since
the linesof flux do not link with it. lt canbe seen
that if one loop doesnot link with the magneticfield
the other will havemaximumlinkage. Figure3.1
showsthat the loop currentsflow through the stator
(resolver)where.providing
windingof a gonionreter
the characteristics
o1'eachcircuitareidentical,the
magneticfield detectedby the loop will be recreated
in so far asdirectionis concerned.We now
effectivelyhavea rotating loop antennain the form
of the eoniometerrotor or searchcoil. As the rotor
turnstf,rough360otherewill be two peaksand two
nullsof the voltageinducedin it. The output of the
rotor is the input to the ADF receiverwhich thus sees
is
the rotor asthe antenna.Suchan arrangement
known asa Bellini-Tosisystem.
Sincewe areeffectivelybackwith a rotatingloop
situationwe shouldconsiderthe polardiagramof
suchan antennaaswe areinterestedin its directional
properties.
In Fig. 3.2 we havea verticallypolarizedt.e.m.
wavefrom the direction shown. Tl.ratcomponentof
the H field linking with the loop will be H sin 0, so a
plot of the loop current againstI producesa sine
curveasshown. The polar diagramof such an
antennawill be asin Fig. 3.3. It canbe seenthat
natureof the plot the nulls
of the sinusoidal
because
arefar more sharplydefinedthan the peaks.
The abovehasassumeda verticallypolarizedwave
which is in fact the casewith NDBs and most

Fig,3.3 Loopaerialpolardiagram
broadcaststations.Howevera verticallypolarized
earth and
signaltravellingovernon-homogeneous
strikingreflectingobjects,includingthe ionosphere,
can arriveat the loop with an appreciable
horizontallypolarizedcomponent.The currentin
the loop will then be due to two sources,the vertical
and horizontal cornponents,which will in generalgive
in the
a non-zeroresultarrtnull, not necessarily
direction of the plane of the antenna. This
polarizationerrordictatesthat ADF ihould only be
usedwith groundwavesignalswhich in the l.f./m.f.
bandsare usefulfor severalhundredmiles. However.
polarizedsky
they arecontaminated
by non-vertically
wavesbeyond,say,200m at 200 kHz and 50 m at
1600 kHz, the effect beingmuch worseat night
(night effect)
$*o read ,
The SenseAntenna
The polar diagramof the loop (Fig. 3.3) showsthat
the bearingof the NDB will be givenas one of twtr

Plane of looP

tl

Direction of
propagatron -------------+

l,/

(l
\

E fieldO

.-0,,

F8. 3.2 To illustrate degrccof coupling of loop acrbl

tt6

H field

figures,l80o apart, sincethere are two nulls. In

althoughnot as clearlydefinedas the nulls for the
order to determinethe correctbearingfurther
figure-of-eight(Fig. 3.4).
information is neededand this is providedby an
omnidirectionalsenseantenna. In a verticaliv
polarizedfield an antennawhich is omnidireitional in
Simplified Block Diagram Operation
the horizontal plarreshouldbe of a type which is
excited by the electric(E) field of the t.e.m. wave
Automatic direction finding (ADF) is achievedby
i.e. a capacitanceantenna. The output of suchan
meansof a servoloop. The searchcoil is driven ro a
antennawill vary with the instantaneousfield
stablenull position,a secondnull beingunstable.
strengthwhile the output of a loop antennavariesas
the instantaneousrate of changeof field strength
- The searchcoil o-utput,after amplification,is
phase-shifted
by 90" so as to be either in phaseor out
(Faraday'slaw of inducede.m.f.). As a
of phasewith the senseantennaoutput, dipending on
consequence,
regardless
of the direction of the t.e.m.
the direction of the NDB. prior to addingto the
wave,the senseantennar.f. output will be in phase
sensesignalthe phase-shifted
loop signalis switched
quadraturewith respectto the searchcoil r.f.butput.
in phasein a balancedmodulator at a rate determined
In order to sensethe direction of the NDB the two
by a switchingoscillator,usuallysomewherebetween
antennaoutputs must be combinedin such a way as
a 50 Hz and 250 Hz rate. Whenthe compositesignal
either to cancelor reinforce,and so either the sense
is formed in a summingamplifier it will be
or the loop signalmust be phaseshifted by 90..
amplitude-modulatedat the switchingfrequencysince
A compositesignalmadeup of the searchcoil
for one half period the two input signalswill be in
output phaseshifted by 90' and the senseantenna
phasewhile for the next half period they will be in
output would appearas if it camefrom an antenna
antiphase(seeFigure3.6).
the polar diagramof which was the sum of thosefor
The amplitudemodulationis,detected
in the last
the individual antennas.Now the figure-of-eightpolar
stageof a superhetreceiver.The detectedoutput will
diagramfor the loop can be thought of asbeing
be either in phase,or in antiphase,with the switching
generatedaswe considerthe output of a fixed search
oscillatoroutput and so a further 90" phase-shiftis
coil for variousn.d.b.bearings
or the output of a
requiredin orderto providea suitablecontrolphase
rotatingsearchcoil for a fixed n.d.b.beaiing,either
for the servomotor. The motor will drive either
separatehalvesof the figure-of+ightwill be
clockwiseor anticlockwisetowardsthe stablenull.
1v%the
rdu out ot phase.As a consequence
the sense
When the null is reachedtherewill be no searchcoil
antennapolar diagramwill add to the loop polar
output henceno amplitudemodulationof the
diagramfor somebearings,and subtractfoiothers.
compositesignalso the referencephasedrive will be
The resultantdiagramis a cardiodwith only one null,
zero and the motor will stop.
Should the servomotor Le in sucha position that
the searchcoil is at the unstablenull the sliehtest
-a--\.
disturbancewill causethe motor to drive aiay fiom
/ t /
\ \ \ \
,
/
l
\
\
this position towardsthe stablenull. The senieof the
/
t
l
\
connectionsthroughoutthe systemmust be correct
/
t
l
\
for the stablenull to give the bearing.
/
\
t
. A synchrotorquetransmitter(STTx),mountedon
the searchcoil shaft, transmitsthe bearineto a remote
indicator.
'.

r
\

'.
\-

'l

l
/

/
\

-\-__-i--

./

z'

Fig. 3.4 Compositepolar diagram

Block Diagram Detail

Tuning
Modern ADFs employ so-calleddigital tuning
wherebyspot frequenciesare selected,as opposedto
older setswherecontinuoustuning *.s usurl.
A conventionalfrequencysynthesizeris usedto
generatethe local oscillator(first l.o. if double
superhet)frequency. The tuning voltagefed to the
v.c.o.in the phaselock loop is alsousedfor varicap

47

Loop antenne
Synchro.torque Tx o l P

S u m m i n ga m P .

Fig.3.5 An ADF simplifiedblockdiagram

tuning in the r.f. stages.Remoteselectionis by b.c'd.

(ARINC 570) or someother codesuchas 215.
BalancedModulator
Figure3.7 showsthe balancedmodulator usedin the
King KR 85. DiodesCR 1 l3 and CR I l4 areturned
on and off by the switchingoscillator(Q 3l I and
Q 312) so alternatelyswitchingthe loop signalto one
of two sidesof the balancedtransformerT I 16. The
output of Tl l6 is thus the loop sigral with its phase
swiichedbetween0o and 180" at the oscillatorrate.
Receiver
A conventionalsuperhet receiveris usedwith an i.f.
frequencyof 14l kHz in the caseof the KR 85 ; i.f.
andr.f. gain may be manuallycontrolledbut in any
casea.g.c.is used. An audio amp, with normal gain
control, amplifiesthe detectsdsignaland feedsthe
AIS for identificationpurposes.A beat frequency
oscillator (b.f.o.) can be switched in to facilitate the
identificationof NDBs transmittingkeyed c.w- The
/t8

b.f.o. output is mixed with the i.f. so asto produce

an audio differencefrequency. Good sensitivityis
requiredsincethe effectiveheight of modern
low-dragantennasgivesa low levelof signalpick-up'
Good selectivityis requiredto avoid adjacentchannel
interferencein the crowdedI'f./m.f. band.
Indication of Bearing
In all indicatorsthe pointer is alignedin the direction
of the NDB. The angleof rotation clockwisefrom a
lubber line at the top of the indicator givesthe relative
bearingof the NDB. If the instrumenthas a fixed
scaleii is known as a relativebearingindicator (RBD'
More common is a radio magneticindicator (RMI)
which hasa rotating scaleslavedto the compass
heading. An RMI will give the magretic bearingof
the NDB on the scaleaswell as the relativebearingby
the amount of rotation of the pointer from the lubber
line. Figure3.8 illustratesthe readingson RBI and
RMI for a givenNDB relativebearingand aircraft
heading. An RMI normally providesfor indication of

NDB 1

NDB 2

two magneticheadingsfrom a combinationof two

ADF receiversand two VOR receivers.Figure 3.9
showsa typical RMI while Fig.3.l0 showsthe RMI
which may
circuit and typical switchingarrangements
be internal or external to the RMIs.

Assumesearchcoil aligned with zero bearing

Sourcesof SystemError

NDB 2 to right

NDB 1 to left

Loop

r.t.
Switching
voltage

Automatic direction finding is subjectto a number of

sourcesof error, asbriefly outlined below.

\A/\A
I

ra_

hdg.

Balanced
mod. O/P
Sense
r.f.

Composite
signal

M,|AA

N.D.B.

AAA
-iAA
I

Detected
Rx out
Reference
phase

l-.-1

r i r -

N.8. Waveshapes and relative time

scalesare not exactly as shown.
Fig. 3.6 DiagramshowingADF phaserelationships

R.M.l.

R.B.I

Fig. 3.8 Diagramof RMI and RBI readings

T116
Astable
multivibrator
o311-312

Fig. 3.7 King KR 85 balancedmodulator - simplified

49

Night Effect This is the polarizationerror mentio,ned

previouslyunder the headingof the loop antenna.
The effect is most noticeableat sunriseclr sunset
when the ionosphereis changingmost rapidly.
Bearingerrorsand instabilityareleastwhen tunedto
an NDB at the low end of the frequencyrangeof the
ADF.
CoastalRefraction The differing propertiesof land
and waterwith regardto e.m.groundwaveabsorption
leadsto refractionof the NDB transmission.The
effectis to changethe directionof traveland so give
riseto an indicatedbearingdifferent from the actual
bearingof the transmitter.
Mountain Effect If the wave is reflected by
mountains,hills or largestructures,the ADF may
measurethe direction of arrivalof the reflectedwave.
The nearerthe reflectingobject is to the aircraft the
greaterthe error by the geometryof the situation.
Stotic Interference Static build-up on the airframe

Fig.3.9 KNI 581 RMI (courtesyKing RadioCorp.)

ADF No. 1

VOR No.l

ADF No

No. 2.

No.1.

cto

cto

No. 2. R.M.l

26V
4OO Hz
Ref.

t
---/
/ Red

No'1 R'M'l'
,/tr\
(w E)
\9/
A_-A

Fig. 3.10 Radio magneticindicator: simplified circuit

50

VOR No. 2.

and the consequentdischargereducesthe effective

rangeand accuracyof an ADF. Thunderstormsare
alsoa sourceof static interferencewhich may give
rise to largebearingerrors. The ability of ADF to
pick up thunderstormshasbeenusedby one
manufacturerto give directionalwarning of storm
activity (Ryan Stormscope).
Vertical or Antenna Effect The vertical limbs of the
crossedloopshavevoltagesinducedin them by the
electriccomponentof the e.m.wave. If the planeof
a loop is perpendicularto the direction of arrivalof
the signalthere will be no H field coupling and the E
field will induce equalvoltagesin both vertical limbs
so we will havea null as required. Should, however,
the two halvesof the loop be unbalanced,the current
inducedby the E field will not sum to zero and so the
direction of arrival to give a null will not be
perpendicularto the plane of the loop. An
imbalancemay be due to unequalstray capacitanceto
earth either sideof the loop; howeverin a
well-designed
Bellini-Tosisystem,where eachloop is
balancedby a centretap to earth, this is not a severe
problem.
Station Interference When a number of NDBs and
broadcaststationsare operatingin a given areaat
closelyspacedfrequenciesstation interferencemay

result. As previouslymentionedhigh selectivityis

requiredfor adequateadjacentchannelrejection.
Quadrantal Enor (QE) It is obvious that the two
fixed loops must be identicalin electrical
characteristics,
asmust the stator coils of the
goniometer. If the signalarrivesat an angle0 to the
planeof loop A in Fig. 3.1I the voltageinducedin
loop A will be proportionalto cos0 and in loop B to
cos(90-d)= sin0. If now the searchcoil makesan
angled with the stator P then the voltageinducedin
the searchcoil will be proportionalto
(cosOX cos@)- (sinOX sin@)providedthere is no
mutual couplingbetweenthe interconnectingleads.
So when the searchcoil voltageis zero:
cosOXcos@=sinOXsin@
or:
cot0 = tan0
and:
0=6+ 90+ifX 180
wherey'y'is 0 or any integer. This is simply a
mathematicalmodel of the situationpreviously
ddscribedunder the headingof the loop antenna.
Now considerthe two loopsnot electrically
identicalso that the ratio of the maximum voltages
inducpd in the two loops by a given signalis r. The
condition for zero voltagein the searchcoil is now:

Direction of
arrival

Fig. 3. I I Diagram showingsearchcoil signalas a function of

direction of arrival

51

cotO=rXtan@'
when
0=O

cotp=o

circuits and the loop connectionswill lead to errorsin

the searchcoil Position.

lnstallation

therefore
A typical transport aircraft ADF installationis shown
i n F i g . 3 . l 2 ; N o . 1 s y s t e mo n l y i s s h o w n ,N o ' 2 b e i n g
sirnilir except that different power bus barswill be
when
used. Main power is 28 V d.c', the 26 V, 400 Hz
cot0=0
0=90
being usedto supply the synchros' lt is vital that the
26 V 400 Hz fed to the ADF receiveris from the
therefore
samesourceas that fed to the RMI'
tan6'=0 so 0'=0+NXl80
The loop antennaand its connectingcableform
g
=
part of the input circuit of the receiverand so must
180 or 270) we
(alsowhen
In thesetwo cases
p
=
n
o
'
s
t
t
iravea fixed known capacitance(C) and inductance
0
h a v et h e s a m es i t u a t i o na sb c l o r el . e .
(L). This being so the length and type of loop cableis
error.
the
so
error'
an
ipecified by the manufacturerof the loop. The
will
be
there
angles
At intermediate
not be exceeded,but it can be
bearingindicatedby the searchcoil will be incorrect' length specifiedmust
compensatingC and L are
provided
in
tlnee
shorter
value
made
Sincethis type of errorhasa maximum
the
circuit.
in
placed
correctly
error'
quadrantal
eachquadrantit is called
equalizercontainsthe
loop
corrector
r'f'
The
will
cause
QE
NDB
the
from
wave
t.e.m.
Now the
to compensatefor a
components
reactive
currentsto flow in the metalstructureof the aircraft' necessary
provide
to
and
QE correction' A
cable
loop
the
from
short
Eachof the loops will receivesignalsdirect
3.13. Cl,C2,Ll,L2
Fig.
given
in
is
ciicuit
typical
airframe'
the
trom
signals
NDB and alsore-radiated
(loop
una C:, C4,L3, L4 providecompensation
Sincethe aspectratio of the aircraft fuselageand
correction
provide
L6,L7
L5,
QE
while
equalization)
energy
wingsis not I : I the effect of the re-radiated
stator of
appropriate
the
in
current
the
attenuating
by
equivalent
is
on th. t*o loopswill be different:this
is
equalizer
loop
the goniometer.The QE corrector
to makingtwo physicallyidenticalloopselectrically
to the IooP.
dissimilar.The resultingquadrantalerror could be up mounted close
Similar considerationsapply to the senseantenna
to 20" maximum.
to
can be nradeby usinga which is required to presenta specifiedcapacitance
Fortunately,compensation
of cable
given
length
a
we
have
Again
receiver.
the
possibly
and
QE
QE correctorloop equalizer
the combined which must not be exceededbut can be madeshorter
correctionbuilt into the loop. Nt>rrnaliy
an iqualizeris fitted. Often both an
r.f. field producesa gleatervoltagein the longitudinal proviclecl
are usedto achieve
and a suscepti-former
equalizer
identical'
loop than in the lateralloop if the loopsare
receiver'The
the
to
capacitance
input
statetl
the
more
have
antennas
This beingthe casesomeloop
devicewhich
matching
passive
susceptlformeris a
turnson the lateralloop than the longitudinallocp,
the effective
to
increase
transformer
auto
utilizesan
typical correctionUelngt Z|' in the middle of the
antenna.Typicalunitsare
sense
the
of
capacitance
quadrants.
shbwnin Fig. 3.14. As an alternativethe necessary
may be achievedin a single
Loop Alignment Error If the longitudinalloop plane matchingand equalization
matching/equalizing
The
coupler.
senseantenna
is not parallelto the aircraft longttudinalaxis then a
the antenna'
to
close
mounted
are
unit(s)
constantloop alignmenterrorwill exist.
Tire loop antennawill consistof the crossedcoils
wound on a ferrite slab and encapsulatedin a
Field Alignment Error If the loop antennais offset
low-draghousing. On high-speedaircraft the loop will
from the aircraft centreline the maxima of the
zeros'
be flush with the skin but on slower aircraft the
will
the
as
quadrintal error will be shifted,
housingmay protrude slightly, givingbetter signal
Consequentlythe situation wherethe NDB is at a
pick-up.
relativebearingof 0, 90, 180pr 2?0o will not give
The senseantenna can take many forms' On large
zeroerror.
is
c-apacitiveplate
Ft transport aircraft a suppressed
'towel rail'
a
aircraft
comrnon,whereason slower
Loop Connector Stmy Coupling Reactive coupling
type of antennamay be used. Generalaviation
external
between
or
connections
the
loop
between
t a n @ ' = es o

52

Q'=90+NXl80

N o .1 2 8 V d . c .

4OOHz

Panel
lights
supply

Corrector
box

No. I
VOR

From
No. 2 ADF
or No. 2 VOR

Compass
hdg

Sense
aerial
Fig.3.l2 TypicalADF installation

o i
-cc

Fig. 3.13 Quadrantalerror corector/loop equalizer

(straight-through
connectionsnot shown)

aircraft might usea wire antennaor, asan alternative,

a whip antenna. Somemanufacturersnow producea
combinedloop and senseantennafor the general
aviationmarket.
The position of both antennasis important. The
loop shouldbe mounted on, and parallelto, thecenire line of the aircraft with nomore than 0'25"
alignmenterror. While the loop may be on top or

Sense ae. cable

equalizer
lnsulated
sense ae.
terminal

lnner
screen
Fig; 3.t4 Senseaerial matchin!

53

bottom of the fuselage

it shouldnot be mountednear
the nose,tail, largeor movableprotuberances
or near
othersystemantennae.Similarconsiderations
apply
to the senseantenna,althoughbeingomnidirectional
alignmentis not a problem. Ideallythe senseantenna
will be mountedat the electricalcentreof the aircraft
in orderto giveaccurateover-station
turn-aroundof
the bearingpointer.
The interconnectionsin the systemmust take into
Fig. 3.15 ARINC 570 control panel (typical)
accountthat the phasingof voltagesproducedby
senseand loop antennaswill be different for top and
bottom mounting. The methodusedwill dependon
the manufacturer
but if the systemconformsto
Functiort Switch. OFF-ANT-ADF In the antenna
ARINC 570 the synchrorepeaterconnections
will be
position(ANT) the receiveroperatesfronr the sense
asin Table3.1. If, asin somelight aircraft
a n t e n n ao n l y , t h e b e a L i n p
g o i n t e rb e i n gp a r k e da t 9 0 "
r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
p
o
s
i r i o nm a y b e u s e dl b r
b
e
a
r
i
n
g
.
T
h
i
:
Table3.1 Synchroconnectionsfor alternateaerial
t
u
n
i
n
g
N
D
B
,
l
s
t
l
t
i
o
n
a
n
d
i
d
e n t i f i c a t i o nI.n t h e A D F
locations.Indicatorsynchroreceivercorrections
positionsignalsfrorn both loop and senseantenna
p r o v i d en o l n r a lA D F o p e r a t i o nt,h e R M I i n d i c a t i n g
Aerial position
Bottom
Bottorn
Top
Top
t h e b e a r i n go l ' t h e s t a t i o n .
loop,
loop,
loop,

ottO'oo'

SI
Synchro
52
transmitter S3
corrections Rl
R2

bottorn
sense

top
scnse

top
sense

sl
s2
s3

sl
s2

S3
S2

S3
R2
RI

SI
RI
R2

RI
R2

loop,
bottom
sense
S3

s2
sl
R2
RI

Fretluenq,St,/ecl(rrobs Threeknobsareused;one
is nrorrntedco-ariallywith the functionswitch,to
s e l e c ft r e q u e n c yi n, 0 . 5 , l 0 a n d 1 0 0k H z i n c r e m e n t s .
D i g i t r l t v p e t ' r e q u e ny ed i s p l a ys e g m e n ti sn d i c a t et h e
selectedflr'qrrencv.The informationis passedto the
r e c e i r eur sp l r l l k ' l b . c . t i .

Ilcat F-requt'rtct'Oscillatr'r Sx,itch Selectsthe BFO

installations,the goniometeris in the indicator and
lirr useu'henthe NDB selec:ted
is identifiedby
the bearingis presented
directlyratherthan by synchro t ' r n - o lk- ie-r i n g o l ' t h e ea r ri e r .
feed then the following correctionsare necessary:
A nurrrberof other su,itches
nraybe found on
v a r i o u sc o r r t r o l l e r as s. b L i e l l yd c s c r i b ebde l o w .
l. loop from top to bottom: longitudinalcoil
connections
to goniometerstatorreversed:
Ftur<'tit,rrSrt,irclr. OFI-'-ANT-ADI:-l.OOPAn extra
2. sensefrom top to bottom: searchcoil
p o s i t i o nr r l ' t l r ef u n c t i o t rs w i t c hn t a l b e p r o v i d e dt o
conneCtionS
reverSed.
()pr'rilethe receiverfronr the loop ;rc.rial
only. This
Obviouslyone must check fcrrwhich positior.r.t()p (rr
p o s i t i o nL
. O O P .w o u l db e u s e di n c o n i u n c t i o n
with a
bottom, the connections
arernadt-in tht supplicd
I o o pc o n t r o l .
unit.
Protectionfrom interferenceis of vital intportance.
Ittop Corttrol Springloadedto ot'f. Whenop!'rated
and to this end adequatescreening
of cablesshouldbe clockwiseor anticlockwise
the searchcoil rotatesin
employed.ARINC 570 callsfor four individually
t h e s e l e c t e d i r e . c t i o nT. h i s c o n t r o lc l n b r .u s e df o r
shieldedco-axialcablesinsulatedand twisted.then
n r a n u adl i r e c t i o n - l i n d i n tgh. e s- e a L ccho i l b e i n gr o t a t e d
jacketed.The senseantennaconnectorshoulduse
until an audionull is achit'vedor. il'pr,rvidcd.I visual
doubleshielding(tri-axial)cable. Thc.cableruns
t u n i n gi n d i c a t o ri n d i c a t eus n u l l . A l t h o t r g hr t o t u s e d
shouldbe clearof any high-leveltrlnsrrrittingcables
in most rnodernequipmentsthis doeshuvethe
or a.c.powercables.
advantage
overADF that the nulls arr.sharper;ADF
operationwould lraveto be usedto scnsethe correct
null.
Controls and Operation
Gain Cotttntl An auiliogaincontrol is usually
A standardARINC 570 control prrrcirsillustratedirr providedand rnayhe annolatedvolume. On at least
F i g .3 . 1 5 .
one svstr'nrthe gain0f'tht' R.F. ampsis manually
54

adjustablewherrANT or LOOP is selected,whereas

audio gain is controlled on ADF.
Beat Frequency Oscillator Tone A rotary switch,
givingb.f.o. on-off,and a potentiometermay be
mounted on the sameshaft turned by the b.f.o.
control. Whenswitchetlon the frequencyof the
b.f.o. canbe adjusted,so varyingthe tone in the
headset.
heselect Frequency Capability Provision can be
madefor in useand standby frequenciessele'cted
by
meansof a transferswitch. Whenfrequencyselection
is madeonly the standbyfrequencychanges.
Switchingthe transferswitch (TFR) will now reverse
the rolesof in-useand standby frequencies.Both
frequenciesare displayedand clearannunciationof
which is in useis required.

Characteristicrs
The following characteristicsare selectedand
summarizedfrom the ADF SystemMark 3 ARINC
570.
Frequency Selection
Range:190-1750kHz; spacing:0.5 kHz; channelling
time lessthan 4 s; parallelb.c.d.frequencyselection
with provisionfor serialb.c.d.
ADF Accuracv
+ 2o excludingq.e. for any field strengthfrom
50 !V/m to 100000 pV/m, assuminga senseaerial
quality factor of 1.0. (Senseaerialquality factor =
effectiveheight X squareroot of capacitance,
i.e.ii-root-cap).
13- excludingq.e.for a field strengthaslow as
25 pYlm.
+ 3" after q.e.correction.
ADF Hunting
k s s t h a nI 1 " .
Table 3.2 Station interferenceconditions.with
referenceto desiredfrequency
Undesiredfrequency

Unde sired signal stre ngth

t2kHz
t3kHz
t6kHz
t7 kHz

-4 dB
-10 dB
-55 dB
-70 dB

Sensilivity
Signal+ noiseto noiseratio 6 dB or better with
35 pV/m field strengthmoduiated30 per cent at
= l'0.
1000Hz and l.ri-root-cap
Station Interference
An undesiredsignalfrom a source90o to that ofthe.
desiredsignalat the frequenciesand relativcsignal
levelslisted in Table 3.2 shallnot causea changein
indicatedbearingof more than 3".
Receiver Selectivity
Passband
at leastl'9 kHz at -6 dB pointsnot more
than 7 kHz at -60 dB points. Resonantfrequency
within 1 175 Hz of selectedfrequencv.

Calibrationand Testingon the Ramp

Loop Swing
The procedurefor determiningthe signand sizeof
errorsin an ADF installationis known as a loop
swing. On initial installationa swingshouldbe
;arriedout at l5o headingintervals.Checkswings
should be carriedout whenevercalledfor in the
maintenanceschedule,after a lightning strike, when
an airframemodification closeto the ADF antennais
completedor when a new avionicsystemis installed.
The checkswingis carriedout at 45o intervals. A
sving should not be carriedout within + 2 h of sunset
or sunriseto avoid night effect.
The loop swingmay be carriedout in the air dr on
the ground. The advantageof an air swingis that the
aircraft is operatingin its nclrmalenvironmentaway
from external disturbancesbut, in someways, a
ground swingis to be preferred,sincereadingsmay be
taken more accurately. If the loop is mounted on the
bottom of the t'uselage
the swingmay be affectedby
the closeproximity of the ground,in which casean
air swing should be carriedout. An installation
should be checkedby air test after q.e.shavebeen
corrected.
Ground Swing A groun{ loop swing must be carried
out at a site known not to introduce bearingerrors.
A basesuitablefor compassswingswill not necessarily
be suitable for loop swings. A survey using portable
direction finding (D/F) equipmentmust be carried
out if the site is doubtful.
The loop may be swung with referenceto true or
magneticnorth. Using true north hasthe advantage
that the loop swingingbasemay be permanently
marked out. If the swing is with referenceto
magretic north the loop should be calibrated using a

55

datum compass,suchas the medium landingcompass'

whic,hshouldbe alignedwith the longitudinalaxis of
the aircraft and positionedabout 100 ft from the
aircraft. To sight the longitudinalais, sightingrods
or clearlyvisibleplumb linesmay be fixed to the
aircraft centreline. Use of an upright nose'mounted
propellerand the verticalstabilizermay suffice
providingsightingis carriedout carefullyfrom a
suitabledistance. For a checkswingthe aircraft gyro
magneticcompassmay be usedprovidedthis hasbeen
recentlyswung,correctedand a calibrationchart
madeout.
The aircraft must contain its full complementof
equipment. Doors and panelsin the vicirfity of the
ADF antennasmust be closed. Internal power
suppliesshouldbe usedwheneverpossiblesincethe
externalgeneratorand lead may causeerrorsin the
readings.
The ADF is tuned to a station or NDB within
rangeand of a known magneticbearingfrom the site.
With the aircraft on the requirednumber of headings
the ADF readingand the aircraft magneticheading

are recordedon a loop swingrecord chart, a specimen

of which is shownasTable3.3.
The correction(D) is the sigred anglewhich must
be addedto the indicatedmagneticbearingof the
station (B + C) in order to give the true ma^gnetic
bearingie). So, for example,adding-5'5o to 41" +
354' gives389'5' = 29'5oasrequired.
When completedthe valuesobtainedin the final
column shouldbe plotted as a q.e- correctioncurve,
of the absolute
asshownin Fig. 3.16. The average
of correction
amount
gives
the
peaks
the
of
values
required.the polarity being givenby the sign of the
correctionin the first quadrant. So in the example
givenwe have:
12.5+ 12.5+ 16 + l7'5 = +14'625"
4

asthe requiredcorrection. The correctionis made by

suitablechoiceof componentsin the QE corrector
loop equalizeras instructedby the manufacturer.
The correctionshouldbe more or lessthe samefor
identicalinstallationsin a particularaircraft type.
Once the prototype hashad a calibrationswingand
the componentvaluesare chosen,subsequentswings
Table 3.3 Loop swing recordchart
on seriesaircraft shouldshow the error boundedby
I 3" asrequired.
A/C
Type............-..
A/CTailNo .............
Loop alignmenterror is givenby the averageof the
Time10.00 Base'..'...........-......'.
Date....................,....
(A)029'5
peaks. So in the examPlewe have:
Station Droitwich Freq.200kHz Mag'Brg

Magneticheading
datum compass

(B)
028
041
054.5
073
089
105'5
r22
135
153
t72
184
198
213
230
242
257
271.5
286
302
317
332
34s
358

s6

Autornattc direction
linding relative bearing

Correction
(D)

001.5
354
346
333
318
298
272
247
224
206
197
187
179
169
160
r48
134
115
088
063

0
-5.5
-l1.0
- l6'5
- 17.5
-14.0
-4.5
7-5
12.5
I1.5
8.5
4.5
-2.5
-9.5
-12.5
- 15.5
- 16.0
-11.5
-0.5
9'5
12.5
t2'5 '
10.5

(c)

u5
032
02l

l2'5 - 16+ l2'5 - l7'5 = -2'125

4
Sincethis is in excessof t 0'25o this error should be
taken out by re-alignmentof the loop.
The line correction= -2'125 has beendrawn on
Fiq. 3.16. The correctioncurveshouldcrossthis line
atb, gO, 180 urd 270' if thereis no field alignment
error. Within the limits of the accuracyof the plot
and the scalewe can seethat this is the casein our
example.If therewerea field alignmenterror it
would be measuredalongthe horizontal axis.
Air Swing An *ir swing should be carried out in
smooth air conditionsin order to eliminatedrift
errors. There are variousmethodswhich may be
employedbut all involveflying a particular pattern
over a clearly definedpoint or points sgmedistance
from the transmitterwhich is to be usedfor the swing'
Magneticheadingand ADF relativebearingare noted
forl number of headings,every 10" or I 5o,depending
on the pattern flown. The aircraft should be inland
of the transmitterwhen readingsare taken to avoid
coastalrefractionproblems' Recordingand plotting
is as for the ground swing.

various headinp when overhead of the referenoe

point.
SenseAntenna CapacitanceCheck
The total capacitanceof the senseantennaand feeder
shouldbe checkedwhen calledfor in the maintenance
schedule.wheneverthe senseantennaor feederis
changed,upon initial installationor if a possiblefault
condition is suspected.A capacitancebridgeor Q
meter operatingat 650 kHz shouldbe usedfor the
measurement.
Functional Test
Ideally there will be at leastone station or NDB
within rangein each quadrant; in busy regionsthis will
ccrtainly be so, for example,at London Heathrow
more than twenty beaconscan be receivedunder good
conditions. The true magneticbearingof those
beaconsto be usedmust be known. An accuracy
checkis performedby tuning into a beaconin each
quadrantand ensuringthat for eachthe pointer
Fig.3.16 Quadrantal
errorcorrection
curvefor Table3.3
indicatesthe bearingto within the limits laid down in
the procedure,say t 5o. The figure givenwill only be
achievableif the aircraft is well away from largemetal
Two possiblemethodsare position-lineswinging
objects,and if the test is not carriedout within 2 h of
and single-pointswinging. With the first method a
give
ground
seriesof landmarkswhich
a
referenceline sunriseor sunset. Useof externalpower may also
giveerroneousreadings.
alignedwith a distant transmitterare chosen. A
zig-zagpattern is flown, both toward and away from
All controls shouldbe operatedto ensurecorrect
the transmitter,the readingsbeing taken'asthe
functioning. In particularif a loop control is^
aircraft crossesthe line at variousheadings.With the
providedthe pointer shouldbe displaced170" first
secondmethod a clearly defined point, some distance clockwiseand then anticlockwisefrom the correct
from the transmitter,is chosen. A cloverleaf pattern reading,to which the pointer shouldreturn without
hunting.
is flown centredon this point, readingsbeing takenon excessive

6'

4 V.h.f.omnidirectionalrange

(voR)
lntroduction

Prior to World War II it was realizedthat the

propagationanomalies
with low- and
experienced
medium-frequency
navigationaidslimited their
usefulnes3
asstandardsystemsfor a sky which was
becomingevermore crowded. A systemcalled
four-course
low-frequencyrangewaswidely
in the United Statesduringthe 1930s;
implenrented
this gavefour coursesto or from eachgroundstation
and fltted in quite nicelywith a systemof fixed
airways.A problenrwith the four-coursesystemis
that eachstationonly providesfor two intersecting
airways;a more complexjunction requiresrnore
courses.The above,coupledwith increasedaltitude
of flying rnakinglineof-sightfrequencies
usefulat
longerranges,and the developtnent
of v.h.f. comms,
led to the adoptionof v.h.f.omnidirectionalrange
( V O R ) a ss t a n d a r d
i n t h e U n i t e dS t a t e si n 1 9 4 6a n d
internationallyin 1949. The competitionftrr an
internationalstandardsystemwas fierce,the leading
contenderafter VOR beingDeccaNavigator.lt is
debatablewhetherthe technicallysuperiorsvstem
waschosen,but certainlyVOR wascheaper.had the
advantage
of a largehome market,and hasdone the
job adequatelyeversince.
The VOR systemoperatesin the 108-l !8 MHz
band with channelsspiced at sO kHiffiT[
sharedwith ILS localizertt. ffiing
allocatedto
160of the 200 availablechannels.Of these160
cfrannels12Oareallocatedto VOR stationsintended
for en route navigationwhile the other forty are for
tClrn!ryLYQR statim!_(TVORL The output porver
o f a n e n r o u t es t a t i o nw i l l b e a b o u t2 0 0 W p r o v i d i n s
a serviceup tL49-laulieal n,iles.itTfleouency wilf
b e w i t h i n t l r eb a n d I l 2 - l l 8 M H z . A T V O R w i l l h a v e
an output power of Ebgnl5)-t{-providing a serviceof
up to about ]5_!sg.l[salmiles,its frequencywill be

to, or departurefrom, a stationon a particular

bearing,steeringinformationcanbe derivedfrom the
receivedVOR signals.It is this latter facility which
makesVOR so usefulin airwaysflying, stationscan
Victor airways
be placedstrategicallyalongso-called
and the pilot can then, by selectionof the appropriate
radials,fly from stationto stationeitherby obeying
steeringcommandsor by feedingthe sameto the
autopilot.
To obtain a position fix liom VOR one needs
bearingsto two separatestationstwhen usedin this
way VOR can be considereda theta-tl-reta
system.If a
VOR stationis colocated with a DME stationan \
aircraftcan obtain a fix usingthe pair asa rho-thetai
system.The VOR/DME systemircurrentliTil
internationalshort-range
navigationstandard.ln
recentyearsthis systenrhasbecomeevenmore
versatileu'ith the adventof airborneequipmentwhich
caneffectivelyrepositionan existingVOR/DME
s t a t i o nt o g i v ea ' p h a n t o mb e a c o n ' c o m p l e twei t h
radialswhich can be flown usingVOR-derived
steeringinforrnation. This developmentis considered
i n C h a p t e r1 2 .

Basic Principles

A sinrpleanalogyto VOR is givenby imagininga

which enritsan omnidirectionalpulseof
lig;hthouse
light everytime the beam is pointingdue north. If
the speedof rotation of the beamis known, a distant
observercould recordthe time intervalbetweerr
seeingthe onrnidirectionalflashand seeingthe beam,
and l'rencecalculatethe bearingof the lighthouse.
In realitya VOR stationradiatesv.h.f. energy
modulatedwith a retbrencephasesignal- the
omnidirectionallight - and a variablephasesignalthe rotatingbeam. The bearingof the aircraft
within the bundI9&I2_I4I&, thisbelngthe part of
dependson the phasedifferencebetweenreference
thetotalbandshared
with ILS localizer.
and variablephases-- time differencebetweenlight
The crew of an approp.iatelyequippedaircraftcan a n db e a m .
tune into a VOR stationwithin rangeand readthe
The radiation frorn a qgnventionalVOR (CVOR)
bearingto the stationand the relativebearingof the
stationis a horizontallypolarizedv.h.f.wave
station. Should the flight plan call for an approach
modulatedas follows:

58

$el{*,!

Sin pt coc

\
a/

Cosnt
Cos qrt

rcos
I

I
I

2r.3OHz
2n.1"MHz

Fig.4.l Groundstationblockdiagram,
v.o.r,

t . 30 Hz a.m.: the variablephasesignal.

at Xo magneticbearing/roz the station the variable
2 . 9 9 6 0 H 2 a . m . : t h i s i s a z u b c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y , p h a s e w i l l / a g t h e r e f e r " e n c e p n u t " u y i ;r.i g u r e s + . t ,

modulatedat 30 Hz with a deviation of

1480 Hz. The 30 Hz signalis the reference
phase'
3 . l02Q Fz a'm': identification signalkeyed to
providemorse code identification at least threegjnes each39-s. Wherea voR and5ffitreco-locatedthe identificationtransmissions
are
synchronized
(associated
identity,see
Chapter7).
4. Voice a.m.: the VOR systemcan be usedas a
ground-to-aircommunicationchannelas long as
this doesnot interfere with its basicnavisational
function. The frequency rangeof the vo]ce
modulation is limited to
SQOXZ-

4.2 and4.3 illustrate th. b.ii" priniiples.

The airborneequipmentreceivesthe composite
signalradiatedby ihe station to which the receiveris
tuned. After deiection the variousmodulatingsignals
are separatedby filters. The 30 Hz referenceiigrul is
Variabled
3O Hz a.m.

The 30 Hz variablephaseis spacemodulated in

that the necessaryamplitude variation in the received
signalat the aircraft is achievedby radiatinga cardioid
patternrotatingat 1800 r.p.m. The frequency
modulated9960 Hz sub-carrieramplitude modulates
the r.f. at sourcebefore radiation. It is arransedthat
an aircraft due north of the beaconrryillreceiie
variableand referencesignalsin phase,for an aircraft
Flg 4.2 Frequency spectrum:CVOR spacesignals

59

:l

1
,s
I
PHASE
SIGNAL (FM)
ALL RAOIALS

REFER'{CE

V A R I A E L P H A S E
S I G N A L( A M )

ib

sEcoNo

FESULI ilI
PATTERil
ROTATTNG

I O oR A D i A L
I

UNIO0ULATE0

996otsr SU8CAnRIER
FRO MOO AT 3oxt

ROfAT ING

oIPOLE PATTRI

+sEcoro -

stcono

-"2to'

-r-

r-f-F-1o

r tttono

R E f E R E T C EP H A S V O L T A G E
I A F T E Rf X O E T E C T I O N )

= ' .
c

<

VOLTAGESAT AIRCRAFT
ON 24O' RADIAL

240"

.l
vaRrAEL IHASE VOLTIGE o
TAFTERAT OETECTIOtr)

.
o r R c T l O NO F P O Sr r V E L O S E
ATTENNA
OF ROTATING

CVOR (courtesyKing Radio

Fig 4.3 Phaserelationships,
Corp.)

be presentedto the pilot' Figure 4'4

variablesignal,the difference station ian
the
with
phase
compared
stationis the
'ln
itfurt*t.t thatihe relativebearingto the
the station
ohaseeivinethe bearingfrom the station' The
Aiii.r.n.. betweenthe magneticbearing-to
to
actualreiding presentedto the pilot is the bearing
to.display
used
is
RMI
An
.na tn. aircraftheading.
in
in
the station ralher than from, so if the difference
the information. Suchinstrumentsare considered
135'
is
signal
ohasebet*een variableand reference
drivenby
is
card
the
application
this
In
3.
'to' bearingwould be 135 + 180 = 315", asshown air;;i.r
ift"
readingat
th. .n*putt, asnormal,so that the card
in
-- Fig.4.4.
the same
At
heading'
lubber line is the aircraft
information (heading)is combinedwith ttre
liio.p*s
by
determined
position
a
to
titnt u pointtr is driven
the
the VORderived bearingthe relativebearingof
60

fly-left or fly-right signalsare derived and presentedto

the pilot.
A complicationis that radial information depends
135"(Froml
only on the phasedifferencebetweenmodulating
signalsand is independentofheading; hencethe
fly-right or fly-left information may sendthe aircraft
'long way
the
round'. Further, when an aircraft is on
course,i.e. the steeringcommandis nulled, the
aircraft may be headingeither toward or away from
the station on the selectedradial. A TO/FROM
indication removesthe ambiguity. With the aircraft
heading,roughly, towards(away from) the station
and the TO/FROM indicator indicatingTO (FROM),
the steeringinformation givesthe most direct path in
order to intercept the selectedradial.
If the referencephase(R) is phaseshiftedby the
selected
course(C) and then comparedwith the
Fig.4.4 To/frommagnetic
bearings
andrelativebearing
variablephase,a fly-right indicationwill be givenif
R + C lagsV, while if R + C leadsV, the command
will
be fly-left. If we now add 180 to the
the differencebtweenthe bearingto the station and
phase-shifted
relbrencephasewe haveR + C + 180
the heading. A differentialsynchroor resolveris used
will,
addition, either cancelV, partially or
which
on
to give the requiredangulardifference. Figure4.5
completely,in whict casea TO indicationwill be
strowsthe RMI presentationcorrespondingto the
situationdiagramshownin Fig.4.4. Only one pointer given,or reinforceV, partially or completely,in
which casea FROM indication will be given.
is shown,for clarity.
'automatic'
Figure4.6 showstwo possiblesituations. ln both
The previoustwo paragraphsrefer to
casesthe selectedcourseis 042,i.e. the pilot wishes
VOR, so calledsincethe pilot needdo no more than
to fly towardsthe station on the 222 radial or away
svitch on and tune in to an in-rangestation in order
'Manual'VOR
from the station on the 042 radial. With aircraft A
to obtainbearinginformation.
we
havea fly-left and a TO indication;with aircraft B
requiresthe pilot to selecta particularradial on which
we havea fly-right and a FROM indication. Note that
he wants to positionhis aircraft. The actual radial on
if the headingsof the aircraft were reversed,the
which the aircraft is flying is comparedwith the
indicationswould be the satne,so sendingthem the
desiredradial. If the two are different the appropriate 'long
way round'. Figure4.7 showsan electronic
deviationindicator correspondingto aircraft B. The
indication at top right showsthe aircraft to be on the
022 radialfrom a secondVOR station.

DopplerVOR (DVOR)

Fig. 4.5 RMI presentation

The useof CVOR leadsto considerablesite errors

where the station is installedin the vicinity of
obstructionsor where aircraft are requiredto fly over
mountainousterrain while usingthe station. The
error is causedby multi-path receptiondue to
reflectionsfrom the obstructions,and givesrise to
coursescalloping,roughnessand/or bendswhen the
aircraft is flown to follow steeringcommands.The
terms useddescribingthe courseunder these
conditionsrefer to the nature of the departurefrom a
straightline course. DVOR is relativelyinsensitiveto
siting effectswhich would renderCVOR unusable.
Although the method of modulationis completely
different DVOR is compatiblewith CVOR in that

61

Flv right
O42 (Froml

Fly left

From

R+420

v.From
fly right
(R + 42' lags V)

R+1800t42'

R+42'

il, :;ii
,'i'

To
fly left
(R + 42' leads V)

O42 (To)

R+1800+42"
Fig' 4.6 Fly'left/flv-right and'to/from' situation diagram

,i*:
at 30 Hz anticlockwisearoundthe ring of antennas.
airbome equipment will give the correct indications
when usedwith stationsof either type. In the DVOR To a receiver,remote from the site,it appearsasif the
signalsourcesareapproachingand receding,and
the referencesigrralis 30 Hz a.m. while the variable
hencethe receivedsigral suffers a Doppler shift
sigrralis 30 Hz f.m. on a 9960 Hz sub-carrier.Since
(see
Chapter l0). -With a diameterof l3'5 m and
the rolesof the a.m. and f.m. are reversedwith respect
speedof 30 r.p.s.the tangentialspeedat the
rotation
the
to CVOR the variablephaseis arrangedto lead
is n X l3'5 X 30 = 1272m.p.s. At the
periphery
X"
magtetic
at
an
aircraft
phase
X"
for
by
reference
centrefrequencyof the v.h.f. band, I l3 MHz, one
bearingfrom the station (cf. CVOR).
rycle occupiesapproximately2'65 m, thus the
In a double sidebandDVOR (DSB'DVOR) the
maximum Dopplershift is 127212'65= 480 Hz.
carrier,/", with 30 Hz (and identification)a.m. is
ln the airbornereceiverthe sidebandsmix with the
radiatedfrom an omnidirectionalantenna. Two
unmodulatedr.f. sidebandsigrals,one 9960 Hz above carrierat /. to produce9960 t 480 Hz. Single
sidebandand altematesidebandDVOR are possible,
/c, the other 9960 Hz below /", are radiatedfrom
but sincethey compromisethe performanceof the
of
about
in
a
ring
antennasdiametricallyopposite
systemthey will not be discussed.
fifty antennas. Theselatter sigtals are commutated
62

Fig.4.7 IN-2014electroniccoursedeviationindicator
(courtesyBendixAvionicsDivision)
Referencery'
30 Hz a.m.

instrumentson which VOR information is displayed

aremulti-function hencequite complexswitching
arrangements
are involved. Figure4.9 showsone
VOR/ILS systemof a typical dual instatlation;only
thoseoutputs from VOR are shown.
The antennamay serveILS aswell asVOR but
someaircraft haveseparateantennas,particularlyif
all-weatherlandingis a requirementwhen the.
optimum position for the localizerantennamay not
suit VOR. If separateantennasare usedwith a
common r.f. feed to the receiverthe switchinglogic
will be derivedfrom the channelselectionmadeat
the control unit. The VOR antennaemploys
horizontal polarizationwith an omnidirectional
radiationpattern. A horizontal dipole is often used
with the dipole elementsforming a 'V' shapeto givea
more nearly omnidirectionalpattern. Sincethe
dipole is a balancedload and the co-ax.feederis
unbalanced(with respectto earth) a balun (balanced
to unbalancedline transformer)is used. The dipole
may be mounted on the verticalstabilizeror on a
stand-offmast, top-mountedon the fuselage.
The VOR/ILS receivercontainsa conventional
superhet,a filter for separationof signiilsand a
converterto providethe requiredoutputs which aro
l.
2.
3.
4.
5.

audioto AIS;
bearinginformation to two RMIs;
deviationfrom selectedradial;
TO/FROMsignal;
flag or,warningsignal.

The RMI feed is the result of the automaticVOR

operation. Sincethe pointer on the RMI movesto a
position givingrelativebearingwith respectto the
lubber line the magneticbearing(omnibearing)must
be combinedwith headinginformation aspreviously
9960
t +8oHz
described.The necessary
differentialsynchroor
resolverwill be in the receiveror, in the caseof
Fig.4.8 Frequencyspectrum- DVOR spacesignals
equipmentconformingwith ARINC 579,in the RMl.
ln the former casemagneticbearing(mag.)is required
by the receiver,this beingobtainedfrom the compass
Aircraft lnstallation
systemvia the RMI. The necessary
switchingfor
displayingVOR as opposedto ADF information, on
SinceVOR and ILS localizers
occupythe sameband
either or both of the pointers,is on the RMI.
of frequenciesthey invariablysharethe samereceiver
The deviationand TO/FROM signalsare the result
which will alsocontain the necessary
circuits to
of manualVOR operation. Thesesteeringcommands
extractthe requiredinformation. It is not
aredisplayedon a coursedeviationindicator(CDI) an
uncommonfor v.h.f. comm. and v.h.f. nav. to share
electronicversionof which is shownin Fig.4.7. The
the samereceiver,particularlywith generalaviation
CDI, however,may not be a stand-alone
unit; it is
equipment.It is expectedthat the 'all v.h.f.in one
likely to be part of a multi-function indicator known
box' trendwill continueby a variety of namessuchashorizontal situation
A largeairliner,and indeedmost aircraft from
indicator(HSl) or pictorial navigationindicator PNL
twins up, hasa dual v.h.f. nav.installation. The
In the installationshownin Fis. 4.9 an HSI is used

63

Captain'scontrol panel

DME1

Norm

l1lo

Comprss

S/byt ) Test
DME
RF

Power
Captain
RMI

-:-|

N o .1 V O R / I L S R x

F----------,-----

FlO
RMI

To
From

DEV

Fl

ight interohone

Flag

I
J

oBs

Audio ,.

-----f

transfer relay

Captain'sVOR/ILS
transfer relay
lentral
nstrumenl
rarning panel

rNs

Captain'sRAD/INS
relay

Captain'sHSI

Fig 4.9 TypicalVOR installation

Fig.4.l0 KPI 552 pictorialnavigationindicator

(courtesyKing RadioCorp.)

with remote courseselection(o.b.s.- omnibearing

selection)fitted, say,on an autopilot/flightdirector
mode selectpanel. Figure4.10 illustratesthe
King KPI 552 PNI wherethe built-ino.b:s.,
iniolporated(courseknob),hasbeensetto 335", a
fly-right commandis beinggivenby the deviationbar
and we havea TO indication(largearrow'headabove
aircraft symbol).
arepossible;those
Variousswitchingarrangements
shownillustratethe captain'schoiceof VOR/lLS I '
VOR/lLS2 or inertialnavigationsystem(lNS)
informationbeingdisplayedon his HSI. Switching
by meansof the
betweenVOR/lLS I or 2 is achieved
transferrelay(TFR/RLY) while VOR/lLS or INS
switchingis by meansof the radio/lNS(R.AD/lNS)
relay. The first officer (F/O) hasa similar
arrangementat his disposal.Deviationsignalsfrom
numberI systemto F/O'sHSI and from number2
systemto captain'sHSI may be via isolation
amplifiers.
The flag signalis of vital importance since it gives

il

.ir*

warningof unreliabledata from the VOR/ILS

receiver.It will be fed to all instrumentsselected
to
displayVOR/ILS information and often to a central
instrumentwarningsystem(CIWS). Shouldthe
deviationsignalbe fed to the automatic flight control
system(AFCS),then obviouslyso must the flag or
warningsignal.

Controls and Operation

The controlleris not particularlycomplicated.
Frequencyselectionis achievetlby roiation of two
knobs,mountedco-axiallyor separately,
so
determiningthe appropriate2/5 code fed to the
receiver.It is normal for DME frequencyselection
to be madefrom the sarnecontroller with DMg
standby,normal and test switchingalsoprovided
(s-eeChapter7). Self-testswitchingfaciities for
the
YOR/ILSareprovided. Additiona]controls,other
than thoseshown in Fig. 4.9, may be provided,
namelyVOR/lLS on-off and audio vo-lume.
The locationof displayswitchesand the course
.
selector
hasbeentnentionedpreviously,ashas the
interpretationof indicationsgiven to itre pilot.

Simplified Block Diagram Operation

Receivedsignalsare selected,amplified and detected
by a conventionalsingleor doubie superhetreceiver.
The detectedoutput is a compositesignalwhich must
be separated
into its cornponentpartsby meansof
appropriate
filtering circuits.
The audiosignal,1020Hz identification,is routed
.
via an amplifier and possiblya volume contiol on the
v.h.f. nav.controller to the flight interphone
sub-system
of the AIS. The associatedaudio filter
may be switchableto give a passbandof 300-3000Hz
when the VOR systemis being usedas a ground-to-air
communicationlink.
^^ lh9_referencephasechannel(CVOR) consistsof a
9960 Hz filter, a discriminatorto deteci the 30 Hz
l.m. and,-not shown, amplifier circuits. Limiting of
the signaltakesplace before the discriminatorto remove unwantedamplitude variatipns. The 30 Hz referencesignal(R) then undergoesvariousphase
shifts.
For manualVOR operation,as previously
mentioned,we need to shift R by the selectld
course.This is achievedby the phase-striftresolver,
the rotor of which is coupledtqthe courseor OBS
knob. A digital readoutof the selectedcourseis
provided. The phase-shiftedR is now comparedwith
the variablephasesigrral. If they are in phaseor lg0"

out of phasethere is no lateralmovementof the

deviationbar. Sinceit is simplerto determinewhen
two signalsare in phasequadrature(at 90.) a 90"
phaseshifter may be inclutledin the referencechannel
prior to feedingthe phasecomparatorwhere
detectionof phasequadraturewill giveno movement
ofthe deviationbar. In the absenciofeither or both
of the signalsthe flag will be in view.
'To'or 'from'
informationis derivedby comparing
the variablephasewith the referencephaseshifted bi
the OBSsettingplus l80o It follows-tharif the
referencephasehas beenshifted by 90o before
feedingthe deviationphasecomparatorwe only
reqrrirea further 90" phaseshift before feedingthe
'to/from'phase
comparatorratherthan a lgOdphase
shift asillustratedin Fig. 4.1l. If the inputs to the
'to/from'
phasecomparatorarewithin, say,+ g0o of
beingin phasethen a TO indicationis given;if within
t 80'of being in anri-phasea FROM intication is
given;otherwiseneither a TO nor a FROM indication
is given.
For automaticVOR operationthe reference
channelis phase-shiftedand comparedwith the
variablephase.If the two inputsarein phase
quadraturethere is no drive to the motor, otherwise
the motor will turn, changingthe amount by which
the referencephaseis shifted until phasequadratureis
achieved.The motor connectionsare arrangedso that
the stablenull of the loop givesthe requirei shaft
position which representsthe magneticbearingto the
station. Compassinformationis fed to a differential
synchro,the rotor of which is turned by the motor
following station magneticbearing. ThL difference
signalrepresentsrelativebearingwhich positionsthe
appropriateRMI pointer via.asynchrorepeater. The
RMI card is positionedby compassinformation.

Characteristics
The following characteristics
are selectedand
summarizedfrom ARINC characteristic579-1. li
shouldbe noted that there are radicaldifferencesin
outputs,betweenARII{C 579-l and the older
ARINC 547 with which many in-servicesystems
conform.
Frequency Selection
160 channels,50 kHz spacing,range108-117.95MHz.
Standard2/5 selectionsystem.
Channellingtime lessthan 60 ms.
Receiver
Satisfactoryoperationwith 1.5 pV sigral.

65

To AIS

Ref. channel

Deviation
bar

Flag

cDt/oBS
To/From
-------l

Compass

VOR
blockdiagram'
Fig.4.lI Simplified

natf "t 31'5kHz'

60dBattenuatio
reast

"

i"pr1""l'it'-i:"t:mmfll fri?:n|;Tfii:"'
stationis requtrt

Nomorethan6dBattanuationat/.i|7kiz;atanaloguesigralprooortionaltoperpendicularlinear

outputs
. ^^n .nn ,
of 200-500Q
Audio:at least100mWinto a load
..nt'lt"'
30 per
t:: -:I modulated
from a 3 pV input ,ignuirnoaututed
it
1000Hz.
blli:'fo'*

infractional
ouJput
digital
omni-bearing:

of the
of whichis ananalogue
'Tt;digh-leutl
o*'' the spaiing
shouldgive2 V across
output
ffiil;
within
adjustable
i ziio ii r*a.fo'?"ou'* deviation corresponding
rhe
miles'
;;;; t s to t lb nautical

io*i'u'r ":f:;.'lfi1.Ti;:'%tti\;b"o*;l*"

:J"'i,*:::i1!";;;;;:;r'.'^'n3-n1
flightcontrolsystem
#:'fi:iJffift,:ft1,;Tlsts":lT{::
i;;; ;t usedby the automatic
""'"'
bearing,
the
of
-ih.
eventof lossof
the
In
proportiori?,rr."rt.
one
voltages,
moi.iocprt'
Gat-l 19
.nulogu.ou,puti,
DMEthe deviation
theotherto its cosine.
iistanctinfotmationfrom the
t*o
;i;l''"'*irnu*'of
OBS
revertto an angular
to feed"t
desiened
'r^6-*-'- o;tp"t should.automatically
uigruute
lnt"r.t
not
friiJn'.;.
v for 10" off
nr'"
purau.lconnected
er-vi1g^z
atui'tion *"d;;'f;;;;'n
outputs
547'
ARINC
deviation
579
with
.
used
ARINC
to
Wts
*i*,
"out"' (Note:iti"i
voltage
d'c'
ani'f-.*-i**f
Deviation:a trigh-levef
66

Fig.4.l2 Ttc T-308VOR/ILStestset(courtesy

Tel-lnstrument
Electronics
Corp.)

represented
angulardisplacenrent.)
TO/FROM:groundreferenced
providing2 mA for
eachof two 200 Q loadsin parallel. In additiona
lowlevel output of 200 gA may be provided to feed
olderinstruments.
Warning:high level,28 V d.c. valid, absentinvalid.
low level,between300 and 900 rnV valid, lessthan
100 mV invalid. The low level signalshould be
capableof driving frorn one to five 1000 Sl parallel
loads. The VOR digital output should also include
warningbits.
Ramp Testing
Testingof VOR shouldalwaysbe carriedout with a
ramp test set capableof being tuned to any VOR
frequency,radiatingsufficient energyto allow
satisfactoryoperationof the VOR and providing a
meansof simulatingvariousVOR radials. Most test
setsincludeprovisionfor testingILS aswell as VOR.
Among thoseavailableare the CossorCRM 555.
IFR NAV4OIL.

The CRM 555 operateson any of the 160 VOR

channelswith a frequencyaccuracyof
10.0035 per cent(--10'C to +30oC).Modulationof
the carrieris suchthat the simulatedbearingmay be
set to any readingbetween0 and 360o with a
calibrationaccuracvof t l" or mav be switchedin
45o stepswith an u..uru.y of t 0.3". Carrierpower
canbe attenuatedin I dB stepsbetween0 dBm and
-120 dBm (0 dBm corresponds
to an output of
I mW). A self-testfacility is provided. The
NAV-401L offers similarfacilitiesbut is more 'state
of the art' and so offersStighttymore in the way of
performance.
The TIC T-278 is part of the T-308 test set
illustratedin Fig.4.12. The facilitiesarenot as
'extensiveas either of the previouslymentionedtest
setsbut it has the advantageofeaseof operationand
lesscost. It is FCCtype accepted.Operationis on
108'00MHz radiatedfrom a telescopicantenna.
Bearings
of 0,90, 180 and 270" canbesimulated
both TO and FROM, alternatelyvariation,90-l l0'
'to'
or270-290o'from', is available.A J lo switch

6'

*:;

givesa usefulsticky needlecheck.

Actual testingshouldbe carriedout in accordance
with the procedureslaid down, but briefly it would
involvecorrectly positioningthe test set antennaand
radiatingon sufficient frequenciesto test frequency
selectionof the VOR. Sensitivitymay be checkedby
reducingthe r.f. levelreceivedeither by use of the test

68

set attenuatoror moving the test set antennafurther

away. Various bearingsshouldbe simulated(check
'to'or 'from'
whether they are
station), the
appropriatereadingshouldbe checkedon the RMI
and the OBS operatedso as to check the manual
mode of VOR.

5 lnstrumentlandingsystem

Introduction
In order to be able to land the aircraft safelyunder
visualflight rules(VFR), i.e. without any indication
from instrumentsasto the aircraft'sposition relative
to the desiredapproachpath, the pilot must haveat
least3 mileshorizontal visibility with a ceilingnot
lessthan 1000 ft. Although most landingsare carried
out under theseconditionsa significantnumber are
not; consequently,
wereit not for instrumentaidsto
landinga considerableamount of revenuewould be
lost due to flight cancellationsand diversions.
One method of aidingthe pilot in the approachto
an airport is to usea precisionapproachradar(PAR)
systemwhereby the air traffic controller,havingthe
aircraft 'on radar',can giveguidanceover the
v.h.f.-r.t. The alternativemethod is to provide
instrumentation
in the cockpitgivingsteering
information to the pilot which, if obeyed,will cause
the aircraft to make an accurateand safedescentand
touchdown. The latter, which may be
complemented/monitored
by PAR, is the method
which concernsus here.
Early ILS date back to beforeWorld War II; the
GermanLorentz beingan example. During the war
the currentILS wasdeveloped
and standardized
in
the United States. The basicsystemhasremained
unchangedeversincebut increasedaccuracyand
reliability haveresultedin landing-minimum
visibilityconditionsbeingreduced.
The ICAO havedefinedthree catesoriesof
visibility.the third of which is subdivided
. All
categoriesare definedin termsof runway visualrange
(RVR) (seeICAO Annex 14) and,exceptCategory
III, decisionheight(DH), belowwhich the pilot must
havevisualcontactwith the runwayor aboit the
landing(seeICAO PANS-OPS).The various
categoriesare definedin Table 5.1 where the
standardsaregivenin metreswith approximate
equivalents
in feet (in parentheses).
Sometimes
categories
IIIA and B arecalled'seeto land'and
'see
to taxi'.
The ILS equipmentis categorizedusingthe same
Romanirumeralsand lettersaccordingto its

Table5.1 ICAOvisibilitycategories
Category

d.h.

r.v.r.

I
II
IIIA
IIIB
IIIC

60 m (200ft)
30 m (100ft)

8 0 0 m 2( 600ft)
400 m l 200ft)
200m 700 ft)
3 0 m l 50 ft)
Zerc

operationalcapabilities.Thus if the ILS facility is

categoryII, the pilot would be able to land the
aircraft in conditionswhich correspondedto those
quotedin Table5.1. An obviousextensionof the
idea of a pilot manuallyguidingthe aircraft with no
extemal visualreferenceis to havean autopilot which
'flies'
the aircraft in accordancewith signalsfronr the
ILS (and other sensors
includingradioaltimeter)i.e.
automaticlanding.

BasicPrinciples
Drectional radio beams,modulatedsos to enable
airborneequipmentto identify the beamcentres,
define the correct approachpath to a particular
runway. In addition verticaldirectionalbeams
providespot checksofdistance to go on the approach.
The total systemcomprisesthree parts,eachwith a
transmitteron the ground and receiverand signal
processor
in the aircraft. Lateralsteeringis provided
by the localizerfor both front-courseand
back-course
approaches;
provides
the glideslope
vertical steeringfor the front courseonly while
markerbeaconsgivethe distancechecks.
[,ocalizer
Forty channels
areallocatedat 50 kHz spacingin the
band I 08' 10-l I I .95 MHz usingoniy thoseliequencies
wherethe tenthsof a megacycle
count is odd; so,for
example108'I0 and 108.I 5 MHz arelocalizer
channelswhile 108.20and 108'25MHz arenot.
Thosechannelsin the band not usedfor localizerare

69

allocatedto VOR. The coverageof the beaconwill

normally be asshownby the hatchedparts of Fig.
5.1,but topographical
featuresmay dictatea
wherebythe ! 10" sectormay be
restrictedcoverage
reducedto l8 nauticalmilesrange.

(extendedcentreline) and limited by the lineson

which thereis a d.d.m.of 0'155. The changein
d.d.m.is linearfor I 105 m alongthe line
perpendicular
to the courseline and passingthrough
the IIS datum point on the runway threshold;these
points 105 m fronr the courseline lie on the 0'155
d.d.m.lines,asshownin Fig. 5.2. The beaconis
Azimuth
situatedsuch that the abovecriterion is met and the
coursesectoris lessthan 6'. Outsidethe course
s e c t o rt h e d . d . m . ' i sn o t l e s st h a n0 ' 1 5 5 .
The ICAO Annex 10 specification
for the
pattern is more complicatedthan
localizer-radiated
the descriptionaboveindicates,in particularin the
varioustolerances
for categoryI, II and iII facilities;
howeverwe havecoveredthe essentialpoints for our
purposes.
The airborneequipmentdetectsthe 90 and 150 Hz
tonesandhencecauses
a deviationindicatorto show
a fly-left or fly-right command. Full-scaledeflection
is achievedwhen the d.d.m.is 0'155, i.e. the aircraft
is 2-3ooff course.Figure5.3 showsa mechanicaland
electronicdeviationindicator both showingslightly
overhalf-scaledeflectionof a fly-right command.
Providedthe pilot flies to keep the commandbar at
zero,or the autopilotfliesto keepthe d.d.m.zero,
Fig.5.l Localizer
frontbeamcoverage
the aircraft will approachthe runway thresholdalong
the courseline.
The horizontally polarizedradiatedcarrieris
In addition to the 90 and 150 Hz tonesthe
modulatedby tonesof 90 and 150 Hz suchthat an
localizercarrieris modulatedwith an identification
aircraft to the left of the extendedcentreline will be tone of 1020 Hz and possibly(exceptionallycategory
in a regionwherethe 90 Hz modulation predominates. III) voicemodulationfor ground-to-air
Along the centreline an airbornelocalizerreceiver
communication.The identificationof a beacon
will receivethe carriermodulatedto a depth of 20
consistsof two or threeletterstransmittedby keying
per centby both 90 and 150 Hz tones. Deviation
the 1020 Hz tone so as to give a Morsecode
from the centreline is givenin d.d.m.(differencein
representation.The identification is transmittednot
depthof modulation),i.e. the percentage
modulation lessthan six times per minute when the localizeris
of the largersignalminus the percentagemodulation operational.
of the smallersignaldividedby 100.
The localizercoursesectoris definedas that sector Glideslope
in the horizontalplanecontainingthe courseline
Glideslopechannelsarein the u.h.f. band,
15OHz > 90 Hz

0.155DDM
Bercon
Course sector < 6o

0 ' 1 5 5D D M

ILS datum point

150 Hz < 9O Hz
Fig. 52

70

Localizer ooursc,lelector

Fig. 5.3 Electromechanical and electronic course deviatron

indicators (courtesy Bendix Avionics Division)

s p e c i f i c a l l3y2 8 . 6 - 3 3 5 .M
4 H z a t 1 5 0k H z s p a c i n g .
Eachof the forty frequencies
allocatedto ihe
glideslope
systemis pairedwith a localizerfrequency,
the arrangement
beingthat localizerand glidesiope
beaconsservingthe sarnerunway.will haveliequencies
takenfrom Table5.2. pilot selectionol'the required
localizerfrequencyon the controllerwill cause'both
localizerand glideslope
receivers
to tune to the
appropriatepairedfrequencies.
Table5.2 Localizer/glideslope
frequencypriring (MHz)
Lot'alizer

()li<lepatlt

108.10
1 0 8 .51
t08.30
r08.35
r0 8 ' s 0

334.70
-r,r4.55
3 3 4 .0r
33.r.95
329.90
329.75
330.50
330.35
329.30
329.15
33r .40
3 3 1. 2 5
332.00
3 3 1. 8 5

r0u.55
r0 8 . 7 0
108.75
108.90
108.95
109'10
109.15
109'30
109.35

Localizer

Glidepath

l0e.-s0

332.60
332.3s
333.20
333.05
333.80
333.65
334.40
334.25
335.00
334.85
329.60
329.45
330.20
330.05
330.80
330.65
3 3 1. 7 0
331.55
332.30
332'15
332'90
332.75
333.s0
3 33 . 35
3 3l . 1 0
330.95

1 0 9 .55
l0e 70
109.75
109.90
109.95
I10.10
l 10.15
110.30
I10.35
I l0'50
I 10.55
l10.70
110.7s
I10.90
l10.95
ll l.l0
lll'15
I I 1.30
l l 1.35
I I 1.50
l I 1.55
I I1.70
I I1.75
I I 1.90
I l l.9s

71

The principle of glideslopeoperation is similar to

that of localizerin that the carrieris modulatedwith
90 and 150 Hz tones. Above the correctglidepath
the 90 Hz modulationpredominateswhile on the
correctglidepaththe d.d.m. is zero,both tonesgiving
a 40 per cent depth ofmodulation. The coverageand
shown in Figs 5.4 and 5.5 are
beamcharacteristics
givenin termsof the glidepathangle,typically
2|-3'. CategoryI facilitiesmay haveasymmetrical
upperand lower sectors,the figure of 0'0875 d.d-mto an angulardisplacementof betweert
corresponding
0'070 and 0'140 0. By contrasta categoryIII facility
is asshownin Fig. 5.5 with a toleranceof + 0'02 0 on
the 0'12 0 lines.
Althoughd.d.m.= 0lines occur al2 0,30 and4 0
thev are not stablein the sensethat if the pilot obeys

t o n 'n

Course line
Azimuth

Fi;. 5.4 Glideslopecoverage

DDM : 0.0875

Fig. 55

72

Glideslopebeamcharacteristics

the steeringcommandshe will not maintain the

correspondinganglesof descent.The first stablenull
o".un at S 0 wtrich for a glidepathof 3" is at l5o.
This is sufficiently different from the desireddescent
angleto createfew problems;howeverto avoid
'captured'
confusionthe glideslopebeamshouldbe
from below.
Oncein the correctbeam fly'up and fly-down
signalsare indicatedto the pilot in much the same
*-uVur with the localizer. Figure5.3 illustratesa
fly-up commandof just over half-scaledeflection.
The glideslopeoutput is more sensitivethan localizer
in that typically a |' off the glidepathwill give
deflection(about0'175 d'd.m.) compared
full-scale
with about 2t off the courseline for full'scale
deflection.
Marker Beacons
A marker beaconradiatesdirectly upwardsusinga
carrierfrequencyof 75 MHz. The modulatingsignal
dependson the function of the marker.
An airways,fan or'Z'marker is a position aid for
en-routenavigationlocatedon airwaysor at holding
points. As suchit is not part of ILS. The carrieris
modulatedwith a 3000 Hz signalwhich causesa
white lamp to flashin the aircraftwhile station
identificationin Morsecode is fed to the AIS.
The outer marker is normally located4f miles
from the runway threshold. The carrieris
by 400 Hz keyed to give two
amplitude-modulated
which
can be heardvia the AIS and
per
second
dashes
causesa blue (or purple) lamp to flash.
The middle marker is located3500 ft from the
runway threshold. The carrieris amplitude'modulated
by 1300Hz keyedto givea dot-dashpair 95 timesper
minute which can be heardvia the AIS and causesan
amberlamp to flash.
The ILS markerbeamwidths are sufficiently wide
in the planeperpendicularto the courseline to cover
the coursesector.

SimplifiedBlock DiagramOperation

Sincethe localizerand VOR frequenciesoccupy the

sameband it is normal to havea v.h.f. navigation
and detectssignals
receiverwhich selects,.amplifies
the
frequencyselected.
on
depending
either
aid,
from
Figure 5.6 illustratesthe basicblock diagramof a
localizerreceiver.A conventionalsingleor double
o.0875
superhetis employed.A.g.c.is importantsincean
increasein the 90 and 150 Hz output signalsby the
samefactor would increasethe magnitudeof the
difference,so givingmore deflectionof the deviation

3OO-3OOOHz

I Deviation indicator

r__ _ ___:=___

__J

Fig. 5.5 Localizer simplified block diagram

Fig.5.7 KingKN 72 bandpassfilter,simplified

indicator for the samed.d.m. Sigral separationis

achieved
by threefilters:audio,90 and 150 Hz. The
audio signal,identification and possiblyvoice,is
passedvia audio amplifiers(incorporatinga noise
limiter)to the AIS. The 90 and 150 Hz iignalsare
full waverectified, the differencebetween-the
rectifieroutputsdrivingthe deviationindication
while the sum drivesthe flag out of view.
The 90 and 150 Hz filters,togetherwith the
rectifienand any associated
circuitry.are often part
of the so-calied
VORi LOC converterwhich may be
within the v.h.f.navigationreceiveror a separaieunit.
A combinedconverterwill usuallyenrployactive
filters which serveaseither 30 Hz bandpissfilters for
VOR operationor 90/ I 50 Hz bandpassfiltersfor

localizeroperation. Figure5.7 showsthe circuit used

in the King KN 72 VOR/LOC converter. Whena
VOR frequencyis selectedthe ILS Hi line is low, so
turning off Ql which effectivelydisconnectsR2 from
the circuit, the centrefrequencyof 30 Hz is set by
R3. Selectionofa localizerfrequencycauses
the ILS
Hi line to go high,so turningon Ql and placingR2 in
parallelwith R3. R2 is setto givea centrefrequency
of 90 or 150 Hz asappropriate.
The glidepathreceiverconverterblock diaeramis
similarto that of the localizerexceptthat the-audio
channelis not required.A separate
receivermay be
usedor all navigationcircuitry may be within the
sameunit. In any eventseparate
antennas
areused
for localizerand glidepath.

5
:t

White

Blue

Amber

To AIS

blockdiagram
Fig.5.8 Markersimplified
The marker is fixed tuned to 7 5 MHzand may
employ a t.r.f. (tuned radio frequency)or superhet
.r..iu.r. The detectedaudio is t-edto three filters for
tone separationand alsoamplifiedand fed to the AIS'
The filtir which givesen output causesthe
appropriatelamp-switchingcircuit to give an - .
lamp'
interruptedd.c. output to drivethe associated
receiver
the
of
sensitivity
the
Hi
to
When sq'itched
is such that it respondsto airwaysmarker beacons
eventhough the iircraft is at a relativelyhigh
altitude. Wittr trigtrsensitivitythere is a dangerthat
when at lower altitudes,for examplewhen flying over
the outer and middle markerson approach,the lamps
is
may be lit for longerthan the maximumof 10 s' It
lamps
marker
middle
and
outer
evenpossiblefor the
to be lit simultaneously.To avoid this, low sensitivity
wherebyan attenuator(i0 dB) is piacedin
is selected,
line with the receiverinput. Switchingmay take
placeat 10000 ft.
Fig.5.9
"l*':

Typical attitude director indicator

J'

the
and scaleconventionallyon the left-handsideof
rising
a
drives
localizer
the
ADI
the
tn
instrument.
runway laterally tc displaydeviation(vertical.
in Chapter4 an installationincorporatinga
movementrepresentingradio altitude) while the
VOR/IiS receiverwas discussedand illustrated
glideslopedrivesa pointer over a scale,againon the
ILS we areinterestedin
(Fig. a.9). In considering
left-handside of the instrument'
itro"seouiputs derivedfrom the localizer'glidepath
Localizer,glideslopeand marker signalsarealso
glideslope
and marker receivers.Localizerand
fed to an autolandsystemwhen fitted' The localizer
deviation(fly-leftifly-right, fly-up/fly-down
deviationwill be usedto supply the appropriate
respectively)will be fed to a conventionalor
(rudder)
HSI
an
ciemandsignalto the roll (aileron) and yaw
Lt.it.onic ieviation indicator (Fig' 5 '3) and/or
respond
will
channels.ihe pitch (elevator)channel
(Fig.a.l0) and an attitudedirectorindicator'ADI
touchdown
approaches
aircraft
to glideslope.As the
localizerdrivesa iateral
ieii. s.sl. In the HSI the
thJresponie of the pitch channelto glideslope
while
arrow
course
the
of
left
and
aril.tion bar right
reduced;this
deviatiln signalsis progressively
glideslopedeviationis givenby a deviationpointer
Installation

74

reductionis triggeredby the outer marker and thence deviationoutput circuit hasan output impedanceof
controlledin accordancewith the radio altimeter
200 O and suppliesthe required current to five
output. A modern ILS will provide dual parallel
indicators in parallel then when lessthan five
outputsfor both localizerand glidepathdeviationin
indicatorsare usedthe deflectionwill not properly
orderthat the AFCS.may acceptinformation only
correspondto the d.d.m. Considera d.d.m.of 0.155,
when the samesignalappearson eachfeed of a
then 750 pA must be suppliedfor five loadsin
parallelpair.
parallelfrom a generateddeviationvoltageof
A generalaviationinstallationis illustratedin
300 mV. Now considerfour loadsfed from a 300mV,
Fig. 5.10 incorporatingKing equipment. The
200 Cl source,the total current will be
KX 175Bis panel-mountedand containsa
300 x 103(200 + 250) = 666.7ptA divided equally
720-channelv.h.f. comms receiver,a 2O0-channel
amongthe four loadsso that eachload has
v.h.f. nav. receiverand all necessarycontrols with
666'7l4 = 166'7 pA, i.e. the indicatorswill over-read
digitalreadoutof comm. and nav. frequencieson the
by about I I per cent. Unlessthe receiveroutput is a
front panel. The KX 175B alsoprovidestuning
constantvoltagefor a variety of loads(ARINC
hformation for the DME and glideslopereceiver.
578-3)we must compnsatefor loadingvariations.
Various methodshavebeenusedfor loading
compensationin the past. One possibilityis to
choosedifferent receiveroutput impedances
dependingon the numberof loads;inthis casethe
receiverand the mounting rack shouldbe suitably
labelled. Another possibilityis to fit a shunt resistor
in an aircraftjunction box throughwhich the deviation
signalis fed. With two indicatorsa 330 O shunt
would be neededgivinga 330 O and two 1000 Q
loadsin parallel,i.e. total load of 200 (-). Finally,
but not exhaustingthe possibilities,five separate
buffered outputs may be provided,eachindicator
beingfed from one of the buffer amplifiers. Similar
considerations
apply to flag circuitswhere using
four 1000Q loadsin parallelis standardprocedure.
F8. 5.10 Kirg general
aviationcomm./nav.
system
vary betweendifferent
Antenna arrangements
typesof aircraft. Mentionof combinedVOR/
The KN 72 andKN 75 are remote-mounted
VOR/LOC converterand glideslopereceiver
respectively.
The KN 72 gles localizerdeviationand
flagsignals
(aswell asVOR deviation,TO/FROM and
flag),while the KN 75 givesglideslopedeviationand
flag. The KMA 20 is an audio control console
providingspeaker/phoneselectionfor sevenreceive
channelsand mic. selectionfor two transmit channels
aswell as containinga marker receiverplus its controls
Phillip3 hcad scrcw
andlamps.The indicator,Kl 206, showslocalizer
(16 pt.ccs)
deviation(verticalbar) and glideslopedeviation
(horizontalbar) aswell as showingVOR deviation
and TO/FROM indication if a VOR frequencyis
selected,the deviationrelatingto the OBS setting also
on the KI 206. lf a Kl 204 is usedinsteadof the
Lo[r
l@rlirct
antennt
KI 206 then the KN 72 may be omitted sincea
VOR/LOCconverteris built in.
Typically a deviationindicator movementwill be
of 1000S) impedanceand require150 pA for
Fig. 5.t I Boeing747 localizer aerials (note Bendix weather
full-scaledeflection(f.s.d.), thereforethe voltage
radar scanner with spoiler grid on parabolic reflector for
acrossthe deviationoutput of the receivershould be
mapping purposes - see Chapter 9). (Courtesy Boeing
1 5 0m V f o r a d . d . m .o f 0 . 1 5 5 . I f t h e r e c e i v e r
C o m m e r c i a l A e r o p l a n eC o . )

75

localizer antennashasbeenmadein Chapter4 but

the glideslopeand marker antennaswill alwaysbe
aircraft,
separate.As an exampleof a largepassenger
considerthe Boeing747. ThreeVOR/ILS receivers
areinstalledfed by one V-type VOR antennaat the
top of the verticalstabilizer,two dual localizbr
antennasin the noseand a total of six glideslope
antennasin the nose-wheeldoors. One marker
beaconreceiveris instalied,fed by a flush-mounted
antennaon the bottom centrelineof the aircraft.
The localizerantennasare mounted aboveand
below the weatherradarscanner.The lower antenna
feedsreceiversI and 2 while receiver3 is fed from
the upper antenna. Antenna switchingbetweenVOR
and localizeraerialsis achievedby either solid stateor
switchesmounted behind the
electromechanical
VOR/ILS receivers.
The six glideslopeantennasare split into two
groupsof three,one group in eachnose-wheeldoor.
A non-tunableslot (track antenna)dual unit is

installed in each door leading edgewhile two tunable

arrays(captureantennas)are mounted on the sidesof
eachdoor. A total of four hybrid antennacouplers
combinethe r.f. outputs of the glideslopeantennas
providingsuitableimpedancematching.

Controlsand Operation
Normallya combinedVOR/ILS/DME controlleris
employed(Fig. a.9). Such a controller is briefly
describedin Chapter4. The marker receiver
switchingis likely to be remote from the combined
controllerand its action hasbeendescribedabove.
In usethe glidepathshouldbe capturedfrom
below, approachingfrom a direction determinedby
the approachproceduresfor the particular airfield.
The marker sensitivityshouldbe on low for the
approach.The appropriateselectionshould be made
on the audio control panel.

VOR/ILS receiver No. 3

Glide slope
antenna
hybrids
8554 and 8555
and attnuators
8582 and 8583
Trrck antenna
coaxial cable

Capture antcnna
coaxial cable
{ Coaxial
recbiver No. 2
cable
9uard
Antcnna coaxial
connectors D8558

G/S track
antenna
B 561
Antenna coaxial
connector D8561

See@r

G/S capturc
a n t e n n a8 5 5 8

G/S capture
a n t e n n a8 5 5 8
G/S capture antenna hyg49-{-\
-8560
c/S;;t';;
\
.antennaarray
.
\\
t
\

Tuning"trg, .

t -]\'*.
-.\\
. .\\.

Attachins
screws(5 places)

Right aft
nose gear door

S rwo

Aft door shown in retraciedposition

(6t
\J

Fig.5.l2 Boeing?47 glideslopeaerials(courtcsyBoeing

CommercialAeroplaneCo.)

76

Track antennas

Capture antonnas

Right door

Track aerials

Fig.5.l3 Boeing747 simplified glideslopeaerial coupling

alrangements

Characteristics
The basisfor the following is ARINC Characteristic
578-3 althoughmuch of the detail hasbeenomitted
and not all sectionscovered.
Units Tlte receivershouldcontain all the electronic
circuitry necessaryto providedeviationand flag
signalsfor both localizerand glideslope.The control
unit should provide for frequencyselectionof ILS,
VOR and DME using2/5 coding.

carrierwithin I l2 kHz of tuned frequency.

Sensitivityis such that the flag shouldclearwith a
5 pV 'hard' input sigral ('hard' pV: the output of a
signalgeneratorcalibratedin terms of open circuit
load). The receivershouldbe protectedagainst
undesiredlocalizersignals,VOR sigralsand v.h.f.
comm. signals.The a.g.c.shouldbe such that the
receiveroutput shouldnot vary by more than 3 dB
with an input signallevel rangeof l5-100 mV.

Gli<leslopeReceiver Forty channelsat 150 kHz

spacing,328'6-335.4MHz. Channelsto be paired
Antennas Separatelocalizerand glideslopeantennas with localizerchannelsfor frequencyselection
purposes.The selectivityis specifiedin a similarway
shouldbe provided coveringthe appropriate
to localizerbut the 60 dB points are at + 80 kHz
frequencybands(108.00-l12.00MHz and
while the 6 dB points are at t 2l kHz. The flag should
328'6-335.4MHz respectively)and both having
clearwith a20 pY'hard'.sigral. Protectionagainst
characteristicimpedancesof 50 O with a VSWR of
unwanted glideslopesigralsmust be guaranteed.The
l e s st h a n 5 : l .
a.g.c.should be suchthat the input signallevel to the
Power Supply I l5 V, 400 Hz, singlephase.
tone filters shouldnot vary by more 163n+| to
-2 dB for an increasein input from 200 to
Localizer Receiver Forty channelsat 50 kHz spacing 20 000 pV and should not vary by more than *3,
108'00-l I l'95 MHz. Maximum channeltime 60 ms. -2 dB thereafterup to an input of 100 000 pV.
Selectivityis such that a carriermodulated30 per
cnt at 1000 Hz shouldprovidean output at least
Deviation Outputs
60 dB down when separatedfrom tuned frequency
Localizer:.high-level2
V for 0.155 d.d.m.,low-level
by t 3l'5 kHz; responseshouldbe within 6 dB when 150 mV for 0.155 d.d.m. Dual outputsin parallelfor

77

shouldnot vary for

AFCS. Output characteristics
loadSbetween200 Q and no load. When90 Hz
'hot'
sideof all deviationoutputs
predominatesthe
'common' side;
shouldbe positivewith respectto the
'fly-left'is given.
in this case
Glideslope:similarto localizerbut high- and lowlevel
for
outputsare2Y and 150 mV respectively
0 ' 1 7 5d . d . m .
Flag Outpu* Two highJevelwarningsignals(super
flag) and one lowlevel waming signalshould be
providedby both localizerand glidepathreceiversThe high-levelflag characteristicis 28 V d.c. for valid
statuswith current capabilities;25 mA for AFCS
waming;250 mA for instrumentwamings.The
low-levelflag shouldprovidea voltageof between
300 and 900 mV into up to five parallel1000 Q
loads.
Monitoring
Warningsigtalswhen: no r.f., either90 or 150 Hz
missing,total depthof modulationo1'composite
90/150 Hz signalis lessthan 28 per cent,etc.

RampTesting
A radiatingtestsetmustbe usedwith a basic
capabilityof simulatingoff-glidepathsignals.In
additionthe testsetshouldoperateon one or more
and providefaciliticsfor
accuratespot frequettcies
deletingeitherof the modulatingfrequencies.
TIC T-308 This test set wasmentionedin Chapter4
in connectionwith VOR testing.In additionto the
VOR testset modulewe havethe T-268,T-288 and
T-298 for testingthe marker,localizerand glideslope
receivers
respectively.The T-268 providesat least
7Cper centmodulationfor the 400, 1300and
3000Hz tones. The T-28Boperateson 108'I MHz
a n dc a ns i m u l a t e0 d . d . m . , 0 ' 1 5 5d . d . m . l e f ta n dr i g , h t
(switched)or 0 to t 0'199 d.d.m.(variable).The
T-298 ooerateson 334'7 MHz and cansimulate
b a.a.m.,0.175
d . d . m .u p a n dd o w n( s w i t c h e do) r
0 to t 0'280 d.d.m.(variable).Eitherthe 90 or the
150Hz tonesmay be deletedwith both the T-28B
and the T-298.

beingmarkedin decibels,e.g.:
6'6 dB fly-right(+ 0'1549 d.d.m.)'
4 ' 0 d B f l y - l e f t ( - 0 ' 0 9 2 ed . d . m . ) '
3 ' 7 6d B f l y - u p ( + 0 ' 1 7 5d ' d . m ' ) e' t c .
Further switch positionson the d.d.m. switch allow
for deletingone or other of the tones. ln additiona
variable0 to 1 150gA deviationis available.Stepped
attenuatorsprovideoutput levelsvariablebetween
0 dBm and - 120 dBm in I dBrn steps,in orderthat
receiversensitivitymay be checked(testsetaerial
positioningwill affectthis check). Modulatingtones
fbr marker
of 400. 1300and 3000 Hz are available
for
checks.Finally, l0l0 l-lzmodulationis available
4
the
in Chapter
audiochecks.As menticlned
CRM 555 canalsobe usedto checkVOR.
IFR NAV402 AP Conttinsa modtrlatedsignal
and
generatorfor marker,VOR, localizer,glideslope
t
e
s
t
s e ti s
<
r
l
'
t
h
e
o
u
t
p
u
t
c o m m u n i c a t i o nt es s t i n g .T h e
frecluencies
all
on
I
l0
dBnr
7
and
variablebetween
ad
t
s e tb y a v a r i a b l et ) e q u e n c cy o n t r o l( p h a s e - l o c k e
25 kHt.on eacltblnd exceptfor glidepatltwhcre
deviatitlncanbe
irrtervalis 50 kt-lz). The localiz-er
d . d . n rw
. hile
0
'
1
0
0
o
r
0
'
1
5
5
s w i t c h e dt o 0 ' 0 9 - 1 .
g l i d e s l o pde. d . t no. f l e r s0 ' 0 9 1 , 0 ' 1 7 5a n d0 ' 4 0 0 '
. l l t l r r e cr t t a r k ctro n c s
T o n ed e i e t i o nc a nb e s e l e c t e dA
a r ea v l i l a b l ea. si s 1 0 2 0t l z .f o r l u d i o c h c c k '

WM,n*#]"

F r c r 6 +. -,' ; - , ,

-EFf,Gr,t

Fig. 5.14 NAV402 AI' tcst sct (cotrrlcsyllrR l'llcctrontcs

lnc.)

htrcedure The prdredure for a lunctional checkis

if the operationof ILS is understood
straightforward
and full detailsof the testset areknown. In practice,
the procedurewill be listedin the aircrllt nlaintcnance
manual. Carefulattentionmust be paid to testsct
with low sensitivity
CossorCRM 555 Forty localizer and forty glideslope antennapositioningif receivers
Self-testfacilities
passed
as
serviceable.
to
be
not
are
channelsmay be selected,all crystalcontrolled.
Thereare sevend.d.m. settingsfor localizer-simulated on both the testset and the aircraftinstallationshould
be usedif available.
deviationand five for glidepath,the d.d.m. switch

78

6 Hyperbolicnavigationsystems

GeneralPrinciples
The needfor a co-ordinatesystemfor navigation
purposesis self-evident,the most important being the
geat circlelinesof longitudeand the linesof latitude
parallelto the equator,itself a greatcircle. Figure6. I
illustratestwo alternativesvstemssuitablefor usein
ndio navieation.

we usethe terms circularl.o.p. (lines of

be discussed
position)and hyperbolicl.o.p.The patternsconsideredare not suitablefor
position fixing sincetwo circularLo.p. intersectat
two placeswhilst knowing the differencein rangeto
two points simply placesone anywhereon one of two
hvperbolic l.o.p. Knowing the startingposition and
subsequentlythe track and ground speed(or heading
and true airspeed)will make it possibleto usethe
rho-rho system,sincea position caiculatedby dead
reckoningwill identify at which of the intersections
the aircraftis. To usethe hyperbolicl.o.p.we must
generateanotherfamily of linesby taking a third
fi;red point, we then havethe co-ordinatesystem
shown in Fig.6.2. A fix is givenby the unique point
wheretwo hyperbolicl.o.p.cross.Of coursethe use
of three fixed points givesthe possibilityof a
rho-rho-rhosystemwhere three rangecircles
intersectat a uniquepoint.

Fig.6.l Circular
andhyperbolic
co-ordinate
systems
of
If two fixed pointson earthhavea sequence
concentriccirclesdrawn around them, eachcircle
representinga particularrangefrom the fixed centre,
then points of intersectionare definedbut ambiguous
excepton the line joining the two points (baseline)
where they areuniquely defined. Sucha systernis
calledrho-rhosincetwo distance(rho) measurements
areinvolved.
We can usethe concentriccirclesto define
hyperboliclines. Whereany two circlesintersectwe
will havea differencein rangedefined;for example,
the rangeto point A lessthe rangeto point B. I,he
locusof points which havethe samedifferencein
rangewill describeahyperbola. Thusin Fig. 6.1 the
hyperbolicline hh' is the locusof the point X such
that AX - BX = constant.By plottingthe linesfor
severaldifferent constantswe obtain a family of
hyperboliclines. In the radio navigationsystemsto

positionfix (courtesy
Litton
Fig.6.2 Hyperbolic
navigation
Division)
Inc.,AeroProducts
Systems
International
The co-ordinatepatternsdescribedaboveare
currently usedin three radio navigationequipments,
namelyLoranC, DeccaNavigatorand Omega.
Predecessors
of thesesystemsinclude GEE, a British
World War II hyperbolicsystemdevelopedto navigate
bomberson missionsto Germany.

79

It shouldbe clearby now that the requirementof

a hyperbolicsystemis that it can measuredifference
in rangewhile a rho-rho-rhosystemmust nleasure
absoluterange. Two methodsare in use: time
for Loran C and phase
differencemeasurements
for Deccaand Omega. Thesemethods
measurements
dictatethat Loran C is a pulsedsystemwhile the
other two arecontinuouswave(c.w.).
A basicproblem with phasemeasuringsystemsis
that rangecan only be determinedif the whole
numberof cyclesof e.m. radiationbetweenthe
aircraft and the transmittingstation are know. This is
illustratedin Fig. 6.3. An aircraft at X measuresthe
phaseof the signalfrom station,4 which is

'r"
r"l

,fi

'Raceivor

l0^-06l./

LOPS

Tg

navigation
uiavehyperbolic
Fig.6.4 Continuous
Inc.,AeroProducts
(courtesrInternational
LittonSystelns
Division)

( | / l00th of a lane)
subdividedinto say.centilanes
and so determiningon which l.o.p.the aircraftis
llying is sirnplya matterof laneand centilanecounting
liorrrsonreknown point. A lix requiresa separate
between
count to be rnadeof the lanesand centilanes
onc transmitternlay be
anotherpair of transnlitters.
to the two pairs. The two l.o.p' will
conlrnor.r
intersectai the aircraft'sposition.
The possibilityof laneslipexists;i.e. missingI lane
Fig. 6.3 Received signal phase measurement
in the count. lf this happensthe correctlanetttttstbe
beingterrnedlaning.
this prt'rcess
established,
Obviouslylaningis easierwlten liuresarewidcr.
transmittingat a frequencyof l0 kllz. The
Supposethe frequencyof transmitterA is l0 kHz
wavelength,
L, is givenby C/ I 0 000 where C is the
while that of B is l5 kHz. tltenwe havea dit'ference
to a lanewidth
speedof light; thustr = l 6 nauticalnriles.lf the
frequencyot'5 kt{z which corresponds
for
l0 kHz and
l5
000
m
opposed
to
phasenreasured
as
is. sayt)0", the distancc,4Xis
30
000
nr
of
( l6// + 4) nauticalrnileswhereN is the nurnberof
l0 000 m for l5 kHz. In this way lanewidth canbe
wlrolecyclesoccupyinglhe spacebetwccnA andX.
madewide without havingto transmitimpossiblylow
Wc-sav that thc lanewidth is l6 nauticalrnilesand
fiequencies.While the useof wide lanesis of
+
(N
thc lircr:rl'tis
inrportancefor tlte purposesof laning.narrowlanes
i-) l:rnesl'ronrA.
givegreaterresolutionand hencegreaterpotential
ContinuousWaveHyperbolic Principles
accuracy.
in phasebetweensignals
W i t l rl h y p c L t r o l iscv s t c nw
the dift-erence
r c a r cc o n c e r n ew
dith
Measuring
will only be nreaningfulif the
in nrngcnrthcr than ubsoluterurge:
dil'lr'rcrrcc
from two transntitters
tlrt' uirlrornc'
crluiirrnentrnustnleasure transnrissions
ltavea knowtrand t'ixedphase
consctyrrcrrtly
exist:
in phlsc bt'twcenrrdio wavesfronr two relationship.Tyo possibilities
thc'rlil'li'rcrrcc
r o t r n tsl t a t i o r r sl." ' i g u r6e. 4 s h o w st l t a t
l n r n s r r r i t l i rgr g
the
canbe tlesignated
tlrcrcrvill br.'zcrrrplrlsedil'lert'nccbctwcen
l. one of'tl'retransntitters
svrrchltlrt
izctl t nrnsrrtissions
r'vcry lrll [' l wavelength.
master,the other the slavewhich. clnreceivittg
frotrttltc'ntaster.will ensulc
An lircrll'i nrcusuring
a phlsc dil'ti'rcnccolthe transnrission
is synchronized:
c
o
r
r
l
d
b
c
o
n
u
n
y
o
l
'
t
h
c
d
r
s
l
r
r
d
own
transtnissiott
l
.
o
.
p
.
.
i
.
e
.
i
n
its
d
l
|
0A
to sotrre
aresynchr-oniz-ed
a n y o l ' t l r c I l n c sl r c t w e e rl r a r r s r r r i l t cAr sa n d l l . e a c h
2. both transntittcrs
h i d c a t t l r eb l s c l i n e .
standardtinrescalesuchasprovidedby an
o l ' w h i c hi s h l l l ' a w u v c l c n g tw
a t o n t i cc l o c k .
S i n c c ' c v c rlya n ci s i t l c r r t i c at o
l t l r r 'r e c c i v eor n t h e
luircrll'ta lunt'corrntnruslbc cstlblishcdcitlrcr ll'orn
PrrlsedHyperbolic PrinciPles
l h c l i r c r u l ' t ' s t l r t i r r gp o i n l o r , t l u r i n gl l i g h t .l ' r o n ra n
laningis.rrota problclttsitrcc'
positionlix. lilch lanerrraybe
lrr suchsystertts
indcpcndt'rrt
80

d<T<2t+d

T = 2t+d

Extended
base line

Extended
- - - - - t : obase line

-Slave

Master

L.O.P.= line of constant time

'
difference.T

Fig.6.5 Pulsedhyperbolicnavigation

unambiguousl.o.p.sare obtained. Considerthe two

transmittersat A and B in Fig. 6.5. One is designated
the master;this transmitspulsesof energyat a fixed
publishedp.r.f. On receiptof the masterpulsethe
slavewill transmit, usually after somefixed delay,say
d ps. If the propagationtime from masterto slaveis
I gs then we c.ul seethat an airCraftat the master
stationposition, or anywhereon the extendedbase
line outward from the master,will measurea time
differenceof (2t + d) gs when comparingthe tinre of
arrivalof the masterand slavetransmissions.An
aircrafton the extendedbaseline outward from the
slavewould record a time differenceof d ps. Should
an aircraftbe anywhereother than on the extended
baseline the time differencewill be someunique
readingbetweend and (2t + d) ps.
Disadvantages
of hyperbolic systemsare that lane
width varieswith distancefrom baseline and that
signalgeometryis important. With a hyperbolic
co-ordinatesystemthe angleof cut betweentwo l.o.p.
canbe suchthat the tangentsto the lines at the
aircraftposition are almostparallel;for other aircraft
positionsthe hyperbolicI.o.p.may cut almostat
right angles.Of courseif more than two l.o.p. are
availablethe geometryproblem is of little
consequence
sincea most probableposition can be
computed. Figure6.6 illustratesthe variousl.o.p.
geometries.
Continuous Wave Rho-Rho and Rho-Rho-Rho
Systems
To measurethe phaseof a receivedsigral a suitable
referencemust be available,generatedwithin the
receiver.Let the phaseofthe referencesignalbe @r,
the phaseof the receivedsignal be @"when the
aircraft is at point A and fu when the aircraft is at

L.O.P.3

).P.2
L.O.P.
Best geometry very accurate
L . O . PI.

Worst geometry poor

accuracy
Fig. 6.6

Multiple L.O.P. good

accuracy
due to redundancY

Various geometrics for hyperbolic systenrs

point B. The airborneequipmentwill tncasurctlre

differencein phasebetweenthe receivcdsignaland
signal,i.e.:
the reference
Q^=Qr-Qr
when the aircraft is at point A, while:
Qm=h-Q,
when the aircraft is at point B. The changein phasc
asthe aircraft moveswill providea measureof the
changein range,we have:

@.:(0" -Q)=Qa-Qb

( 0 b- 0 ' )
(6.1)

Theseideasare illustratedin Fig. 6.7.

The aboveworking hasassumedthat the reference
sigrraldoesnot drift in the time it takesfor the
aircraft to travel from A to B. If the referencephase
is @r.and @16when the aircraft is at point A and B
respectively,then equation(6.1) must be modified

81

AtB

+ 0 ^ : Q a- 6 u
Fig. 6.7 Changein measuredphasewith afucraftmoveinnenl

to accountfor this drift, it becomes:

Q^=(0^-@u)-(0'"-0'u)

(6.2)

Thus an equipmentcontinuouslymonitoring the

changein measuredphasein order to calculatechange
in rangewill be in error by an amount dependingon
the referenceoscillatordrift.
At the moment of switch-onthe referencesignal
on board the aircraft is not phaseJockedto the
gound transmitter'sfrequency. Further, sincethere
is a signalphaseshift due to the transmissionpath,
therewill be a phaseor clock offset (@o)between
receivedsignaland the local reference.If at
switch-onboth the transmitterand receiverpositions
areknown @ocan be calculated,and if at subsequent
aircraft positions this phaseoffset remainsthe same
then by measuringphasedifferenceas described
earlierthe changein rangefrom the known starting
point may be computed. Referenceoscillatordrift
can be consideredas a changein phaseoffset'
Errors arisingdue to a changein phaseoffset can
be minimized in three ways:
l. usc difference in phasebetween synchronized
sigrralsfrom two remote transmitters,in which
caseany changein referencephasecancelsout
(this is the hyperbolic approach);
2. a precisionreferenceoscillatorof atomic clock
standardcan be carried on the aircraft, in which
casdrift is negligible over the duration of the
flight (this is the rho-rho approach);
82

3. estimate the phaseoffset throughout flight by

utilizing signalsfrom more than two
transmitters(this is the rho-rho-rhoapproach)'
The operation of a rho-rho system is illustrated in
Fig. 6.8. As the aircraft flies from I to 2 the phase
changesin the signalsreceivedfrom transmittersA
andB are continuously measured;this allowsthe
airborneequipment to count the number of range
lanesand centilanestraversedwith respectto both
transmitters.Equation(6.1) applies,sincereference
oscillatordrift is negligible. Thus if the aircraft
position at point I is known it can be computedat 2.

\dIA-(6A2-aLO2)

- l c l 1 1- d s 6 1 )

l 6 M O ' l d 3 2 - O ! O 2 l- t o g l - C 1 g 1 ;

.t.'12-6A1t-{6192-cLg1)
rclE

LGAL mnLUrOn

-tc62-ca1l-16192-{1611

OrrFt ' t6LO2 - 6LOtl

Fig. 6.8 Rho-rho navigation (courtesy Litton Systems

International Inc., Aero ProductsDivisio')

With a rho-rho.rho s),stenltwo range(circular)

l.o.p. givea position fix while a third can be usedto
eliminateerror in phaseoffset,@". ln Fig.6.9 it can
be seenthat a non-zero@,givesus the situation where
threel.o.p.do not intersectat one point but-form a
trianglewithin which the aircraft is positioned.

hyperbolic and rho-rho-rho methods require three

ground transmittersfor a fix but the geonretryof the
aircraft and transmitterswill degradethe accuracyof
the hyperbolicsystemmoreso than eitherrho-rho-rho
or rho-rho. A hyperbolicsystenrhasthe most
complexcomputerprogram,but is nevertheless

o
Transmitter 2

Transmitter

,'\1
\

True position

True position

Ptc-

- -

P. P^ P.

Kncwn points

--- CalculatcdL.O.P.
- T r u eL . O . P .
Fig.6.9 Rho-rho-rho
navigation
of this positiontrianglcshou.sthat the probably the leastcostly sinceits local oscillator
Consideration
p e r p e n d i e u ld
a irs t a n c elsi o r r rt l r c t' r u e p o s i t i o nt o t h e
stabilityrequirenrents
arelessstringentthan eventhe
c a l c u l a t eld. o . p .u r ee q u a lt o e l c h o t h r . -l rn d g i v ea
rho-rho-rhosystem.
n l c e s u roc f 'f " . S u l ' l i c i c nitr r t i r r n r a t i oi rsra v a i l a b l e
l i o n r t h e t h r e el . c l . p t. o e v a l u a t p
e " . a s s u n t i nteh a t
rr-fercnce
oscillatordrift is the orrlv sorrrceof t'rror.
Omega Navigation System (ONS)
S h o u l do t h e re r r o r sc o n t r i b u t et o t h e c a l c u l a t e d
l . o . p .t h e p e r p e n d i c r r ldairs t a n c els' r o mt h e t r u e
Omegais a very low-frequency.
c.w.,long-range
p , o s i t i otno t h e c a l c u l a tdel . o . p .w i l l n o l n c c e s s a r i b
he
, navigationsystem.Threetime-multiplexed
signalsof
L-qual
and an approxinratesolutionnrustbe sought.
l 0 ' 2 , I l ' 3 3 a n d l 3 ' 6 k H z a r et r a n s n - r i t t e d
omnidirectionallyfrom eachof eight stations
Cdmparisonof Systems
strategically
locatedaroundthe world. Althoughthe
Thereis no clear-cutbestsystemto enrploy,and in
conceptwaspatentedin 1923it wasnot until the
fact all are in useas follows:
mid 1960sthat the US Navy establishedthe first
experimentalstations.By 1968it wasestablished
pulsedhyperbolic
I-oranC
that ONS was t'easible
and the setting-upof a
c.w. hyperbolic
DeccaNavigator,Omega
worldwidenetwork commenced.The USA is
c.w. rho-rho
Omega
responsible
for the stationsin North Dakota,Hawaii,
c.w. rho-rho-rho
Omega
Liberiaand a temporarystationin Trinidad,while
It is interestingto observethat manufacturersof
stationsin Norway,Japan,Argentina,La Reunion
Omeganavigationsystemshaveopted for different
and,by 1980,Australiaarethe responsibilityof
methodsof calculatingposition,illustratingthat
nationswhich haveestablishedbilateral agreements
thereis no universallyacceptedbestmethod.
with the USA. Although the responsibilityfor
The rho-rhomethodis certainlythe simplestof
co-ordinationwasoriginallyallocatedto the US Navy
the three,needingonly two qroundtransmittersand
it hasnow beentaken overby the US CoastGuard.
employinga relativelysimplecornputerprogram.
'The Omega Stations and Broadcast Patterns
It does,however,havethe costlydisadvantage
of
requiringa very stablereferenceoscillator. Both
Eachstationhasa transmitterDowerof l0 kW with

83

Table5.1 Sigralformat,o.n.s.

{_-Ios
0 ' 9s
<---'

Stations

Norway
Liberia
Hawaii
North Dakota
[: Reunion
fugentina
Trinidad/Australia
Japan

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H

r0.2

1 ' 0s
<|*.'

r3 ' 6
t0.2

l'l s
H

I1.33
13.6
to.2

1.2s
H

I 1.33
13.6
10.2

I'I s
<----}

I l-33
13.6

ro.2
I 1.33
r3.6

l 1.33

0 ' 9s
e

I1.33
13.6
to.2

1 - 2s
H

I 1.33
13.6
10.2

I'0 s
<'_}

I I '33
13.6
10.2

the exceptionof the temporarystation in Trinklad

which hasa I kW transmitter. Radiationis from an
omnidirectionalantennawhich takesthe form either
16 NM
9 CYCLES
of a verticaltower, approximately450 m high,
supportingan umbrellaof transmittingelements,or a
valleyspantypically 3500 m in length. Equipment
redundancyensuresreliableoperation99 per cent of
the time.
As mentionedabdveeachstation transmitsthree
1 4{ N M
lo cYcrts
frequenciesin a time-multiplexedpattern which is
uniqueand providesidentification. The transmission
formatis shownin Table6.1. It canbe seenthat at
any one time only three stationswill be transmitting,
eachon a different frequency. There are short
intervals(0'2 s) betweentransmissionbursts. The
pattern is repeatedevery l0 s.
Fig. 6.10 Omegafrequencyrelationships(courtesyLitton
to a nearly
All transmittersare phase-locked
SystemsInternationalInc., Aero ProductsDivision)
absolutetime standardprovidedby the useof atomic
clocksat eachof the station locations. The result is
that the three frequenciesin all transmitters
simultaneouslycrosszero with positiveslopeat
precisetimes every l5/ l Tths of a millisecond. This
phaserelationshipis illustratedin Fig. 6.10. The net
resultis that the timing error betweenstationsis at
most I ps, leadingto a maximum error in position fix
of 300m.
(courtesy
Litton
waveguide
Fig.5.1I Earth-.Ionosphere
Division)
Inc.,AeroProducts
hopagation
Interpational
Systems
The band of frequenciesl0-14 kHz is an appropriate
since predictabilityof the changesin phase.
choicefor a phase-measuring
navigations1)'stem
e.m. radiationat thesefrequenciescan travel
A requirementof the systemis that four or more
thousandsof mileswith predictablephase-change
stationscanbe receivedeverywher.Account must
characteristics.A natural waveguideis formed by the be taken of the attenuation of the signalwhich varies
earth'ssurfaceand the D layer ofthe ionosphere,the with direction due to the rotation of the earth.
dimensionsof which are suitablefor.propagationof
Signalstravellingin an easterlydirection suffer
approximately2 dB/1000 km attenuation,while
the ONS frequencies.This mode of propagation
thoseon a westerlypath suffei approximately
accountsfor the rangeof the signalsand the
84

4 dB/1000km. North and southattenuationis the

sameat 3 dB/1000km. A further consideration
is
that signalscannot be usedcloseto the sourcesince
the phasevariationsare unpredictablein this region.
The implementationof ONS with eightstations,which
arenot equi-spaced
around the world, leadsto a
situationwhere,undernormalconditions,between
four and sevenstationsare usabledependingon the
receiverlocation.

meansthat a conductivity map can be stored in the

computer,so enablinga propagation-correction
factor
to be calculatedfor the path betweenthe receiverand
the known stationlocation.
A complicationarisesin that it is possibleto
receivea direct sigral and one which hasgonethe
'long
way round', in which casewe havea mutual
interferenceproblem. Automatic deselectionof
stationsat rangesin excessofsay 8000 nauticalmiles
is usedto minimize this effect.
3. Geomagnetic FieA
The earth'smagnetic(H) field altersthe motion of
ions and electronsin the lower regionof the
ionosphere,thus affectingv.l.f. propagation. Again
the equipmentsoftwaremay be usedto apply
corrections.
4. Norspheroidal Effects
The computationof aircraft position must take into
accountthat the signalpath from transmittingstation
to aircraft receiveris not on the surfaceof a sphere.
Further, pressuredifferencesat variouslatitudes
effect the height of the ionosphereso compensation
must be made for the effect on phasevelocity.

5. Modal Interference
There are variousmodesof propagationin the
waveguide.If one mode is
earth.ionosphere
dominant the phasegrid producedwill be regular;
howeverin practicea competingmode can be almost
Fig,6.12 Typicalusablecoverage
equal to the dominant mode in which case
irregularitiesappearin the phasepattern. The most
seriouscaseoccurswhen one mode is dominant at
Factors Affecting Propagation
night and a secondduring the day. It follows that
during sunriseand sunsetthe two modeswill be
l. Diurnal Effect
equal. SomeOmegareceiversautomaticallydeselect
The height of the ionospherevariesby approximately station B (Liberia) at critical times sincesignalsfrom
20 km from day to night, beinghighestat night. The this station are particularlysusceptibleto modal
phasevelocity of the propagatedwavewill be greatest interferenceat night.
during the day when the dimensionsof the 'waveguide'
areleast;this leadsto phasevariationswhich
6. Solar Effects
fortunatelyarepredictableand cyclic. Correctionsto A solar flare givesriseto a largeemissionof X-rays
compensate
for diurnai effect may be implemented
which causesa short-termdisturbancein a limited
by meansof a softwareroutine. The entry of GMT
part of the ionosphere.Suih an eventis calleda
anddateat switch-onis requiredbv the routine.
suddenionosphericdisturbance(SID) or a sudden
phaseanomaly(SPA) and may last for I h or more;
2. Ground Conductivity
l.o.p. in the affectedregionsmay be shifted by up to
The different attenuatingeffectsof the oceansand
say 5 nauticalmiles. TheseSIDsoccur about 7 to l0
varioustypes of landmasschangesthe phasevelocity
times per month, but during the peak of the I l-year
of the v.l.f. signal.The greatestlossof signalstrength sunspotcycle a major solarflare may product a shift
occursin the ice-capregionswherethe changein
in l.o.p.by up to 15 nauticalmiles. This latter event
phasevelocityis significant.Waterhasleasteffect.
is predictable,and warningsmay be issued.
The effect of ground conductivitybeingwell known
Infrequently largequantitiesof protons are
85

releasedfrom the sun,producinga so-calledpolar cap

(p.c.d.).The effectof a p.c.d.,which is
disturbance
to shift l.o.p. from say 6 to 8 nauticalnriles,may last
for severaldays. Only thosetransmissionpaths
passing
overthe polesareaffected.Sincethe p.c.d.is
may be
of long duration navigationwarningmessages
broadcast.
Position Fixing
ONS may usehyperbolic,
As previouslydiscussed
rho-rhoor rho-rho-rhomethods,a root meansquare
accuracyof l-2 nauticalmilesbeingobtainablewith
all methodsprovidingthe computersoftwarecorrects
for predictableerrors.
Whatevermethod is usedthe lane in which the
aircraft is flying must be established.Lane widths for
the basicfrequenciesand differencefrequenciesare
givenin Table6.2. It canbe seenthat the broadest
lane for the direct rangingmethodsis 144 nautical
mileswhile that for the hyperbolicmethod is 72
nauticalmiles. If it is known which broad lane the
aircraftis in thenit is possibleto resolvelane
as
ambiguityfor the narrowerlanesautomatically,
shownin Fig.6.l3. In this exampleit is known in
and lanewidths,o.n.s.
Table6.2 Frequencies
(lanewidthsin nm)

Basic
frequ encies

13.6-10=
.2
l 3 ' 6 - 1I 3 =
I 1 . 3 - 1 0 .=2

1 0 . 2k H z
1 1 . 3k H z
1 3 . 6k l ' l z
3.4 kHz
2.3 kHz
l.l ktlz

Dircct ronging

ltltperbolic

16
14.4
12
4ti
'12

8
7.2
6
24
36
i2

114

'13
6 KHZ lanes

13.6KHZ
LOP

Rate Aiding
patternextendsovera period
The ONS transmission
of l0 s. If the phasesof all usablesignalsare
overthis periodand then l.o.p. are
measured
generated
for positionfixing.an error will result.
sincesomeof the phaseinformationwill be up to
l0 s old. Aircraft directionand speedinformation
niay be usedto updatethe phaseinforrnationlor
this processbeingknown as rate
l.o.p.calculations,
l.o.p.at lessthan
aiding. In practicewe cangenerate
l0 s intervals,sayeveryI s, thusONS can be
asa deadreckoningsystemwith
considered
position-fixingupdateseverysecondor so.
Directionand speedinformationcan comefrom a
headingand
for examplecompass
numberof sources,
true air speedfrom an Air DataConrputeror track
and groundspeedtiom Doppleror INS. SomeOmega
trackand groundspeed
equipmentsgenerate
internallyfrom computedpositionchanges.
If for any reasonthereis a lossof signaldead
reckoning,dataon directionand speedinputsot
track and ground
last-knowninternallygenerated
speedcan be usedto continuouslycalculatethe
aircraft'sposition.so that on receiptof sufficient
laneambiguityis easilyresolved.
usablesignals,
last-knowntrack
Obviouslyif the internallygenerated
and groundspeedareusedduringdeadreckoning
cause
duringtlrisphase.may
then aircraftmanoeuvre
laningproblemswhen signalslre receivetiaglrin.

Broad lane

10.2KHZ lanes

10-2 KHZ
LOP
Unique LOP

Fig: 6.13 Resolvinglane ambiguity (courtesyLitton Systems

lnternational Inc., Aero ProductsDivision)
86

which 3.4 kHz lanethe aircraft is flying. Phase

measurementof the l0'2 kHz signalgivesthree
possiblel.o.p.while the l3'6 kHz signalgives
tbur
possibleLo.p. Only one of the possibleLo.p. from
eachgroupis coincident,this beingthe uniquel.o.p.
on which the aircraftis positioned.

In sucha caseaircraft approximatepositionwould

haveto be enteredby the pilot.

Fig. 6.14. The ONS consistsof a receiverprocessor

unit (RPU), control displayunit (CDU) and antenna
. couplerunit (ACU). Sucha break-downof 'black
boxes' conformsto ARINC Characteristic599 but
Most Probable Position
somemanufacturerschooseto separatethe receiver
Thereis a redundancyin the Omegasystemin that
and computerand alsothe antennaand couplingunit.
normally more signalswill be receivedthan are
The RPU is fitted in a convenientlocation. the
necessary
to computethe two l.o.p. neededfor a fix.
most important considerationbeingcooling
ln this case,data from all receivablestations,and as
a forced downdraughtor integal
many frequenciesaspossible,may be usedto generate arrangements,
a numberof l.o.p. If all frequenciesarereceivedfrom blower being typical. The CDU must of coursebe
mounted in view, and in reach,of the pilot;
all stationstherewould be 3 X 8 = 24 phase
normally specialcoolingarrangements
are not
giving
every
l0
up
to
measurements
s,
twenty-four
required.
l.o.p.for a singlefix. The multiplel.o.p.will not
The antennausedmay be of H field or E field
crossat a point but will definea smallpolygon
type,
the latter possiblyemployinga separatecoupler
within which the aircraft is positioned. The computer
unit with a suppliedinterconnectingcable. An E
will calculatethe aircraft'smost probableposition
field systemis sensitiveto precipitationstatic
within this polygon.
discharge,
thus good bondingand sufficient
In practicetherewill be far fewer than twenty-four
strategically
spacedstaticwicks are essential.An H
phasemeasurements
available.Automatic deselection
field
system
is sensitiveto magnetic(a.c.)noise
place
poor
for
will take
reasonsof
signalto noise
sourcesand a skin mappingshouldbe carriedout on
ratio, poor geometry,susceptibilityto modal
initial installationto determinethe optimum location
interferenceor outsideusablerange(too closeor too
for the antennawhich may be on the top or bottom
far). Manualdeselectionwill be accomplishedas a
of
the fuselage.
resultof pre-flightor in-flight information received
concerningstationstatusor unusualionospheric
Skin Mapping Detailed procedureis given in
activity.
manufacturer'sliterature,but basicallythe aircraft
shouldbe parkedaway from all powerlines,both
Communication Stations, v.l.f.
aboveand below ground,and away from all
A worldwide high-powermilitary communications
obstructions.
Ambient signalplus noiseis then
network operatingin the band l5-25 kHz is
initially
approximately100 ft from the
recorded
maintainedby the US Navy. As a secondarypurpose
aircraft
with
analysersetat l0'2, I l'3 and
a
spectrum
provide
to
of the network is
worldwide
aremadewith an
synchronizationof time standards,the carriersignals l3'6 kHz. Similarmeasurements
arepreciselytimed, and so may be usedfornavigation ACU securedby tape at variousairframelocations.
Comparisonof ambientand airframemeasurements
purposes.Sincecontrolof the stationsis out of the
handsof thosebodies,eithernationalor international, will identify severalpossiblepositions. The optimum
position(s)can then be found by repeatingthe
responsiblefor civil aircraft navigation,use of the
measurements
undervariouson and off conditions
network for navigationcan only be consideredas
ofengines,
electronicsand fans. The final
lighting,
supplementaryto other forms of navigation.
position shouldbe checkedout for signalto noise
Hyperbolicnavigationis not suitablefor usewith
v.l.f. commsstationssinceabsolutephasedifferences ratio with enginesrunningat 90 per cent minimum.
betweentwo receivedsignalscannotbe determined
Brief Description of Units
due to eachstation operatingon an unrelated
The descriptionswhich lollow arebasedon the Litton
frequency. A further disadvantage
is that the diurnal
LTN-2 I l; other systemshavesimilarunits which vary
phaseshifts are not aspredictablefor v.l.f. signalsas
in
detail.
they are for ONS sigrals.
Severalmanufacturersoffer equipmentwith v.l.f.
and Omegacapability;in somecases
v.l.f. is optional:
Receiver hocessor Unit The RPU is the major part
In suchequipmentOmegasignalsprovidethe primary of any ONS. Omegabroadcastsignalsfrom the ACU
navigationinformation while v.1.f.signalsprovide
are processedtogetherwith inputs from other sensors
back-upshouldinsufficientOmegasignalsbe usable. to give presentposition and guidanceparametersas
required. The major partsof a RPU will typically be:
Installation
A typical simplifiedinstallatibndiagramis shownin
r.f. circuitry;

cl

Autopilot

H.S.t.
Installation
Program

Atc

F.D.t.
Aircraft
Data Bus

Speed Source
Aircraft
Instrumentation

Fig. 6.14 Litton LTN-21I ONS installation(courtesyLitton

SystemsInternational Inc., Aero ProductsDivision)

88

central processorfor computing function;

scratch-padRAM for temporary data storage;
specialRAM in which pilot-entered data is saved
during power interrupt;
ROM to store program which will incorporate
corrections;
power supply assembly;
analogueinterface;
digital interface;

BITE;
antennaswitching;
.chassis.
bnnol Display Unit T\e CDU provides the
interface between the flight crew and the ONS. Data
transmissionbetween CDU and RPU is via two
one-wayserial digital data buses. The RPU transmits
four 32-bit words to the CDU while the CDU
transmitsone 32-bit word to the RPU. The d.c.
voltagesfor the CDU are provided by the RPU. The
CDU annunciatorsare driven by signalsfrom the
RPU.
Antenna Coupler Unit Two H field bidirectional
loop antennasare wound on ferrite rods arrangedat
right anglesto eachother. Pre-amplificationof the
signaltakes place in the ACU. Provision is made for
the injection of a test signalto eachloop.
ONS Interface
Operator Inputs
l. Presentposition latitude and longitude: entered
duringinitialization, i.e. during preparationof the
systemprior to take off;
2. waypoint latitude and longitude: rrp to nine
enteredas requiredduring initialization; editing
facility availablefor in-flight entry;
3. GreenwichMean Time/date: enteredduring
initialization.

2. 26V a.c. 400 Hz reference:from external

equipment acceptingsynchro feedsfrom ONS;
3. aircraft data bus: interfacewith digital air data
systm(DADS), inertial referencesystem(lRS),
flight muragementcomputersystem,etc.
In stalla tio n Programming
Various receiverprocessorunit connectorpins,
termed 'programdiscretepins' are groundedby
meansof a link to earth in order to select:
l. Speedinput format;
2. frequencystandard;
3.magnetic/trueheading
input/output;
4. oleo strut logic;
5. synchrooutput;
6. gid mode: local, Greenwich or t$ro alternatives;
7. antennamount: top/bottom.
System Outputs
Analogue/Discrete
l. Track angle;
2. crosstrack deviation;
3. track angleerror;
4. drift angle;
5. track angleerror plus drift angle;
6. true heading:
7. desiredtrack angle;
8. track changealert;
9. track leg change;
10. steeringsigral (roll command);
I l. To/from.
Digital
12. Presentposition (lat./long.);
13. heading(mag./true);
14. track angle;
1 5 . g r o u n ds p e e d ;
16. distanceto waypoint;
17. time to GO;
18. wind angle;
19. wind speed;
20. crosstrack distance:
21. track angleerror;
22. drift angle;
23. desiredtrack.

Extemal SensorInputs
l. Speed:from air data computer(ADC) or Doppler
radarin a variety of sigral formats;
2. heading:from compasssystem;
3. drift angle:from Doppler radar,optional;
4. speedvalid sigral;
5. headingvalid signal;
6. compassfree/slavedinput;
7. oleo strut switch input;
8. drift anglevalid signal.

Warning
24. Cros track deviationfailure;
25. true headingwarning;
26. steeringsignalwarning.

Other Inputs
l. Frequencystandard:rho-rho opti6n;

Figure l.l3 definespictorially thoseoutputs relating

to angleand distance.

89

Right numerical
display

Dim control

Alcrt ann
(amber)
Dead reckoning
ann (amber)

From/to and
waypoint display

Sync ann
(amber)
Waypoint
soloctor switch

Ambiguity
ann (amber)

Track change
pushbutton
(green)

Warn ann
(red)
M a n u a la n n
(amber)

Mode switch
Entcr pushbutton

roi

64r;'l][\s11

Hold pushbutton
(greenl

..orsrrME

Clcar pushbutton
(green)
rAS

Data keyboard
pushbuttons
Fig. 5.15 Litton LTN-21I CDU (courtesyLitton Systerns
lnternationalInc., Aero ProductsDivision)

C-ontrols and Operation

The following information may be displayedby
Figure6.15 showsthe Litton LTN-21I CDU which is appropriatepositioningof the displayselectorswitch:
similarto thoseof other manufacturers.A very
rangeof controlsand displayeddata is GMT/DAT GreenwichMeanTime and date
comprehensive
Track angleand ground speed
TK'GS
available.Brief detailsonly are givenhere.
HDG/DA
Heading and drift angle
The pilot is able to enter his presentposition and
up to nine waypointsdefininga great-circlenavigation XTK/TKE Crosstrack distanceand track angleerror
Presentposition
POS
flight plan which can be updatedduring flight'
(selected)
fly
Waypoint
pilot
to
WPf
helps
him
to
the
Information displayed
DIS.TIME Distanceand time (to'go')
the specifiedroute from waypoint to waypoint or fly
Windditection and velocity
WIND
parallel offsets from the flight plan. If the autopilot
DTK/STS Desiredtrack and status(malfunction)
is engagedsteeringinformation from ONS causesthe
Magneticheadingand true airspeed
MH/TAS
aircraft to automatically follow the flight plan, in
Station status
STA
which casethe display is used for monitoring
FROM/TO From and to waypoints for current leg.
purposes.
The system also demandsentry of GMT and date.
System Softward
A keyboardis usedfor all dataentry which is
The major tasks for the software employed in a
a
coded
which
case
error,
in
checkedfor operator
rho-rho-rhoOmegasystemare describedbriefly
warning is given. System failure waping is given by
below.
the WRN annunciatorwhen malfunction and action
codesmay be displayed. Severalother annunciators
The transmissioripattern must be
Synchronization
givewaming of track leg changeimminent (ALR),
'identified
in order that the ONS will know when each
systemin deadreckoningmode (DR), synchronization
of systemwith transmittedsignalformat taking place stationis broadcasting.Sincethe Omegatransmission
patiern repeatsevery l0 s synchronizationis attempted
(SYN),lane ambiguity(AMB) and manuallyent;red
offset
track
by ampling l0 s of data in order to try and find the
cross
true airspeed,magneticheadingor
stait time (station A transmitting lO'2 kHz burst).
(MAN).
displayed
being
90

If synchronizationis not successfula further l0 s

periodis sampledand so on.
Sincebefore synchronizationis completesignal
directionis not known, the antennais set to an
omnidirectionalmode.
The idea of the synchronization routine is to look
from sample
for correlationin phasemeasurements
to samplefor the three broadcastfrequencies.Noise
alonewill of courseappearwith random phase,not
correlatedbetweensamples.
Phaseand Signal-to-NoiseMeasuremenrs The phase
differencebetweenthe receivedsignaland a local
referenceis sampledat regularintervalsthroughout
the burst. Forming sineand cosinesumsof the
sampledphaseangleswill allow a burst phase
measurement(averageof samples)and signal-to-noise
to be made. If no signalis being
measurement
receivedduring the samplethen no contribution will
be made to either the sine or cosine sums. We have:

l. eliminatemanuallydeselectedstations;
2. eliminatestationsfor which the aircraft is not
within areacovered(seeFig.6.l2);
3. eliminatestationswith known modal
interferenceproblem at night in certain areas
(Liberia);
4. eliminatestationson the basisof poors.n.r.;
5. eliminatefrequenciesfrom particularstations
whosephasedifferencebetweencomputedand
measuredexceedsa certainfigure.
All qualifying frequenciesare used for position
determination. If lessthan minimurn number of
stationsare available,the deadreckoningmode is
entered.
hopagation Conection The computer must calculate
a propagationcorrection0p, the valueof which will
dependon the path from station to aircraft, the timg
of day and the date. Factorsaffectingpropagation
earlierand while complete
havebeendiscussed

. t
/
\\
=tan-r
phase
shiftHllT::lx'L:
f bursr
ilir:",,Ti::TlT;:ii'"illfo*'
/r t'urg
) )- antenna
(6'J)
cosd

//
\lJ l
R burst= (rrin o\' * /> .o, p\'
/
\-N
\-T-/

(6.4)

wherethe summationsare of the samplesover the

burst, @is the phaseangleand R, which lies between
0 and l, givesa measureof sigral to noise ratio
(s.n.r.).
The valuesof @burst and R burst are fed to a
trackingfilter in order to give smooth values@andR.
Thereare a total of twenty-four tracking filters
(threefrequenciesX eight stations). Rate aidingis
appliedto @to compensatefor known aircraft
motion. Each tracking filter is updatedafter the
appropriateburst, i.e. every 10 s, rate aiding values
arecalculatedevery 0'l s.
Antenna Selection Every l0 s the bearing to the
eight stationsis computedand stored. Every second
the differencebetweenbearingand headingis
computedand usedto selectthe longitudinal loop,
lateralloop or combinationof loops to make the
antennadirectional,the main lobe being in the
direction of the station to be received..
Station Selection For Omegarho-rho-rho navigation
threestationsmust be receivedto calculatethe three
unknowns(latitude, longitudeand clock or phase
offset). Various criteria areusedin the selectionof
stationsto be employed:

andcomputation
ti,nitin.a in orderto savestorage
include:
tim;' simplifications
integationstepsizealongpathto say
l. increasing
2. usingcoarsememory map, i.e. subdividingearth
into, say,4" x 4" block and assigtinga
conductivity index to eachcorrespondingto
averageconductivity in that area;
3. simplifyingsub-routinewhich computesbearing
of signalpath to earth'smagrreticfield.

Computercomparisonsof simplihedand more

accuratemodelshavebeencarriedout and show
excellentagreement.
Cunent Least-SquaresEnor Cabulttton The
measuredphase@is correctedfor propagationshifts,
0p, and estimatedclock offset, f., and then compared
with the phase,@r,derivedfrom the current calculated
rangebetween aircraft.and station to give A 0, we
have
LQ=(Q-Op-QJ-Qr

(6.5)

There is one A@for eachstation frequency so there

will be at most twenty-four. If thereis no error, that
is 0p, 0. and @,are all correct,then A0 will be zero.
In practiceeqrorswill exist,so the purposeof the
error estimationroutine is to find
least-squares
correctionsto @.,and the computedposition to
in use.
minimizeAd for the stations/frequencies

It

Sincethe mostreliableinformationcomesfrom the

strongest
signaleachA@is weightedby its s.n.r.
(smoothed
R from equation(6.4)). Thesquares
of
theA@arecomputedto preventcancellation
in the
sum.Wehave:

is wind (north and east),latitude and longitude. The

wind is not computed when the aircraft is on the
ground,asindicatedby the oleo strut switch.
Summary The above notes on system softwaveare by

(6.6) no meanscomplete;somefunctions of the softwave

minimize>R(AO)2

havenot been mentionedalthoughhavebeen implied

elsewherein the chapter. The major navigationtasks
and their implementationare best summarizedby a
flowchart (seeFig. 6.16).

where the sum is taken over all the stations and

frequencies
in use.
The phasedifference,LQ, canbe expressedin
termso(A@., AN, AE and B where the first three
termsare the correctionsin clock offset. north
position and eastposition respectivelywhile B is the
bearingto the station. If we considerthe signal
receivedfrom station I on frequencyJ, we have:
A0(l,J) = Adc - AN . cosB(l) - AE . sin B(l)
(6.7)
Thus equation(6.7) is usedin (6.6), the
minimization of the weighted sum of squares,giving a
least-squares
estimateof the current error which
enablescorrectionof clock offset and position.
The correctionvectorX = (A0., AN, AE)T is
smoothedby clock and position filters, rate aidingof
speed,resolvednorth and eastabout aircraft heading,
beingappliedto thesefilters. The output of the filters

The Program
The actualprogramusedin any ONS is proprietary
and will vary greatly dependingon the type of
microprocessorused,the method of navigationand
the ingenuity ofthe author.
In generalthere will be a main loop which checks
for power interrupts, computespropagation
correction,carriesout self-testing,etc. The main loop
will be interruptedwhen 10.2, I l'3 or 13.6kHz
information is availablefor processingand alsowhen
the CDU is ready to input or output data.
In the LTN-21I the phasedata interrupts for the
three frequenciesoccur regularlyat 6.25 ms intervals.
The I I '3 and I 3'6 kHz interrupt loops simply serve
to read the appropriatephasedata while the

Clock

Phase |
detector

Omegr
signal

SinI

-lSin/Cosine
look up

C"t C

Clock
offset
estimator

Qc

t(r, J)

Tracking
filter

Position
f ilter

Propagation
prediction

Lat./Long.
Wnd

Rrtc rid
north

Ratc aid
oast

Fig.6.16 Softwareflow chart

gi2

Least

6o

-t

LOc
AN AE

R (r,Jl

Rate aid

C o u'sr(1,J)
R - "il' J)

Burst
processing

estrmator

6,
t

GMT
Lat./Long.

Rangeto
station

-l

Expected
phase

l0'2 kHz interruptloop processes

all phasedataand
drecksto seeif it is time to startloopswhich occur
regularlyandperformvariouscomputationsand
drecks.Brieflyu,ehave:
'update
lfl) msloop:
clock

amplified and limited sigrals are comparedin phase

with referencesigrals derived from a 4.896 MHz
clock. A real-time interrupt is generatedon
completion of a phasemeasurementfor each of the
Omegafrequencies.The l0'2, I l'3 and 13'6 kHz
interruptsareeachgenerated160 timesper secondto
rate aid computation
inform the computer that phasedata is availablefor
check synchronization
368 gs, during which time the appropriate interrupt
antennaselection
routine is entered and the data read. The sensor
burst processing
phasedata forms word I in a four-word, l6-bit
serveCDU
digital multiplexer. I s loop:
horizontal steeringcommands
Heading and speedinputs enter the system in the
l0 s loop:
estimator
least-squares
form of three-wire synchro feeds. Scott-T
savekev data
transformersresolvethis input into the sine and
cosinecomponentswhich are then demodulated and
Hardware
filtered to provide d.c. signalsto an analogue
multiplexer controlled by the computer. After
C.omputo Inputs Figure 6.17 showsa simplified
systemblock diagramof the LTN.2I l. Omegasignals analogueto digital conversionthe headingand speed
from the ACU are fed via an anteniraswitching matrix sine and cosine componentsare multiplexed asword 2
in the digital multiplexer. Words 3 and 4 contain
to three narrow-band receivers.one for each of the
data relatingto variousdiscretes,programpins,
three Omegafrequencies. Antenna switching is
validities and sourceselectors.
derived from the computed relative bearingof the
ARINC 575 data from the CDU is converted to
station being receivedat that particular time. The

l?u?*^ss'-s
I
l ; -

I
sTtiltNG rNTtttAct

[**r**'
)

POWTISUPPTY

Fq. 6.17 Litton LTN-21I block diagram(courtesy Lftton

SystemsInternationalInc,, Aero ProductsDivision)

sl

logic) levelsand shifted into

TTL (transistor-transistor
a serialto parallelshift register.When the input data
is ready an interrupt is generatedand the contentsof
the registerare readby the computer.
A digital interfacecard,part of the steering
interface.is a link betweenthe ONS and other
systems.Thereare four ARINC 575 receiversfor
DADS TAS (digital air data systemtrue air speed),
flight management,IRS (inertial referencesystem)
and an inter-systemb.c.d. or binary bus for interface
with anotherONS or possiblyanothertype system.
The addressbus from the computeridentifiesthe
requiredreceiverwhich storesthe particularinput
an interrupt. The
word in a registerand generates
this interrupt, so requestinga
computeracknowledges
transferofdata onto the l6-bit paralleldata bus via a
tri-stateregister. Sincethe ARINC 575
serial-parallel
word is 32-bitslong, transfertakesplacein two
sections.
Memory The navigation computer program is stored
in a 20K X l6-bit word (K = 1024) UVEROM
(ultravioleterasableROM) which can be programmed
from cassettetapeusinga programmingadapter. The
datais retainedin the WEROM for an estimated100
yearsunlesserasedby exposingall twenty chips to
ultravioletlight.
Additional memory is providedon the
card in the form of a 2K word
computer/processor
scratchpad RAM for temporary storageand a
128-worddata savememory usedto store present
position,time/date,waypointsand additional data
requiredto resumenormal operationsafter a
temporarypower failure. Back-uppower for data
saveis provided by a 4500 pF capacitor for at least
7 min.
The Computer The computer usesthe input and
storeddata referredto in the aboveparagraphsto
carry out the necessarynavigationproblem
computations and to output the resulting
employedis a
information. The microprocessor
TMS-9900,a l6-bit CPU (centralprocessingunit)
capableof addressing32K words of length l6 bits.
Input/output (l/O) functionsare treatedin the
sameway as memory for addressingpurposes,the
twelve
addressmap beingsplit into sixteensectio,ns,
of which are assigredto WEROM and two each to
RAM, savedata memory, steeringinterfaceI/O and
other I/O. As an example F A 0 0 hexadecimal=
1 5x 1 6 3+ l 0 x 1 6 2+ 0 x 1 6 r + 0 x 1 6 ' = 6 4 0 0 0 1 e ,
is the addres of the digitd multiplexer phasesensor
word which will contain phasemeasurementdata
correspondingto l0'2, I I '3 or l3'6 kHz depending
94

on which interrupt is beingserviced.Not all the

are assigned
in the LTN-21l.
availableaddresses
The computercan recognizesixteeninterrupt
levelswith the highestpriority level0 and the lowest
priority level 15. An interrupt maskis containedin a
statusregisterand continuouslycomparedwith the
interruptcode. Whenthe levelof
system-generated
the pendinginterrupt is lessthan or equal to the
current-enablinginterrupt masklevel(higher or equal
the interrupt. On
recognizes
priority) the processor
recognitionthe current instructionis completed,
detailsof the position in current programstoreo,
the appropriateinterrupt serviceroutine started,and
the interrupt mask forced to a levelthat is one less
than the level of the interrupt beingserviced.When
the interrupt routine is completethe interrupted
programcontinueswhereit left off. In the LTN-21I
seveninterrupt levelsare impiemented:
0
I
2
3
4
5
6
7

reset(power on)l
pendingpower fail or programcycle fail;
lO'2 kHz sensordata input;
l3'6 kHz sensordatainput;
1 l'3 kHz sensordatainput;
reservedfor a sensordata input;
CDU ARINC data ready;
ARINC receiverdataready.

Cttmputer Outputs A l6-bit word is transmittedto

the receivermodule for control of the
matrix and the antenna-calibrate
antenna-switching
functions.
Various output functions respondonly to the
addressbus stateand do not requirespecificdata to
be placedon the output bus. Thesefunctions,with
are:
hexadecimaladdresses
resetprogramcycle fail (F100), selectanalogue
multiplexer address(F2X0), start analogueto
digital converter(F300), acknowledgec.d.u.
ARINC Rx (F600) and ARINC interrupt
acknowledgement(CFAO).
'X' in addressF2X0 can be any number from 0
The
to 7 dependingonthe funption, e.g.headingsine,
headingcosine,speedsine,etc.
Sigralsassociatedwith other systemsand
instrumentsare output from the computer via the
steeringinterfacewhich is dividedinto three main
sections:(l) analoguefunctions;(2) digital
communications;(3) discreteflag drivers.
The analogueinterface card provides four three-wire
synchrooutputs and both high- and lowlevel two-wire
d.c. cross-trackdeviation. Digital data is fed to the
analoguecard on the data bus and convertedto d.c:

in a digital to analogueconverter. The analogued.c.

of an ONS is suchthat comprehensive
monitoring and
sipal is fed in parallelto sampleand hold circuits
self-testroutinesmay be incorporatedin the system
addressed
by the computervia a decoder. Each of
software. Monitoring of systemperformancetakes
the synchrochannelshasa modulator for the sine and placevirtually continuouslyduring flight. In
cosined.c. inputs followed by a Scott-T transformer
addition, operatorerror detectionaidssmooth
which providesthe three-wiresynchrooutput. The
operationand a reductionin reporteddefectsdue to
'finger
particularoutputs are determinedby the stateof two
trouble'. With a malfunction code readoutand
synchrooutput selectprogrampins, ground or open.
self-testdisplay,turn-rounddelaysfor ONS.
In this way synchronumber I will giveheadingor
installationdefect investigationand repair are
track, synchronumber 2 will give 1 drift angleor
minimized.
track angleerror, synchronumber 3 will give track
angleerror + drift angle,track angleerror or desired
track anglewhile synchronumber 4 will give aircraft
The Decca Navigator
steeringor track angleerror.
The digital interfacecard hasbeenreferredto above
Introduction
in connectionwith its input function. In addition
Deccanavigatorwasinventedin Americaby
there are ARINC 575 and ARINC 561 serialdigital
W. J. O'Brienbut first usedby the Britishin the
outputs,two-wireb.c.d./binaryfor the 575 and
closingstagesof World War II. Sincethen a number
six-wire(clock, sync and data) for the 561. The
of marks of the equipmenthaveemergedfrom the
ARINC transmittersare selectedwhen the
continuousdevelopment
of this, the most accurateof
appropriatedata is on the data bus by suitable
all the radio navigationaids. The systemcamesecond
addressingfrom the computer. The output word is
in the two-horseracefor adoption by the ICAO as
32 bits long, and so must be enteredinto a registerin
the standardshort-rangenavigationsystem. That it
two parts under the control of the addressbus.
survivedis a credit to the DeccaNavigatorCompany
Parallelto serialconversiontakesplacewhen the
whoseconfidencein the basicmerits of the system
word is assembledin the register.
were such that it continuedits airbornedevelopment
Flag signalsat TTL levelsare output from the
programdespitethe setbackin 1949.
computerand latchedvia drivers. The signalsare then
Deccais a low-frequencyc.w. hyperbolic
buffered,scaledand/or levelshifted befoie output.
navigationsystem. The serviceis providedfor
suitably equippedaircraft, shipsand land vehiclesby
Characteristics .
chainsof transmittingstations. Each chain comprises
Much of this sectionon ONS hasbeenbasedon the
a masterstation and normally three slavestations,all
Litton-21I which is an ARINC 599 system.'This
at known geographicallocations(typically 70 miles
being so, what follows is a particularlybrief
apart), radiatingphase-locked
signals.The choiceof
summaryof the ARINC Mark 2 ONS sincedetails
frequencycould givea ground wavecoverageof
zuchasinput and output havealreadybeencovered.
l0O0 nauticalmilesbut c.w. operationpreventsthe
The systemcomprisesthree units: a receiver
separationof ground and sky wavesignalsso the
processor,control/displayand antenna/couplerunit
wable rangeis limited to about 240 nauticalmiles
which, togetherare capableof receivingand
by night and about twice that by day. There are
processingOmegaground station signals(v.l.f. not
chainsin variousparts of the world, in particular
precluded)so as to provideminimum functional
north-westEuropeand the northeast seaboardof
capabilitiesofpresept position readoutand
North America.
horizontal track navigation.The systemshould
Phasedifferencesbetweenthe masterstation and
operateworldwide with a presentposition error of
eachof its slavesare displayqdto the pilot on three
lessthan 7 nauticalmiles.
phasemetersor Decometers.The observedphase
The power supply for the systemis I 15 V 400 Hz
differencesidentify hyperboliclinesmarked on
singlephasefed via a circuit breaker. In addition a
speciallypreparedcharts. By noting at leasttwo
26 V zt00Hz referencein accordancewith ARINC
phasereadingsthe pilot can plot his position as the
4134 will needto be suppliedvia a circuit breaker
intersectionof the correspondinglines. For easeof
from the appropriateinstrumentationbus for
use the charts are printed with the three different
excitation of synchros.
familiesof hyperboliclinesin purple, red and green,
hencethe red slavestation and the greenDecometer,
Rmp Testing
etc. Decometersare still usedbut for airborne
Uttle needsto be said here since the computing po*er systems,automaticand computer-based
methods

are uzually found, with aircraft position being shown

on a roller map (flight log display)'
The Radiated Signals
Each chain is assigneda fundamental frequenry / in
the range 14-14'33kHz. The stationseachradiatea
harmonicof /, namely6/from the masterznd 5f,8f
and 9/from the purple, red and greenslaves
respeitively. Thus with f = 14kHz we haveradiated
=
frequenciesof 6f = 84 kHz, 5f = 70 kHz, 8/ l.l2'ktlz
for
frequencies
different
Using
kHz.
126
andg/=
the stationsin a chain allowsseparationin the
airbornereceiver.
Deccachains are designedby an alphanumeric
code. The basiccodesare08, lB, . . ., l0B' the
correspondingfundamentalfrequenciesbeing
by a nominal 30 Hz (separationis 29'17,
separated
30 or 30'83 Hz). A subdivisionof this basic
'half
allocation is provided by the so'called
frequencies'0E, lE, . . ',98 which havea nomind
spacingof l5 Hz from the B fundamentalfrequencies.
Additional subdivisionis achievedby the use of
frequencies516Hz aboveand below the B and E
Co'
(courtesy
theDeccaNavigator
Fig.6.l8 Zonepatterns
tb givegroupsof six frequencies
frEquencies
Ltd)
by the appropriatenumber and the letters
designated
A, B, C, D, E, F. An examPleof a grouPof
frequenciesis givenin Table 6.3 showingcode,
fundamental and master (6/) frequencies;the slave
fundamental frequency of the chain.
frequenciesarepro-rata.
The zonesare subdividedin two ways' depending
on the method of phasecomparisonusedin the
aircraft. The transmittedsignalscannotbe compared
Table 5.3 Deccafrequencies numerical group 5
in phasedirectly sincethey are of different
or division may
Master frequerrcies;frequency multiplication
Fundamental
Chain
frequency'
to
a
common
signals
the
6f (Hz) be usedto bring
lf (Hz)
code
Sincethe transmittedfrequenciesare relatedto the
84 995 fundamentalby multipliers5,6,8 and 9 (purple'
1 41 6 5 . 8 3
5A
85 000 master,red and greenrespectively)comparisoncan
t4166.67
5B
85 005 take placeat the l.c.m. of any two of the multipliers
l4 167.50
5C
8s08s which include 6, Thus purple and master
l4 18c.83
5D
canbe'phasecomparedat 30/, i'e' at
85 090 transmissions
1 41 8 1 . 6 7
5E
and 429'9 kHz. Similarly the red and
420
between
85
095
l4 182.50
5F
greencomparisonfrequenciesare24f and l8f
respectively.A lane is definedasthe regionbetween
lines with zero phasedifference,at the
hyperbolic
PositionFixing
comperisonfrequency,i.e. everyhalf'wavelength
Aswith anyhyperbolicsystemtwo hyperboliclines
(pig. O.+). Thus there are 30 purple,24 ted and
of positionmustbe identified,the fix beinggivenby
i8 gtt.n lanesper zonewith baselinewidths of
wherethey intersect.With Deccathe hyperbolic
m,440 m and 587 m respectively'
are
app-roximately-352
patternsaredividedinto zonesandlanes.Zones
startsfrom the masterand runs
numbering
end
Lane
at
the
master
J
starting
A
to
by letters
designated
of letters 0-23 for red,3O'47for greenand 50-79for purple'
baseline. Thesequence
of the master/slave
Decometerscan be readto one or two hundredthsof
to coverthe wholepattern
repeatsasnecessary
a lane. Figure6.19 illustratesa position fix in terms
(Fig.6.18). Alongthebaseline,zoneshavea
km,
oflanes: the red Decometerreadszone I (bottom
l0'71
width of between10'47and
constant
lane l6 (outer scale),lane fraction 0'30
window),
at
the
a
wavelength
to
haff
corresponding

96

at';
z InEiaEcTtoIlot ndt
totmox LtxEs
ts./ .
at oF Potntox / - osl

DEccA co ORDTNAT
RtD I ro i0\

DECQACO-OnDttrATC
dar:l O rs.O

FB 6.19 Plotting a position fix from Decometerreadings

(courtesythe DeccaNavigatorCo. Ltd)

(inner scale)while the green Decometer reads zone

D, lane35,lane fraction0.80. Thus the Decca
co-ordinatesare I 16.30 and D 35.80, intersectingas
$town.
The accuracyobtained by using frcquency
rnultiplicationis often not required for air navigation;
furthermorea better s.n.r.can be achievedby
dividing the receivedsigrals down to the fundamental.
Sincephasecomparisonis at / the zonesare the
'lanes'
for a dividing type receiver. Fractionsof a
zonearemeasuredto a resolutionof I llO24, i.e.just
over l0 m.

Although the dividing type receiverdoes not

measurelanesthere is still ambiguitywithin a zone
causedby the divisionprocess.For exampledividing
the mastersignalby six givesriseto an output which
can start on any of six cycles,only one of which is
correct. The ambiguouscyclesare known as notches.
The resultingambiguity is the sameasdescribedin the
previousparagraphsince,for example,an error of*l
notch in the masterdivider output givesan error in
the zone fraction readingof 1/6 while an error of -l
notch in the red divider output givesan error in the
zone fraction readingofl/8. The net error in the red
zone fraction readingwould be ll6 - l18 = ll24 zone
Resolvinglane Ambiguities
or I lane.
Sinceeach lane appearsto be the same,in so far as
To resolvelane ambiguitiesmost Decca chains
phasedifferencemeasurementis concerned,the pilot
operatein the MP (multipulse)mode (an older V
$rould know where he is, to within half a lane, in
mode will not be discussedhere). Eachstation in
order to initially set the appropriateDecometerby
tum, startingwith the master,transmitsall four
hand. Thereafter,sincethrough gearingthe lane
(5f,6f,8f ,9f) simultaneously.A
frequencies
fraction pointer drivesthe lane pointer and zone read- squenceof transmissions
lasts20 s during which
out, the Decometerwill recordthe correctco-ordinate time eachstation transmitsthe MP signalsfor 0'45 s.
by an integratipnprocess.Any interruption in
ln the receiverthe four frequenciesare summed,
receptionwould require a resettingof the Decometers. producinga compositewaveformwhich has a

97

5f

6t

- summatibn(courtesy
Fig. 6.20 Multipulsetransmission
the DeccaNavigatorCo. Ltd)

Fig. 6.21 Mk 19 DeccaNavigationSystem(courtesythe

DeccaNavigatorCo. Ltd)

98

predominant spike or pulse occurring at the

fundamentalrate (Fig. 6.20).
In a receiveremploying the multiplying method,
with readout on Decometers,lane ambiguity is
resolvedby feeding a lane identification meter such
that one arm of a six-armedvernierpointer, identified
by a rotating sector,indicatesthe correct lane. The
sector is driven in accordancewith the phase
differencebetween l/6 of the mastertransmission
(rememberedduring the MP transmissionby a
phase-locked
oscillator)and the fundamentalderived
from an MP transmission.The vernierpointer is
drivenin accordancewith the phasedifference
betweenthe mastertransmissionand six times tne
fundamentalderivedfrom an MP transmission,the
drive being through I : 6 gearing. During the master
MP transmissionthe lane identification meter should
readzero and may be adjustedto do so if in error.

As eachMP trafismissionoccursthe appropriate

Decometerlane readingshould correspondto the
lane identification meter readingand may be adjusted
if necessary.The current lane identification may be
held to assistcheckingbut will only be valid for a few
secondsdue to aircraft movement.
ln a receiveremploying the dividing method the
MP transmissions
provide a referencefrequency/
with which the phaseof eachdivider output can be
compared. The phaseconrparisonand subsequent
correctiontakesplace automaticallywithin the
divider circuits. This process,known as notching,
removesambiguity from the zone fraction data.
ResolvingZone Ambiguity
We haveseenhow the particularlane (within a zone)
in which the aircraftis flying can be identifiedbut the
porsibilityof an incorrectzonereadingstill exists
sincezones,like lanes,areindistinguishable
by the
normalphasenreasurements.
A zoneidentification
meterresolves
the zoneambiguity,not completely
but to *'itlrin a group of five zones,i.e. a distanceof
over50 km on the baseline.
An 8'2/signal is transmittedwith the MP signals
from eachstationin turn. A beat note betweenthe
8f and8.2f componentsof an MP transmissionis
producedhavinga frequencyof fl5. The masterbeat
frequencyis 'remembered'
and comparedwith each
slavebeat tiequencyin turn. The resultinghyperbolic
pattern haszero phasedifferenceson lines five zones
apart,givingthe required resolution.
hstallation
Different options are availabletwo of which are
strownin Figs6.2 I and 6.22. The Mk 19 receiveris
capableof drivingDecometers
(or digitalieadout)
and/ora l1ightlog; the multiplyingmethod is usedto
drive the Deconreterswhile the dividing method is
usedto drive the flight log through a computer unit.
The Mk l5 receiverusesthe dividingmethod only
with readouton a flight log.
Wherespaceis at a premium,a Dectracposition
fixing unit (PFU) may be installedin conjunction
with eithera Mk 15 or Nlk l9 receiver.The Dectrac
PFU containsone indicatorwith four scalesand a
singlepointer, effectively replacingthe Decometers
but not allowingthe samedegreeof accuracyin
reading.althoughthis may be recoveredby the
additionof anothersmallunit. A zoneidentity
readingcan be taken from the singleindicator.
A capacitivetype antennais used,comprisinga
coppermeshwithin a fibreglassplate mounted flush
with the aircraft skin. The meshis at least2 ft2 in
area. A pre-amplifier/matching
unit allowsa long

Fig.6,22 DeccaMk l5/Danacnavigation

(courtesy
system
theDeccaNavigator
Co.Ltd)
feederrun. The antennashould be mounted as near
to the centre of the aircraft aspossible,either above
or below the fuselage.If below a fixed I 80" phase
shift is appliedin the pre-amplifier.
Mk lS/Danac Block DiagramOperation
Figure6.23 showsa sirnplifiedblock diagramof a
Mk l5i Danacinstallation.A significantfeatureof
the systemis the degreeof automaticcontrol
achieved.
The receiveroutput is fed to the computer as four
pulsetrainsrepresenting
the receivedmaster,red,
greenand purple signalsdivideddown to the
fundamentalfrequency,f. .Themaster/slavephase
differencesat f aredigitallymeasuredin the computer,
thus givingthreehyperboliclinesof positioneach
derivedasa l0-bit binarynumberrepresentinglll}2a
of a zone.
The computer convertsthe Deccaco-ordinatesinto
X and Y demandsignalsfor the servosdriving the
laterallymoving stylus and the verticallymoving chart
respectively.The major computingeffort is carried
out oft'-lineon a more powerful computer which
calculates
constantsto be usedin the hyperbolicto
X-lz conversion.Theseconstantsarewritten on a
99

zln"i"J",

Fast/normal lock

Low signal Flightlog

warning

P/E cclls
Warning lamp
Decca Navigator Mark 15 Receiver

#r;
ffil I controlI
r|*'r L- l |Irl
\

\v_-/

./

Danac controller
F i g . 6 . 2 3 D e c c a M k 1 S / D a n a cn a v i g a t i o ns y s t e m b l o c k
diagram (courtesy the Decca Navigator Co. Ltd)

part of the chart,amongother data,in the

non-visible
form of a black and white ten-trackdigital Gray code
readby a line of ten photoelectriccells.
The )/ servoposition feedbacksignalis in the form
of a 9-bit word derivedfrom nine of the digital tracks
referredto above. The X servoposition feedback
sigrralis a 9-bit word derivedfrom printed circuit
tracksreadby wiper contactsmountedon the stylus
carriage.The servodrivesare,of course,the
differencesbetweenthe demandand feedbacksisnals.
Selectionof the correctDeccachainis
automaticallyachievedby includingthe code
represenlingthe frequencyamongthe constantsread
by the photoelectriccells. Otherdata amongthe
constantsare the zone valuesfor one or two
checkpointson the chart (to which the stylus goes
initially) and the chart scale.
Settingup is largelyautomatic. If the required
chart is in view the following sequencetakesplace
when the systemis switchedon:
l. pushbutton lampslight for checkingpurposes,
and the chart constantsareread into the
computerl
2. the stylus movesto a checkpoint and receiver
locks on to requiredsignals;
100

3. zone fraction computation takesplaceusing

MP transmissionsfor notching;
4. stylus takesup a position within a zone on the
to the aircraftposition
chartcorresponding
within the true zone. If the zone is correctthe
OP button is pressedand thereafterthe stylus
and chart shouldmove so as to foilow the
aircraft'smovements.lf the stylusis in the
wrongzoneit may be manuallysetby pressing
SET and operatingthe pressure-sensitive
slewingcontrol.
The correctzoneis known from the zone
identification indicator and the pilot's knowledgeof
his positionto within five zonewidths. Whenthe
'flies off'-the current chart and on to the next
aircraft
(on the samechart roll) the stylus goesstraightto the
aircraft position on the new chart except under
certainconditions,e.g.chainchange,in which case
the aboveinitial procedurerelatingto zone
identificationand slewingis cariied out.
The pilot may bring anotherchart into view by
pressing
LOOK AHEAD and operatingthe slewing
the LOOK AHEAD button a second
control. Pressing
the new chart to remainin view,otherwise
time causes
the stylusis returned io the aircraft'spresentposition

(still calculatedduring LOOK AHEAD) on the

previouschart.
the systemto go
Pressing
the INT button causes
where.the
MP and
only
mode
into the integration
zoneidentificationfacilitiesareswitchedoff. It may
be desirableto selectINT when flying in a fringe area
sincespuriousor imperfect notching signalsmay
causethe warninglamp to comeon, indicatinga
betweendisplayedpositionand receiver
discrepancy
output. On somechartscoveringfringe areasor
INT is selected
chainswithout MP transmissions,
automaticallyby a suitablechart constant.
The LOCK button hasseveralfunctions,one of
oscillator
which is to put the receiverphase-locked
hto a fast lock condition, providingthe warning lamp
is on. It may alsobe usedto initiatethe automatic
setting-uproutine when a new chart, brought into
view by LOOK AHEAD, doesnot havethe same
coloursasthe previouschart.
The stylus may be preventedfrom marking the
chart by selectingWRITE off, otherwisethe track of
the aircraft will be tracedout on the ghart. The
TEST-DIM-BRILswitchis the only control not
previouslymentioned,it may be usedfor lamp test
or to selectthe brightnesslevel of the lamps.
Theabovedescriptionis sketchyto saythe least,but
I hopeit will givethe readeran ideaof how one Decca
Navigatorsystemconfigurationperformsits function.

Loran C

with it, up to four slavetransmittersdesignatedW, X,

Y and Z. The masteroccupiesa centralposition
surroundedby the slavesso far as the geography
allows. Baselinesareof the orderof 500-1000
nauticalmilesoverseabut arereducedoverland.
The rangeof the systemis about 1000 nautical
miles(from master)usinggroundwavesand up to
about 2000 nauticalmilesusingskywaves.The
accuracydependson the geometryof the chainbut
may be in the orderof about400 ft at 350 nautical
miles rangeto 1700 ft at 1000 nauticalmiles range
are used. With skywavesthe
providedgroundwaves
in
the
orderof l0 nauticalmiles
would
be
accuracy
at 1500nauticalmilesrange.
The Radiated Signals
Pulsesof 100 kHz r.f. are transmittedfrom all
are synchronized
stations. The slavetransmissions
with thoseof the mastereither directly (triggeredby
or by useof atomicclocks. The
mastergroundwave)
delaybetweenthe time of transmissionof the master
and eachslave(codingdelay) is fixed so that
whereverthe aircraft receiveris locatedin the area
covered,the slavesignalswill alwaysarrivein the same
order after the master.
Sinceall chainstransmit the samer.f., mutual
must be avoidedby useof differentpulse
interference
repetitionperiods(p.r.p.)for eachchain. Therearea
basicrates,eachof which have
total of six so-called
eightspecificratesasgivenin Table6.4. The chains
areidentifiedby their p.r.p.,thus chainSS7(Eastern
of North America)hasa basicrateperiodof
seaboard
ps
100000 (SS)which is reducedby 700 ps sincethe
specificrateis 7, hencethe periodbetween
from the master(and from eachslave)
transmissions
per
i.e.fractionallyover l0 transmissions
is 99 300 1,rs,

lntroduction
l.oran A was proposedin the USA in 1940, hdd trials
n 1942andwasimplementedovermuch of the north
has
and westAtlantic in 1943. Sincethen coverage
beenextendedto many of the oceanicair routesof
the world, but sometime in 1980the last Loran A
Table 6.4 Basicand specificratesfor
transmittershouldbe switchedoff. Sincethe
Loran C
implementationof Loran A the family hasbeen
extendedto B, C and D. Loran B wasfound to be
Specific
Basic
impracticaland Loran D is a short-range,
periods
repetition
low-altitudesystemintendedfor usewhereline-of-sight
( subtract)
peiod
systemcoverageis inadequate
(tts)
(
t
t
s
)
pulsedhyperbolic
LoranC is a long-range"
navigationaid with accuracyapproaching
that of
0
0
30 000
H
It was
Deccaunderfavourablecircumstances.
100
I
40
000
L
introducedin 1960and now providesa valuable
200
2
s0 000
S
servicein rpanypartsof the world, in particularthe
300
3
000
60
SH
north andeastPacificand Atlantic. The systemis.
400
4
80 000
SL
usedby many shipsand aircraftandwould appearto
500
5
100000
SS
havean indefinite future.
(hain Layout
A transmitter,designated
the master,hasassociated

6
7
8

600
700
800

101

second. Not all the basicratesare in useand indeed

somemay neverbe usedsince6 X 8 = 48 chainsare
unlikely to be needed.
Groupsof eight pulsesof r.f. are transmittedfrom
eachstation once during a repetition period. With
synchronousdetectionin the receiverthe eight pulses
are combinedto give a much better s.n.r.than one
would obtain with a singlepulse. The spacing
betweenpulseswithin a group is I ms. The master
transmitsa ninth pulsein its group, 2 ms after the
eighth, for identification.
Sometypes of interference(e.g.skywave
contamination)can be discriminatedagainstby use of
phasecoding. The r.f. of certainpulseswithin a group
hasits phasereversed;unlessthis is properly decoded
in the receiversynchronousdetectionwill give a loss
of sigral power. Additionally, sincemasterand slave
phasecoding is different for a particularchain,
decodingcan be usedto separatethe receivedmaster
signalsfrom the slavesignals.

To measurethe time differencebetweenmasterand

slavetransmissions
corresponding'events'
must be
identified in each. Obviouslyfrom Fig. 6.24 it is
impracticalto measurefrom leadingedgeto leading
edgeor evento usethe laggingedges,consequently
one of the cyclesmust be chosenin masterand slave
transmissions
and the time betweenthem measured.
Such a processis known as cycle matchingor
indexing.
From the point of view of s.n.r.the eighth cycle is
the obviousone for indexing;howeverit may be
subjectto skywavecontaminationand therefore
difficult to identify. The minimum differencein
propagationtimesbetweenskywaveand groundwave
is 30 prs,so up to and includingthe third cycle the
pulseis clear. For this reasonthe third cycle is
usuallychosenfor indexing,particularlyin fully
automaticequipment.
An automaticreceiverwould selectthe third cycle
by looking for the unique changeof amplitude
betweenthe secondand fourth cycle; in this way the
indedng circuitsare able to lock on. The transmission
of the first eight pulsesmust be accurateand
consistentsincean error in indexing of one cycle
would give a l0 ps time differenceerror.
If indexingis carriedout manuallyusinga c.r.t. to
display the pulses,on time-bases
of decreasing
durationasthe processproceeds,
useofup to the
eighth cycle may.bepossiblewith a skilled operator.

Installation
A Loran C systemmay consistof up to five units,
namely antenna,antennacoupler,receiver,c.r.t.
indicatorand controlunit. A c.r.t. displayis used
where the indexingprocedureis manualor where,
if automatic,it is thought necessaryto provide the
operatorwith monitoring of the procedure. On some
systems
indexingis manualbut thereafterthe third
Fig 6.24 Loran C pulseand pulse format
cycle is trackedautomatically.
Figure6.25 showsthe DeccaADL-S1 Loran C/D
The pulseduration is approximately270 ps, i.e. a
receiverand control indicator; an aerialand coupler
total of about 27 cyclesof r.f. in eachpulse. To
would be neededto completethe installation. The
radiatea pulseof short rise-timeleadsto problemsin
ADL-8 I is fully automaticprovidingdigital time
frequencyspectrumspreadingand transmittingantennadifferencereadoutswith a resolutionof 100 ns on the
designat the low carrierfrequencyinvolved. In fact
control indicator and 50 ns via a computer
interface.
-indexing
99 per cent of the radiatedenergymust be in the band Synchronizationprovidesthird cycle
in
90'l l0 kHz, hencethe slow rise and dbcaytime
goundwave covdrand optimum cycle indexiig during
illustrated\n Fig. 6.24 (in which the signalformat,
iky*au. working. Three time-difierencesare
m:Nterand three slaves,is alsoshown). The maximum computed,two of which may be displayed. Tunable
amplitudeoccursby the eighth cycle.
automaticnotch filters providerejeition of the
strongestinterferingsignals.Overallsystem
Principlesof Operation
performimcechecksmay be performedusingbuilt in
.
The basicprinciplesof a pulsedhyperbolic
iest equipment(BITE).
navigationaid havebeengivenearlierin the chapter.
The antennais usuallya capacitivetype, sometimes
102

Fig.6.25 ADL-81LoranC/D (courtesy

theDeccaNavigator
Co.Ltd)
servingboth ADF senseand Loran, in which casean
antennacouplerwould providethe necessary
impedancematchingand isolationlor the two
receiversserved.A pre-amplifiermay be included for
the Loran feed.
Block Diagram Operation
The receivedsigralsare separatedinto n:asterand
slavegroupsby the phasedecodecircuits,the groups
beingfed to the appropriatemasterand slavephase
lock loops(p.l.l.). In Fig. 6.26 only one slavep.l.l. is
shownbqt in practicethere will be a minimum of two
to providethe two hyperbolicl.o.p. requiredfor a fix.
Threeslavep.l.l.swould enablean automaticsystem
to selectthe two which gavethe bestangleof cut,
althoughthe calculationsinvolvedwould probably be

carriedout by a computerto which the three

time-differencereadingswould be fed.
Gatepulseformersfeedthe p.l.l.swith a seriesof
eight pulsesspacedby I ms and of, say,5 ps duration.
The object of the p.l.i. is to providea signalto the
appropriateoscillator,.drivingthe correspondinggate
pulseformer, so that the phaseof the oscillator,and
hencetiming of the gatepulse,is alteredsuchthat
eachgatepulseis coincidentwith somespecificpoint
on the third cycle in any receivedpulse. The rate at
which the gatepulsegroupsaregeneratedis set to
equalthe rateof the requiredchain.
The basicideaof indexing,as carriedout by the
p.l.l.s,is asfollows. ln Fig. 6.27 line I is a
of the leadingedgeof a receivedpulse.
representation
Line 2 is a representationof the leadingedgeof a

103

Fig.6.26 LoranC simplifiedblock diagram

10

20

30

40

5O rrs

Fig.6.27 A methodof indexing

receivedpulseafter it hasbeendelayedby l0 ps and

amplifiedby a factor of 1.5. It can be seenthat lines
I and 2 crossat a time 30 ps after the pulseleading
104
,

edge. Line 3 is a representationof the result of

subtractingthe delayedand amplifiedreceivedpulse
from the receivedpulse. Sincethe crossoverpoint of
this differencesignalis at 30 ps it can be usedasa
servosignalto set the gatepulsetiming for
coincidencewith the tlfrd cycle. The futl bandu,idth
of 20 kHz is requiredto preserve
pulseshapeduring
the indexingprocess,althoughinitial signal
acquisitionmay take placewith a restricted
bandwidthin orderto improvethe s.n.r.
Oncephaselock is established,
time-difference
rcadoutis easilyachieved
b1istartingand stoppinga
counterwith the masterand 4ppropriateslavegate
pulsegrouprespectively.
Acquisitionof the receivedfrasterand slave
pulses.i.e. the initial aligrmentto a point wherethe
p.l.l. can takeover,may be carriedout by the
operatoror automatically.With manualacquisition
both receivedpulsesand gatepulsesaredisplayedon
a c.r.t.;a slewingcontrolallowsthe operatorto align
the gatepulseswith the third cycleof the received
pulsesby useof diff'erenttime-baseselectionsfor the
A-typedisplay(time-base
horizontaldeflection,signal
verticaldeflection).With automaticacquisitionthe
gatepulsegroupsmustbe slewedor swept
autolnaticallyuntil the p.l.l. cantrack successfully.

7 Distancemeasuringequipment

VOR in fact providethe standardICAO short-range

navigationsystem. A DME beaconmay also be
(DME)
is a secondary locatedon an airfield equippedwith ILS, thus giving
Distancemeasuringequipment
continuousslantrangereadoutwhile on an ILS
radarpulsedrangingsystemoperatingin the band
approach,suchuseof DME is limitedat present.
978-1213MHz. The originsof this equipmentdate
I'ACAN is a military systemwhich givesboth
systemdevelopedin
back to the Rebecca-Eureka
range
and bearingwith respectto a fixed beacon.
War
II.
International
agreement
BritainduringWorld
The rangingpart of TACAN has the same
of the current systemwas not
on the characteristics
as civil DME. Thereare,however,more
reacheduntil 1959but sincethen implementationhas characteristics
channelsavailablewith TACAN sinceit utilizes an
beenrapid.
extendedfrequencyrangeof 962-1213MHz. Thusa
The systemprovidesslantrangeto a beaconat a
civil aircraft equippedwith DME can obtain range
fixed point on the ground. The dift-erencebetween
measurementfrom a TACAN beaconprovidedthe
slantrangeand ground range,which is neededfor
navigationpurposes,is srnallunle5sthe aircraft is very DME canbe tunedto the operatingfrequencyof the
TACAN concerned.Many civil aircraftcarry a DME
high or closeto the beacon. Figure7.1 showsthe
which coversthe full frequencyrange.
relationshipbetweenslant range,ground rangeand
heightto be:

Introduction

s2 = G2+ (r46oso)2

(7.1)

Transponder

lnterrogator

igroring the curvatureof the earth. To seethe effect

of this consideran error in rangeof I per cent, i.e.
S = l'01G. Substitutingfor G, rearrangingand
evaluatingwe have:

s +/t8s3
for a I per cent error. Thus at 30 000 ft if the DME
readoutis greaterthan about 35 nauticalmiles the
error is lessthan I per cent,while at 5000 ft greater
than about 6 nauticalmiles readoutwill similarlv
givean error lessthan I per cent.
Givingrange,DME alonecan only be used for
position fixing in a rho-rho scheme,three readings
beingneededto removeambiguity. With the
additionof bearinginformation, suchas that derived
from VOR, we havea rho-thetascherne;DME and

Gnm
Fig. 7.1 Slantrange/ground
r?ngetriangle

Frg.7.2 The d.m.e.sYstem

BasicPrinciples
The airborneinterrogatorradiatescoded r.f. pulse
pairsat a frequencywithin the band978-1213MHz
antenna.A ground
from an omnidirectional
transponder(the beacon),within rangeof the aircraft
and operatingon the channelto which the interrogator
is selected,receivesthe interrogationand
automaticallytriggersthe beacontransmitterafter a
fixed delayof 50 irs. The omnidirectionalradiation
from the beaconis codedr.f. pulsepairsat a frequency
63 MHz below or abovethe interrogationfrequency.
This reply is receivedby the suitablytuned
is fed to the
intenogator receiverand after processing

105

rangecircuits where the round trip travel time is

ccmputed. Rangeis givenby:

beaconif there are reflectingobjectsinconveniently

placedwith respectto the aircraft and the beacon.
possibilityarisessincethe antennasat both ends
This
(7.2)
R = (r - so)lt2'3s9
of the link areomnidirectional.Shouldsucha 'dog
where:R is the slant rangedistancein nautical
leg'path occur.the round-triptraveltime Z in
milesto or from the beacon;I is the time in
equation(.7.2\ may be that for the long way round
microseconds
of the
furs)betweentransmission
and thus lead to a readoutin excessof true short
interrogationand receptionof the reply. The
range.
constantsin the equation are 50 prscorresponding
To describethe way in which the systemdesign
to the fixed beacondelay,l2'359 prsbeingthe
with this it is necessary
copes
to introduceseveral
time taken for r.f. energyto travel I nautical mile
new termswhich aredefinedand explainedbelow.
and return.

Both beaconand transponderusea single

omnidirectionalantennasharedbetweentransmitter
and receiverin eachcase. This is possiblesincethe
systemis pulsed,and diplexingis simplesincethe
transmit and receivefrequenciesare different.
Onceevery30 s the beacontransmitsits identity
which is detectedby the pilot asa Morsecodeburst
of threelettersat an audiotone of I 350 Hz. It should
be noted that the r.f. radiatedfrom the beacondurine
identificationis of the samelorm aswhen
transmittingrepiies,i.e.pulsepairs. The difference
is that when replyingthereare randomintervals
betweentransmissions
whereasduringidentification
the intervalsareconstantat l/l350th of a second.

Jitter Dellberaterandom variationof the time

intervalbetweensuccessive
interrogations.Each
i n t e r r o g a t oprr t r d l l g sa5J i t t e r i n gp u l s e( p a i r )
(p.r.f.)'which,overa periodof
repetitionl-requency
severalinterrogations,
describes
a uniquepattern
sincethc variationsare random. With an
interrogationrate of, say, 100,the average
interval
betweeninterrogations
will be l0 ms,with any
particularintervalbeingbetweensay9 and I I ms.
The uniqueiuterrogationpatternenablesthe DME to
recognizerepliesto its own interrogationby
stroboscopictechniques.

Automatic Stattdby Often rei'erredto as

signal-activated
search.Whenthe aircraftis out of
rangeof the beaconto rvhichthe airborneDNIEis
Further Principles and Terminology
tuned,no signalswill be received.This stateinhibits
By now the readermay haveidentifiedseveral
interrogations
until suchtime as the aircraftis within
problemswith the principlesof systemoperationas
range
and
signals
are received.
described.With DME, many aircraftwill be asking
The implementationof this featuredetermines
the beacon'what is my range?',the beaconwill reply
whetherinterrogations
commenceasa resultof mean
to all of them,the problembeinghow eachis to
signallevelexceedingsomepredetermined
levelor the
identify its own reply. Anotherproblemis how to
rateof signalsbeingreceivedexceedssome
preventthe airborneDME interrogatingan
predetermined
rate. The two alternatives
areequivalent
out-of-rangebeaconsincethis would be wastefulof
asthe aircraft approachesthe beaconfrom beyond
equipmentlife.
It is obviousthat the DME operationmust be in at maximum range,and typically interrogations
commencewhen the receivedsignalcount is in excess
leasttwo phasessincewe cannot expect an
of 300-400per second.They arenot equivalentwhen
instantaneous
readoutof the correctrangethe
the aircraft is closeto the beaconsincethe mean
momentwe selecta beacon.Theremust be some
periodwhen the DME is acquiringthe rangefollowbd signallevelwill be raiseddue to signalstrength;
by a period, hopefully much longer,during which the consequentlythe requiredrate is much reducedfor
the former altei'native.This is of littie consequence
indicatorcontinuoushdisplaysthe correctreading.
In this latter period rvemust considerthe eventuality when the aircraft is well within range;one would not
of a temporarylossof reply suchasoccursduringthe expect the DME to be on auto standby. When
transmission
of the identiflcation(ident)signalby the gound testing,however,an auto standbycircuit
which monitors mean signallevel-cangive unexpected,
all
beacon,or perhapsduring'manoeuvre'when
but not unexplainable,
resultssincethe test set
signalsmight be iost.
(beaconsirnulator)will normallyoutput
We haveassumedthat the r.f. anergywill travelin
signaisregardless
of rangesimulated.
a straightline from aircraft to beaconand back. This constant-strength
of coursewill be the caseunlessthere are any
Squitter The auto standbycircuit will not allow
obstructionsintervening;however,it is possiblethat
interrogations
to commenceuntil it detectssignals
theremay be more than one path to or from the

106

from the beacon. When a sufficient number of

Should more than 2700 interrogationsper secondbe
intenogatingaircraft are within rangeof the beacon
receivedthe sensitivityis reducedstill further, thus
thereis no problem, sinceanother aircraft coming
maintainingthe servicefor thoseaircraft closestro
within rangewill receiveall the replies and thus bigin
the beacon.
to interrogate. If, however,we considerthe beacon
In fact the nominal madmum of 100 aircraft is
havingjust come on line or the first flight, after a
exceededsinceinterrogationrateson track (see
quiet period, approachingthe beacon,we havea
below) are considerablylessthan twenty-sevenfor
-chicken-and-egg
situation: the beaconwill not reply
modernequipment,and further the interrogatordoes
unlessinterrogated;the interrogatorwill not
not need 100 per cent repliesin order to maintarn
interrogateunlessit receivessignals.
readoutofrange. The beaconcapabilityof 100
From the explanation thus far there are in fact
aircraft may be reducedif peak traffic is much less
sigralsavailable,namely ident, but this meansan
than this figure.
aircraft may haveto wait 30 s, perhapsmore in weak
signalareas,before coming out of auto standby. This Search During searchthe range-measuring
circuits of
is unacceptable;consequentlythe beaconis made to
the interrogatorhavenot recognizedthose pulses
transmit pulse pairs even in the absenceof
arnongstthe total receivedwhich have the same
interrogations.Such transmissions
jittering pattern as the interrogation. The
from the ground
beaconare known collectivelyas lsquitter' to
interrogationrate is high so as to decreasesearchtime,
distinguishthem from replies. When the random
the maximum rate allowedbeing 150 s-r. The search
squitterpulsepairs are receivedthe airborne
time in a modern equipmentis typically lessthan I s.
equipmentstartsto interrogate.
A p.r.f. of 135 is avoidedsinceit may cause
A beaconmust transmit randomly distributed
interferencewith the bearingmeasurementfunction
pulsepairsat a repetition rate of at least700; this
of TACAN. The readoutwill be obscuredby a .flag'
minimum rate includesdistancerepliesas well as
if of the mechanicaltype, or will be blankedif
squitter. Beaconswhich supply a full TACAN service, electronic.The counterdrumsof an electroi.e. rangeand bearing,must maintain a rate of 21.00
mechanicalindicator can be seento be rotating when
pulsepairsper second. In order to achievethis during the interrogatoris searching;an electronicindicator
ident an equalizingpair of pulsesis transmitted
may havea lamp or Le.d.which illuminatesduring
100ps aftereachidentity pair. A range-onlyDME
search.
beaconat a constantduty cycle of 27OOpuisepairs
It is an ICAO recommendationthat if after l5 000
per secondis not ruled out.
pairsof pulseshavebeentransmittedwithout
Ifwe considerthe caseof a beaconwith a constant acquiringindication of distancethen the p.r.f. should
duty cyclein a quiet period all transmittedpulsepairs not exceed60 until a changein operatingchannelis
aresquitter,apart from during the dots and dashesof
madeor a successfulsearchis completed. In practice
the ident signaltransmission.With one aircraft using useof automaticstandbycircuitsand searchp.r.f.s as
the beaconinterrogatingat a rate of, say, 27 then the low as,say,40 in modernequipmentsmakesthis
numberof squitter pulsepairswill be
recommendation
redundant.
2700 - 21 = 2673 s-r while the reply pulse pairswill
number27 s-t. Two aircraftwould Gad to isquitter
Track Dunng track the range-measuring
circuits,
rate of 2646 s-t and a reply rate of 54 s-r andio on
havingacquiredthe reply pulses,follow their early or
until we arriveat a condition of beaconsaturation
late arrivalas the aircraft movestowardsor away from
with a nominalmaximumof 100 aircraft
the beacon.Continuousrangereadoutis givenwith
interrogating.We can seethat all the squitter pulse.
the'flag'out of view. The p.r.f. is low. In order to
pairshavebecomesynchronizedwith received
optimize beaconcapabilitya maximum averagep.r.f.
interrogations.From the interrogator'spoint of view of 30 is laid down. This assumes
that 95 per -ent of
all receivedpulsepairs appearto be squiiter except
the time is occupiedby tracking,thus:
thoseidentified by the rangecircuits as being ,rp-lim
9sr+ss < 3000
to its own interrogations.
Q3)
where:7is the track p.r.f. andS the searchp.r.f.
Maintaininga constantduty cycle for the beaconis
achievedby varying the receiversensitivity. When no
In practicemodernequipmentsmay havetrack p.r.f.s
interrogationsare receivedsensitivityis sufficiently
o f l e s st h a n 1 0 .
high for noiseto trigger the beaconmodulator 2700
In someequipmentsthe transitionfrom searchto
timesper second. As interrogationsare receivedthe
track, during which the rangemeasuringcircuits check
sensitivitydecreases
so maintainingthe duty cycle.
they havein fact acquiredthe correctsignals,is

107

known asacquisition.lt is convenientttl identity

terntsinceit takesa llnite.
this eventby a separate
thoupilrshort.time and the equipntcntis neither
s e a r c l t i rnr go r t r a c k i n g .

a rangeof zero,or nearzero,nauticalmiles.

simulates
'lhus
after self-testthe outbound searchcommences
fiorn at or nearzero.

PcrcentageRepll' rNecan seefrom the abovethat not

will giveriseto repliesevenif the
all interrogations
Mennry If repliesarelost an interrogatorwill not
immediatelyrevertto searchor auto standbybut will aircraftconcernedis well within range.lt may
happenthat an interrogationarrivesduringthe
enterits memorycondition;this rrtaybe one of two
of lossof
groundreceiverdeadtirne. Other causes
W
i
t
h
m
e
n
l
o
r
y
static
t y p e se
, i t h e rs t a t i co r v e l o c i t y .
and
the
beacon
from
transmission
ident
are
replies
with
whereas
steady,
is
maintained
the readout
of the interrogatorrecbiverby other
suppression
velocitymemorythe readoutcontinttesto changeat
airborneL band equipment.Everytime an L band
its lastknown rate. Mentorytime will norrnallylie
i.e. ATC transponderor DME
equipment,
between4 and 12 s.
pulseis senton
interrogator,transmits,a suppression
the
If, duringmemory,repliesare re-acquired,
a commonline to all other L band equipment.This
equipmentwill continuetracking:thus the pilot will
may well be when a reply would otherwisehavebeen
havebeenspareda falsewarning. At the end of
received.
nremory,if tltereareho signalsat all beingreceived,
Ignoring,for the moment, ident transmissionfrom
the equipmentwill
autostandbywill ensue;otherwise
the ground and suppressiondue to ATC transponder
commencesearching.
replieswe can calculatea worst-casepercentagereply
figure. Assuminga beacondeadtime of 60 ps and
Echo Protection The possibilityof the interrogator
capability operatingconditionsof 21OO
maximum
reflection
must
suffered
which
have
trackingreplies
interrogationsper second,we havea total deadtime
be guardedagainst,both on the ground,for the
=
ps
d e a dt i m e
interrogationpath,and in the air, for the reply path. o f 6 0 X 2 7 0 O 1 6 20 0 0 s - r ; i . e .
The
time.
of
total
per
cent
16'2
constitutes
On the ground,dependingon the geographyof the
is 30 with
2
DME
(average)
of
No.
p.r.f.
maximum
will
arrive
terrain,the reflectedor echointerrogation
greaterthan 60 ps;
of
not
pulse
width
a
suppression
Thus
interrogation'
line-of'sight
after
the
a short time
for at most
thus No. I DME will be suppressed
for long enough
if the ground receiveris suppressed
=
p
e
r
p
s
c e n to f t h e t i m e .
0
'
1
8
s
r
;
i
.
e
.
l
8
0
O
X
6
0
3
0
a{'terreceptionof an interrogationthe echowill not
- l6'38 = 83'62 per cent
100
with
left
we
are
Thus
period,
or
trigge.r
a reply. Normallya suppression
deacltime, of up to 60 gs is sufficient;exceptionally asthe reply rate exPectation.
The ident transmissionoccursonce every 30 s
up to 150ps may be necessarY.
the total key-downtime will be lessthan 4 s.
when
A similarsituationexistsin the air but a different
group transrnittedconsistsof dots and
code
The
and
solutionis normallyemployed.The line-of-sight
'dashes
t i m e d u r a t i o n0 ' l - 0 ' 1 2 5s a n d0 ' 3 - 0 ' 3 7 5s
o
f
jittering
the
same
exhibit
will
both
the echo replies
respectively.The time betweendots and dashesis
p.r.f. asthe interrogator;however,the line-of-sight
uuullubl.for replies. We havethe situation where
echo' To
reply arrivesbeforethe corresponding
three replieswill be lost during a dot, and
about
arranged
is
achieveecho protection the interrogator
a track p.r.f. of
ten duringa dash,assuming
about
zero
at
commences
the
search
If
to searchoutbound.
with a lower
equipment
a
modern
about2l . For
nauticalmilesand movesout, then the first set of
these
Under
less.
even
be
will
losses
reply
p.r.f.,
repliessatisfyingthe rangecircuit's searchfor the
the
to
calculate
not
sensible
it
is
circumstances
true
to
the
jitter patternwill be thosecorresponding
of the
effect
the
since
reply
percentage
exp'ected
protection
on
changing
guarantee
echo
To
iung..
ident is possibiyto make the interrogatorgo into
channelor before commencingsearchafter memory
memory, particularlywhen a dashis transmitted'
or auto standby,the rangecircuitsshouldbe
Sincethe memory time is at leastaslong as the
is
This
miles
condition.
returnedto the zero nautical
total key-downtime the momentaryswitch between
done in someequipmentswherethe reverse
will not be
movementtowards zero may be known as a reciprocal track and memory and back to track
the
bY
noticed
place.
In
Pilot.
search,althoughno interrogationtakes
It shouldbe noted by the maintenanceengineer
other equipments,wheresearchis outbound from the
that in simulatingident durlrg a ramp test the ident
last reading,echoprotection is likely but not
guaranteed.In this latter situationuseof the self-test sigpalwill be continuous,ratherthan keyed,aslong
asthe appropriateswitch on the test set is held on.
svitch or button will givefull echo protection since
if ident is simulatedfor longerthan the memory
which
Thus
facility
a
self-test
virtually all interrogatorshave
108

circularpath centredon the beaconwould registera

time the interrogatorwill start to search,This is
ground speedof zero on the DME indicator!
test
set
the
on
switch
one
usefulsinceoperationof
If the airborneequipmenthas calculatedgound
associated
with
its
tone
ident
of
checking
allowsthe
speed,it is a simplematter to give time to station
volume control, memory time and searchp.r.f.
= DST/KTS whereTTS is time to
The ATC transponderproducesreplies,and hence (beacon)sinceTTS
station.DST is slant rangeand KTS (knots) is the
pulses,only when interrogated. If an
suppression
Again this is only a usefulindication
aiiciaft is wilhin rangeof one interrogatorit will only gound speed.
is on courseto/from the beaconand
aircraft
ttrJ
wtren
be interrogatedabout thirty timesper sweep' With a
it.
from
distance
some
say
sweeprateof say 12 r.p.m.and a beamwidth of
of the ground speedmeasuring
time
constant
The
time
a
during
occur
will
5o thesethirty interrogations
circuitis longbut cancopewith aircraftacceleration'
interval givenby the product of 5/360 and 60112,
ln groundtesting.however,one mustwait sometime
the p.r.f'
i.e. aboui 0'07 s. For thirty interrogations
foithe groundspeedreadingto take up the simulated
the
would needto be 30/0'07 430 which is closeto
on the ramp testset,slnce
of velocityselected
to
value
situation
similar
a
maximum p.r.f. of 450. We have
one is simulatingan infinite
velocity
a
switching-in
in
the
i.e'
transmission,
ident
loss
during
the reply
acceleration.
o..uti.n". is relativelyinfrequent;for example0'07
in 5 s. If the aircraftis within rangeof more than one
interrogatorthe total interrogationtime in, say, 5 s is
Interrogation
increased.
Consideringthe effect on DME only during the
The full TACAN interrogationfrequencyrangeis
time the ATC transponderis replyingwe have,
a
450
and
of
rate
1 0 2 5 - l1 5 0M H z w i t h 1 N { H zs p a c i n gT. } r u st h e
an ATC interrogation
assuming
ps,
percentage
will be one of 116 possiblefrequencit's
of
30
interrogation
pulse
duration
suppression
tlependingon the channelselected.The r'f is keyed
iime = 450 X 30 X 100/I 000 000 = l'35
suppression
'rn
per cent. If we alsotakeinto accountthe worst'case by pulsepairs. The timing,which is dcpendenl
7'-1'
Fig'
in
illustrated
per
Y'
is
or
X
83'62
of
selection,
cirannel
reply for the DME system
percentage
..nt *. haveduring this short time 83'62 1'35,
3'5trs
82 per cent replies.In fact the DME interrogator
- 1
l l
x
stroutO.op. *ith this and remainon track'
J
The aboveis not quite the whole story. The
intention is to allay the fearsof studentswho, on
I
I
l2irs
findingout how manywaysrepliescanbe lost, wonder
how on earthDME worksat all. The few simplecalculationsgivenshowthat the situationis in fact
It can,however,be worsethan sugquitesatisfactory.
only requiresthat
gestedsincethe ICAO specification
iit. OVf beaconhavea 70 per centreplyefficiency;
pulsespacing
Fig.7.3 Interrogation
not previouslymentioned,being
one of the reasons,
Even
that time mustbe allorvedfor self-monitoring'
The p.r.f. is dependenton the nlodeof operationof
percentage
with
will
cope
interrogators
DME
so most
theDME:
repliesasiow as.orlower than 50 per cent'
Search 40-I 50 Average
l0-30
Track
Ground Speedand Time To Station The interrogator
-Average
continuouslymonitorsthe slantrangeto the beacon
actualp.r.f.dependson tl-reequipmentdesign
The
which,of course,will changeasthe aircraftflies
and may be lower than minimutrlliguresgiven. There
of
awayfrom the beacon.Measurement
p.r.f. due to
' towardsor
will be a smallvariationin the average
the speedof
the rateof changeof slantrangegives.
that 95 per centof
p.r.f.,assuming
jitter. The average
approachor departureto the beacon.Such
the time is spenton track' must be lessthan 30' The
is carriedout by most airborneDMEs
measurement
with verticalpolarization'
radiationis omnidirectional
groundspeed.tt is
asso-called
and presenteci
that the readoutcan
importantthat the pilot realizes
only be consideredasground speedwhen the aircraft R e p l y
is flying directly towardsor away from the beacon
between962 and
The r.f. at one of 252 frequencies
and is somedistancefrom it. An aircraft flying a

L=--------*l

r09

l2l3 MHz isteyed by pulse pairs the timing

of which
is similar to that given in f ig. I .5, the differince
being
e1l f channelspacingis 30 prs,not 36 pr. ffrc
radiationis omnidirectionalwith verticalpoiarization.

conjunction with VOR and, largely

as a future
requirement,ILS. To achievettris,
OUe Uru.on, "r.
co-locatedwirh VOR or ILS beaconr,
in1r" i.j"g
prescribedmaximum separation
fi.its 1a"nr"'i to
the conventionon InternationalCivil
A'v",j"rl.
Wherewe havecoJocationconstituting
a sinele
X and Y Channel Arrangements
fapility the two systemsshould
""'"ii""o"ra
;;;il
frequencypairing(Table7.1).r,i rr."r1nii
r""''
and 252 replyfrequenciesassociatedidentity signal.
Jh...rr1.-..lZ!^i1t-elryCation

in the full
IA!{I-fr.guency range.The-repty_.._.
trequency
is 63 MHzaboveor belowtheintiriogating
Table7.1 Frequencypairing
asshownin Fig.7.4. fne chann.ispacing
fre.quency,
is I MHzfor bothinterrogation
andreply. The'
v.h.f. nav.freq. v.h.f. allocation
TACANchannels
arenumbered
lX,ly,'. . . liOX,
r26Y.
r08.00
VOR
UsingFig.7.4we seethat channel20X say,
,
108.05
VOR
corresponds
to aninterrogation
at 1044M;Hz';nda
r08.10
ILS
replyat 981MHz,whilechannel
I16I,, say,
1
0 85
.1
ILS
corresponds
to aninterrogation
at I140 MHzanda
replyat 1077MHz.
Eeacon
reply

63Y 1 1 5 0
I Y 1c|aR
r26Y 1087
64Y

1025

Aircraft
interrogation

I r50

--'--'t'-

Beacon
reply
X

1 0 8 7 -*__\l\_
1 0 2 5 -_|.__\a

Fig,7.4 .Y/y channel

arrangements

to24 63X
962 t x

l7x
t7Y
l8x
t8Y

ii1lo

19t

l I 1.95
I12.00
l12.05

.'?{

n2.ro

ILS
VOR
VOR
VOR

56Y
57X
57Y
58x

r12.30

VOR
VOR

59Y
70x

t17'95

VOR

t26y

1213 126X
1't51 d4x
112.25

t088 -'f-'-r-

TACAN channel

With standardfrequehcypairingthe
need for
separate
DME and v.h.f.nav.contiol unitsis
eliminated.It is normalpracticefor u .o.Uin"O
For civil DME beaconsthe 52 channels
l-16, X
controllerto be used,the selectedfrequency
and
nd 60-69,X andy,are avoidedi"it*.
indication
beinggivenin termsof tne v.h.f.nav.
reasons.Firstly DME is meant to be used
in
frequency.Thusa selectionof 10g.05Uffr-woufO
coniunctionwith VOR and ILS, which occupy
200
channels
ratherthan 252. Secondly,havingh'fty_two tune the v.h.f. nav. receiverto that frequencyund the
DME to the pairedchannell7y.
redundantchannels,the gapsare chosen
to-overlap
Someequipmentshavea hold facility whereby,
fre[uencies"f l0i0;;;'
.
lle lTC transponder
when engaged.
a changein the selectea
1090MHz to avoid any p-ossible
".fr.f."u".
interference,
lrequencywill not causethe DME channel
althoughdifferent codesand ,nr,u.i ,"iprJrJion
to change.
"r"
W.hen.using
hold, rangeand bearinginfo.rn"iion i,
also usedfor this purpose.
givenbut not to a common point.
The useof_thefifty+wo missingchannels
This could lead to
is, howpilot navigationerror, to .uoid ttris
ever,not precludedby the ICAO;they
a warninf tr*nr r,
may be alloc- illuminat
ed when hold is selected; n.*rtf,.i."rr,'ror.
areoon a nationalbasis.The fact that
civii aircraft
national authoritiesfrown upon the availabilit
rnay wish to useTACAN beaconsmeans
of
thai many
sucha faciliry.
DME interrogatorshavethe full ZSi.f,.""rfr.'
In Table 7.1 the frequencypairingarrangements
lt1:Lo*n. The frequenciesshown.i Uring"uiio.ut.O
to-ILS are,ofcourse,localizerfrrqu.n.irrit.
The Link With v.h.f. Navigation
tigtrrt
of which is I I I .95 MHz. The gfi.iepatfr/ioJirel
frequencypairingis not affectel tV IUE
p.iri"g.
As statedpreviously
DMEis meantto beusedin
ThoseTACAN channelsnot pairedwith
v.h.f. nav.

110

dnnnels may nevertheless

still be required. In this
v.h.f. nav. controllers. The RNAV facility (see
casethe pairingsfor channelslX to I 6Y are
Chapter l2) nray not be available,in which caseslant
134.40-135.95
MHz and for channels60X to 69Y are rangewould be fed direct to the HSI or often, a
133'30-134'25MHz solely lor the purposeof
separateDME indicator in which speedand time is
selectionon combinedcontrollers.Selectionof one
computed. wirh a DME indicator fitted the HSI may
ol thesechinnelswould only give rangeinformation
still act asa repeaterfor slant range.
ro an aircraftnot equippedwith full TACAN.
Associatedidentity is the term givenfor
qynchronization
ofthe ident signalsfrom co-located
beacons.Each30 s intervalis dividedinto lbur or
rnoreequalpartswith the DME beaconident
transn'ritted
duringone periodonly and the associated
v.h.f.facility ident duringthe renrainingperiods.
Associated
identity would alsobe usedwith a Vortac
beaconwhich providesbearingand rangeinformation
to both civil and military aircraft. A TACAN (or
DME) beaconnot co-located
with VOR would use
ndependentidentity. .

Instattation
The DME interrogatorcomesin rrranyforms; airline
standardequipmentis rack-mounted
whereasgeneral
aviationinterrogators
rriaybe panel-rnounted
with
integralcontrolsand digrtalreadout. King havegone
one betterwith their KNS 80 integratednav.system
sinceone panel-rnounted
box containsthe DME
interrogator:
v.h.f.nav.recejverand converter,
glideslopereceiver,RNAV computerplus integral
controlsand readoutof range,groundspeed,and
Fig.7.6 KPI 533pictorialnavigation
indicator(courtesy
time to station(seeFig. I .10).
KingRadioCorp.)
Figure7.5 showsa singleDME installationwith a
combinedv.h.f. nav./DMEcontroller,an output to an
Co-axialcablesareusedfor antennafeederand
suppression.With a dual ATC transponderand dual
DME installationall four setswill be connectedin
parallelfor suppression
purposes,so that when one
transmitsthey are all suppressed.The antennais
mounted on the undersideof the fuselagein an
approvedposition. Sufficientspacingbetweenall
Lband equipmentantennasmust be allowedto help
prevent mutual interference,althoughsuppression,
different frequencies,p.r.f.s and pulsespacingall
contribute to this.
Tuning information to both DME and the v.h.f.
nav. receiveris likely to be 215,althoughb.c.d. and
Fig.7.5 DMEinstallation
with RNAVtie-in
slip codesmay be found. Screenedcables,preferably
twisted and screened,areusedfor transferof
RNAV computer/controllerand with slant rangeand
analogueor digital data and alsofor audio
groundspeedor time to station displayedon an HSI
identificationto the audio integratingsystem. The
(Fig. 7.6). All largeraircraft would havea dual
audio may be routed through the controllerif a
installation,possiblywith changeover
relaysfor HSI
volume control is irrcorporatedin the system. Other
feeds. A combinedcontrolleris usuallyfound, but it
controller/DMEinterconnectionsare for self-test,off,
is possibie(not advised)to haveseparateDME and
standbyand on.

111

Controls and Operation

A drawingof a combinedcontrolleris shown in
Chaptera (Fig.4.9). Controlsfor DME areminimal.
Frequencyselectionis usuallyby rotary click stop
knobs,the digitat readoutof frequencyon the
controllerbeingthe v.h.f.nav.frequency,e'g.
may
108'00 MHz. The DME on/off switching
'standby'
incorporatea standbyposition. Usually
indicatesthat VOR/ILS is on, while DME is on
standbyi.e. transmitterdisabled.Sucha switchis
'off'-v.h.f. nav, and DME off;
often marked
'receive'- v.h.f.nav.on, DME standby;
'transmit' - both v.h.f. nav.and DME on. A self-test
switch will be providedon the controlleror, rarely,
be panel-mounted.Further switchingtakesplaceon
the indicatorfor groundspeed(KTS or SPD)or
(TTS or MIN). A hold switchmay
time-to-station
(see
previousnote on'hold').
alsobe found
Operationis simple;just switchon, tune to
requiredbeaconand ensurelock-on after a brief
search.lf the indicator employsa mechanicallydriven
digital readouta flag will obscurethe readingduring
whereaswith an electronicdigitalreadoutthe
search,
displaywill be blanked. Whentuning to a different
beaconthe ident signalshouldbe checkedto ensure
the correctchannelhasbeenselected.Also if the
out from its
DME is of a type which searches
last-knownreadingthe self-testmust be operatedto
return the dialsto near zeroso that an outbound
searchwill resultin lock'on to a line-of-sightreply
andnot an echo. Evenwith DMEswhich
automaticallysearchout from zero af'tera channel
changethe self-testshouldbe operatedoccasionally'
Simplified Block Diagram Operation
The bl<rckdiagramof Fig. 7 .7 canbe usedto explain
the operationof virtuallyall DME interrogators.
Naturallyvariationswill occur when comparingtypes
circuitswill
of DME; in particularthe range'measuring
reflect the ingenuityof the designerand further. as
one rvouldexpect,havein recentyearsmadethe
to digrtaltechniques.
transitionfrom analogue
A jitter generatordividesthe p.r.f. of a timing
oscillatoroutput by a variabledivisor. For example
with a basicp.r.f. of 400 a divisorof approximately
20 would providea track p.r.f' of 20, while a divisor
4 would providea searchp.r.f. of
of approximately
100. Of vital importanceto the operationof DME is
that the divisorvariesrandomly,so that if on track
thenbetween,say, l5 and 25 timingpulsesmay occur
output pulses/s from the jitter
betweensuccessive
generator.
112

The pulsests are fed to the modulator and thus

decidethe time of transmission.The modulator
producespulsepairsof the appropriatespacingwhich
in turn key the transmitterpower amplifiers. The r.f.
is generatedby a frequencysynthesizerthe output of
which servesas receiverlocal oscillatoraswell as
transmittermasteroscillator. The amplifiedr.f. is fed
to and radiatedfrom an omnidirectionalantenna.
The peak power output of a modem airline standard
DME will be about 700-800W nominal.
Receivedpulsesare fed to the receivermixer via a
tuned preselectorwhich givesimagerejectionand
someprotection from the transmittedsignal. In
addition duplexingaction will normally be employed
to ensurereceivermixer protection during
transmission.Sincethe transmit and received
frequenciesare always63 MHz apart,the frequency
synthesizercan be usedasdescribedaboveand the i.f.
amplifieris tunedto 63 MHz. A dual superhetmay
be employed. The receiveroutput will be the
detectedvideo signal.
The decodergivesan output pulsefor each
correctlyspacedpair of pulses.The decoderoutput
consistsof repliesto all interrogatingaircraft plus
squitteror pulsesat the identificationp.r.f. of
1350Hz, in which casea bandpassfilter givesa
1350Hz tone output to the audiointegratingsystem.
The auto standbycircuitcountsthe pulsescoming
a
from the decoderand if the rateexceeds
predeternrinedfigure(say400 per second)euablesthe
jitter generator.If the rateis low therewill be no
modulatortriggerandhenceno interrogation.A third
decoderoutput is fed to the rangegate.
The zero time pulses/o are effectivelydelayedand
stretchedin the variabledelay which is controlled
eitherby the searchor track circuits' The output of
the variabledelay,often termedthe rangeSate
waveform,opensthe rangegate?'ps after every
interrogation.If a reply or squitterpulseis received
at a time when the rangegateis open.a pulseis fed to
counter' Assumethe DME is
the cr.rirrcidence
with an interrogationrateof 100,and
searching
the rangegatewavelormgatingpulses
further,assume
duringa period
are20 ps in'duration,then on average
=
gate
will
be openfor
prs
range
the
10000
of l/100
o n l y 2 0 p s ,i . e . l / 5 0 0 t h o r 0 ' 2 p e r c e n to f t h e t i m e '
Now squitterand unwantedrepliesoccurrandomly
so the chanceof full coincidenceat the rangegateis
roughly I in 500 for eachof the decoderoutput
pulsepairsper
puises.Sincethere are2700 received
2700/500,i'e.
secondwe will have,on average'
5-6 pulsesper secondfrom the rangegate.
During searchthe variabledelay is continuously
increasedat a rate correspondingto anythingfrom

Suppression
pulse gen.
PRF change

t-

*-oirt"-nJl

I
I

to ind.

r l

l l
_ll
I
I

Range.
measunng
circuits

I
I
I
I
I

replios

Rx supprcssion
Frg.7 .7 Interrogator block diagram

liming gen.

o/P

Jittcr gcn.

otP

i li l i l l i l i l i l l l l l ll ll ll ll ll l l l l l l l ll ll l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l

Rengo gate
YVtVCtOrm

Dodcr

otP

l|nec g!r.
otP

r---1

F3 7.8 Stroboscopicprinciple

It3

20 to 400 nautical miles per second,dependingon the

vintageof the design. While in searchthe rangegate,
output rate, as detectedby the coincidencecounter,
is low. When the delay lps is equalto the round
trip travel time plus the 50 ps beacondelay the range
by a sigrificant amount.
Bateoutput rate increases
Assumingas abovea searchp.r.f. of 100, and also a
50 per cent reply rate, then the output.of the range
gatewill jump from say 5 pulsesper secondto 50
pulsesper second. This is the situation shown in
Fig. 7.8. Whenthis easilydetectedincreasein rate
occursthe mode control circuit will: (a) enablethe
tracking circuit; (b) inhibit the searchcircuit;
(c) senda p.r.f. changesigral to the jitter generator;
and (d) lift the indicator blanking or flag as
appropriate.
During track the variabledelay is controlled by the
trackingcircuitsso as to keepeachwanted reply in
the centreof the correspondingrangegatewaveform
pulse. Should the aircraft be flying towards the
beacon,successive
replieswill appearearly within the
gatepulse,so causingthe delay to be reduced. The
opposite occurswhen the aircraft is flying away from
the beacon. The variabledelay representsthe slant
rangeand so a signalproportionalto or representing
this delayis fed to the indicator and/or RNAV
computer.
Ifwanted repliesare lost, the coincidencecounter
output registersa zero tate and hencethe mode
control switchesto memory. With static memory the
trackingcircuits are 'frozen', whereaswith velocity
memory the trackingcircuitscontinueto changethe
variabledelay at the last known rate.

zero crossingsof the delayedsine wave turn on

(Q = l)a bistablewhich is turned otr (Q = 0) by the
zero time pulsesfrom the jitter generator. The
bistableoutput is connectedto the positive-going
triggerinput of a monostable;in this way the
resulting30 ps pulsesoccur at a time determinedby
those delayed timing pulseswhich occur I ps after
transmission.The elapsedtime I representsthe
rangereadout which will be obscured'by a flag during
search.
In the logic employed in Fig. 7.9 a low rate output
from the rangegate will give a logic zero output from
the coincidencecounter, so enabling the search
circuit but disablingthe early and late gates.When
Zps correspondsto the actualslant rangeofthe
beaconthe rangegateoutput rate is high, hencethe
searchcircuit is disabledand a logic one is fed to the
early and late gates. The other inputs to the earlyand
late gatesare the decodedpulsesand a ramp
waveformsymnietricalabout zero volts and coincident
with a 30 ps rangegatewaveformpulse. The ramp
input to the late gateis invertedso that the late gate
is open for almost all of the latter half of the 30 ps
period,while the early gateis open for almostall of
the first half. The slopeof the ramp waveformis
chosenso as there is a period (equalin duration to the decoderoutput pulsewidth) when neither early nor
late gateis open. Thus when on track the wanted
repliesare steeredto the decreaseor increaserange
circuits,dependingon whether the repliesarriveearly
or late within the rangegatewaveformpulse
respectively.
The motor drive circuits supply the motor so that
when in searchthe readoutand delay progressively
increases.While in track the motor will turn in a
RangeMeasuringand ModeGontrol
direction dependenton which of the decreaseand
increasecircuits givesan output. It can be seenthat
Analogue
in track we havea servosystemwhich maintainsthe
Typically in an older analogueDME the variable delay wantedrepliesin the centreof the rangegate
takesthe form ofa phaseshifter resolver,the rotor of waveformpulses.
which is fed from the timing oscillator and is
The memory circuit is enabledwith the early and
mechanicallycoupledto a distancemeasuringshaft.
late gateswhen it clearsthe flag. Subsequently,should
The trackingcircuitsin suchequipmentoften employ therebe a lossof replies,searchwill be inhibited and
a ramp generatoi. Figure7.9 illustratesa block
the motor held (staticmemory)or madeto continue
diagramand waveformswhich may be used to explain rotating with the samesenseand speed(velocity
the operationof sucha DME but is not meant to
memory) for the memory time.
representany particularequipment.
The timing generatoroutput is sinusoidaland so
Digital
must be fed to a pulseformer (zero crossingdetector) What follows is an explanationof the principlesof a
beforethe jitter generator.The timing signalis also
first-generationdigital DME basedon, but not
fed to a phaseshift resolverwhereit is phase-shifted accuratelyrepresenting,the RCA AVQ 85. Currently
(delayed) by an angledependingon the position of
the trend is to usea special-purpose
l.s.i. chip to
the distance-measuring
shaft which also drives the
perform the rangemeasurementand mode control
readout. Pulsescoincidentwith the positive-going
tasks.
114

----l
I

roln
ming
en.

Delayed
timing
pulses

I
t
\
;
i____

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
i
I
I

-'l
t

-J---..i

I
l

o
T
o

Ranoe
oat""

Enable

ro
Delayed
tlmrng
pulses

R
D
R
I
V
E

'

+iTe

Bistable

Mono^stabre
o

h
l

'

j*

so r,s

Monostable

Ramp gen.
Earlv
Decoder o/P

Late

Fig. 7.9 Analoguerangemeasuringand mode control block

diasram

The AVQ 85 hasa searchp.r.f. of 40, a track p.r.f.

of l2 and a maximumrangeof 400 nauticalmiles,
which correspondsto a two-way travel time of
5000ps. Duringthis time the nuntberof pulsepairs
receivedfrom a beaconwill be, on average:
5000x10-6x2700=13.5.
Of the thirteen or fourteenpulsepairsreceivedone
will, hopefully,be a wantedrepiy.
During the searchmode the elapsedtime between
f6 and the time arrival of a particulardecodedpulse

after the
is measured.If rn is the time measured
nth interrogationthen /1111is the time to the first
decodedpulseto arrivesuchthat tn+1) tr, where
r,l= 0, L . ., and /o = 0. Whenwe haveequality,i.e.
tn+L = /r, then /r, is, subjectto further checking,the
roundtrip traveltime to the beacon.It can be seen
that if the aircraftis at rnaximunlrangewe shallneed,
to complete
interrogations
l3-14 successive
on average,
the searchtime- At a searchrate of 40 this will take
sayl3'5/40 s,i.e.about one-thirdof a second.The
acquisitiontime of the AVQ 85 is quotedaslessthan I s.
115

Int.rrogatiorl
lst mcesurornont

2nd measuremart
3rd measurement
4ttl melsurc|tranl

Sth mcaermont
6th measuremetrt
7th- moasurotnctrt

Valid
reply

- search
Fig.7.l0 Digital rangemeasurement

With the aboveoperationonly one time

measurement
needsto be storedin a register. With a
modestamount of memory the wanted reply could
be identified within two successive
interrogations,
providedthat sucha reply was receivedafter eachof
the interrogations.If we assumea 50 per cent reply
rate then four interrogationswould be needed.
During a 5000 ps interval lessthan eighty-fourpulse
pairswill be received,assuminga minimum spacingof
60 ps betweenbeaconsquittertransmissions
and
allowingfor a 60 ps deadtime. Eachtime
measurement
would need l2 bits if a resolutionof
one-tenthof a nauticalmile is required. Thus'a faster
searchtime could be achievedif a RAM of
12 X 84 X 4 = 4032 bits were provided. A practical
circuit would consistof 4 X lK bit (lK = 1024\
RAMs, the pulsearrivaltimes,expressedas distances,
dfter eachof four interrogationsbeing recorded
successively
in eachRAM chip. The first chip would
thus record the arrival times after the first, fifth,
ninth, etc. interrogations,similarly for the second,
third and fourth chips. Of courseonly one 4K bit
drip is needed,providedit can be organizedinto four
linear arraysof l2-bit words. With a searchp.r.f. of
40 thereis a periodof 30000 ss (= l/40) less
5000 ps in which to checkfor equal arrivaltimes
116

which, when detected,signalthe end of search.

per
In Fig. 7.1I we return to the one measurement
interrogationsituation. Initially the distance
measuringcircuit countersand registersare cleared.
Time measurementfrom /6 is carriedout by the
distancecounter which counts809 kHz clock pulses,
thus givinga rangeresolutionof one-tenthof a mile.
The sequenceof eventsfollowing the (r + I )th
interrogationof a searchcycle is as follows:
l. te+20ps
Distancecountgrciears.
Blankingcounter loadedwith contentsof
distancestorageregister= rn.
2. ts + 47 tts
Blankingbounterstartsto count down.
3. ls + 50 r/s
Distancecounter startsto count up towards
maximum range.
4. to+tn
Blankingcounter reacheszero and hence
enablesblanking gateand triggersrangegate
waveformgenerator.
5. ts + tral
through
A decodedpulsearrivesand passes
enabledblanking gateto stop distancecounter

tlccodcd
pulsos
Distance
to lnd
8O9kHz

PRF
chang

Ind
enable

809 kHz
F!. ?.ll
diagram

Range
gate
wavaform
gen.

Decoded
pulsss

Digital rarge measuringand mode control block

and trigger transfer of data to distancestorage

register;n becomesn + I and circuit waits for
next to.
The abovesequenceis repeatedafter each
interrogation. Within, on average,fourteen
interrogationsthe time to a wanted reply will be
counted and the distancestorageregisterwill contain
the number of tenthsof a nauticalmile actualrange.
After the next interrogationthe blanking counter will
enable the blanking gate 3 prsbefore the arrival ofthe
wanted reply, sincethe blankingcounterstart is
47 ps after re while the distancecounter start is
50 ps after fe. It thereforefollows that the distance
subjectto
counterwill recordthe samed'.stance,
aircraft movement.thereafter.
The pulse from the rangegate waveform generator
is of 6 ps duration,its leadingedgebeingX ps after te
whereX is the time of arrivalof the previously
measureddecodedpulseless47 ps. This gatingpulse
is fed to the rangegatetogetherwith the decoder
output. Coincidenceindicatesthat the two latest
pulsesto be measuredhavearrivedwith the sametime
delay t 3 prswith respectto /s and are thus probably
wanted replies. The percentagereply checkingcircuit
then checksthat two of the next eight interrogations
giverise to a decodedpulsewithin the track gateand
if so the mode switchesto track. On track the p.r.f. is
reducedand the indicator givesa readoutofthe range
asmeasuredby the distancecounter. After switching
to track, at leastfour of any sixteensuccessive

interrogations rrtust give rise to a rangeSateoutput;

failure initiates a switch to memory. Five seconds
after memory is entered the mode will revert to
search,subject to auto standby, unlessthe four-from'
sixteen check indicatessuccess,in which casetrack
resumes.

Characteristics
is drawnfromtheARINC
Thefollowingsummary
Characteristic568-5for the Mk 3 airborneDME, it is
not completeand doesnot detail all the conditions
under which the following should be met.
Channels
252 channelsselectedby 215switching.
hise Spacing
Interrogationl2 r 0'5 ps modeX;36 x 0'5 prsmode X
Decoderoutput if lZ ! 0'5 1rsmodeX; 30 i 0'5 tts
mode Y.
Decoder: no output ifspaeing of receivedpulse pain
more than I 5 ps from that required.
Range
0-200 nauticalmileswith overrideto extend to
300 nauticalmiles.
TmckW Sped
0-2000 knots.

717

AcquisitionTime
I s or less.
Memory
4-12s velocitymemory.
r.f. PowerOutput
> 25 dBWinto 50 O load.

Fig.7.l2 TIC T-24A (courtesyTel-InstrumentElcctronics

Corp.)

118

:r i : i: Intenogation Rote
Overalllessthan 30, assumingon track 95 per cent of
time, searching5 per cent of time.
Auto Standby
At least650 pulsepairsper secondreceivedbefore
interrogationsallowed.

Tx Frequency Stability
Better than t 0.007 per cent.
Rx Sensitivity
-90 dBm lock-on sensitivity.
Suppressiort PulseDurat ion
Blanket: l9 prsmodeX;43 ttsmodeL
Pulsefor pulse: 7 gs.
Antenna v,s.w.r.
l'5: I over 962-1213MHz referredto 50 O.
Antenna Isolotion
> 40 dB betweenL-bandantennas.
Outputs
l. Digital: 32-bit serialb.c.d.word at leastfive times
per second,resolution0.01 nauticalmiles.
Buffers in utilization equipment.
2. Analogue:pulsephirs5-30 timesper secondwith
spacing,in ps, 50 + l2'359d (d beingslant
range). Eachload l2K in parallelwith lessthan
I 00 pF.

3. Rangerate pulsetransmittedfor each0.01 nautical

mile changein range.
4. Audio ) 75 mW into 200-500Q load.
5. Output impedance< 200 st.
6. Warningflag( I V d.c. for warning,2i.S y d.c.
satisfactoryoperation.
RangeOutput Accuracy
From t 0.1 to t 0.3 nauticalmiles,dependingon
sigral strengthand time sinceacquisition.

Ramp Testing
A DME installationshouldbe testedusinga ramp test
set which will test by radiation,simulatevarious
rangesand velocities.operateon at leastone spot
frequencyfor mode X and mode I/, and provide for
simulationof identification. Two suchtest setsare
the TIC T-24A (Fig. 7.12) andthe IFR ATC"600A
( F i g .8 . 2 3 ) .
TIC T.24A
A battery-operated,one-mantest set operatedfrom

.*tF

-trf:l;l:
a{{dtir-ril
/! *,

'k

"r

-,'a.

in$

d*

*rt

tlt

{i
*.
* { r t f * @ r f

nl'

-EE-I
: 4*.

..

. a

:a.r/:{

-.** e

*$

,. ..:;,..

?.
d

Et
t

ciil,
.,") ;

. t. *.r&
tlq
nfr
_ft i*+ffi
4,frwa.:r
.s,:,ai: d; :i {

e a

fr
:

^t

ld

Fig. 7.13 TIC T-50A (courtesyTel-lnstrument

Elcctronrcs
Corp.)
'!19

the cockpit and testingby radiation. ChannelslTX

and 17Y are available(108.00 and 108.05MHz VOR
frequencies)with rangesimulationftom 0 to 399.9
nauticalmilesin 0.1 nauticalmile increments. The
velocity, inbound or outbound, can be selectedin
lO-knot incrementsfrom 0 to 9990 knots. Squitter
is selectableat 700 or 2700 pulsepairsper second.
Identity is availableas 1350 or equalized1350 pulse
pairsper second. An additionalpulsepair l0
nauticalmilesafter the reply pulsepair can be
selected,to enablea checkof echo protection. The
p.r.f. meterhastwo ranges0-30 and 0-150. Finally
the percentagereply may be selectedin l0 per cent
incrementsfrom l0 to 100 per cent.
ATC 600A
This test set doesnot have all the facilities ofthe
T-24A but doesoffer comprehensive
testingability
for the ATC transponder(Chapter8). Like the
T-24Athe ATC 600A operateson channelsl7X and
l7Y. The rangecan be set from 0 to 399 nautical
milesin I nauticalmile steps. Twelvedifferent
rrelocitiesmay be simulatedin the range

120

50-2400knots inbound or outbound. The identity is

equalized1350 pulsepairsper second. The percentage
reply is either50 or 100 per cent by selection.
Featuresof the ATC 600A not availablewith the
T-24A arean interrogatorpeak r.f. power readout,
accuracyt 3 dB (t 50 per cent) and interrogation
liequency check.

Bench Testing
Various test setsexist for the benchtestingof DME,
one of theseis the TIC T-50A (Fig. 7.13) which also
providesfacilitiesfor ATC transponderbench testing.
This is not the placeto detail all the featuresof sucha
complex test set; sufficeit to say that the test set is
madeup of optional modulesso that the customer
can choosethe most suitablepackage.One feature
which must be mentionedis the ability to measure
the pulsedr.f. from the DME interrogatorwith a
resolutionof l0 kHz. TIC havefound that many
units changetheir output frequency,sometimes
beyond allowablelimits, when a changein pulse
spacingoccurs;i.e. X to I/ mode or vice versa.

I ATC transponder

in particular
Recognitionof thesedisadvantages,
No. 3, led to the developmentof a military secondary
surveillanceradar (SSR)known as identification
With the rapid build-up of international and domestic
friend or foe (lFF). With this systemonly specially
civil air transportsinceWorld War II, control of air
targetsgive a return to the ground. This
equipped
traffic by meansof primary surveillanceradar (PSR)
has
sincebeenfurther developedand extended
system
and proceduresis not adequateto ensuresafetyin the
aswell asmilitary air traffic; the special
to
cover
civil
air.
equipmentcarriedon the aircraft is the air traffic
control (ATC) transponder.
lntroduction

?---=__

BasicPrinciples

Secondarysurveillanceradar forms part of the ATC

radarsurveillancesystem:the other part being PSR.
Two antennas,one for PSR,the other for SSR,are
Fig E.l Primarysurveillance
radar
mounted co-axiallyand rotate together,radiating
directionally.The SSRitselfis capableof giving
A PSRdoesnot rely on the activeco-operationof
rangeand bearinginformation and would thus appear
the target. Electromagnetic(e.m.) radiation is pulsed to make PSR redundant:howeverwe must allow for
from a directionalantennaon the ground. Provided
aircraft without ATC transponderfitted or a possible
they arenot transparentto the wavelengthused,
failure.
targetsin tine with the radiation will reflect energy
We can briefly explain SSRin terms of Fig. 8.2.
back to the PSR. By measuringthe time taken, and
The SSR transmitterradiatespulsesof energyfrom a
noting the direction of radiation, the rangeand
directionalantenna.The directionand timing of the
bearingof the target are found. Display is by means SSRtransmissionis synchronizedwith that of the
of a plan position indicator (seeChapter9). Such a
PSR. An aircraft equippedwith a transponderin the
qystemhasthe following disadvantages:
path of the radiatedenergywill reply with specially
the
codedpulsedr.f. providedit recognizes
l. Sufficient energymust be radiatedto ensurethe interrogationasbeing valid. The aircraft antennais
minimum detectablelevel of energyis received omnidirectional.
b! the p.s.r.after a round trip to a wanted
The coded reply receivedby the ground is decoded,
targetat the maximum range. Rangeis
and an appropriateindication givento the air traffic
,' proportional to the 4th root of the radiated
controlleron a p.p.i..display.The reply will give
energy.
information relatingto identity, altitude or one of
messages.Figure8.3 showsa
2. Targetsother than aircraft will be displayed
severalemerElency
(clutter). This can be much reducedby using
As can be seen,a variety of
presentation.
typical data
Doppler effect (seeChapter l0) to detect only
symbolsand labelsare usedto,easethe task of the
controller.
moving targets.
3. Individual aircraft cannot be identified except
by requestedmanoeuvre.
Interrogation
4. An aircraft's altitude is unknown unlessa
One interrogationconsistsof a pair of pulsesof r.f'
energy,the spacingbetweenthe pulsesbeing one of
separateheight-findingradaris used.
four time intervals. Different modesof interrogation
5. No information link is set up.

721

Fig 8.2 Secondarysurveillanceradar

The maximum interrogationrate is 450 although,

in order to avoid fruiting (seebelow - FalseTargets),
the rate is as low as possibleconsistentwith each
targetbeing interrogatedtwenty to forty times per
sweep. The pulsesof r.f. are 0.8 ps wide and at a
frequencyof 1030 MHz (L band) this being the same
for all interrogations.

Fig. 8.3 Typical data presentation

lre codedby the different time intervals,eachmode

correspondingto +different ground-to-air.question'.
For examplemode A - 'what is your identity'?
Figure 8.4 illustratesthe modesof interrogation.
Many transpondershaveonly mode A ind C
capability;this is sufficient to respondto an
interrogatoroperatingon mode interlacewhereby
mode A and C interrogationsare transmittedin
sequence,thus demandingidentification and altitude
information. Mode D hasyet to be uti[zed.
122

Reply
A transponderwill reply to a valid interrogation,the
form of the reply dependingon the mode of
interrogation. A valid interrogationis one received
from the interrogator mainlobe(seebelow,- Side
I-obe Suppression),the time interval betweenpulses
beingequal to the mode spacingselectedby the pilot.
In every reply two pulsesof r.f. 1090 MHz, spaced
^20.3 ps apart are transmitted,theseare the frame or
bracketpulses,Fl and F2. BetweenFl and F2 there
are up to twelve code pulsesdesignatedand spacedas
shown in Fig. 8.5; a thirteenth pulse,the X pulse,
may be utilized in a future expandedsystem.
The presenceof a code pulsein a reply is
determinedby the settingof code selectorswitcheson
the pilot's controller when the reply is in responseto
a mode A (orts) interrogation.If the interrosationis
mode C the codc pulsestransmittedare autoriaticallv
determinedby an encodingaltimeter.
A pulse4.35 gs after F2 may be transmitted. This
is the specialposition indicator (Spl) pulse.otherwise
known as the indicateposition (I/p) or simply ident
pulse. lf the reply is in responseto a mode A
interrogationthe SPI pulseis selectedby a
spring-loadedswitch or button on the pilot's controller.
A brief depressionof the switch will causethe Spl
pulseto be radiatedwith every reply to a mode A
interrogationreceivedwithin l5-30 s. Someolder
transponderswill transmit a SpI pulsein reply to a
mode C interrogationwhen the reply code containsa
D4 pulse;this corresponds
to an altitudein excessof
30 700 ft.

'i

:i

'i

-3

.:
I

ldontity

ldentity
o
!

Altitude

Unassigncd

Fig 8.4 Interrogation pulse spacing

Fr cl

A1 c2 A2 C4 A4 'X'

8r _Dr 82 d2 84 D4 F2

l*z.sr,t-l

Fig 8.5 Replytrainformat

Coding: Identification
The codepulsestransmitteddependon four code
selectorswitches,each of which controls a group of
threepulsesin the reply and may be set to one of
eight position,0-7. The code groupsare designated
A, B, C and D, the pulseswithin eachgroup having
suffixes4,2 and I (seeFig- 8.5). The resultingcode
is binary codedoctal, the most significantoctal digit
beingdetermined.bythe group A pulses,the least
significantby the group D.
Selectionof the A pulsesgivesthe familiar binary
code,asshown in Table 8.1. Similarly with selection
of the B, C and D pulses.
The number of possiblecode combinationsis
easilyarrivedat sincewe havefour octal digits giving
8a = 4096. Someof the code combinationsare siven
specialsignificance;we have:

Table 8.1 Group A codeselection(similarly for

groupsB, C and D)

A4

A2

0
0
0
0

0
0
I
I
0
0
I
I

AI

0
I
0
I
0
I
: 0
I

Selection

0
I
2
3
4
5
6

il ,o,o

'7600 Radio failure 77OO Emergency

Thereis also a specialcode for hijack.
Coding: Altitude
The flight level of the aircraft referencedto a pressure

o'o'
Fig. 8.6 Examples of pulse trains lbr particular selected
codes

123

of 1013.25mbar(29.92 inHg) is encoded

Table8.2 100-Footincrementcoding
automaticallyin incrementsof 100 ft, the codeused
beinglaid down by the ICAO. The maximumencodedMod,o(A)
cr
c2
c4
rangeis from -1000 to 126700 ft inclusive.With
100 ft incrementsthis requires1278differentcode
8
0
I
combinations,
with 4096 availablewe seethereis
9
0
I
considerable
redundancy.It is impracticalto usemore 0
0
0
of the availablecodessincethe aciuracy of
I
I
0
barometricaltimetersis suchthat it is not sensibleto 2
I
0
have,say,50 ft increments;
in any casethe objective
Reflection
is to indicateflight levelswhich arein hundredsof
I
0
feet.
4
I
0
To accommodatethe redundancythe Dl pulseis
)
0
0
not usedand, further,at leastone C pulseis
6
0
I
transmittedbut neverCl and C4 togetherin a single 1
0
I
reply. Thus for eacheightpossibleA group
combinationsof pulseswe haveeight B group,five C
goup and four D group,giving8 X 8 X 5 X 4 = 1280
The A, B and D pulsesform a Gray code givinga
possiblecodecombinations;
two more than necessary.total of 256 incrementsof 500 ft each,i.e.
The extra two. if assigned.
would correspondto
128000 ft, commencingat -1000 ft. In orderof
I 1 0 0a n d - 1 2 0 0 f r .
frequencyof bit changewe have84,82, Bl, 44, A2,
The C pulsesform a unit distancereflectedbinary Al , D4, D2; thus 84 changes
every 1000 ft whereas
codegivingthe 100 ft increments.As shownin
D4 doesnot enterthe codeuntil 30 800 ft and D2
Table8.2 the reflectedpattern,startingat
until 62 800 ft. Needless
to sayaircraftin the general
C l = C 2 = 0 , C 4 = l , b e g i n sr v h e nM o d l e ( A )= 8 ;
aviationcategorywill not needto employ encoding
i.e.when the renrainder
on dividingthe altitude(in
altimetersgivingD4 and D2 selection.
hundredsof feet)by 10 is 8. Thus to find the C
To find the A, B and D pulseswe can use
pulsesin the codefor. say,25400 ft we have
Table8.3. Sincethe entriesin the tablecommence
A = 2 5 4 ,M o d 1 6 ( A =
) 4 , s o C l a n d C 2 a r ei n t h e r e p l y . with zero,whereasthe altitudecommences
at
Table8.3

0
0
0
0
- 0

0
0
0
0

0
0

o
0
0
I
I

I
I
I
t

124

0
0
0
0
I
I
0
0
0
0

0
0

,
I

500-Footincrementcodins
B4
B2
B1
A4

D2 D4 AI

rl

0
0
0
0

1
0
0
0

1
1
0
0

0
1
0
0

1
30
33
62
55
94
97
126
129
158
161
190
193
222
225
2s4

2
29
34
61
66
93
98
125
130
r57
162
189
t94
22r
226
253

3
28
35
60
6't
92
99
t24
131
156
163
188
195
220
227
252

0
1
I.

1
1
r

1
0
t

0
0
1

1
0

0
0
1
1

r
0
I
r

1
t
r
t

0
r
0
I

0
1
0

l0
2t
42
53
74
85
106
tt7
138
t49
170
r8l
202
2t3
234
245

lt
t2
20 19
43 44
52 5l
7S 76
84 83
107 108
116 l15
139,140
148 t47
l7l 172
180 t79
203 204
212 2tr
23s ?36
244 243

13
l8
45
50
77
82
109
114
l4l
146
r'13
178
205
210
23't
242

14
t7
46
49
78
8t
ll0
l13
142
145
174
t77
206
209
n8
241

15
16
47
48
79
80
l1l
tr2
r43
t44
t' t5
t76
207
208
239
240

r
0

0
0

A2

0
I
I
0
0
I
I

0
0
I
I
0
0
I
I
0

0
31
32
63
64
9s
96
t27
t28
159
160
l9l
t92
221
224
255

4
27
36
s9
58
9l
100
t23
r32
155
t64
187
196
219
228
25t

s
5 7
26 2s 24
3 7 3 8 39
58 57 56
69 70 7 t
90 89 88
101 t02 I 03
122 t2t I 2 0
r33 134 I 3 5
154 153 Is 2
165 166 I 67
186 185 I84
r9't 198 I 99
218 217 21 6
229 230 23 1
250 249 24 8

8
9
23 22
40 4 1
55 54
7 2 . 7f
87 86
104 1 0 5
ll9 ll8
135 137
1 5 l 150
168 169
183 182
200 20t
2 t 5 2r4
2 3 2 233
2 4 7 246

-1000, we must add 1000 to the altitude before

enteringthe table. The tablerecordsthe altitudein
incrementsof 500 ft. The followingalgorithmwill
give the requiredcode:
(i) add 1000 to the altitude;
(ii) enter table with the integerpart of the result
of (i) dividedby 500;
(iii) readthe code:row, column.
As an examplewe will find the completecode for
I l0 200 ft:
( i ) 1 1 0 2 0 0 +1 0 0 0 =l l l 2 0 0 ;
( i i ) I n t . ( l l l 2 0 0 / s 0 0 )= 2 2 2 ;
( i i i ) 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1= D 2 D 4 A l A 2 A 4 B l 8 2 F . 4 .
To find the C pulses:
Modls (l102) = 2, therefore100 = Cl C2 C4.
C o m p l e t ec o d ei s l 0 l 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 .
False Targets
There are severalcausesof unwanted returnsbeing
displayedon the air traffic controller'sp.p.i.,one of
which is interrogationby sidelobes. This is discussed
in somedetail below under the headingside lobe
suppression.
Sincethe transponderantennais omnidirectional
the reply pulsesnreantfor one interrogatormay also
be receivedby another,providingit is within range
and its antennais pointingin the directionof the
aircraftconcerned.Suchunwantedreturnswill not
of the
with the transmission
be synchronized
interrogatc'r
sufferingthe interferenceand would
appearas randombright dots on the p.p.i. This type
of interi-erence,
known as fruiting.carrbe dealtwith
by makinguseof the tact that different
interrogatorswork on difl-erentinterrogationrates,

repliesmay thus be sortedon this basis.

A reply from a transponderlastsfor a period of
20'3 ps, thus the transmittedpulsetrain will occupya
distanceof 163000 X 20.3 X l0-6 = 3.3 nautical
milesin space(speedof propagationbeing
163000 nauticalmilesper second).As a consequence
any two aircraft in line with the interrogator,and
with a differencein slantrangeof lessthan 1.65
nautical miles,will transmit replieswhich overlapin
spaceand consequently
mutuallyinterfereat the
interrogatorreceiver. Such repliesare said to be
garbled. Secondarysurveillanceradaris most useful
when traffic densitiesare greatest.These
garbling.
circumstances,
of course,giveincreased
Reflectionsof the transmittedenergy,either
interrogationor reply,from mountains,hills or large
structureswill givean indicatedreply at an incorrect
range.Sincethe directpath is shorterthan the
reflectedpath echoprotectionmav be used;i.e. the
receivermay be suppressed
or desensitized
for a
limited periodon receiptof a pulse.
Side Lobe Suppression(SLS)
When a reply is receivedits angularposition on the
controller'sp.p.i.is determinedby the directionof
the main lobe radiationfrom the interrogator.If the
reply is due to an interrogationtiom a sidelobe then
the indicatedbearingwill be incorrect.Two systems
havebeen designedto suppressrepliesto sidelobe
interrogation:they are the ICAO 2 pulseand the
FAA 3 pulseSLS systems.Someoldertransponders
havecircuitry applicableto eithersystem;however
three-pulseSLS hasadvantages
over its virtually
obsoleterival and is the only systemconsidered,
The polar diagramfor the interrogatorantenna
systemis shownin Fig. 8.7. Pl and P3 are the
i n t e r r o g a t i opnu l s e s p a c e d
a t 8 , 1 7, 2 l o r 2 5 p s
radiatedfrom the directionalantenna.P2 is the SLS
control oulseradiatedfrom an omnidirectional

P 1 ,P 3

r
*'J
I2rs fFig. 8.7 Three-pulse
s.l.s.

125

antenna. The field strength for P2 is such that an

aircraft within the Pl/P3 main lobe will receiveP2 at
a lower amplitudethan Pl/P3 whereaselsewhereP2
will be greater. The condition for a reply/no reply
are:

lnstallation

Figure 8.9 showsa typical transport category aircraft

dual installation. Two transpondersare mounted side
by sidein the radio rack mating with back plate
connectorsin the mounting tray junction box. Two
n >Pl
no reply
encoding
altimetersand the control unit havetheir
P2<Pl-9dB reply
connectorsrouted through the back plate to the
otherwise
mry reply
transponderswhile direct connectionsto the front of
In the grey regionthe probability ofa reply increases the transpondersare made from two L-band antennas
with decreasing
P2 amplituderelativeto Pl.
and the suppressionline interconnectingall L-band
equipments. Powersuppliesare routed through the
Probability
backplate.
of reply
The encodingaltimetersmay be blind (no altitude
indication) or panel-mounted.On largertransport
aircraft encodedaltitude information may be derived
from a static pressure-activated
capsulemechanismin
a centralair data computer(CADC).
The transpondersare fitted on a shock-mounted
tray. Coolingis by convectionand radiation. Most
transpondersdesignedfor the generalaviation market
combinetransponderand control unit in one box,
which is panel-mounted.To ensureadequatecooling
sufficient clearancemust be allowedaround eachunit.
A common co-axialcableinterconnectsthe
n-P2
transpondersand DME interrogators.A transmission
(dBsl
'black
,
I
Grey
by any one
box' will causethe receiversof the

:i

Fig. 8.8 Probability ofa reply

l
J

Supply: 115V, 4OO Hz

and/or 28 V d.c.

lllumination

S0ppressioninlout

EE
,rrl/{o
*-(/

Fig. 8.9 Dual transponderinstallation

126

EE

@@

.s
..{

,i
3
!
I

other threeto be suppressed

for a perioddepending
on the_source;
a transponder
suppression
puir. will be
about30 ps.
controlunit is, of course,panel-mounted
in
the cockpitandprovidesthe piloiwith.o*fi.t"
controloverthe transponders.
Only onetransponder
at a timeis in usewhilethe otheriJon standbv.
Controls and Operation
FunctionSwitch Off-Standby-A-B-C_D.
ModeC
operationwill dependonly on thepositionof
the
altitudereporting(a.r.)switch;henceif the function
svitch hasa'C' positionsucha selection
wouldserve
to switchmodesA, B andD off but haveno effect
on
the selection
of modeC. Manytransponders
have
only A andC capabilityin which.ur. th. function
switchmighthavepositionsOff-standby-A.
Rotaryswitches
mountedco-axiaily
?!:.S*:!rhes
m palrs;thumbwheel
switches
area common

alternative. The code setectedappearsin a window

abovethe switchesand will determinethe code
pulsespresentin the reply in responseto a
modeA
(or.B) in_terrogation.Sometranspona.r,
t .u" "
facility for remote automaticteying fo, moOes
e ana
B; this may be selectedby settingtlie code
,rit.h.,
to 8888. In fact the necessaryextra equipment
has
neverbeenintroduced.
I/P.Syvit-chSpring-loadedto_off pushbuttonor toggle
s'uritchfor selectionof the SpI puise. May be labelled
SPI or ldent.
Lo SenseSwitch Whenselectedto .on'reduces
the
transponderreceiversensitivityby l2 dB. This
featurewas introducedas an inteiim measurefor
reducingsidelobe response.Subsequent
developmentshavemade this facility unnecessary.

A.R. Switch On-off selectionfor altitude reporting.

Test (T) Switch Spring-loadedto off pushbutton
or

Spike
eliminator
pulse width
limiter

Visual monitor
Fig. 8.10 Transponderbtock diagram

727

.,i

j
j

toggleswitch which energizesthe self'testcircuitry.

Indication of a successfulself-testis givenby a green
visualmonitor lamp which alsoilluminateswhen a
reply is sent in responseto a valid interrogation. The
self-testswitch and visualmonitor may be repeated
on the transponderunit for the use of the
engineer.
maintenance
TlansferSwitch Selectseither transponderNo' I or
No. 2 in a dual installation.
Pilot work load with transponderis minimal, there
beingno indication other than the monitor lamp
while control switch changesareinitiated on ATCs
instructionseitherby r.t. or throughstandard
procedures.

Simplified Block Diagram Operation

The interrogatingpulsesofr.f. energyare fed tcl the
receiverby way of a 1030 MHz band passfilter' The
pulsesare amplified,detectedand passedas a video
iignal to the spikeeliminator and pulse-wihthlimiter
circuits;theseonly passpulsesgreaterthan 0'3 gs in
duration and limit long pulsesto lessthan that
duration which will causetriggering.The decoder
examinesthe spacingof the interrogationpulsesPl
and P3, if it is that for the mode selectedan output
will be givento the encoder.If the Pl-P3 spacingis
of the mode
2l prsan output will be givenregardless
selected.
The encoder.on being triggeredby the decoder.
producesa train of pulsesappropriateto the required
reply which is determinedby codeswitches(mode A)
or encodingaltimeter(modeC). The encoderoutput
triggersthe modulator which keys the 1090 MHz

transmitter. Radiationis by an omnidirectional

antenna.
circuitsare fed with the
The sidelobe suppression
receivervideo output. In the event of an interrogation
for about
by sidelobe, the receiverwill be suppressed
35 ps commencingat a time coincidentwith the P2
of P3.
pulse,thus blocking the passage
circuit is triggeredwheneverthere
The suppression
pulseso producedis used
is a reply. The suppression
to suppressthe receiverand is alsofed to other
L-bandequipmentfor the samepurpose. The
featurebetweenL-bandequipmentsis
suppression
mutual.
Automaticoverloadcontrol(a.o.c.)otherwise
reduces
known asgroup countdown,progressively
the receiversensitivityafter the reply rate exceeds
typically 1200groupsper second.AssumingI 5 pulse
replies,0'45ps pulsewidths and a maximumreply
rate of 1480 groupsper secondwe havea typical
airline requirementof a I per cent duty cycle to
handlernultipleinterrogations.
Self-testfacilitiesareprovided.On beingactivated,
signalis injectedinto the front end of the
test
a
self-testis indicatedby the
receiver.A successful
visualmonitor lamp which lights wheneverthere is an
havean
Sometransponders
adequatetransmission.
audiomonitor facilityin additionto the visual
monitor.

i
.{
?
{
*

I1

:q
ii
n

{
n
I
:

Block Diagram Details

Transmitter Receiver
The r.f. sectionswill employnormalu.h.f. techniques
suitablefor processingsignalsin the regionof
internalco-axialleads
1000MHz. Interconnecting

!
':i!
.t

$
i

.;

j
l

I
'i

To vidco
st6gos

Fig. 8.1I Logarithmici.f. amplifier

128

must be of a length laid down by the manufacturer as

they play a part in the circuit action; in particularthe
lead to the transmitterwill be of a leneth such that
receivedsigralswill seethe transmitteifeed as a high
impedance,thus assistingin the duplexing action.
In flying from maximum rangetowards the
interrogator a large dynamic rangeof signalstrength
is received,at least50 dBs from minimum triggering
level. Providingadequateamplification for the weak
signalscan result in saturation of the last stage(s)of
the i.f. amplifier when strongersignalsare received.
Such saturation may give rise to the suppressionof
valid interrogations by the SLS circuit since the
strongerPl main lobe pulseswill be limited.
Successive
detectionof the video sigral can
overcomethe saturationproblem. Figure 8.11 shows
a logarithmicamplifier usingsuccessive
detection.
fusuming a gain of A for each stageand a maximum
stageinput signalZ before saturationof that stage,
an input to the i.f. amp. of VlAi wrll causestage4 to
saturate.In this event the detectedoutput to the
video stagewill be (VlA') + (VIA) + (V) + (AV)
which is approximatelyequal to AV for'a reasonable
gajrnA. Table 8.4 illustratesthe differencebetweena
conventional and logarithmic amplifier.
Decoder
Many transpondersstill in serviceuse multi-tapped
delaylinesin both decoderand encoder;howeverall
moderntranspondersemploy monostablesand shift
registers,in the form of integratedcircuits,which will
be the only type of transponderconsideredhere.
The detectedvideo signalsare appliedto the spike
eliminator and pulsewidth limiter in series. The
action of the 0'3 ps delay and AND gateis to prevent
any pulsesor noisespikeslessthan 0'3 ps in duration

Table8.4 Comparison
of conventionaland
logarithmic
amplifiers
Input signal

Output signal
Conventional

Logarithmic

V
I3

AV

AV

V
T2

AV

2AV

AV

3AV

AV

4AV

beingpassedto the decoder. Long pulseswhich

might causea'reply are reducedin duration by the
pulse-widthlimiter monostable,the output of which
is a pulseabout 0'5 ps in duration regardless
of the
width of the input pulse.
The decoderinput monostableensuresthat only
the leadingedgeof Pl (positive-goingt) triggersthe
mode A and C delay circuitseachof which consistsof
a monostableand a differentiatingcircuit. The mode
A and C AND gateswill givean output if the delayed
Pl pulsesfrom the differentiatorsare coincidentwith
the undelayedP3. An output from either AND gate
will give a trigger('T') output from the OR gate.
Encoder
ln the exampleof an encodershown,two lO-bit shift
registersare used(e.g.Signetics8274).The operating

O ' 5p s

Output
O'3lrs
Pulse width
limiter

Odprrt
Spike eliminator
fig. E.f 2 Spike eliminator and pulse width limiter
wavcforms

129

.{

,{

{
:
:
:.
.!

Pulse
width
limiter
Fig.8.l3 Decoder

n
t t

30 trs mono output

8 lrs mono-output

| Ln-]
P'I P2

Input

t l

P3

I lrs

21 1rsmono output

n
t l

Differentiator I O/P

Differentiator 2 O/P

'A'

'C'

n
l l

output

output

T'output

- modeA intertogation
Fig,8.14 Decoderwaveforms
mode is controlledby inputsS0 and Sl, hold, clear,
load and shift being selectedby the input values
$rown in the truth table(Fig.8.l5). Thesetwo
control waveformsare producedby two monostables,
one triggeredby the positive-going
edgeof the T
output from the decoder,the other by the
negative-goingedge. This anangementgivesus the
130

'lhc
s e q u e n o el o a d , s h i l t , c l c a r , h o k l .
S 0 w a v e f o r mi s
a . l s ou s e d t ( ) g a t c a c l o c k g c r r c r a t o r p
, c r i o d 1 . 4 5g s .
'l
Load l'ha lcading cdgc of
triggcrs thc controlling
m o n o s t a b l c ss o t l r a t S ( ) = l , S l . , ( . 1a n d t l r c s h i f t
r e g i s t e re l e r n c n t sw i l l b c l o a d c r lw i t l r t l r c b i n a r v
information present on tlrc input lirres. Since il an<l

sxo

$lBo,,o

10 bit
shift re$ster

10 bit
shift register

Pilot
code
switch
Encoding
altimeter
switch

r-

ct

D4

Fig 8.15 Encoder

F2 are requiredin all replies,the appropriateinputs
arehigh (+5 V). The one time-slotbetween.A4and
B1 and the two time-slotsbetweenF2 and SPI are
their input lines,together
neverused;consequently
with the two spareafter SPI.arelow (earth). The
dynamicinput linesCl to D4 will be high or low
dependingon the code switch selection(mode A
or the altitude(modeC interrogation).
interrogation)
Assuminga validmode A interrogationhasbeen
'A' line
receivedtherewill be a pulsepresenton the
from decoderto encodercoincidentin time with the
'T'line. After inversionthis A pulseis.
puiseon the
appliedin parallelto one of twelveNOR gates,the
otherinputsof which areconnectedindividuailyto
the twelvepilot code switches.Thosecode pulses
selected
resultin a groundon the appropriateNOR
gateinput. Sincethe other input in eachcaseis also

low for the dur4tion of the load mode, the NOR gate
to selectedcodesgo high and
outputscorresponding
thusset the appropriateshift registerelement. Similar
are
whenevermodeC interrogations
action.occurs
receivedalthoughDl selectionis not involved.Noise
filteringis employed(r.c.networks)within the
for eachof the altitudeinformation
transponder
input leads.SPIloadingoccurswhen the A pulseis
coincidentwith the l5-30 s output pulsefrom the
of the SPIswitch.
SPItimer producedon depression
Shift The trailing edgeof pul5eT triggersthe S1
monostablethus S0 = Sl = I and the shift registers
arein the shift operatingmode. Shiftingoccurswith
a high to low transitionof the clock pulses,thus in
the l'45 1lsafter the first transitionthe shift register
output is high (Fl); after the next transitionthe
131

:l

::

s1

so
cLx
c2 A2 C4 A4

D2 B4 D4 F2

S/R out

oooo

S/R out
7777
Differentiator

o|rt

AND out

oooo

AND out
7777
Fit. 8.16 Encoderwavefolms

output will be high or low dependingon hqw the Cl

elementwas loaded,and so on.

monostable is to provide pulsesof the correct

duration to the modulator.

Aear and Ho;ld S0 and Sl pulsesare each of

approximately30 ps duration, thus S0 goeslow ltrst
=
=
$ving S0 0, Sl I when all the elementsclear.
ln fact during shift all elementswill haveclearedso
this clearmode of operationis not vital. What is
important is that S0 goeslow first, sincewe do not
want to load againuntil just before the next
transmission.At the end of SI we haveS0 = SI = 0,
the hold mode which is maintained until the next
valid interrogation.
The output ofthe shift registercontainsthe coded
information but not in the form required,i.e. a train
of pulses. Differentiatedclock pulsesare fed to an
AND gatewhich is enabledby the shift register
output, thus positivepulsesappearat the output of
the AND gatein the appropriatetime-slots. The final

Encoding Altimeter
As the aircraft ascends,the decreasein static pressure
causesexpansionof the capsuleand consequent
device,an optical or
movementof a position-sensing
(Fig. 8.17). The resulting
magnetictransducer
drive, through appropriategearing,
servo-assisted
display and encodingdisc. The
altitude
drivesthe
pressurereferencefor the indicatedaltitude can be
lhangedby the barosetcontrol. It should be noted
*rat this doesnot affect the encodingdisc position
which is alwaysreferredto 1013'25 mbar (29'92 in'Hg)
the standardmean sea-levelpressure'As a result all
aircraft report altitude referencedto the samelevel;
an essentialrequirementfor ATC purposes.
Variationson the aboveareencodingaltimeters
which give no indication of altitude, blind altimeters,

132

ffi

Barowr

i l

i'---@

I
I

Tach.
gen.

-{

no,o,

I T

fu--ffi

-l ffi' t--:
I
I
I

-----

Posi
sensrng

Lioht

Light
sourcc

d e v i ce

\-^-N
Capsule

I *1.-

Static connection

sonsitive
devices
Encoding
disc

Porver

crr(urts

Supply

-l switch i n g
c l r c u l ts

To transponder

Fi& 8.17 Servoenodingaltimetet

minimizesthe error when the readingline is aligned
with the junction of two segments.
In the simplifiedencodercircuit shownin
Fig. 8.20 with A/R switchON ZenerdiodeVR2 is
shortedand emitterof Q2 returnedto earth. When
Altitude Encoding
A transparentdisc,usually glass,is divided into tracks light from LED VR1 falls on photo transistorQl, via
part of the encodingdisc,currentis
a transparent
and segments.Eachconcentrictrack representsone
drawn through R switchingon Q2. Thus collector of
of the code pulses,the outer track beingC4, while a
Q2 falls to a low value,i.e. input 2 to NOR gateis
segmentrepresentsa oarticularaltitude. An opaque
low. If input I is drivenlqw by an output from the
pattern is formed on the disc so that on a particular
decodera high output lrom the NOR gateis available
will
sgmentthe areaof intersectionwith eachtrack
for loadinginto the encodershift register.
on
the
depending
transparent
either
opaque
or
be
If no light falls on Ql we haveno volts drop across
code assignedto the altitude representedby that
R, thus Q2 is off and input 2 to NOR gateis high.
segment.
Undertheseconditionsa'zero'will be loadedinto
The disc rotatesbetweena light sourceand
the appropriateshift registerelement.The circuitry
photosensitive.devices,
one for eachtrack, aligned
'reading
describedis repeatedfor eachtrack of the disc.
line'. As the disc is driven by the
along the
barometricaltimeterthe appropriatesegmentis read.
Side Lobe Suppression
Referringback to Tables8.2 and 8.3 we seethat
by I bit for each100 ft increment. Of the severalpossibleways of desigringan SLS
the codechanges
circuitone is illustratedin Fig. 8.2l, with the
This useof a l-bit changeor unit distancecode

drivesbut
and thosewhich do not haveservo-assisted
do employ a vibrator to givesmooth movementof
pointer and encodingdisc.

133

ft---*

||-.+
lF-+
ll->
ll--

To
transpondcr

tl-+

ll-*

t=
\.,r n,
sensitivc
devices

Fi& E.lt

Encodingdisc

Tracks

Fig.8.l9 Segmentfor12300ft,code0l0ll0l0o.
Encodingaltimcter range- l000-32 700 ft

Mode C
load

f-

tl

U
I

*-1
Encoding
alttmeter

+v

A/R onloff

-L
=

Fig. 8.20 Simplifiedaltitudeencodercircuit

134

Transponder

Segments

D2
R1

-v2

Ditch
digger

t-__

circuit
Fig.8.2l Sidelobe suppression

lnput

in, d

GI
M2,O

M3, O

waveformsin Fig. 8.22. MonostableMl

associated
and AND gateGl separatethe Pl pulsefrom P2 and
P3 so that M2 will be triggeredby Pl only and will
not be triggereduntil the next interrogation. M2 and
M3 provide a gating waveform about I ps wide in the
P2 pulseposition.
Th" input pulsesarealso appliedto a'ditch-digSer'
circuit. Prior to Pl, Dl is forward biasedand the
junction of Cl/R2 is low. Both inputs to G2 ate
low. The leadingedgeof Pl causesDl to conduct
chargingCl rapidly. The laggingedgeof Pl causes
Dl to cut off, sincethe junction Cl/R2 falls by an
amount equal to the amplitudeof Pl . Cl now
through Rl and R2. WhenP2 arrivesDl
discharges
will conduct providingthe amplitudeof P2 is
sufficient. The time constantClRlR2 and the bias
voltagesVl and Y2 ue chosenso that if P2>Pl
AND gate G2 will receivean input via D2 which will
be coincidentwith the gatingwaveformfrom M3'
Thus the SLS pulsegeneratorM4 will be triggeredif
suppression
and only if Y2> Pl, the subsequent
pulsebeing usedto inhibit the receivervideo output
to the spikeeliminator.

Characteristics
Junction
c1 R2

Fig. 8.22 Side lobe suppressionwaveforms

The followingsummaryis drawnfrom ARINC

No.572.1for theMk 2 ATC
Characteristic
It is worthpointingout that several
transponder.
arenot requiredfor
featuieson the Mk I transponder
will
find many
engineer
the
the Mk 2, however
whichhavesomeor all of
still in service
transponders
the following:
135

l. two-pulseSLS;
2. SLS countdown - receiverdesensitized
when
the number of SLS pulsesexceedsa limiting
figure;
3. low sensitivity selection;
4. receivervideo signaloutput socket;
5. remote automatickeying;
6. externaltransmittertriggeringposition;
7. audiomonitor:
8. transmissionof SPI pulsewheneverD4 is one
bit ofthe altitudereportingcode.
Receiver
Minimum Ttiggering Level (MTL)
-77 to -69 dBm at antennaor
-80 to -72 dBm at transponder.
Dynamic Range
M T L t o 5 0 d B sa b o v em . t . l .
Frequency and Bandwidth
Centrefrequency1030MHz.
- 3 d B p o i n t sa t 1 3 M H z .
-60 dB pointsat ! 25 MHz.
Decoding Facilities
Decoderoutput lbr pulsesspaced8, I 7 and 2 I ps
tolerancet 0.2 gs on spacing.Automaticmode C
decodingregardless
of modeselectionswitch.
Spaceprovisionfor 25 ps decoding.

Reply Delay
3 t 0'5 ps.
Reply RateCapabiliry
1200repliesper second.
Reply Pulse Interval Tolerance
t 0'l gs for spacingof any pulse,other than SPI.rvith
respectto F I ; t 0'15 ps for spacingof any pulsc'with
respectto any otherexceptFl: t 0.1 prsfor spacing
of SPI with respectto F2.
Mutual SuBpression P.ilse
25-331s duration.
Manitor Lamp
To light when five repliesaredctectedat a rategreater
thar 150 repliesper second.To stayilluminatedfbr
l 5 s a f t e rl a s tr e p l yd e t e c t e d .
Antenna
Polarization:vertical.
v . s . w . r .b: e t t e rt h a n l . 4 l : I a t 1 0 3 0a n d 1 0 9 0M l t z .

Ramp Testing
A transpondercan be testedril situ usingone of
s e v e r apl o r t a b l et e s ts e t s .A s u i t a b l er a n t pt e s ts e t
will testby radiatitrrr._bc.
ceplbleof interrogatingon
at leastmcldesA and ( . be capablerlf simulatinga
sidelobe interroXptlon.
displaythe transponder
reply
and providea ffeansof measuringthe transponder
transmitterfrequency.

Side Lobe Suppression Facilities

Pl > P2 + 6 dBs shouldgive90 per cent reply rate.
6 dBsratherthan ICAO 9 dBsensures
ATC 5OOA
adequate
marginto allow for performancerundown in service. A popular test set is the IFR ATC 6004 illustratedin
Figure8.23. A reasonfor its popularity is the fact
SLSPulse Duration
that it can testboth DME and ATC transponder
with
25-45 ps.
a comprehensive
rangeof checks,making it suitable
for functional testson the ramp or bench.
Transmission
Pl, P2 and P3 pulsesaregenefatedand usedto key
a crystal-controlled
1030MHz oscillator.The interval
Tlansmitter Frequency
betweenPl and P3.isswitchedto simulatea mode
1 0 9 0 13 M H z .
Ay'Cinterlace,two mode A interrogationsbeing
transmittedfor eachmode C. The following
Minimum Peak Power
characteristics
may be variedby front panelcontrols:

500w.

l. Pl-P3 intervd - to checkdecoder;

Reply hIttlseCharacteristics
2. P2 amplitude- to checkSLS;
Duration 0.45 1 0'l ps measuredbetween50 per cent
3. Transmitterpoweroutput - to checkMTL.
amplitudepoints.
0'05-0'l ps risetime, l0-90 per cent.
The reply is displayedby a bank of lamps,one for
0'054'2 ps delaytime,90-10per cent.
eachcode pulseand oire for the SPI pulse. There is
136

#ffi "n[f*

x:

* * )
l

r*
i
I

# ' $'tl*$ i .
ffi

t
r

) poweroutput of transponder
(1 50 per cent
accuracy);

3 . frequencyof the'transpondertransmitter;
4 . percentage
reply;
5 . invalidaltitudecode,i.e.no C pulsesor C I and
C4 together;

';*'!,r,".t'-'.1;u

,:-:

t+

Fig.8.23 ATC600A(courtesy
tFR Electronics
lnc.)

6 . absenceof code pulsesin reply to nrode C

interrogation.
Supplyis by rechargeable
batteryor a.c.,battery
operationis limited by a timer. Further l'eatur.es
are
directconnectionto the transponder
via an external
34 dB pad, self-testing
of display,lampsand battery
and direct connectionofencodingaltirneter.

alsoa numericalreadout which showseither the pilot

codeor the altitude in thousandsof feet. In addition TIC T-33B and T-438
to this basicinformation the following can be checked: The TIC approachto ramp testingis to useseparate
testsetsfor L bandequipments,
the T-338 and
l. F2 timing;
T-43B beingthosefor ATC transponder.

Fig. 8.24 TIC T-438 (courtesyof Tel-InstrumentElectronics

Corp.)

137

Specificationsfor the two test setsare identical

exceptfor the addedfacility of direct connectionof
an encoderwhich is availableon the T'438.
of thesetest setsand the ATC
The capabilities
6O0Aare similar in so far as ATC transponderramp
testingis concerned,in that they both meet the FAA
requirements.Differencesarelargelydue to the use
of the ATC 6004 as a bench test, although it should
be noted that a particularATC 600A is best usedas
eithera benchtest setor a ramp test setbut not both.
the TIC test setsdo not
To detailthe differences,
havefacilitiesfor continuouslyvaryingPl -P3spacing
or strobingthe F2 pulse,and do not indicateinvalid
'no altitude'informationor transmitterpower.
or

Featuresof the TIC test setsnot availableon the

ATC 600A are provisionof all military and civil
modesof interrogationand changeof scalefor
percentage
reply meter(0-10 per cent SLS on:
0-100per cent SLS off). Thereare other minor
and one other major difference.in that
differences,
the TIC test setsare designedftlr use in the cockpit
on the groundor in flight, the antennabeing
mountedon the test set asopposedto the ATC 600A
wherethe antennais mountedon a tripod nearthe
l'or the
aircraftantenna-The antennaarrangements
the useol direci connection
TIC test setsnecessitate
to the tr;ulsponderfor receiversensitivitychecks.

.J

,
t
<<"

138

I Weatheravoidance

Introduction

can remainin a cloud without falling to earth is

dependenton the speedofthe up-draughtof air.
Weatherforecastingis by reputation and, until the
In the appendixto this chapterit is shown that the
introduction of satellites,in fact, notoriously
signalin a weatherradaris proportional to the sixth
unreliable. Evenwith modern techniquesrapidly
power of the droplet diameter,so strongsignaisare
changingconditions and lack of detailed
associated
with a rapid up-draught. If a small volume
information on the exact location and severityof bad of the
cloud resultsin strongsignalsfrom one part
weatherresultsin diversionsor cancellation,of fligt t, and
weak from an adjacentpart we havea steep
'rainfall
where the forecastis the only availableinformation.
gradient',most probably due to a down- and
What is requiredis an airbornesystemcapableof
up-draughtcloseto one another. The region around
detectingthe weatherconditionsleadingto the
this verticalwind shearis likely to be highly
hazardsof turbulence,hail and lightning..
turbulent.
Attention has been concentratedon developins
The correspondingargumentfor associating
systemswhich will 'detect'turbulence.tf an alrcr-aft electricalactivity with turbulencegoes
as follows.
passesthrough regionsofsevere turbulenceit is
A wind shearwill resultin the separationof positive
obviouslysubjectto rnechanicalstress,which may
and negativeelectricalchargesin the air due to the
causedamage,possiblyleadingto a crash. On
friction of the moving air currents. An electrical
commercialflights, passenger
comfort is also
dischargeoccursafter sufficientchargeof opposite
important sincethe number of customerswould soon polarity has accumulatedin
distinct parts of the
declineif the discomfort and sicknesswhich
cloud. Thesedischarges
occur repetitively,most
turbulencemay bring becamecommonplace.
beinghidden from view but occasionallyseenas
Unfortunatelythe phenomenonof rapidly and
lightning. Each dischargeis accompaniedby a large
randomlymoving air currentsis not amenableto
burst of e.m. radiationwhich canbe receivedat some
detectionby any currently realizabletechnique;
distance.In most radioapplications
the 'noise'
however,someprogressmay be madeby utilizing a
receiveddue to lightning is a nuisancebut its
pulsedDopplersystem.
associationwith turbulenceis put to good usein a
As a consequence
of our inability at presentto
Ryan Stormscopein a way similarto that in which a
detect the turbulencedirectly, systemshave been
weatherradarusesithe'nuisance'signalsof weather
developedwhich detect either water droplets or
clutter.
electricalactivity, both of which are associatedwith
We can summarlzeand combinethe above
convectiveturbulencein cumulonimbusclouds.
arguments
by saying:convective
turbulenceoccurs
Clearair turbulencehas no detectableassociated
wherewe havelargeshearforceswhich imply:
phenomenawhich can give a clue to its presence.
(a) an up-draughtsupportinglargeraindropsformed
To detectwater dropletsor raindropsa
from the water vapour in the warm moist air rising
conventionalprimary radaris usedwith frequency
from ground level;(b) a nearbydown-draughtwhich
and specialfeatureschosento optimize the
cannotsupport largeraindrops;(c) frictional forces
presentationof signalswhich would, in a normal search givingriseto
chargeseparation;
and (d) electrical
radar,be unwanted. Weatherradar hasbeen usedfor
discharge
due to chargeseparation
arida saturated
many years,and is mandatory for largeaircrift.
interveningmedium.
Therehasbeena steadymove into the generalaviation
Causeand effect are very much bound up iri this
market by radar manufacturersbut here a relatively
argument,the variousphenomenabeing
recentinnovation is the Ryan Stormscope,a patented interdependent.Howeverreasonable
the theory, the
devicewhich detectselectricalactivity.
ultimatejustificationfor the association
between
The maximum diameterof a water droplet which
turbulence,steeprainfallgradientand electrical

139

activity is recordedcorrelationduring many flights.

Weatherradar is certainly well provenwith many
yearsin service,while the Stormscope,although only
availablesince1976,hasbeenindependently
evaluatedand shown to be a useful aid'

WeatherRadar
Basic Principles
Weatherradar operationdependson three facts:
l. precipitationscattersr.f. energy;
2. the speedof propagationof an r.f. waveis
known;
3. r.f. energycan be channelledinto a highly
directionalbeam.
Utilizing thesefacts is fairly straightforwardin
principle. Pulsesof r.f. energyare generatedby a
iransmitter and fed to a directionalantenna. The r.f.
wave,confi4edto asnarrow a beamaspracticable,
will be scatteredby precipitationin its path, someof
the energyreturning to the aircraft as an echo. The
and receptionis
elapsedtime betweentransmission
particular
in
to
range
R,
directlyproportional
=
propagation
of
the
speed
is
where
c
ct
R
12
(= 162000 nautical miles per second);t is the
elapsedtime; and the divisor2 is introducedsince
travelis two-way. The direction of the target is
simply givenby the direction in which the beam is
radiated.
Sincethe pilot needsto observethe weatherin a
wide sectoraheadof the aircraftthe antennais made
to sweepport and starboardrepetitively,hencewe use
the term scannerfor a weatherradarantenna.Any
stormcloud within the sectorof scanwill effectively
of the
be slicedby the beam so that a cross-section
viewed.
is
cloud
Displayof threequantitiesfor eachtargetis
requirid: namelyrange,bearingand intensityof echo'
.l ptanpositionindicator(p.p.i.)displayis invariably
displayof the
utid tinc. this allowsthe simultaneous
'
threequantitiesand is easyto interpret.
A cathoderay tube (c.r.t.)is usedin which the
beamof electronsis velocitymodulatedin
with the receivedsignalstrength'
accordance
Whereverthe beamstrikesthe'phosphorcoatingon
the back of the viewingscreena glow occurs,the
intensity of which is dependentof the velocity of the
with a
electrons.Thus a strongsignalis associated
intensity
term
the
hence
screen;
the
on
bright spot
modulaiion. The beamis made to sweepacrossthe
screenin synchronismwith both the time of
and the antennaposition'
transmission
140

In a conventional(rho'theta) display the beant

strikesthe screenat bottom centre(origin) at the
instantthe transmitterfires. Subsequentlythe beam
will be deflectedacrossthe screenin a direction
dependenton the scannerazimuthposition,e.g.if the
scanneris pointing dead aheadthe beant is deflected
vertically from the origin. In this way a time'baseline
is tracedout on the screenand is made to rotate in
synchronismwith the scanner.'
The duration of the time-base,i.e. the length of
time it takesto tiaversethe screen,dependson the
rangeselectedby the pilot. Everymicrosecondof
to a rangeof
round trip traveltime corresponds
rangeof
a
selected
0'081 nauticalmiles,thus for
about
will
be
time-base
the
20 nautical miles
250 ps in duration. An echo received125 ps after
transmissionwould causea bright spot to appear
so indicatingto the
half-wayup a 250 ps.time-base,
is l0 nautical miles'
target
of
the
pilot that the range
The net result of the aboveis that a cross-section
of the targetswithin the selectedrangeand scanned
sectorof the radarareviewedin plan. The position
of the bright patcheson the screenrelative to the
origin is representativeof the position of the targets
relativeto the aircraft. Figure9.1 illustratesthe .situation.

and Features
Choiceof Characteristics
Frequency
The higher the frequency(smallerthe wavelength)
per unit'
the largeris the backscattercross-section
greater
the
hence
(see
A9.12)
volumeof the target
suffer
frequencies
high
power.
However,
echo
the
more atmosphericabsorptionthan do low, and
further cannotpenetratecloudsto the sarneextent'
Thus the choiceof frequencyis a compromise'An
additionalconsiderationis the beamwidth; for a
givenscannerdiametera narrowerbeamis produced
with a higherfrequencY'
Practically,takinginto accountavailabilityof
standardcompqnents,the choicecomesdown to
eitherabout 3'2 cm (X'band) or 5'5 cm (C-band)'
The majority of radarsin serviceand currently
manufacturedare X-band.
Pulse Width
The volume of the target givingrise to an echo is
directly relatedto the pulsewidth (seeA9.8) thus use
of long pulseswill give improvedrange'
There are two argumentsagainstlong pulses:
l. Sincethere is only one antennaand a common

(-,\\

,\l

L_ \",
r\-l
c\',
l

--^-\-1
()

Time-base

r
\

\__

Fig.9.1 Displayprinciples
frequencyfor transmit and receive,the antenna
Sincerangeresolutionand minimum rangeare not
must be switchedto the transmitter for the
criticalin a weatherradar,pulsestend to be longer
duration of the pulse;thus the pulsewidth
than in other radars,say2-5 ps. A shorterpulsewidth,
determinesminimum range. For a 2 ps pulse
say I ps, may be switchedin when a short displayed
no return can appearfor the first 2 ps of the
rangeis selected.
givinga minimum range=
time-base,
A techniqueis availablewhich realizesthe
2c X tO-612t one-sixthof a nauticalmile.
advantages
of both long and short pulses. The
with increasing
2. Rangeresolutiondeteriorates
transmittedpulsecan be frequencymodulatedso that
pulsewidth. A pulseof 2 ps durationoccupies the r.f. increasesover the duration of the constant
about 2000 ft in space. If two targetsare on the amplitude pulse. The frequencymodulatedreturn is
samebearingbut within 1000ft of one another passedthrough a filter designedso that the velocity
the echofrom the nearesttargetis still being
with frequency. Thus the
of propagationincreases
receivedwhen the leadingedgeof the echofrom higher frequenciesat the trailing edgeof the echo
the furthest targetis received.The resultis that 'catchup'with the lower frequencies
at the leading
both targetsmergeon the p.p.i.display.The
edge. In this way, the duration of the echo is
rangeof the targetsdoesnot affect the resolution. compressed.It shouldbe noted that the bandwidth

141

TargetI
Harfa
wavelength
= IOOO'

t-\-\l

|
i

Target 2
|
k+

I
l---

--- t

+ 2
------

time (7rs)

t + 3

+ 4
+ 5

Rang

[D
K3

Incidentpulse (2 1rs)

Reflectedpulse

Fig.9.2 Range
resolution
requirementsareincreasedby usingfrequency
modulationof the pulsedr.f., this being the penalty
lbr obtainingbetterrangeresolution.This technique
is known as pulsecompressionbut, so far as the
author is aware,is not usedon existingairborne
weatherradars.
hrlse Repetition Frequency,p.r.f.
Changingthe p.r.f. will affect the number of pulses
striking agivenvolume of the targetin eachsweep
and hencechangethe displayintegrationfactor
(see A9.17). Howeverin order to maintain a constant
duty cycle(pulsewidth X p.r.f.) an increasein p.r.f.
in pulsewidth, so
must be accompaniedby a decrease
keepingaveragepower and henceheat dissipation
in p.r.f.
constant.Alternativelyan increase
accompaniedby a reductionin peak power will also
keepheatdissipationconstant.The net resultis that
for constantaveragepower a changein p.r.f. doesnot,
in theory, affect the maximum rangeof the radar.
Limits areimposedon the choiceof p.r.f. sinceif
it is too low the rate at which information is received
142

echoes
Fig.9.3 Second.trace
is low, while if it is too high the seriousproblem of
secondtraceechoesmay arise. If the characteristics
of the radarare such that the maximum rangefrom
which echoescanbe detectedis, say,200 nautical
miles then the round trip travel time for a targetat
maximumrangewould be about,2500ps. In sucha
systema pulserepetitionperiodp.r.p.(= l/p.r.f.) of
2000 gs would meanthat the time-basestart would
occur 500 ps before the return of an echo of the
previoustransmittedpulsefrom a target at 2OO
nauticalmiles. This secondtraceecho would appear

to be at about 40 nautical miles range. It follows that

in the aboveexamplethe maximum p.r.f. would be
400 and in generalp.r.f. ( c/2R whereR is the
maximum range.
A popular choicefor older radarswas a p.r.f. of
4O0 synchronizedto the supply frequency. With
improved performanceleadingto increasedrange,a
submultipleof the supply frequency,e.g.200, was
used. In modernsystemsinternaltimingis
independentof the supply frequencyand one finds
p.r.f.sfrom about 100 to 250.

is that ground returnswill appearat closerrangesfor

wider beamwidths,thus maskingthe cloud retums.

Tilt and Stabilization

The reasonfor requiringstabilizationis relatedto the
previousparagraph.A weatherradarmay scanup to
300 nauticalmiles aheadof the aircraft.within azimuth
scananglesof typically t 90". Unlessthe beam is
controlled to move only in or abovethe horizontal
planepart or all of the weatherpicture may be
maskedby ground returns. Imaginethe aircraft rolling
with port wing down. If the sweptregionis in the
sameplane as the aircraft'slateraland longitudinal
Power Output
axes,then when the scanneris to port the beamwill
In older radarspeak power outputs of about 50 kW
or evenhigher were common,while maximum range be pointing down towardsthe ground,while when to
starboardthe beamwill be pointing up, possibly
wasmodest. In modernradars,peakpoweris about
previous
abovethe weather. Figure9.4 illustratesthis
with
l0 kW with increasedrangecompared
problem.
systems.This apparentspectacularimprovementis
In fact stabilizationholds the beamnot in the
put in perspectiveby consideringthe rangeequation
horizontal planebut at a constantelevationwith
(see A9.7) where we seethat maximum rangeis
power.
peak
respectto the horizontal. This constantelevationis
of
the
root
proportional to the fourth
Thus reducingpower by four-fifths reducesmaximum determinedby the tilt controlassetby the pilot.
later.
rangeby about one-third. This shortfall of one-third Detailsof stabilizationand tilt arediscussed
hasbeen more than madeup by improvementsin
rerial design,receiverdesignand sophisticatedsignal Contour
The pilot will be interestedin thoseregionswherethe
processing.
precipitationis greatest.In order to make the
situation clearer,thosesignalswhich exceeda certain
Beam Width
predeterminedlevel are invertedso as to show the
Although the largerthe beamwidth the greaterthe
cellsof heavyprecipitationas dark holeswithin the
echo
this
the
volumeof the targetcontributingto
'paint' causedby the cloud surroundingthe
bright
the
inverse
to
out
due
than
cancelled
is
more
effect
'paint' aroundthe cell is an
cell. The width of the
relationshipbetweenaerialgainand beamwidth
indication of the rainfall gradient. The narrowerthe
(G o ll02). A narrowbeamis alwayspreferred,
width the steeperthe gradient,and hencethe greater
improve
range
and
to
increase
is
sincethe net effect
turbulence.This
bearingresolution.Simplegeometricconsiderations the probabilityof encountering
(equal
echo) contour
isocho
show that with a 4" beamwidthtwo targetsseparated techniqueis known as
pre
sen
tation.
by about 3! nauticalmiles,at a range) 50 nautical
miles,will appearas one on the p.p.i. Bearing
Sensitivity Time Control, s.t.c.
resolution,unlike rangeresolution,is dependenton
the targetrange.An equallyimportantconsideration For correctcontouroperationthe signalstrength
No stabilitv

B\

./
<______

__
Stability

\
No stabilitY

7///////////////////////////////ru

7//////27'////////////////////////ru

Fig. 9.4 Scannerstabilization

1/13

arrangementis to havea.g.c'noise'derived.During
strould depend only on the characteristicsof the
the output
target,but of coursethe rangealso affectsthe received the time immediatelybefore transmission
p.r.f.
will
the
only,
since
is
noise
receiver
the
from
inversion
contour
ifthe
power. As a consequence
echoes,i.e.
second-trace
to
avoid
chosen
been
have
a
certain
cells
at
storm
to
indicate
as
so
levelis set
the time correspondingto maximum rangeexpires
rangethen innocent targetscloserthan that range
before the next pulse. The a.g.c.circuit is gated
well
may causeinversionwhile storm cellsbeyond that
the receiveroutput is connectedto it only for
that
so
rangemay not. In order to solvethe problem the
time beforetransmission.
a
short
being
with
range,
receivergainis made to vary
of havingsuch a.g.c.is to keep the
result
The
thereafter
increasing
and
range
at
zero
minimum
output constant,which under normal
noise
receiver
(i.e. with time), hencesensitivitytime control or
the gainis constant. If, for any
means
conditions
sweptgain,asit is sometimescalled.
or received,
noisegenerated
reasonthereis excessive
the gainwill fall, so keepingthe backgroundnoise
displayedat a constantlevel,althoughsignalswill
Tx
will not highlight all storm cells.
------+Time fade and contour
An alternativearrangementis to keep the receiver
Rx
of how the receiveroutput
gain constantregardless
gain
may change.This hasthe virtue of keepingthe
(S.t.c.)
conditionsfor inversionin the contour circuit
unchanging.Such presetgain is found in modern
a.g.c.is found
digital systems,whereasnoise-derived
in older analoguesystems.
timecontrol
Fig.9.5 Sensitivity
The aim is to make the receiveroutput
independent'udrange. Unfortunately the received
as the squareof the rangefor targets
power decreascs
which fill the beam,but as the fourth power of the
rangeotherwise(seeAppendix). To achievethe aim
would requirea complex gain control waveform
which would, even then, only be correct for a certain
sizedtarget. Many systemshavebeendesigned
assuminga 3 nauticalmile diametercloud as standard;
s.t.c.hasoperatedto a range
amongsuchsystems,
wheresucha targetwould fill the beam;beyond that
gainis constantwith time. It hasbeen observedthat
it is uncommonfor water dropletretumsto come
from a regionwhich fills the beamvertically except
at closeranges.
Following from the above,s.t.c.may be arranged
to compensatefor the rangesquaredlaw out to
about 30 nauticalmiles for a 6o beam. A changein
scannersizewould lead to a changein maximum s.t.c.
rangesincethe beamwidthwould alter. Alternativeiy,
a modified law may be compensatedfor out to, say,
70 nauticalmiles,ignoringthe possibilityof beam
filling.

Display
A problem in displaydesignfor cockpit useis the
largerangeof ambientiighting conditions. Some
storageof the informationreceivedis inevitableif it is
to be viewed,owing to the relativelylow refreshrate
of the fleetingbasicinformation.
In olderand simplerradarsthe c.r.t. screenis
phosphorwhich
coatedwith a long-persistence
continuesto glow sometime after the electronbeam
haspassedon its way thusstoringthe information
overthe scaninterval. Unfortunately.suchphosphors
arenot very efficient and very high shieldingis
requiredfor adequateviewingin bright conditions.
The directview storagetube (d.v.s.t.)is a solution
c.r.t. A meshis
to the problemsof a conventional
phosphor-coated
the
behind
immediately
mounted
screen. Electronsarriveat the meshfrom two
by the
sources:a locusedbeam,velocity-modulated
signal,comesfrom a conventionalelectron gun while
a flood gun provides,continuously,a wide beamof
electronsover the whole mesh. Sincethe modulated
beamis deflectedacrossthe meshin accordancewith
scannerposition and time sincetransmission,a charge
pattern is written on the mesh. The pattern determines
where and what fraction of incident electrons
Automatic Gain Control, e.g.c.
penetratethe meshand strike the phosphor. Since
with
desirable
It is neither practicalnor indeed
eachglowingelementof phosphoris excited
signal
by
a'g.c.
determined
have
to
contour operation
continuously,very bright displaysare possible. A
level asin receiversfor other systems. The normal
1U

slow discharge.pathfor the mesh must be provided to exception

of a few noisc spotsper memory update.
preventsaturation;the possibility of changingthe
dischargerate exists and a pilot-adjustablecontrol
Scanner
may be provided. On changingrangethe meshwill be There
are two typesof scanneremployed to obtain
'instantly'
dischargedto prevent confusion between
the requirednarrowbeam,namelya directly fed
parabolicreflectoror a flat plateplanararray. Of the
1ew and old screenpositionsof the targets. If the
dischargepath is broken and updating inhibitrd *"
two, for a givendiameterand wavelength,the flat
havea frozenpicture.
platehasthe highergain/narrower
beam/least
The modern approachto information storageis to
sidelobe power,but is most expensive.Sincethe flat
..
digitize the signalwhich is then storedin an
plateis almosttwice asefficientasthe parabolic
intermediatememory at a location dependingon the
reflectorit is invariablyusedwith a modernsystem
scannerazimuth angleand the time of arrival
exceptwhere cost is an overridingfactor or the space
measured
with respectto the time of transmission.
availablein the noseof the aircraft allows a larseThe p.p.i. time-basescanformat can be either
. parabolicreflectorto be used.
rho-thetaor X-Y as per a conventionaltelevision.
The flat plateantennaconsistsof stripsof
In either casememory can be read at a much higher
waveguideverticallymounted.sideby side with the
rate than that at which information is received. With
broad wall facing forward. Staggeredoff-centre
many more picturesper secondpainted we havea
verticalslots are cut in eachwaveguideso as to
bright, flicker-freedisplay without the need for
interceptthe wall currentsand henceradiate. Several
long-persistence
phosphorsof low efficiency or the
wavelengthsfrom the antennasurface,the energy
e4pensive
d.v.s.t.
from eachof the slotswill be summedin space,
In the caseof a rho-thetadisplay thc scanformat is
cancellation
or reinforcement
takingplacedepending
the samefor receiptand displayinformationbut, as
on the relativephases.In this applicationthe phase
explained,the repetition rate is different,so only
of the feedto eachslot, and the spacingbetween
scanconversionin time is required. With a television_
slots,is arrangedso as to givea resultantradiated
type displayboth the scanformat and repetition rate
pattern which is a narrow beamnormal to the plane
are different, so completescanconversionis required
of the plate. The greaterthe nurnberof slotsthe .
from input (received)format to readout(displayed)
betterthe performance;
sincethe spacingbetween
format. Useof the television-typedisplay makes
the slots is critical we can only increasethe number
multipleuseof the weatherradarindicatorrelatively
of slotsby increasingthe sizeof the flat plate.
simpleso we find such indicatorsable to display data
The parabolicreflectorworkson a similarprinciple
from other sensors
(e.g.Area nav.)or alphanumeric
to a car headlampreflector. Energystriking the
datasuchaschecklists.
reflector from a point sourcesituatedat the focus will
Digitizing the signalinvolvesthe recognitionof
oroducea plane waveof uniform phasetravellingin a
only discretevaluesof signalintensity. ihe standard
direction parallelto the axis of the parabola. The
practiceis to havethreelevelsof non-zerointensity,
feedin a weatherradarparabolicantennais usuallya
the highestcorresponding
to the contour inversion
dipolewith a parasiticelementwhich, of course,is
level. Although thesethree levelscorrespondto
not a point source.The consequence
of a dipole feed
different degreesof brightnessof the paint, with the
is that the beam departqfrom the ideal and there is
useof a colour tube they can be madeto correspond
considerablespill-over,$ivingrise to ground target
to threecolours. While thereis no standardization
of returnsfrom virtually helow the aircraft, the so-called
the colour code as yet (1979) red is the obVious
height ring.
choicefor contourabletarsets.
In both typesofaptenna,scanningis achievedby
Perhapsthe mosl signifilant virtue of a digital
r o t a t i n gt h e c o m p l e t ea n t e n n aa 5 s e m b l yt h, u sa
weatherradaris the absenceof noiseon the display.
r o t a t i n gw a v e g u i djeo i n t i s r e q u i r e d .A n
The output of the receiver,the videosignal,is
electronicallysteeredbeantis possiblewith the flat
digitizedand then averaged
in both time and position, platebut the considerable
complications
of arranging
i.e. the videooutput occurringp gs after a
the correctphasingof the feedto all slotshavemade
transmissionis averagedwith that occurringp ps after
this impracticalfor airborneweatherradarsystems.
the next transmission
and the video datawhich would Some
of the simpler.cheaperweatherradars
appearat adjacentpositionson the screenare subject
employinga parabolicreflectorrotatethe reflector
to a weightedaver-agingprocess.
With a suitablechoice only. leavingthe feed
fixed and so eliminatingthe
o f m i n i r n u ms i g r a ll e v e lf o r a ' p a i n t ' u n c o r r e l a t e d
needfor an azimuthroratingjoint. A disadvantage
of
noiseis virtuallyelirninatedfrom the displaywith the
this latter systemis that the feed is not at the focus

145

rotation, memory write/read and all display circuitry.

'brain'
Thus in a modern weatherradar we seethat the
of the systemis situatedin the indicator while the
heart'remainsin the t.r. This view is reinforcedby
the fact that the pilot/systeminterface is achieved
completelythroughthe indicator,both for display
and control.
lnstallation
The scanneris a flat plate array plus associated
for scannerstabilizationand.azimuthdrive.
circuitry
Figure9.6 illustratesa typicalinstallationin block
plate
t'lat
is mounted on a gimballedsurfaceu'hich
The
form asrepresented
by the BendixRDR 1200.a
to pitch and roll signals
allowsrotationin response
with the upperend of
digitalweatherradardesigned
the generalaviationmarketin mind. The installation from the aircraftverticalreferencegyro (VRG).
will be discussed
in termsof the RDR I100 first. and Radiationis througha radomewhich ideallyis
transparent
to the X-bandenergybut at the same
will be described.
then variationsand refinements
protectittnfor the scanner,preserves
provides
time
Radome
the aerodynamicshapeof the aircraftand has
adequatestructuralstrength.
VRG
Waveguide
aremadeusing
Most of the interconnections
N,
with
signal
and control lines
approved
cables
standard
---i---l
Trar
scanner J l
)
recev e r
s c r e e n e dT. h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i obne t i v e e nt . r . a n d
l
/
losses
by way of waveguide.
is, of necessity.
scanlrer
2 8 V d . c .t t s v ' c f f
at X-band(or
in co-axialcablebeingunacceptable
Supply
e v e nC - b a n d ) .
lndrcator
Whilethe aboveis a simplifieddescriptionof the
BendixRDR 1200the units and tl.reircontentsare
very much the samefor all moderndigitalsystems.
Fig.9.6 BendixRDR 1200installation
A trend in lightweightsystemsfor generalaviation
aircraftis to combinethe transmitterand scannerin
The transmitterreceiver(t.r.) containsall the r.f.
of a two unit system,
one unit. The nrainadvantage
circuitryand componentsaswell as the rnodulator,
plus indicator,is that the waveguide
run is
analogueto digital(a/d) converter t.r./scanner
duplexer,IF stages,
and powersupplycircuits. Unlikeolder systems,the eliminated,so reducingcapitaland installationcosts
andwaveguidelosses.The argumentagainst
basictiming circuitryis in the indicatorratherthan
the t.r. This timing controlsthe p.r.f.,scanner
combininsthe t.r. and scanneris that the unit
exceptwhen the reflector axis is deadahead;the
resultingdeteriorationof the beam shapemeansthe
anglethrough which the beamis scannedmust be
restricted.

Fig.9.7 Primus 200 multifunction colour weather radar.

Two-unit sensor on the left, multifunction accessorieson the
right (courtesy RCA Ltd)

1tt6

installedin the noseis costly in terms of maintenance cornersand flexible sections,except where necessary,
strouldit require regularreplacement;thus reliability so reducingcostsand losses.A choke flangeto plain
assumes
evengreaterimportancein such systems.
flangewaveguidejoint is normal practice,the choke
Singlecnginedaircraft havenot been neglected,the flangehavinga recessto take a sealingring.
problemhavingbeen tackled in two different ways,
The radomeis usuallya coveredhoneycomb
both of which involve a combined t.r./scannerunit.
structuremade of a plasticmaterialreinforcedwith
Bendix havegone for an under-wingpod-mounted
fibreglass.The necessityfor mechanicalstrength,
unit, while RCA have developeda wing leadingedge smallsizeand aerodynamicshape
may compromise
mountedunit in which a sectionof a parabolic
the r.f. performance. Lightning conductorson the
reflectoris used,as well as a pod-mountedunit.
insidesurfaceof the radomewill obstruct the beam,
Corrosiondue to moisture collection is a problem
but their effect is minimizedif they are perpendicular
in the waveguiderun, which may be easedby
to the electricfield of the wave. Horizontal
pressurization.The ideal is to havea reservoirof dry
polarizationis normal sincethere is lessseaclutter,
air feeding,via a pressure-reducing
valve,a waveguide althoughwith moderateto rough seasthe ldvantage
run which hasa slow controlled leak at the scanner;
is minimal.
this method is not usedon civil aircraft. Several
On largeaircraft a dual installationis used.
installatiorpailow cabin air to pressurizethe
Obviouslythe scannercannotbe duplicatedbut both
waveguiderun via a bleedervalve,desiccantand filter. t.r. and indicatorcanbe. In somecasesonly the
If the cabinair is not dried and filteredmore problems indicatoris'duplicated,
thus eliminatingthe needfor
may be createdthan solved. Two interestingcases
a waveguideswitch. Unlessone indicator is purely a
that havebeenbrought to the author's attention are:
slavewith no systemcontrolsother than,say,
a nicotine depositon the inner wall of the waveguide brilliance,a transferswitch will be necessaryto
causingexcessiveattenuation,and rapid corrosion
transfercontrol from one indicatorto another. Even
causedby fumes from the urine of animals
if two t.r.s are fitted a transferswitchis still necessary
transported
by air. lfno activepressurization
for scannerstabilizationon-off and tilt control.
is
enrployedthe pressurewithin the waveguidemay still
be higher than static pressureif all joints are tightly
sealed.A primary aim of waveguidepressurizationis
Controls
to reducehigh-altitudeflash-over.
The following list of controlsis quite extensive;most
will be found on all radarsbut someareoptional.
The nomenclature
variesbut alternativenamesfor
someof the controlsarelistedwhereknown.
RangeSwitclr Usedto selectdisplayedrange. Will
alsochangethe rangemark spacing.Selectionmay be
by pushbuttonor rotary switch,the latter possibly
incorporatingrOFF','STANDBY' and 'TEST'
positions.
OfflStandby Pushbuttonor incorporatedin the range
switch. With standbyselectedtherewill be no
transmission
while indicatorextrahigh tension(e.h.t.)
may or may not be on.'
Fig.9.8 Installation
of Weather
ScoutI t.r./scanner
unit
(courtesy
RCALtd)
The waveguiderun should be kept as short as
possible.Inaccessibility
or inadequatecoolingmay
nreanthat the t.r. cannotbe situatedso as to
minimizethe lengthof the run. Straightrigid
waveguide
shouldbe used,avoidingbends,twists.

Functibn Switch Selectsmodet-rf,operation

. N O R M A L " ' C O N T O U R " ' C Y C L I C i. ,M A P P I N G "
'BEACON'.
The last two of thesemodesare
described
later. Normaloperationallowsthe useof
a . g . c(.p r e s egt a i n )o r v a r i a b l g
e a i n :s . t . c .i s u s u a l l y
a c t i v e .C o n t o u ro p e r a t i o ns e l e c t i o cna u s ebsl a n k i n g
o f s t r o n g e ssti g n a l sa,. g . ca. n ds . t . c .a u t o m a t i c a l l . ,
s e l e c t e dC
. y c l i co p e r a t i o nc a u s enso r n r aal i r dc . r i r t o u r
presentations
to alternate.Pushbuttonor rotar.y
147

'NORMAL'switch
control may be used.
may be
omitted, this mode of operationautomaticallybeing
selectedwhen a rangeswitchincorporating'OFF' and
'STANDBY'
is selectedto any rangewhile
'CONTOUR'
or'CYCLIC' switchesare off. (Seealso
'gain
control'.)
Gain Control Usedt6 set gainof receivermanually.
A continuouslyrotatableor click-stopcontrol is
normal. The control may incorporatecontour
on-off;by rotatingthe knob pastthe maximum gain
positioncontour plus presetgainwill be selected.In
this latter casea separate
springreturn pushbutton
may be usedto turn contouroff momentarily. In
other systenrsthe gaincontrol may simply
incorporatea presetgainon-off switch at its
maximumposition.

(usually)sectorscanangtes,e.g.Bendix RDR 1200

hast 30o or + 60o options.
Contrast Control Adjusts video amplitier gain and
henceallowssomecontrol of pictureas opposedto
displaybrightness
evenwhen i.f. ampsareoperating
undera.g.c. Sonretimes
calledintensity.
Manual Tune Contol Associatedwith automatic
liequencycontrol (a.f.c.)on-off switch. Whena.f.c.
is selectedto off, local oscillatormay be tuned
manuallyfor bestreturns. Generallynot usedon
modernsystems.

Operation

The actual operation ofa weatherradar is quite

straightforward,
but to get the bestuseof the system
amountof experienceand expertiseis
a considerable
requiredon tl'repart of the pilot. Beginnersare
advisedto avoidby a wide marginany contourable
ScannerStob Switch On-Off Switching.
targetwithin s.t.c.rangeand any targetat all outside
that range.
Tilt Control Adjustment of scannerelevationangle
With experiencethe pilot is able to distinguish
t y p i c a l l yt 1 5 " .
betweensal-eand unsafetargetsto the extent that
he may be ableto penetrate,ratherthan just avoid,
Brilliance or Intensitlt Control Adjustsbrightnessof weather. Severalwords of warningarein orderwhen
displayto suit arnbientlighting.
attemptingpenetration:one shouldalwaysselectone
of the longerrangesbeforeattemptingto fly
Free:e or Hold Su,itch Dara updateof display
betweenstorm cellssincethe way throughmay be
stopped.last updatedpicturedisplayed.Transmissionblockedfurther ahead;weatherconditionscan change
and scannerrotationcontinues.Warninglamp rnay
rapidlylthe limitationsof X-bandradarin so thr as
be provided.Only availableon digitalsystemor
signalpenetrationis concernedshould be remembered.
w h e r ed . v . s . ti.s e m p l o y e d .
Test Switch A specialpatternspecifiedby the
replace5
weather(or mapping)picture
manufacturers
when test is selected.

Eraseor Trace Contol Springreturn switch to

rapidlydischarge
meshin d.v.s.t.,so wiping picture
cleanor continuouslyvariablecontrol which alters
d i s c h a r grea t e .
RangeMark Cttntrol Alters intensity of rangemarks.
Azimuth Marker Sv'itch Electronicallygeiterated.
azimutlirnarksnraybe turnedon or ofl'.
TargetAlcrt Sx'itct On-off. Whenactivatedflashes
a n a l e r to n t h e s c r e e ni f a c o n t o u r a b ltea r g e ti s
'window'
aheadof the aircral't(window
detectedin l
s 0 0 i s 7 ' 5 ' e i t h e r s i d eo f h e a d i n g
s i z - feo r R C A P r i n r u 2
. l r n i n gg i v e n
i i t a r u n g eo . l ' 6 0 - l i 0 n a u t i c arl n i l e s ) W
rli selectedrangealsorvhenin 'freeze'mode
regardless
Sec'torSrurrSrl'ilci Allowsselectionof one of two
148

Finger

Scalloped

Edge

U-Shapd

Fig.9.9 RDR 1100displays(courtesy Bendix Avionics

Division)

It has alreadybeenmentionedthat a narrow paint scannerstabilizationfaults exist. With the scanner

around a storm cell is a good indication of severe
tilted down and stabilizationon a bright circular band
turbulencebut whateverthe width the cell should be
ofterrain targetscentredon the originshouidbe
presented.If the band is not circularbut is severely
avoided;the only questionis by what margin. The
'toppled'or
strapeof the return on the screenis alsoa pointer to
distorted,then most probablythe gyro is
'spilled', the spin axisis not vertical.The gyro
the type of weatherahead. Targetswith fingers,
i.e.
hooks, scallopededgesor that are U-shapedhavebeen will be in sucha conditionif its rotor is running
slow, aswill be the caseif it hasjust beenswitchedon
observedto be associatedwith hail. Long hooks or
indentationsmay indicatea tornado, or there is a supply or gyro motor defect. A gyro fast
crescent-shaped
erectswitchmay be providedwhich,when depressed,
but thereareno guarantees
eitherway.
This chapter,and its appendix,havethus far been increasesthe supply voltageso acceleratingthe run up
concernedmainly with rain, so a word is in order here to operatingspeed. The switch shouldnot be held on
for more than half a minute or so, otherwisethe rotor
about returns from other types of precipitation. Dry
speedmay exceedthat for which it was designed,so
mowfall will not be seenbut wet snowfall may be
causingdamage.
sen with difficulty. Fog and mist will not be
To completean airbornecheck of stabilization,the
detected.Hail may givestrongor weak returns:if it
aircraft shouldbe bankedand pitched,within the
b dry and small comparedwith the wavelength,
stabilizationlimits, satisfactoryoperationbeing
rctums areweak:if it is water-coated.
returnsare
circularterrainband.
indicated
by an unchanging
if
it
is
dry
and
with
the
strong;
of a sizecomparable
the amountof nose
Note that with tilt down selected.
wavelength(an extrelnecondition with 3 cm radflr)
lhe echo is very strong. The increasein scatteringfor up pitch that the stabilizationcircuitscan dealwith is
water*oated ice particles,hail or snow, may give rise limited.
to a'bright band'at an altitudewherethe temperature Spokingis any p.p.i. presentationwhich resembles
the spokesof a wheel. lt is almostcertainlycaused
bjust above0"C. Lightningcreatesan ionized
by a fault within the weatherradarsystem,although
gaseousregionwhich may, if oriented correctly,
it can be causedby unshieldedelectromagneticdevices
backscatterthe radarenergy.
producingstrong changingmagneticfields. There are
picture
on
weather
Severalthingsmay affect the
of fault which causespoking:
the p.p.i. Icingon the radomewill causeattenuation two main classes
(a) video sigrraland noisespokesdue to abnormal
ofthe transmittedand receivedsignal,so targets
video output amplitudevariationssuchas might be
which would havebeen displayedmay, under these
causedby the automaticfrequencycircuits(a.f.c.)
circumstances,
remainundetecteduntil very close;
'innocent'precipitationwill alsoattenuatethe signal. sweepingthrough the local oscillatorfrequenciesand
(b) sweepspokesdue to faulty displaycircuitry such
Ground or searetums may mask a storm cell; the tilt
ground asdamagedslip ringsin the time-baseresolver
weather.and
control shouldbe usedto separate
radar. To
employedin an older all-analogue
targets,a difficult task in mountainousregions.
(a)
(b)
or
is
the
cause,the gain
which
of
determine
Interference,
which takesthe form ofbroken, curved
the
antenna
tilted to
down
and
may
be
tumed
p.p.i.
by
display,is caused
or straightlineson the
the fault is in
maximumup; if the spokingpersists,
other radar systems.The exact effect varieswith the
the displaycircuitry.
type of videosignalprocessing
and scanconversion
The aboveis only a brief discussionof someof the
(if any) and with the p.r.f. of the interferingradar.
factorsone.mustconsiderwhen operatingweather
The older type of weatherradarwith no scan
of the degreeof skill involved,a pilot
radar. Because
of the videooutput is
conversionand no averaging
new to weatherradarshouldstudy the manufacturer's
particularlysusceptible
to interference.High p.r.f.
pilot's guidecarefully;thqy areusuallyvery good.
interferingsignals,suchasGCA, givemany fine
Equallyimportant,he shouldlearneachtime he uses
broken radiallineson the screen.If the interfering
the system;for example,if a detouris madeto avoid
p.r.f. is closeto a harmonicof the p.r.f. of the radar
an unusuallyshapedreturn, a simplesketchand a
with, then curvedbrokenlines,
beingintert'ered
phone
call on landingto enquireabout the weather
apparentlymoving into or away from the origin. will
with that targetwill add to his experience.
associated
result. Wheremotion is apparent,the interferenceis
'running
Rememberthat to a largeextentthe body of
rabbits',another
commonly referredto as
'rabbit tracks'.
knowledgeconcerningweatherreturnsis empirical.
commonll'encountered
term is
What
betterway to learnthan to collectone'sown
Selectionof contourmay alleviateinterference
results?
problems.
',dbnorrnal
A final and most important point needsto be
p.p.i.presentations
will be observedif

149

/
made,and that is that weatherradarpresentsa
considerable
hazard,when operatedon the ground.
Detailsare givenlater in this chapter.

weatherradardirectly and rystemsof this type are

still very widely used;the latter sinceit is th; currenr
approachof all manufacturers.Two types of digital
systemwill be considered:rho-thetadisplayand X-y
display.

Block DiagramOperation
We shallconsiderboth analogueand digital systems:
the former sinceit illustratesthe principlesof

All Analogue System

The p.r.f. generatorprovidestimb synchronizationfor
the completesystem;the output is often calledthe

lAzimuthI
drive
I
I

-ti

FT

1 S

Balenced
mrxer.

l@
;l

on/
I

P.R.F.
gen.
Mod.
Tx
Time
base
Bright
up
Range
marks
A.G.C./

s.T.c.

tl
-l-,-

M
t

,l
I

Video
Fig. 9. | 0 All analogue weather radar block diasram and
waveforms

150

off

pre-pulse,sincethe laggingedgeis usedto triggerthe waveform coincidewith the

start of the run-down.
modulator. The transmitteris a magnetronkeyed by
If the balancinghalf-cycleis madelargerthan
the modulator which determinesthe pulsewidth.
necessary
we havean open centrewhereby zero range
The burst of r.f. energy(main bang)ii fed from the
is represented
by an arc,ofnon-zeroradius,on the
transmitter to the scannervia a duplexerand
p.p.i. display.
waveguiderun. The duplexerallowscommon aerial
The gatewaveformis fed to the marker and
working in that it is an electronicswitch which
bright-up circuitswhich providethe necessaryfeeds
automaticallyconnectsthe scannerto the transmitter to the c.r.t. for the duration
of the time-base.Range
for the duration of the transmittedpulse,thus
marksare producedat equally spacedintervalsduring
protecting the receiver.
the gate,and areusedto intensitymodulatethe c.r.t.
A sampleof the transmittedfrequencyis fed to the electronbeam. The bright-upwaveformprovidesa
a.f.c.(automaticfrequencycontrol)mixer alongwith biaswhich preventsthe velocity of the beam berng
an output from the l.o. (localoscillator).If the
sufficient to excite the phosphorcoatingon the
differencefrequencyis not equal to the requiredi.f.
screen,except during the time-baserundown.
the a.f.c.circuit appliesa controlsignalto ihe 1.o.,s<j
Pitch and roll stabilizationis providedby a
adjustingits frequencyuntil we haveequality. If the ryro-controlledservomechanism.
differencefrequencyis outsidethe bandwidth of the
a.f.c.circuit, the control signalis madeto sweepuntil Digital Weather Radar - Rho-Theta Display
suchtime asthe a.f.c.loop can operatenormaliy.
The radio and intermediatefrequencypart of the
The main receivermixer is balancedto reducel.o.
block diagramis much the samefor analogueand
noise. The i.f. amplifierchainis broadband
digital systems,so here only the video,timing and
(bandwidth ) 2 X reciprocalof pulsewldtn) with gain control blocks will be considered.The following
is
controlledby the a.g.c./s.t.c.
circuitsor the manual
basedon the RCA Primus40.
pin control. The videoenvelopeis detectedand after
Analoguevideodatafrom the receiveris
further amplificationis usedto intensitymodurare
digitizedin an analogueto digital (a/d) converter.
( Z - m o d u l a t i o nt )h e c . r . r .
The rangeselectedis dividedinto 128 equalrange
With contour on, the videosignalis sampled,and if cells,for example,with 300 nauticalmilesselected
abovea presetinversionlevelthe videofed to the
eachcell is 300/128 = 2.344nauticalmiles,or, in
c.r.t.is effectivelyremoved.
termsof time, 3607 ps is dividedinto 128 time-slots
The pre-pulseis fed to the a.g.c.gatewhich thus
of 28.96ps. Duringeachtime-slotthe videolevelis
allowsthe videooutput throughto the a.g.c.circuit
first integratedthen encodedas a 2-bit word, thus
o n l y f o r t h e d u r a t i o no f t h e p r e - p u l s(es a yl 0 p s ) . I n
givingfour discreterepresentations
from zeroto
this.waythe gaincontrolline voltagelevelis madea
maximumsignal.In the Primus40 a complemented
function of receivernoise. The laggingeclgeof the
Gray codeis usedfor the conversionbut is then
pre-pulsetriggersthe s.t.c.circuitwhich reducesi.f.
changedto standardbinary.
gainat zero rangeand returnsit to normalafter,
The scanneris drivenby a steppermotor suchthat
typically,30 nauticalmiles(about 370 ps).
1024stepsaretakenfor 120" ofscan. The
The laggingedgeof the pre-pulse
transmitterfireson everyother stepso providing512
alsoiniriatesthe
start of the time-base
and gatewaveforms,the
azimuthdirtictionsfrom which echoesmay be
durationofwhich dependon the rangeselected.The received.Thuson eachof 512 azimuthanglesdatais
time-base
wavefornrl(r)is f-edto a magslip(synchro
acquiredin 128 rangeincrements.
resolver)in the scanner;
sincethe rotor of the magslip
The averaging/smoothing
circuitsreducethe
is drivenin synchronism
with the scannerazimuth
numberof lines(azimuthdirections)by a factor of
m o v e m e ntth e o u t p u t sa r e1 ( r ) s i nd a n d1 ( r ) c o s0
4 to 128(= 51214)and apply a correctionto the
where0.is the azintuthanglenreasurecl
with reference gradientof the sigralin rangeand azimuth. The 4 to
t o t h e a i r c r a f th e a d i n g U
. s i n gt h e c o s i n eo u t p u t f o r
I line reductionis achievedby averaging
the sum of
verticaldeflectionand the sineoutput for horizontal four adjacentazimuthtime cellsasshbwnin
deflectionprovidesthe necessary
rotatingtime-base. F i g .9 . 1 3 a n dT a b l e9 . 1 . A f t e r a v e r a g i nwge h a v e1 2 8
The start of the time-base
run-downmust
lineswith 128 rangecellsper line grving
correspondto zerodeflectionof the c.r.t.spot. Since 1 2 8X 1 2 8= l 6 3 8 4 d a t ac e l l s .T h e d a t ai s t h e n
the magslip.beingbasicallya transformer,removes
correctedfirst in rangethen in azimuthas follows:
any d,c. levela balancinghalf-cycleis required
if in a seriesof threeadjacentcellsthe outer two cells
imrnediatelyafter the time-base
flybackto makethe
arethe samebut the inneris different,then the inner
(zero)valueof the compositetime-base
average
is correctedso asall threearethe same;forexample,

151

icccivcr

vidco

Range cells

10 1 1 12 13 1 4 1 5

127 128

(NoisGl
Video levol (O thru 3)

,|

(,,
--{
Complemented
binarygray
I

code

tt

Fig. 9.1I Analcgueto digital conversionin the Primus40

(courtesyRCA Ltd)

256 LINESPERFRAJVIE
RATE
FRAMEREFRESH
l S 6 0 . 7H z ( 1 6 . 4 7 5 m S |
1 6 . 4 7 5 m-S2 5 6 = 6 4 3 5 5 , r SL I N ET I M E

DlsPtAVCELTS
128CELLS
PRLrNEX 256LTNES=32.768

,"*\

"',*",j,ffik%
-urr;fll.\
.

. c4ce{

Fig. 9.12 Rho-thetarasterscanformat in the Primus40;

per scan,128 linesin memory,256
512 transmissions
displayedlines (courtesy RCA Ltd)

152

Table9.1

Four to one line averaging

'nemory

as it is received.Sincethe signallevel within

eachrangecell is codedas a 2-bit word the memory
Sumof four azimuth
Average
capacitymust be 2X 128 X 128 = 32'168bits. The
adiacenttime cells
memorycomprisessixteen2 X 1024-bitshift
registers,so applicationof clock pulsescausesthe
0-l
0
circulationof dataprovidedthe output is connected
2-5
I
to the input which is the casewhen new data are not
6-9
2
beingloaded. New datamust be loadedinto memory
r0-12
3
at the correcttime in the sequence
of circulating
data;this timing control is providedby the new data
line control circuit which synchronizesthe loading
313 would be correctedto 333 while 012 would
remainthe same(seeFig.9.l4). The aboveprocesses, with scannerposition. Loadingis inhibited when the
freezebutton is pressed
but circulationof data
togetherwith the integration of the video signal
within eachrangecell prior to digitization, reducethe continues.The datais continuouslyreadout asit
circulatesat a rate of about 7'772\inesper second
displayednoice to negligibleproportions.
comparedwith loadingevery fourth main bang,a rate
Eachof the 128 lines of 128 cellsis placedin
of 121'414= 30.35linesper second.The different
load and readratesgivethe scanconversionin time,
a-----------l
a--.,--=-l
leadingto a flicker free bright picture.
Although 128 linesof videoarestored,256 lines
aredisplayed,so it is necessary
to doublethe stored
After averaginglines. The line-doublingcircuit averages
two adjacent
storedvideolinesto generatea middleline, so giving
the required256 lineseachof 128 cells(i.e. a total of
32768 displayedcells). In the averaging
processthe
rule is to averageup if an integeraverageis not
possible.The following example,consideringpart of
Fig. 9.13 Fout to one line averagingin the RCA Primus 40
Noise

E'l corrected
F8. 9.14 Rargc and azimuth smoothing and correction in
the RCA Primus40

153

Video
from Rx

Averaging
smoothing
circuits

Tx
trigg6r
CRT
Frame retrace

tI
Freeze
and rho-thetadisplayblock
Fig,9.15 Video processing
diagram

32768 bit
shift register

Data out

Clock
Fig. 9.15 Simplifiedmemory

by 128125= 5'12 cells,so the first

mile is represented
mark is locatedat cell 26 (= 5 X 5'12) with subsequent
storedline...3 3 2 2 1 . . .
m a r k sa t c e l l s5 l , 7 1 , 1 0 2 a n d 1 2 8 .
middleline...3 3 2 2 t . . .
Azimuth marksareobtainedby raisingall 128
storedline...3 2 2 I 0 . . .
cellsof the appropriatelinesby I in a similar way t^o
I I I 0...
m i d d l el i n e . . . 2
that describedabove. The sweepis 120",so for l5storedline...0 0 0 0 0 . . .
azimuthmarkerswe requireI + 120/15 = 9 linesto
Rangemarks are obtainedby raisingthe appropriate be enhancedin intensity. With 256 linesthose
chosenare line 2 and line 256 Nl8 = 32ly' rvhere
rangecell levelfor eachof the 256 linesby l, i.e. 0
-60o markersince
becomes1, I becomes2,2 becomes3 while 3 remains N= 1-8. Line 2 is usedfor the
line, tltus the
first'trace
to
the
blankingis applied
at 3. Thus rangemarksappearslightly brighter than
-59'0625".
at
fact
is
in
marker
azimuth
targetreturnsexceptfor level3 targets'Identification leftmosi
3 levelto a
video
a
converts
circuit
contour
The
line
is
achieved
of the appropriaterangecell in each
of cells
range
sequence
a
If
we
had
0
level.
video
mile
nautical
the
25
on
by a counter. For example
rangethere are five rangemarks 5 nautical miles apart. 0 2 3 0 0, say,then the contouredcell of level3
would not be bordered,the sequencebeing
Sincethere are 128 rangecellsper line eachnautical

three adjacent stored lines, illustrates the process:

154

0 2 0 0 0. To avoid this, the rangecell adjacentto a

contouredlevel 3 cell is raisedto level 2 if necessary,
thusin ourexampleO 2 3 O 0 would become
0 2 O 2 0 after contouring. Borderingis guaranteed
in azimuth as a result of the line-doublingprocess
since,for example,if we haveadjacentazimuth cells
with videolevelsI 3 0 from'memory,then
line-doublingwillgive | 2 3 2 0 and after
contouring | 2 O 2 0 as required. This bordering
-featwe is.necossary
where the video gradientis steep,
suchaswhen we receivereturnsfrom mountainsor
distantweathertargets.

The rho-thetarasteris generated

by tlte deflection
circuitswhich are triggeredby the frame andX-Y
retracewaveforms.A linearramp currentrvaveform
needsto be generated
for both_the)/ (vcrtical)
deflectioncoilsand the X (horiz.r,ntal)
deflection
coilswhich form the yoke. The durationol'the ramp
i s 5 3 ' 8 9p s w i t h a 1 0 ' 4 6p s r e t r a c e( f l y b a c k ) g i v r nag
totalline time (time-base
period)of 64.35 gs. The
amplitudesof the rampwavelbrmsdeterminethe
amountof deflectionin the X and X directionsand
thus the particularline which is tracedon the screen;
line I is at -60o, line 256 is at +60o. In.pracrice,
sinceon the completionof one frameat line 256 on
0
0
vlotor-EvtLs
r
2
I
3
t
2
O
the right we start the next frame on the left after
frameretrace,line I is blankedin order to allow the
o
* ( ,
deflectioncircuitsto settledown. The franrerateis
SINAiY CODI
6O'7Hz.
The X and )z ramp waveformsare initiated by thc
X-Y relracepulses.The amplitudeof the I/ ramp
must be a mininrumat the beginningand end of the
frameand a maximumhalf-waythroughthe frame;
its polarity is constantthroughout.The anrplitudeof
the
X ramp must be a maximurnat the beginningand
ANALOGVIDEO
end of the frame and zerohalf-way through the
frame,when the polarity reverses.To achievethe
amplitudevariationsdescribedthe X and Y ramp
(uncontoured)
Fig,9.17 Digitalto analogue
conversion
wavefolmsare amplitude-modulated
by appropriately
(courtesy
RCALtd)
shapedwaveformstriggeredby the frame retrace
pulse.
The c.r.t.is intensitymodulatedby one of four
It shouldbe evidentthat timing and synchronization
d.c.levelsappliedto its control grid. Sincethe output are all-important. We seefrom the simplifiedblock
from the contourcircuit is digitalwe must employ a
diagramthat the timing and controlcircuitsare
digital to analogue(D/A) conversioncircuit.
connectedto virtuallyall partsto ensurethe

,,1. o

Frame
retrace
I

ffi,,,

Mod

_ r l l l l l l

X-Y retrace

'--

Y
Ramp

x
Ramp

Fig. 9.18 Ramp generation

t55

necessarysynchronization. All timing signalsare

derivedfrom d 4'972459 MHz crystal-controlled
oscillator(period0.201 1077 ps). Of particular
significance
is the scannerpositionwhen new datais
loadedinto the memory. A counterin the scanner
drivecircuitscountseveryeighthstepin the sweep,
first clockwisethen counterclockwise
and so on.
The counterthus givesthe memoryline numberfrom
I to 128 (= 1024/8)which is usedby the new data
load circuit. lt is possiblethat the scannerstepping
motor may missa few beats,in which casethe count
referredto abovewill not representthe scanner
positioncorrectly. In order to preventcumulative
errorsthe count is Jammed'at 64 wheneverthe
scannercrosses
the deadaheadpositiongoing
clockwise.The informationrequiredfor Jam centre'
operationis derivedfrom the X-axisstator output of
a resolver,the rotor of which is drivenby the azimuth
motor. This output variesin amplitude,and
phase-reverses
when tl'rescannerpases through the
deadaheadpositi<-rn..
The aboveis a much-simplified
descriptionof the
featuresof the Prirnus40; many detailshave
essential
beenomitted. Other digitalweatherradarswith
rho-thetadisplayssuchas the BendixRDR 1200will
differ in detail but will operatein a similar way.
Digital WeatherRadar - Television(t.v.) Display
In the nrevioussectionwe sawthat a disital weather

radarwith a rho-thetadisplay requiredscan

conversionin time only. This follows sincethe data
arecollectedin the sameorderasthey are presented;
only the ratesare different. With a t.v. display this is
not so, thereforewe needscanconversionin both
position and time. Sincethe basicdifferences
betweenthe two types of digital radar are the rasters,
scanconversion,and the organizationof memory we
shallconcentrateon thesetopics. What follows rs
basedon the RCA Primus30.
The rasteris similar to a standardt.v. display
except that the field and line directionsof
displacementare reversedand it is quantitatively
different. The rasterconsistsof 256 verticallineseach
with 256 cells,thus we have256 X 256 = 65 536
displayeddata cells. Eachframeof 256linesis
displayedin two interlacedfieldseachof 128 lines.
The field rate is approximately107'5 per secondso
the interlacegivesapproximately53'75 framesper
second(fasterthan conventionalt.v.).which givesa
flicker-freepicture.
Azimuth drive is similar to the Primus40, the angle
of scanbeing 120" achievedin 1024steps. An
azimuth counter counts every fourth step so that
when the count has gone from 0 to 255 there is a
phasereversalof the drive signalcausingthe scanner
to reversedirection. When switchingfrom standbyto
a transmitmode(normal,contour,cyclic or mapping)
the scanneris driven counterclockwiseto the

)'

t \

\l ',

\
\ \

t \i !
| l
rl \i
r t

------

\i\

ATRATI0f 10, t Hz'

FlRsl t lttD RAsltRLltrt. oNt tr 126Llilts wRlTTiN
t liN t o N t 0 f 1 2 8G t N f R A l tA
Dl R A T0i f l 0 / t H 2 '
r l R 5 1F l t l , 0B T A NR
KI T R A C
5r
E t A t i rfKL Y B A CLKl N i r R O nt N D0 t f l R 5 Ir l t L oT 0 B t C I NINN G0 f S t C o l ' lfDl i t o A I R A l t 0 f 1 0 7 . H
R A r t0 f l o i 5 H z '
!
!
R
l
I
T
I
N
A
l
0
1
.
1
0
t
f
l
?
8
L
l
N
t
s
stcoNDFliLR
0 A S T ILRI N .
KI T R A C
L Il N t .o t \ t 0 r I 2 8C t f t t R A T tA0TR A T0I f 1 0 7t H ] '
s f c 0 N Dt l t L D E L A NR
FLYBACKLINtfR0!,!t!D0tStCOt!0FltLDT0EtClNNlNC0frlRSIfltLDAIRAT[C[1075H.
'llt60 UMs PtR stc

Fig. 9.t9 Simplifiedrasterfor the Primus30 (only eleven

linesshown)(courtesyRCA Ltd)

156

leftmost position, and 'chatters'there until the

azimuth counter reaches255 when clockwise
rotation is initiated; this ensuressynchronizationof
counter and position.
Digitized data is written into a random access
memory (RAM) consistingof eight 4096-bit RAM
chipsgivinga total of32K bit storage(lK bit = lO24
bits). Thus with a cell containinga 2-bit word there is
provisionfor l6K cells(= 128 X 128). Conceptually
the memory is arrangedas a grid with orthogonal
ixes, so the addressat which datais to be storedmust
be in X-Y format. SCanconversionis required to
provide the correct addressgiventhat the data is being
receivedin a rho-thetaformat.

usedasa lock-up table to give the valuesof cos 0 and

s i n0 .
T h e 1 2 8 X 1 2 8= l 6 K R A M c e l l sm u s tb e
convertedto 256 X 256 = 64K displaycells;this is
achievedby a datasmoothingcircuit. EachRAM cell
is convertedinto four displaycells,the videolevelin
eachdisplaycell beingdeterminedby a weightedand
biasedaverage
of levelsin the corresponding
RAM cell
and someof its neighbours.With the cellsdesignated
asshownin Fig. 9.21we have:
' Ia
Ib
/c
Id

= inr.
= int.
= int.
= inr.

IQI6
l(2ly
IQIy
l(Zty

+ Is
+'t7
+ Is
+ Ir

+ It
+ IL
+ Ia
+ In

+
+
+
+

l)lal
l)l4l
l)l4l
l)l4l

whereint. [. . . .] meansintegerpart of f . . . .1.

An exampleoi the processfor one RAM cell is given
in the figure.
Four concentricarcs,with centreat the middleof
the bottom edgeof the display,serveas rangemarks.
The addresses
of the displaycellsto be illuminated
frrr rangemark purposesarestoredin a ROM. The
(o'O)
I l[-+
8K bit ROM is time-shared
with the scanconverter
e
AX--ri
which utilizesit asa sin/coslook-uptable,asstated
previously.
Fig.9,20 Rho-theta
to X/I scanconversion
The rho-thetasectorof targetreturnsoccupies
part of the X-Y display. The unusedareaof the
only
Assumed word hasbeencorrectlystoredat
screen
is usedfor alphanumerics
identifyingthe
(X,Y) the next word, assuminga unit range
address
operatingmode and the rangemarks. A ROM, used
step,must be storedat (X + LX, Y + A)z) where
only lbr alphanumerics,
containsthe positioncode
AX = sin 0 and AY = cos0, 0beingthe scanner
for the bottom ofeach characteron any givenline of
azimuth anglegivenby the azimuth counter (see
the raster.
F i g . 9 . 2 0 ) . T h e r a t eo f g e n e r a t i o n
ofnew addresses
Eachof the circuits providingthe functionsof
is determinedby the rate of generationof new data
generation,
raster
azimuthdrive,digitization,RAM
cells,of which there are 128 for eachazimuth count.
ROM addressing
and transmission
must be
The first datacell in eachgroup of 128 corresponds and
synchronized
in
time.
All
timing
signals
are derived
to the address
(0, 0). A readonly memory(ROM) is
from a 10.08MHz crystaloscillator.Suitable
sub-multiplesof the basicfrequencyare fed
throughout the systemas triggersand clockswhich
lr
keep everythingin step.
td
lb
(x+AX,Y+AY)

lr

lM

lR

la

lc

l8

Scanner Stabilazatioh

2
1

iI

3
Fig. 9.21 A RAM cell to display cell conversion in the RCA
Primus 30

The needfor scannerstabilizationhasalreadybeen

stated;herewe shallreviewthe implementation.
There are basicallytwo types of stabilization:
platform and line-of-sight.With the former the
movingpart ofthe scannercanbe considered
asbeing
mounted cin a platform controlled,independentlyin
pitch and roll, by a vertical referencegyro (VRG).
With the latter, pitch and roll signalsare combined,

157

Timing
and
control

Control
panel
(rangel

tsig.9.22 XIY displayblockdiagram

taking into accountthe azimuth angleof the scanner,

The aboveparagraph
is the basisfor line-ot-sight
the compositesignalbeingusedto control the beam
stabilization. Pitch and roll signalsfronr the VRG are
tilt angle. Sincethe platform systemrequires
combinedin an azirnuthresolver,
the rotor of which
joints for azimuth,pitch and roll
rotatingwaveguide
is drivenby the azimuthmotor. Tl.restatorsof the
movenrentplus pitch and roll motors,the line-of-sight resolverareconnectedto the pitch (P) and roll (R)
systemis preferredin most modernweatherradars.
outputsof the VRG, in sucha way that the rotor
Only the line-of-sight
systemwill be explainedbelow. output is P cos0 + R sin d, where0 is the azimuth
'
Whilethe scanneris pointingdeadahead,aircraft
angle.
movementin roll will haveno effect on the beam
The compositedernandsigrralis fed to a servo
direction sincethe axis about which the aircraft is
amplifierwhich alsohaspositionand velocity
rotatingis in line with the bearnaxis. With the
feedbackinputs. If the sunrof the inputsis non-zero,
scannerpointing90" port or starboardpitch
an error signalfrom the servoamplitierwill drivethe
movementwill havea negligibleeft'ectsincethe axis
motor so as to reducethe error to zero. The position
aboutwhich the aircraftis rotatingis paralleland close feedbackfrom the tilt synchrois modifiedby the tilt
to the beamaxis. Conversely
with the scannerdead
control so that the angleof the beanraboveor below
ahead,aircraftpitch must be correctedin full while
the horizontalmay be setby the pilot. Velocity
the scannerat t 90" aircraftroll rnustbe correctedin
feedbackis providedby a tachogenerator
to prevent
full by pitchingor tilting the scanner.
excessive
oversltoot.'
158

Antenna
Elevation
rotary joint

q)

Azimuth

rotary

6h
I
F

Azimuthmotor
controllogic
from indicator
Pitch/roll
amplifiers

L--I
I
I Cable and
I
Oear reductionl
I

(T)
I

Pcos0
+
R . s i n0

le and

reduction

Summingpre-amplifier
Position
feedback

Indicator
Fig.9.23 RDR 1200scannerblock diagram(courtesyBendix
AvionicsDivision)

The componentsusedin the stabilizatidnsystem

canvary. The positionfeedbacktransducerand tilt
control may be two- or three-wiresynchrosor indeed
potentiometers.Someequipmentsusea d.c. rather
than a.c.motor althougha.c.is normalfor demand
and feedbacksignals.On somesystemsno roll
correctionis employedif the scannerazimuthangleis

restrictedto say145o, ason variousgeneralaviation

systems.
Unlessan azimuth steppermotor is usedthe
azimuthangularvelocityof the scanneris not constant.
Reversal
of directionat the extremitiesmeansthat
the scanneraccelerates
towardsthe deadahead
position and slowsdown going away from deadahead.

159

Grid vanes
It follows that lesstime is availableto make
correctionsat the deadaheadposition.
stabilization
Mapping
Weather
is fastenoughto copewith
If the servoloop response
in azimuthit will be too
the nrostrapidrRovement
/---=--\
time
thstat the extremities.In order to vary response
z'.-\"'
the velocityfeedbackmay be modifiedso that it is
greatestin amplitudewhen the azimuth angleis a
maxlmum.
With a flat plateaerialthe beamis tilted by
pitchingthe plate,thus a pitch-rotatingwaveguide
joint is needed.Thereis a choicewhen the system
Horizontally
usesa parabolicreflector,eitherthe reflectorand
polarized feed
feedmovein pitch or the reflectoronly. In the latter
joint is usedbut the beamshape Fig.9.24 Weather-mapping facility using a parabolic
caseno pitcli-rotating
deterioratessincethe feed point is displacedtiom the reflector
focuswith tilt applied.
reflector is rotated through 90" (asin Fig. 9.24) or
the directionof polarizationis rotatedby usinga
waveguide
rotatingjoint or a ferritepolarization
Other Applications for Weather Radar
twister.
The cosec2beamis difficult to achievewith a flat
AJthoughthe primary function of a weatherradaris
specificallyfor a pencil beam.
to detectconditionslikely to giveriseto turbulence, plate array designecl
beamcanbe obtainedby
variousother usesfor the systemor part of the system However,a fan-shaped
reversingthe phaseof the r.f. energyfed to the slots
havebeen;and continueto be, found. Thesewill be
in the top half of the plate.
briefly described.
Whenselectedto nrapping,rivers,lakesand
areclearlyidentified,so allowing
coastlines
Mapping
Virtually all weatherradarsoffer a mappingfacility.
confirmationof position. Built-upareasand
mountainswill givestrongreturns.An interesting
At its most crude,selectionof mappingmerely
pilot
the
phenomenonmay be noticedoverthe plainsof the
whereupon
the
tilt
beam
s.t.c.,
can
removes
United States:sincefences,buildingsand powerlines
down to view a limited regionof the ground. At its
beam,
tend to be laid out with a north-southor east-west
bestthe beamis changedto a fan-shaped
wherebyreceivedechoenergyis constantfrom all
orientation,returnsfrom the cardinalpoints are
partsof the illuminatedgroundregion. In the
strongest,thus givingnoticeablebright lines on the
to north, south,eastor west.
Appendixit is shownthat the receivedpoweris
radarcorresponding
inverselyproportionalto the squareof the rangefor a
beam-fillingtarget(A9.9). alsoif the beamis
Drift Indication
at an angle@to the horizontal the range
With downwardtilt the retumedecho is subjectto a
depressed
R = ft cosec@wf "e /r is the aircraft height. So for
Doppler shift due to the relativevelocity of the
equalreturnsfrom ground targetsat different
aircraft alongthe beam. The spectrumof Doppler
depressionangles(hencerange)the transmittedpower shift frequenciesis narrowestwhen the beam is
needsto be distributedon a cosectd basis.sincewe
alignedwith the aircraft track. The Doppler signal
will thenhave(Pr)o(PtlR2i". lcosec2Qlh2 cosec261= canbe displayedon a suitableindicator(A-type
display)where,due to the spectrum,it appearsas
Q l h ' ) , i . e . P , i s i n d e p e n d e notf r a n g e .
With a parabolicreflectoran approximatecosec2 noiseelevatedonto the top of the returnpulse.With
manualcontrol of the azimuth position of the scanner
beamcanbe obtainedby useoi a polarization'noise'
the pilot can adjustuntil the Doppler
sensitivegrid aheadof the reflectorsurface. In the
(spectrum)is at a minimum, when the drift anglecan
to the beam
weathermodethe grid is transparent
to the conducting
be readoff the control. This option is rarely found.
sincethe E field is perpendicular
vanesof the grid while in the mappingmode the grid
a
Beacon Interrogation
reflectspart of the beamenergydownwardsincethe
The transmittedpulsefrom the weatherradarcan be
E field is parallelto the vanesand thereforedoesnot
usedto triggera suitably tuned beacon(transponder)
satisfythe boundaryconditions.To achieveremote
on the ground. The beaconreplieson 93 l0 MHz,
switchingbetweenweatherand mapping.eitherthe

I,

160

so a weatherradar with a local oscillatorfree.rencyof

9375 MHz and a transmit frequencyof 934i MHz will
producea differencefrequencyof 30 MHz for normal
returnsand a differencefrequencyof 65 MHz for the
beaconreply. Two differently tuned i.f. amplifiers
can be usedto separatethe signals.As an alternative
two local oscillatorsmay be used.
On somesystetnsthe selectionof beaconeliminates
the normal returns from the display;on others it is
possibleto show weatherand the beaconresponse.
The easewith which this facility can be uied to
find offshore oil rigs makesradarsoffering beacon
operationan attractiveproposition for helicopters
supplyingthe rigs. Such radarsusually havea

short-rangecapability;for example,the Primus50

offers 2 nautical mile rangeusinga 0.6 ps pulse,thus
givinggood rangeresolution.
Multifunction Display
The weatherradarindicator is increasinglyusedfor
purposesother than the displayofweather or
mappinginformation. X-I rastersin particularmake
the displayof alphanumericdata straightforward,
henceall the major manufacturersnow offer a
'page-printer'
option with one or more of the radars
in their range. Similarlydisplayof navigationdatais
availableasan option with the latestcolour weather
radars.

nrotr

xon*
rftoffi

Fig. 9.25 Primus 30 with page-printeroption (courtesy

RCA Ltd)

161

A page-printeroption is normally used to display

checklists.The alphanumericdata is arrangedand
storedin pageson EPROMs,either in the indicator or
in an external auxiliary unit. EachBagemay be
button. Pages
calledup in turn usinga page-advance
containingthe normal checklistindex and
emergencychecklistindex are particularlyimportant,
and usually havededicatedbuttons usedto call them
up for display. Havingdisplayeda pageof one of the
indexesa line-checkbutton may be usedto advancea
cursor(line highlightedby displaying,say,black alphanumericson greenbackgroundrather than greenon
black asfor the other lines).With the cursorset,the
chosenchecklistcanbe displayedusinga list button.
Apart from checklistsother alphanumeric
information which may be listed includeswaypoints,
or indeedany pilot+ntered dataif pagesare allocated
to this facility. One method of allowingthe pilot to
enter data is to usea calculatorkeyboard;
Hewlett-Packardand TexasInstrumentsmake
calculatorswhich can be modified to interfacewith
the page-printersystem.
Display ofnavigation data from externalsensors
suchasVORTAC, Omega,INS or Loran is achieved
through an interface unit. Typically the pilot is able
to displaywaypointsjoined by track lines,together
with the weatherdata. As an examplethe RCA Data
Nav. trI systemallowsthe displayof current VORTAC
frequency,rangeand bearingto current waypoint and
up to three correctly positionedwaypoint symbols
from twenty which can be stored. An additional
featureof the Data Nav. I I is a designatorsymbol
which may be set to any desiredlocation on the
screen:this location can then be enteredas a new
waypoint to replacethe current one, so providingan
alternativeroute if stormsareobservedon original
intendedcourse.
Progressin this areais rapid' ln 1979,with the
appropriateinterface,the weatherradar could display
projectionsof aircraft position on straightor curved
paths,ETA at waypointsand warningsof sensordata
failure in addition to the data referredto above.

WeatherRadarCharacteristics
ARINC Characteristic564-7 allows the designermore
freedomthan do most other suchdocuments;
howeverit is quite clearwhat performanceand
facilities are to be made available. The following is a
summaryof someof the more significantand/or
interestingitems.
Range
At least 180 nautical miles for subsonicaircraft and
162

300 nauticalmiles for s.s.t.is usually demandedby

customers.
Rangemarks at 25 nautical mile intervalsup to 100
as are the availablerange
nauticalmiles are suggested,
of30/80/lS0 or 30/100/300or 30/80/180/
selections
of a continuouslyvariable
360. The advantages
30 nautical miles to maximum
from
range
displayed
arestated.
Displayed Sector
nt ieast + 90" but not more than t 120". Displayed
rangeat + 90" to be not lessthan 60 per cent of
maximum range. The scanmay be reciprocatingor
circular. (Note in the caseof the latter, sincethe
scannerrotatesthrough 360' RAM (radar absorbent
material)screeningis neededon the nosebulkheadto
prevent excessivelystrong receivedsigrrals.)
Radio FrequencY
C-Band 5400 MHz x2OMHz (nominal)
X-Band 9375MHzt 20 MHz (nominal), or
9345 MHz L 2O MHz (nominal)
Bandwidth
Minimum bandwidth = l'216 where the pulsewidth 6
must be lessthan l0 Ps'
Dispby AccumcY ^
Azimuth angle:t 2-.
Range:the greaterof t 5 per cent or I nauticalmile.
Sensitivity Time Control
Range2law from 3 nautical miles to the point where
a 3 nauticalmile target ceasesto be beam filling.
Two-wirelogic from scannerto set s.t.c.maximum
rangein accordancewith antennagain (and hence
bearnwidth).
Scanner Stab and Tilt
Two-wire pitch and roll sigrralseach(E/2300) V
+ 2 per cent per degreewhereE is nominal I 15 V
400 Hz referencephase(50 mV per degreebut
in terms of supply). The phaseof signalsis
expressed
specified. Dummy load of 20 kQ where signalnot
used.
Pilch and roll rate capability 20o per second.
Line-of-sight(two-ais system):combinedroll, pitch
and tilt freedomt 35" with accuracy+ lo, manual
tilt i 14".
Split axis (three-axissystem):roll t 40', pitch
t 20o,manualtilt I 14",combinedpitch and tilt
!25",accuacy t 0'5".
Droop nosesignal(tr/575) V per degree,samephase
asnosedown. (Two-wire signal,20 mV per degree

EnrouteNavigation.

fry

1 ) T h e i n t e n d e dt r a c k l i n e o r i g i n a t i n gf r o m l h e a i r c r a f t
s y m b o ld i s p l a y sl h e p r o g r a m m e dr o u t e o f f l i g h t .W a y p o i n t s
a n d t h e i r n u m b e r sc a n b e d i s p l a y e do n t h e t r a c k l i n e .W h e n
D a t a N a vi s u t i t i z e dw i t h R N A V ,t h e a s s o c i a r e dV O R T A C
s y m b o l i s d i s p l a y e da l o n g w i t h i t s f r e q u e n c ya s i l l u s t r a t e d
W h e n u s e d w i t h a V L F / O M E G Ao r I N S s v s l e m .t h e D a t a N a v
w i l l d i s p l a ys i m i l a ri n f o r m a t t o nW
. h e n w e a t h e ri s e n c o u n _
tered lhe current Waypoint may be ottsel by using RCA'S
e x c l u s i v eD e s i g n a t o rf e a t u r e T h e D e s i g n a t o rc a n b e m o v e o
to any location on the screen by means of the Waypoint

3) The aircraft has now completed the turn and intercepted

t h e n e w l r a c k l i n e w h i c h w i l l s a f e l yc i r c u m n a v i g a l et h e
d a n g e r o u sw e a t h e r .l f d e s i r e d ,y o u c a n r e l u r nt o t h e o r i g i n a l
Waypointand track line by pressing lhe cancel button on
t h e D a t a N a vc o n l r o l o a n e l .

o f t s e tc o n t r o ls h o w i n gt h e D e s i g n a t o sr y m b o la t 3 5 " r i g h t ,
46 nm.
2 ) W h e n t h e D e s i g n a t o ri s a t t h e d e s i r e dp o s i t i o n ,t h e n e w
W a y p o i n tc a n b e e n t e r e di n t o t h e N a v i g a t i o nS y s t e mb y
m e a n so f t h e " E N T R " b u t t o no n t h e D a t a N a vc o n t r o lp a n e , .
T h e c u r r e n tW a y p o i n tw i l l b e m o v e dt o t h e n e w l o c a t i o na n d
a n e w t r a c k l i n e e s t a b l i s h e dT. h e R a n g ea n d B e a r i n go f t h e
a i r c r a f lt o t h e V O R T A Cs t a t i o nw i l l a l w a y sb e d i s p l a y e di n
t h e l o w e r r i g h t h a n d c o r n e ro f t h e d i s p l a y .

4) Waypoinl Listing Mode can be sebcted by means of-the

"MODE"
b u t t o no n t h e D a l a N a vc o n t r o lp a n e l .I n f o r m a t i o n
f o r 3 W a y p o i n t sc a n b e d i s p l a y e do n t h e s c r e e n .T h e c u r r e n l W a y p o i n lw i l l b e d i s p l a y e di n y e l l o ww i t h a l l o t h e rd a l a
i n g r e e n .A l l t h e W a y p o i n t sc a n b e d i s p l a y e di n g r o u p so f
"Waypoint
lhree by moving the
Offsel Control" left or right.

FiE 9.26 En-route navigation with the (colour) Primus 200

(courtesy RCA Ltd)

for SSTaircraft where scannermount is droppedwith

nose.)
Scalerequiredon scannerwherebytilt anglemay be
read.

Ilaveguide
C-Bandtype ARA I 36 or WR I 37. X-Bandtype
RG-67U. Ridgedwaveguide
rejected;v.s.w.r.
m a x i m u ml . l : l .
163

Magnetron Magnctic Field

No more than lo compassdeviationwith sensorl5 ft
from the t.r. The t.r. shouldbe mounted at least2 ft
from the indicators,other t.r. units and other devices
sensitiveto magneticfields.

width. It is normal to calculatethe m.p.e.l. assuming

a stationaryscannerand a point source'in which case
an averagepower of 6 X F X Pt is spreadover an area
of n X D2 X 1Jin2(e l2)i thus the distanceD in rnetres
for an exposurelevel of l0 mW/cm2is givenby:

'l

Maintenanceand Testing
Safety Precautions
There are two hazardswhen operating weather radar,
namely damageto human tissueand ignition of
combustiblematerial.
The greaterthe averagepower density the greater
the health hazard. A figure of l0 mW cm' is a
generally acceptedmaximum permissibleexposure
level(m.p.e.l.). Among the most vulnerableparts of
the body are the eyesand testes.
The greaterthe peak power the greaterthe fire
hazard. Any conductingmaterialcloseto the scanner
may acf as a receivingaerial and have r.f. currents
induced. There is obviouslya risk, particularly when
aircraft are being refuelledor defuelled.
An additionalhazard.which doesnot affect safety
but will affect the serviceabilityof the radar,is the
possibilityof very strongreturnsif the radaris
operatedcloseto reflectingobjects. The result of
these'returrlsis to burn out the receivercrystals
which are of the point contacttyp'
The following rulesshouldbe observedwhen
operatingthe weatherradaron the ground:
l. ensurethat no personnelare closerto a
transmittingradarscannprthan the m'p.e.l.
boundary, aslaid down bY the sYstem
manufacturer;
2. nevertransmit from a stationaryscanner;
3. do not operatethe radarwhen the aircraft is
being refuelledor defuelled,or when another
aircraft within the sectorscannedis being
'4. refuelledor defuelled;
do not transmitwhen containersof inflammable
or explosivematerialare closeto the aircraft
within the sectorscanned;
5. do not operatewith an open waveguideunless
r.f. power is off; neverlook down an open
waveguide;fit a dummy load if part of the
waveguiderun is disconnected;
6. do not operatecloseto largereflectingobjects
or in a hangarunlessr.f. energyabsorbing
materialis placedover the radome(RAM cap)'
The safedistancesfor radarsvary widely,
dependingon averagepower transmitted and beam
164

|-

6FPt

D=m6 hffil

o't-

L
'
J
where: 6 is pulsewidth in seconds;
F is pulse repetition frequency in pulses
per second;
P1 is peak Powerin milliWatts;
0 is beamwidth.

Thus consideran older airline standardweatherradar

(Bendix RDR IE/ED) usingmanufacturers'nominal
figuresfor the longestrangeoption, i.e.6 = 5 ps;
F = 2 O O ; P t = 7 5 k W ; 0 = 3 " ; w e h a v eD = l 8 ' 6 6 m
(ev60 ft), while for a modern generalaviation radar
(RCA Primus20) where6 = 2'25 ps, F = 107'5,
=
=
& = 8 k w , 0 8 6 w e h a v eD l ' 1 2 m ( e , : * f t ) '
To ensuresafety precautionsare observedconsult
manufacturers'data for safedistancesthen, if
operatingthe radar for maintenancepurposes,place
radiationhazardwarning noticesthe appropriate
distancefrom the nose. Whenworking by the scanner
with the radar on standby a notice should be placed
'do not touch', or better still
by the controlsstating
the transmittershouldbe disabledor the waveguide
run broken and a dummy load fitted. If the radaris
switched on prior to taxiing, the transmitter should
not be switchedon until clearof the apron'
X-ray emissionis a possiblehazard when operating
the transmitter with the caseremoved, such as might
be done in a workshop. The likelihood of dangeris
small but the manufacturers' data should be
consulted.
Check for Condition and AssemblY
Obviouslythe weatherradar systemas a whole is
subjectto the samerequirementsas all other airborne
equlptn.nt in respectof securityof attachmentand
condition; however,certainpoints need to be
highlighted.
-Thi
waveguiderun should be the subject of fairly
frequentinspectionsand shouldbe suspectedifpoor
performanceis reported. Wheninspectingthe
waveguide,corrosionand physicaldamagesuchas
cracksand dents are obviousthingsto look for'
Flexible waveguidecoveringsare subject to perishing,
crackingand a detachedmechanicalbond at the
flanges.lnternal damagein flexible waveguidecanbe
founa Uy gently flexing while listening and feeling for
clicks. There shouldbe no more than minor bendsin

l. Checkwarm-uptime for magnetron.

the H plane of flexible waveguideand the radiusof
bendsin the E planeshouklbe greaterthan about Zlrn.2. Checkfan motor (a light pieceof papershould
'stick' to the filter).
to dismantlethe
If it is thoughtnecessary
3. Checkinternalpowersupplyvoltagesand currents
waveguide,un1o curryoui an internalinspection,
with built-inmeter,if fitted. or testmeterconnected
care
needsto be replaced,
or if i pieceof waveguide
to testsocket,if supplied.
joint
Choke
flanges
must be takenwhen re-installing.
NB'. when disconnectinga test lrleter from the
plain
flanges.Seaiingor O-iingsmusi
must mate to
test socketit is vital that the shortingplug
be fitted to achieveu pr.rrut. seal. The E planesof
otherwisecrystalearth
shouldbe replaced,
piecesshouldbe paraliel.Undue
adjoiningwaveguide
for
measurement,
current
broken
returns,
either
forceshouldnot be usedin aligningwaveguide,
will not be made'
within the run or at the endsof the run. All
waveguide
supportsshouldbe secureand undamaged. 4. Checktest facility: patternshouldbe asspecitied
by manufacturer.In particularcheckthe pattern
If an internalinspectionusinga probelight reveals
is centredand neitheroverfillingor underlilling
dirt or moistureit may be possibleto cleanby pulling
screen,and that the rangemarksareequallyspaced
througha cleansoft cloth andior blowingout with an
(lineardeflection,rho-tlieta).symmetricalarcs
line. Caremustbe takennot to scratch
air pressure
(lineardeflection,X-Y)andcorrectin number
sincethiswould
the insidesurfaceof the waveguide
(time-base
duration,rho-theta)'A rho-thetaraster
renderit scrap,aswouldsignsof corrosionor deposits
may showa smallopencentre(about{ in'; but no
which cannotbe removedis suggested
above.
tail.
run shouldbe
Any drain trap in the waveguide
5. Observegroundreturnson all ranges.Operateail
moisture
checkedfor blockage,and accumulated
controlsand ensurethe desiredeffcct is achieved.
in the
shouldbe removed.Filtersand desiccators
pressurization
feed,if fitted, shouldbe inspectedfbr
Notes
(filter) and colour(if desiccator
is pink it
cleanliness
The aboveis only a brief outlineof the checksto be
is unserviceable).
alwaysusethe manltfacturers'
carriedout. OneshtlLrld
of
The scannershouldbe checkedfor freedom
when tcsting.When
procedures
movementaswell asgeneralconditionand securityof recornmended
if
is necessary
carryingout itenr(5) above.experience
the
attachment.In carrying()ut scannerinspcctions
o
f
t
h
e
c
o
n
d
i
t
i
t
l
n
w
i
t
h
c
e
r
t
a
i
n
t
y
,
a
n
y
i
s
t
o
s
t
a
t
e
,
o
n
e
dishor plateshouldnot be turneddirectlyby hand
but throughthe gearing.Backlashin the gearscanbe the systenr.The pictureobtainedwill dependon the
headingof the aircrali;asan extremeexantplean
checkedby gentiyapplyingforwardand backward
aircraf'tpointingout to seawill givevery diflerent
movementto the edgeof the dishor platein both
d ith an
g r o u n dr e t u r n so t t i t s r a d a rw l t e nc o m p a r e w
pitch
directions:in a 30 in. diameter
azimuthand
aircraftpointingin the directionof a rangeof hills.
imtenna,movementof ; T at the edgein<licates
a
The technicirnshouldbe awareof the f orm of thc
total backlashof nearly 1". No chafingof cables
a t a p a r t i c u l aar i r l l e l d
t a r g e t / n o i spei c t u r ee x p e c t e d
shouldoccur due to scannermovernent.
p
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
h
r
e
a
d
i
n
g
.
a
o
n
ensureshirnsor
Whenreplacingthe scanner,
The testfacility variesfrom systemto system. At
in the same
washersareusedfor the replacentent,
its sirnplesta ramp or tri{ngularvoltageis generaled
positionsasthey wereusedlbr the item rentoved,
which variesfrom siSnallevelzeroto a maxitnuntof
this ensuresthe azimuthscanaxisis nrutually
signallevelthree. If suclra waveformis appliedto the
pitch
and
axis
o1'the
aircraft.
perpendicular
to the roll
may be mountedwith input waveguide t l i g i l i z e trh e na l l t l r r e cl e v e l so f i l l u m i n a t i o nl n d
Somescanners
. d t l l t i o n atl e s t s
c o n t o u ro p c r a t i o nc a r rb 6 c h e c k e d A
will be
flangeup or down, but polarizedconnecliorts
tailureto checkthis w h i c hl r a v cb e e np r o v i d d dn r c l u d ea g a t e dn o i s es o u r c t '
correctfor only one orielttaticln:
with nornral
for checkings.t.c.and contparing
point may resultin an incorrectsenseol rotationin
' r c c e i v enr o i s e r. e f l e c t e tpfo w e rt t t t r l t i t o ra, . l. c .
pitch.
and
azimuth
r n o n i t o ra n d a . g . ct.n o n i t o r .
The t.r. is likely to havean internalcoolingtan, in
which casethe filter shouldbe secureand l'reet'rom
Radar SystemsTester
o b s t r u c t i o n I. t m a y b e p o s s i b l teo c l e a ra b l o c k e d
of the
of the possiblentisinterpretation
l i i t c r b y a i r b l a s ti n t l t eo p p o s i t ed i r e c t i o nt o n o r n t a l Because
olt returnsI'rtltn
systenrcclnditionwhen.iudged
a i r i l o r vw
. h i c l rs h o u l db e i n t o t h e u n i t .
usedto
groundtargctsa systctnstesteris stlnletimes
ofthe
target.
fcalures
tlre
give
ttvefr
nrore
control
Functional Ramp Check Radar
t o t h e r a d o r n ea t d c : l d
A p i c k u ph o r n i s a t t a c h e d
Ohsr'rr.. S:rlety l)reclut ions
165

NAHOOTIEACKGROTIND
rSISE PIAKS

(uGr{Tt{olsE}

r/tFfs
TrsTsAt{ffi

coHroun

TE'T BAND

il

TESrilfffE B*lw
{ ilff{*s $iltctr}
-lT{o EFFscr
{ *fffiIcrD sAlH}

F t g . 9 . 2 7 R D R I E / F t e s t p a t t e r n ( c o u r t e s yB e n d i x A v i o n t c s
Division)

scannerand radomeaswell as the t.r. If both

attenuatorsreadlessthan normal then the fault must
if only the input
be in the commonr.f. components;
attenuatorreadslow then transmitterpower output is
down;while a low output attenuatorsettingindicates
ivity.
poor receiversensit
Functional Test - ScannerStabilization
ObserveSafetyPrecautions
1. Removeradome. Switchto standbywith
stabilizationon and tilt zero. Check,usinga spirit
level, that the flat plate or the plane acrossthe
Fig 9.2E Simplified
radarsystems
tester
rim of the reflectordishis verticalwith the
scannerdeadaheadand at the extremitiesof the
sectorscan.
centreposition. A co-axialcableconnectsthe horn to
the testerwhich is insidethe cockpit. The tester
2. RemoveVRG from its mounting and fit on a tilt
so that its surfaceis horizontal
tableadjust.ed
servesasa beaconand returnsa signalwhich should
alongboth axes.
appearat zerodegreeson the p.p.i. displayat a range
determinedby the testerdelay. An input attenuator . 3 . I n c h s c a n n etro t h e d e a d - a h e apdo s i t i o n .W i t h . - \
stabilizationon, adjusttilt controluntil scanner )
can be adjustedso if the testerjust fails to be
give
is vertical.
attenuator
will
a
measure
of
the
triggered,the
4. Simulatea suitablepitch angle@noseup. Using
radiatedpower. An output attenuatorcan be
'echo' just visible(radar
a protractorspirit levelensurescannerelevation
is
on
adjustedso that the
down. Repeatfor nose
by @degrees
presetgainwith standardized
changes
brilliancesetting),thus
down.
of system
the attenuatorwill givea measure
5. Sinrulateaircraliroll, ensureno changein
sensitivity.The output attenuatormay alsobe used
.
s c a n n eer l e v a t i o n .
to checkthe contourinversionlevelsetting.
6 . I n c hs c a n n etro p o r t e x t r e n t i t ya, z - i m u tahn g l e0 .
Note the testerwill checkthe wavesuiderun.
166

Simulatea suitableroll anglea port wing down

and ensurescannerelevationchangesby o sin 0
up. Repeatfor starboardwing down.
Simulateaircraft pitch angle@and ensurescanner
elevationchangeis @cos0 in oppositesense.
Repeat(6) and (7) but with scannerat starboard
extremity noting senseof roll correctionis
reversed.
Inch scannerto deadahead. Simulatesuitable
pitch angle. Switch stabilizationfrom on to off
and back to on, and ensurescannermovesin
elevationwithout excessive
overshooting.
Switch stabilizationoffreplace gyro in aircraft
mounting.
Carry out final checkof tilt controlbefore
switchingoff and replacingradome.

a measureof waveguidelossescan be obtainedfrom

the differencesin forward power at either end.
Practicaldifficulties occur in fitting the directional
7couplerin a rigid waveguiderun. In some
installationsa couplermay be permanentlyfitted at
8.
one end, usuallyat or closeto the t.r.
In order to measurethe v.s.w.r.of the waveguide
the scannershouldbe disconnectedand a dummy
9.
load fitted in its place. ARINC 564-7 specifiesa
maximumv.s.w.r.of I .l : I for a new installation.
Whenmeasuring
the v.s.w.r.of the scannerthe
radomeshouldbe removedand the scannertilted up
10.
to maximum to avoid returns. Figuresobtained
shouldbe checkedagainstmanufacturers'data. On
I l.
fitting the radomethe v.s.w.r.at the antennawill
deteriorate,measurementat variousazimuth and tilt
angleswill givean indication of the radome
performance.
Notes:
The most likely causeof lossof radomeefficiency
The aboveappliesto a typical line-of-sightsystem.
as a transparentmaterialto r.f. is ingressof moisture
For any particularequipmentthe manufacturers'
through small pinholesand crackswhich may appear
procedureshould be followed, observingstated
on the outsidesurfaceof the radorne. Such pinholes
tolerances.
A platform systemcheckoutvariesfrom the above and cracksmay be seenby shininga light on the
outsidesurfaceand viewingfrom the inside. A
in that changesin elevationare independentof
moisture
detectorcan be usedto measurethe
azimuth angle.
resistance
betweentwo adjacentpoints on the
In items (6), (i) and (8) an azimuth angleof 90"
radome. The detectorhastwo probeswhich are
strouldbe chosenif possible,sincethis will make
pressedfirmly againstthe insidesurfaceof the
cos 0 = I and sin 0 = 0, so simplifying checking.
Pitch and roll correctionpotentiometers
areoften radome. Wherethe resistancemeasuredis lower than
normal it may be due to an ingressof moisture.
accessible
in which casepitch correctionshould be
carriedout with the scannerdeadaheadand rolBench Testing
correctioncarriedout to balanceany errorsat the
There
is not spacehereto considerbenchtesting'in
extremities.
depth,but mentionshouldbe madeof a special
A gyro simulatormay be usedfor a checkoutof
the completesystemlessthe VRG. The VRG is
disconnected
and the simulatorconnectedin its
place. The procedureis then similar to that above,
with the appropriatepitch and roll anglesbeing
selectedon the simulator. Sincethe VRG is not
testedthis is not a full functional test but is useful for
fault-finding. The signalsfrom the simulatorshould
correspondto the VRG output signalstandards
(e.g.ARINC).

.c.frd

Check of v.s.w.r.
If the waveguiderun or scanneris suspect,v.s.w.r.
checkscan be carriedout to find the faulty itcnr. To
carryout sucha checka directionalcouplermust be
fitted in the run, and power in the forward and
reversedirectionsmeasured
using,for example,a
thernristorbridgepowermeter. The checkshouldbe
carriedout at both endsof the wavesuide
run so that

Fig.9.29 RD-300weather
radartestset(courtesy
IFR.
Electronics
Inc)
weatherradartest set,the IFR RD-300which,
togetherwith an oscilloscope,can be usedto perform
all the commonradartestswithout the proliferation
of signalgeneratorsand other instrumentsnormally
found on a radartest bench.
167

accurate'For
possibleand reasonably
measurement
signalsarecompared
the received
rangemeasurement
'standard'to giveso-called
pseudorange.The
Beinga relativelynew developmentthe Stormscope with a
ratlgelrteansthat particularly
methoduscdto deterntirte
is, asyet, not to be found in servicein anythinglike
asmany aircraft asis weatherradar' Sincespaceis at strongsignalsappearto be closerthan they actually
sincethe source
are.which is not reallya disadvantage
a premium the coverageof the Stormscopein this
activity
electrical
severe
detailed
region
of
a
more
is
a
to
allow
signals
such
limited
of
been
book has
coverageof radar. The numberof pagesallocatedhere andhenceturbulence.
appearsasa bright greendot on the
Eachdischarge
reflectsthe importanceof eachof the systemsto
of
staff and aircrewtoday. The situation
circulaldisplayscreenat a positionrepresentative
maintenance
An
likely,
aircraf't.
or,
more
to
thc
future
position
relative
in
the
reversed
the
source
well
be
may
aircraftsymbolis locatedat the centreol-tlredisplay
equalized.
w i t h r a d i a l i n e sm a r k e da t 3 0 " i t l t c r v a last t dt w t t
As statedin the introduction to this chapter,the
on detecting equallyspacedrangerings. The rangeol'tlre outer
dependsfor its success
Ryan Stormscope
receiver'
with
turbulence. ring is asselected
on the panel-mounted
associated
which
is
activity
electrical
Sincethe radiatingsourceis naturalonly a receiveris 40, 100 or 200 nauticalmiles. Sincetlre outer ring is
overweatherradar. not at the peripheryof the displaythe rnaximuttl
required;an immediateadvantage
is of the orderof 260 nauticalrniles.
rangeavailable
To obtaindirectionalinformation,useis madeof an
is only a momentaryeventso
Eachdischarge
ADF loop and senseantenna,both eitherdedicatedto
with ADF. storagein memoryis required.The trlemorycan
installationor time'shared
the Stormscope
a displayunit
storethe positionof 128 dots,thesebeingdisplayed
The restof the installationcomprises
to form a mapJikepicture. Whenthe 129thdischarge
unit.
and a computer/processor
planning
the oldestdot in memoryis replaced;in this
since
occurs
taken
in
installation
be
Caremust
lrom generators, way the imageis continuouslyupdated. lf the
is proneto interference
Stormscope
or a new rangeis selected
from
aircraftheadingchanges
motors,strobelights,etc. Interference
positions
are
incorrect
until all I 28 havebeen
dot
by
inhibiting
the
is
avoided
transceivers
communication
which cantake up to 25 s on a
updated,a process
the Stormscopewhenevera transceiveris keyed'

RyanStormscope

displayunit andcomputer/
Fig.9.30 RyanStormscope
(courtesy
RyanStromscope)
processor

Operation
Signalsfrom the two orthogonalloops and the sense
antennaareutilized to giverangeand bearingof the
sourceof electricalactivity received.The propertie:.
of the loop and senseantennamakebearing
lSe

stormyday (only 5-10s with tomadoactivitywithin

range).On quiet daysa dot may remaina long time
erased.A'clear'
but after 5 min it is automatically
button allowsthe pilot to erasethe displaystarting
to the newestin
with the oldestdataand progressing

a total erasetime of I s. Another button allows the

display of that activity which is forward of the
aircraft with, of course,the full memory dedicatedto
thesesignals.
The 128 dots appearin clusterson the display,
indicatingwhere bad weathercan be expected. As the
weatherbecomesmore severethere is a spreading
inward towardsthe centre due to the pseudorange
reducingas a result of the strongersignals.Witll
increasingstorm intensity the display becomesvery
animated.
A test facility is built in whereby when the
appropriatebutton is presseda dot cluster appears
nearto a positionof 45o; 100 nauticalmiles. In
addition, a test set is availablewhich can simulate
at variousrangesand azimuth anglesfor
sigrrals
systemcheckoutand calibration.

Appendix
FactorsAffecting WeatherRadarPerformance
TheRadarEquation
If powerP1 is radiatedfrom an omnidirectional
antennathen the power density(power per unit area)
decreases
with range. At a rangeR a sphereof
surfacearea4nR2is illuminatedby the e.m. wave,
thus:
Powerdensityfrom omni antenna=#

(A9.1)

Sincea directionalantennais usedwith gain G (over

an isotropic antenna,i.e. perfectly omnidirectional)
we have:

Powerdensity from = PrG(Ae.2)

directionalantenna 4rRz
Comparison of Stormscope and Radar
It would appearthat, purely from a functional point
The targetwill interceptpart of the radarbeam,the
of view, i.e. ability to avoid turbulence,there is little
sizeof the part dependingon the radarcross-section
to choosebetweenthe two systems.Someadvantages
ofthe target o. Sincethe reflectedpower is subject
ofStormscopeover radar are:
to the samespreadingout in spaceasthe incident
l. no moving parts and no transmitter,hence
powerwe have:
meantime betweenfailures(m.t.b.f.) should be
Power density of _ P,GO
higher;
(Ae.3)
(4rR2)z
echo at aircraft
2. simplerantennainstallationwhich keepsdown
installationcosts;
The radar antennainterceptspart of the echo signal,
3 . only the cheapestradarscomparein capital cost; the sizeofthe part dependingon the effectivecapture
4. fully operationalon the ground with 360" field areaA, so receivedecho powerPr is givenby
of view.
of Stormscopecomparedwith
Somedisadvantages
radarare:
l. sensitiveto interference;
2. limited rate and accuracyof data acquisition
although it would appearfrom operational
evidencethat this doesnot preventthe
Stormscopefrom being used for efficient and
safeweather avoidance;
3. lacking in any other applications such as
mapping, navigation data display or page
printer option.
Two things should be pointed out here; firstly the
extras with weather radar have to be paid for;
secondlythe Stormscopeis a relatively new
developmentby a company small in comparison to
the giantsofweather radar. It should not be beyond
the ingenuity of the designersto develop the system
so as to eliminate some, if not all, of the
disadvantages.

(Ae.4)

Pr=

The relationshipbetweenantennagainand effective

capture areacan be shown to be
4nA

G =f

(Ae.s)

of thee.m.wave.So
where), is thewavelength
equation(A9.4)becomes:
-

o
P,G2).3

& =1ffi

(Ae.6)

ReplacingP, by the minimum detectablesigtal pow.er

rn and rearranging,we have the well-known radar
rangeequation:

=ffi
R*"*t

(Ae.7)

The Radar Equation for Meteorological Targets

With meteorological targetswe have a large number of

169

independent
of radarcross-section
scatterers
o; so;
providingthe targetfills thebeam,we may represent
thetotal radarcross-section
bv:
o = V42oi

lS0l,t'6P,G02 c6 n3

P, = -

(Ae.l3)

'7ff;n-

as the echo power receivedfrom a beam-filling rain

(Ae.8) cloud. (Note that 180 x2OO lkl2).

where: Xoi is the averagetotal backscatter

of the particlesper unit
cross-section
volume;
V^ is the volume occupied by the radiated
pulsewhich can be approximatedby
( n l 4 ) R 20 2c 6 l 2 ;
0 is the beamwidth(equalin horizontal
and verticalplanesfor a pencil beam);
c
is the velocity of propagation:
6 is the pulseduration.

Minimum Detectable Signal

E q u a t i o n( A 9 . 1 l ) g i v e st h e m a x i m u mr a n g eo f a
weatherradar in terms of the minimum detectable
signalfrom a non-beam-fillingtarget. A threshold
levelmust be chosenwhich is greaterthan the r.m.s.
valueof the noise occupyingthe samepart of the
frequencyspectrumas the signal. If the signal
exceedsthe thresholdit is detected:if not it is missed.
Too low a thresholdwill give rise to falsealarms.
In choosingthe thresholdlevel the interpretation
(A9.6)
for
o
we
Substituting
in
have:
of the operator is significant,particularly in
P t G 2 ^ , 20 2 c 6 2 o i
(Ae.e) conventional(analogue)weatherradars. In digital
'rD _- -SIZFFthe choiceof thresholdis taken out of
weather.radars
or
eyes,
of the operators. Noise spikes
the
hands,
Equation(A9.9) is applicablewhere the targetis
which do not occur in the sametime-slotafter
beam-filling,for examplea sphericalcloud of 3
transmissions
severalsuccessive
are not displayed;
nauticalmiles diameterwill fill a 4" beam up to about
they are said to be averagedout. As a result in a
43 nauticalmiles. For a ta-rgetoutsidethe beam-filling
digitalweatherradara lower threshold,or minimum
rangethe proportion oi'beam filled can be shown to
signalto noiseratio (s.n.r.),can.betoleratedwith
be (Dl0R)2 whereD is the targetdiameter.So
I
improvementin maximum range.
consequent
equation(A9.9) would become,for sucha target:
In introducingthe factorsrelatingto noiseinto the
P , G 2 ) yc26 D 2 2 o ;
equationit is convenientto usethe noisefigure
(Ae.r0) radar
r, = *-:;.IFFFF grvenby
an equationin which the fourth power of R occursas
in the basicradarequation(A9.6) and contrasting
with equation(A9.9) wherewe havethe squareof R.
Againwe can producea rangeequationassuming
non-beam-fillingtargets:
R*a*o

= P r G 2 ) t 2c 6 D 2 2 o i
5l2r2m

(A9.1l)

If the wavelengthis long comparedwith the

diameterd of a scatteringparticlethen it can be
shownthat:
ns lklz>d;6
zoj = --Ia=

(Ae.t2)

where lkl2 is relatedto the dielectricconstantand

hasa valueof about 0'9 for water and 0'2 for ice.
It is helpful to replace2d16 by an expression
involvingrainfall rate, suchan expressionis provided
by 2di6 - 200rr'6wherer is the rainfall rate in
mm/h. lt shouldbe noted that this is an empirical
relationship,the constantsbeingsubjectto variability
from one experimentalobservationto another.
Replacing2 o; in equation(A9.9) and usingthe
relationshipbetween,dir we have
170

p
' = *l*
S"IN"

(Ae.l4)

where: S;/N; is the input s.n.r.;

Sofly'ois the output s.n.r.
The input noisecan be taken askTB
where:k is Boltzrrrann's
constant,= l'38 X 10-23
joules/degree:
in degrees
Kelvin;
?nistemperature
.Bis the noisebandwidth(differentfrom
3 dB bandwidthbut often approximated
bYit).
equation(A9.14) and substitutingfor
So rearranging
ly'; we have:
Si = kTBF SslNe

(A9.15)

Substitutingfor m in equation(A9. I I ) gives:

o n2).3c62o;

R."*' = n#ftngl;i;;

(Ae.r6)

a single
Equation(A9.16) resultsfrom considering
pulse;ho.vever
many pulsesarenormallyreceived
from a targetduring one sweepof the aerial. The
numberof pulsesreturnedfrom a point targetis

0 X p.r.f.

n = +

(n

564 togetherwith an empirical fornrula

(Ae.r7)Characteristic
relatingPI and maximum range. The primary purpose

of the PI is to enablea comparisonto be made

wherec^.r
is the scanningrate in degreesper second;
betweendifferent radarsratherthan effect the
p.r.f. is the pulserepetition frequency.
accuratecalculationof maximumrange.
We can utilize someor all of the n pulsesto improve
Atmospheric Effects
detectionin a processknown as integration. Use of a
Therearethree effects.namelyattenuation,refraction
c.r.t.,togetherwith the propertiesof the eye and
and lobing,which can degradeor evenenhancethe
brain, constitutesan integrationprocess.Digital
of a radaroperatingin the earth's
techniques,whereby the signaloccuning in successive performance
atmosphere.
correspondingtime-slotsis averaged,is also a form of
primarily
Attenuationdue to absorptionby gases,
integrationin this sense.We can define the integration
water
vapour,
will
reduce
the
oxyBen
and
maximum
efficiencyas follows:
particlesalsoabsorb
rangeattainable.Precipitation
the e.rn.energyand caus.'scattering.The scattering
is csscntiallirr the opelutionof weatherradarbut
will decrelsethe rangeand reducethe
absorption
=
where(S0/)r s.n.r.of a singlepulsetbr a $ven
a b i l i t yo l ' t l r er a d a rt o p e n e t r a tcel o u d si n o r d e rt o
probability of detection;
'see'what is bc.r"ond.Ernpiricalresultsareavailable
(S/ffh = s.n.r.per pulsefor the same
ri
increases
we nraysirnplystatethat degradation
but
probability of detection when n
the
of
I.rencc
descriptions
C-band
with
frequency.
pulsesare.integrated.
radarand X-band
equipmentasweather-penetration
The integrationimprovementfactor nEn canbe
radar.
asweather-avoidance
includedin the rangeequation.
is not
Sincethe densityof the atmosphere
The averagepower P of the radaris relatedto the
uniform, refractionor bendingof the radarwaves
peakpowerP; by:
may take place. Watervapouris the main contributor
will normally be bent
( A e . l 8 ) to this effect. The radar.waves
P = PtX6 Xp.r.f.
aroundthe earth sincethe atmosphericdensity
Substitutingfor Ps in equation(A9.16) and
altitude, thus leading
with decreasing
usuallyincreases
incorporatingthe integrationimprovementfactor we
to an increasein radarrange.
have:
Lobing is the arrivalat the targetof two radar
waves,one via the direct path and one by way of
PG2l,2o3c EnDo;
(Ae.le) reflectionfrom the earth'ssurface. Depend'ingon the
R*"*o
5t2r2 VTBF Q (S/l/),
relativephasesrangemay be enhancedor degraded.
ln an effort to simplify the rangeequation
In an airborneweatherradarwith smallside lobesthis
EUROCAEand RTCA havederiveda Performance
doesnot createthe sameproblemaswith
lndex, PI, from the basicradarequation. Detailsof
ground-based
radars.
the calculationsinvolvedare givenin ARINC

- = (s/.^/),
L"
reET,.

ltl

10 Dopplernavigation

Introduction

300 knots. Thus after I rnin the systemgivesa

readoutof position asbeing 2995 nautical milesfrom
A Doppler navigatoris a self containeddead.-reckoningB on trackt after I h 2700 nautical miles from B; after
systemgivingcontinuousreadoutof aircraft position l0 h the indicatedpositionis B.
usuallyrelatedto waypoints. Military aircraft have
madeuseof suchequipmentsincethe mid- 1950s
while bivil usefor transoceanicnavigationcommenced
3OOOn.m.
in th6 early 1960s. In recentyearsihr ut. of Doppler
navigatorsin long-rangecommercialaircraft has
by inertial navigators,triple
largelybeen superseded
systemsbeing fitted to airlinerssuchas the 747 and
l"
-'
Concorde. Military developmentsinclude composite
lo
Doppler and inertial systemsand we may expect to
seesuchsystems'gocivilian' in the future.
There are still many civil aircraft carryingDoppler
navigatorsbut theseare older, long-rangeairlinersand
assuchthey are fitted with equipmentwhich,
althoughnot in any way primitive, doesnot employ
Fig.l0.l Effectofheadingerror
the very latest techniques.A classof civil aircraft for
which there is a continuingneedfor Doppler
With a + | per cent error in computedspeed,the
navigatorsis surveyaircraft which, by the very nature
on the position readoutafter 1 min, I h and
tolerance
areas
not
covered
by
of their work, operatein
l0 h will be I 0'05. + 3 and t 30 nauticalmiles
ground-based
navigationaids(exceptOmega)and
respectively.With a + 1" error in the heading
requireaccuratepositionalinformation. Use of
we have the situation givenin Fig. 10.r .
information
Doppler navigatorsin helicoptersis not unusual;there
see
that
d = 2 X 300/ X sin 0'5, thus after
We
can
aircraft.
for
such
specifically
designed
is equipment
I min, I h and l0 h the aircraftmay be up to 0'087,
The advantageof Doppler navigationlies in the
5.24 and 52'4 nauticalmilesaway from the indicated
fact that it is a self-containedsystemwhich doesnot
aids and can operatein any part position. In both casesthe absoluteerror increases
rely on ground-based
with distanceflown. In practiceit is the heading
of the world. This advantageis sharedby inertial
information which usuallylimits the accuracyof the
of
navigationwhich alsosharesthe disadvantage
wslem.
degradationof positionalinformation as distance
of
information
The
degradation
flown is increased.
arisesfrom the fact that startingfrom a known
position subsequentpositionsare computedby
sensingthe aircraft velocity and integratingwith
respectto time. Errors,oncethey are introduced,
can only be eliminatedby a position fix.
A simplisticexamplewill illustratethe build-up of
error. An aircraft takesoff from A to fly to B, 3000
nauticalmiles awayin a direction due west from A.
Usingheadinginformation from a directionalsensor
suchasa gyromagrleticcompassthe Doppler
navigatorsensesthat the iircraft is flying due west at Fig. 10.2 Doppler effect - transmission

J
,l

172

Doppler Effect

ct

l.

,l

l
l
r
l
ln 1842 the AustrianscientistChristianDoppler
predictedthe Dopplereffect in connectionwith
soundwaves. It was subsequentlyfound that the
effect is also applicableto e.m. waves.The Dpppler
effect can be describedas the changein observed
Aircraft
Ground
frequencywhen the source(transmitter)and observer
(receiver)arein motion relativeto one another. The
Fig. 10.3 Doppler cffect - reception
noiseof moving trains and road traffic is a
demonstrationof the effect commonly observed.
(10.2)
fr=(c+v)l\.
The applicabilityto e.m. wavesis illustratedby the
useof police radarspeedtraps,to the cost of
Again we seey = 0 leadsto c = )\,f and the aircraft
offenders.
moving away from the ground targetgives
In an airbome Doppler radarwe havea transmitter f r = ( c - y ) / I .
which, by meansof a directionalantenna,radiates
We must now considerboth effectssimultaneously.
energytowardsthe ground. A receiverreceives
the
The wavelength
tr in equation(10.2)is the
echo of the transmittedenergy. Thus we havethe
wavelengthof the echowhich must be ).' in equation
situation whereboth transmitterand receiverare
(10.1). .Thussubstituting).' for X we have:
movingrelativeto the ground;consequently
the
^
k+v\ ^
original frequencytransmittedis changedtwice. The
Ir = (-fi I.
differencebetweentransmittedand received
frequenciesis known as the Doppler shift and is very We are interestedin the Dopplershift,
/2r, which is
nearly proportionalto the relativemotion between
the differencebetweentransmittedand received
the aircraft and the ground alongthe direction of the sigralsthus:
radarbeam.
- _((c+v) .)
2v
Considerthe transmissionof e.m. energytowards
f o = f , - -f = ' f( {( c- _
- vl l} = = . f .c - v "
t
the ground. Let the relativevelocity of the aircraft in
the direction of the beambe r, the frequencyof the
Now c = 186000 milesper secondso I is obviously
radiation/ and the speedof the electromagnetic
very small comparedwith c, so with negligibleerror
wavesc (= 3 X tO8ms-l ). Referringto Fig. 10.2we we may write:
seethat in t secondsthe wavewill havemoveda
(10.3)
fo = 2vflc.
distancect to b while the aircraft will havemoveda
distancevt to a. The wavesemitted in time r will be
This equationis the basisof a Doppler radar.
bunchedup in the distancebetweena andb which is Observing,as above,the conventionthat y is positive
ct - vt. The numberof wavesemitted will be /r
for movementtowards,and negativefor movement
cycles. Thus the wavelengthobservedat the target,
away,the groundtargetgivesan increasedreceived
).', is givenby:
frequencyon a forward beamand a decreased
t r ' - ( c r- v } l f t = ( c - v ) l f
( 1 0 . 1 ) receivedfrequencyon a rearwardor aft beam.
From Figs 10.4and 10.5we seethat the relative
We can seethat if the transmitteris stationarywith
velocity of the aircraft in the direction of the beam
respectto the groundthen y = 0 and equation(10.1) centroidis v = V cosI cosc where Iz is the masnitude.
'
reducesto the familiar relationships =/tr. If the
of the aircraft velocity with respectto the grou-nd.
transmitteris movingaway from the ground target,
So equation(10.3)becomes:'
that is the beamis directedtowardsthe rear,then
(10.4)
fp = (2Vf cos0 cosc)/C.
r in equation(10.1)becomes-y andwe have
\'=(c+v)lf.
It is at this stagethat the studentis often convinced
Now considerthe receivedsigtal. In a time / the
that a Doppler radarcould not possiblywork due to
aircraft would receiveall the wavesoccupyingspace the smooth earth paradoxand the mountalnparadox,
cf in Fig. 10.3. Howeverin this time the aircraft
which arehopefully dispensed
with below.
i
movesa distancer/ and hencewill receivethe number
It is falselyarguedthat if an aircraft is moving
of wavesoccupyingct + vt in f secondsor (c + r)/tr
parallelto flat ground then thereis no changein range
wavesin I second.Thus the receivedfrequency,fr,
betweenthe aircraft and the groundand thereforeno
is given by:
Doppler shift. That this is falsecan be seenby

173

Vi the verticalvelocity component

asshown in Fig. 10.6. Thesevelocitiesare in antenna
co-ordinateswhich, with an antennafixed rigidly to
the aircraft, are airframeco-ordinates.As the aircraft
pitchesand rolls the antennamoveswith it and hence
Vil, Vn' and Vf will not be the velocitiesin earth
co-ordinatesrequiredfor navigation.

vir

vi

Fig. 10.4 Airborne Doppler single-beamgeometry in thc

vertical Dlane

Fig. 10.6 The resolved velocity vectot

geometryin the
Fig. 10,5 AirborneDopplersingle-beam
plane
horizontal
consideringthe actualtargetswhich produce
of the energy. Thesetargetsare
backscattering
irregularlyshapedscatteringobjectssuchas pebbles
and there is. of course.relativemotion betweenthe
aircraft and individualtargets- hencea Doppler
shift. If the illuminatedareawere perfectly smooth
no reflectedenergywould be receivedat the aircraft.
The othdr falseargumentconcernsslopingterrain.
If the aircraft is flying horizontally abovea slope then
its rangeto the ground along the beam is changing
and thereforethe Doppler shift will be affected.
Again this falsehoodis exposedby the fact that the
'slope'
actualtargetsare individualobjectswhose
with
respectto the aircraft is randomand henceis not
related to the slope of the ground.

AntennaMechanization
The aircraft velocity has three orthogonal
@mponents:
Vfi the headingvelocity component;
V) the lateral velocity component; and
171

Fig. 10.7 Drift angleandgroundspeed

One conceptuallysimple solution is to stabilize
the antennain pitch and roll, in which casethe earth
velocitiesVg, V1 and VV are
co-ordinate-related
equal to Vi, Va' and Vpi respectively.If the lateral
velocity V4 is non-zeroit meansthat the movement
of the aircraft is not in the direction of the heading
and a non-zerodrift angle,6, existsasin Fig. 10.7.
The resultantof Vg and Va is the velocity vector
with magnitudeequalto groundspeeds, and
direction that of the aircraft'strack. It is convenient
for navigationpurposesto presentthe pilot with
ground speedand drift angleinforrnation rather than
Vs urd V1.
With movingantennasystems,the antennais
stabilizedin pitch and roll and alsoalignedin
azimuth with the track of the aircraft,that is to say
track-stabilized.The drift angleis givenby the angle
betweenthe antennaand aircraft longitudinalaxes
measuredin the horizontal plane. SomeDopplersuse
pitch but not roll stabilizationsinceerror due to roll
is small for smalldrift anglesand furthermoretends
to averageout over the flight.

Fixed antennasystemsmust compute the

velocitiesVry,Vn and Vv eachbeinga function of
yi, V;, Vf R andp, whereR and
F are roll and
,
pitch anglesappearingin the expressions
as
trigonometricfunctions. The relationshipsarederived
in the Appendix.

Doppler Spectrum
The beamsare of finite width, henceenergywill
strike the ground alongdirectionsof different relative
velocities.As a consequence
a spectrumof Doppler
shift frequencies
is receivedasshownin Fis. l0.g
wherethe effectsof sidelobesareisnored.

Wilh A? typically 0.07 radians(4") and I typically

70- we haveAfp lfp rypically 0.2.
Sincebackscatteringfrom the illuminatedtarget
areais not constantover the whole areathere is a
random fluctuation of the instantaneousmean
frequencyfp. To determinethe aircraft'svelocrty
accuratelythe time constantof the
velocity-measuring
circuitsmust be sufficientlv lone
to smooththis fluctuation,but not so long asio beunableto follow the normal accelerations-of
the
aircraft.

BeamGeometry

Sincethere are three unknowns Vi, Va' and Vf , a

minimum of threebeamsarerequiredto measure
them. ln practicethree or four beamsare usedin a
configurationinvolvingfore and aft beams;assuchit
is known asa Janusconfigurationafter the Roman
god who could seeboth behind and in front.
The beamsradiatedcan be either pencil.asin
Fig. 10.10or narrowin elevation(nO) Uut wide in
%power
azimuth(Ac) asin Fig. 10.9. The hyperboliclines
-3 dbs
fo, h , f*, f-u are linesof constantDoppler shifts
calledisodopsand are drawn assuminga flat earth.
Whenwide azimuth beamsare useda fixed antenna
systemwould leadto the beamcrossing
a wide
rangeof isodopsunderconditionsof drift, resultingin
an excessivelywide Doppler spectrum. Consequently
suchbeamsvirtuallydictatea track-stabilized
anrenna.
fd
Dopplershift
A wide azimuthbeamhasadvantages
in that smaller
Fig.10.8 TheDopplerspectrum
antennaareasare requiredand roll performanceis
improvedin the casewhereno roll stabilizationis
Sucha phenomenonis undesirable
but providing
employed.
the spectrumis reasonably'peaky'the
meanDoppler
Figure 10.9 showsthat for a fully stabilizedsystem
shift is easilymeasured.If Z is the anglebetweenthe
the Doppler shift on all four beamsis the same.
beamcentroidand the aircraftvelocityvectorthen
Without roll stabilizationsmallerrorsareintroduced
e q u a t i o n( 1 0 . 3 )b e c o m e s :
which tend to average
out. Stabilizationcan be
achievedby servoloops which drive the antennaso as
2Vf
"otr.
( 1 0 . s ) to equalizethe Doppler shifts. Alternativelypitch
lo =;
information (and possiblyroll) can be fed to the
Differentiation with respectto 7 givesa first
Doppler from a verticalreferencesuchasa gyro or
approximationto the half-powerbandwidth of the
evena mercury switch leavlngazimuthstabilizationto
spectrum:
be achievedby equalizationof Doppler shifts.
Typically in suchradarsground speedand drift angle
2A gy.rinT
Lfo =
( r 0 . 6 ) are the only outputs wheregroundspeedis givenby
equation(10.4) and drift angleby the amountof
azimuthrotationof the antenna.Headine
whereA7 is the half-powerbeamwidth. The ratio of
information is usuallyaddedto the drift ingle to give
Lfp to fp is thusgivenby dividingequation( 10.6)
aircraft track.
by ( l0.s).
Figure 10.10showsthat for a fixed aerialsystem
Lfp =
the
Doppler shifts on all four beamsare,in general,
-f;
a7.tan7.
(10.7)
not equal. It is shownin the Appendix to this
175

Fig. t0.9 Moving aerialsystem- typical beamgeometry

chapter that the velocitiesin airframe coordinates,

Vri, VA' and Vf , dependon (f2 - f l),(f2 -/3) and
(.f | + f3) respectively,where/l ,f2 andf3 are the
Dopplershifts on beamsI ,2 and 3. Relationshipsfor
thesevelocitiescan alsobe derivedusing/4 and two
other Doppler shifts. With this redundancywe have
or continuedoperation
the possibilityof self-checking
after one beam failure.
Computationof groundspeedand drift anglein a
fixed antennasystemcan be dividedinto three parts:
firstly computationof Vi , V; and Vl, usingthe
Dopplershifts from three of the four beams;secondly
computationof Vg, V4 and Zy usingpitch and roll
information and the previouslycomputedairframe
co-ordinatevelocities;and lastly, drift angle=
uctan (ValVn) and ground speed= (Vn'+ Vnzlo's
(seeFigure 10.7).
176

TransmitterFrequency
The choiceof r.f. is, asever,a compromise.The
advantageof using a high frequency is that the
sensitivityof the radarin Hertz per knot is high, as
can be seenfrom equation(10.3); furthermore,for a
givenantennasize,the higherthe frequencythe
narrowerthe Dopplerspectrum. If, however,the
radiated frequency is too high atmosphericand
precipitationabsorptionand scatteringbecomemore
of a problem. Another considerationis the
availabilityof componentsfor the variousfrequency
bandswhich might be considered.Most Doppler
radarsoperatein a band centredon 8'8 GHz or
13'325 GHz, the former, to date,beingperhapsthe
most common for civil aircraft use.

Heading

Fig. 10.10 Fixed aerial system - typical beam geometry

Modulation
At first sight it would appearthat no modulation is
necessary,
indeed c.w. Doppler radarshavebeen built
and operated,a great attraction being simplicity.
Difficulties,however,arisein transmitter receiver
isolationand discriminationagainstreflectionsfrom
nearbyobjectsin particular the dielectric panel
(radome)coveringthe airframeopeningfor the
antenna. At other than low altitudes unwanted
reflectionsare comparablein amplitude to ground
returns. Noiselike variationsin vibrating radome
echoeswill more than likely be in the same frequency
band as the gxpectedDoppler shifts, and thus
indistinguishableexcept where the s.n.r. is sufficiently
high at low altitudes.
To overcome the above problems both pulsed and

frequencymodulated(f.m.c.w.) radarshavebeen
used. The earliestDopplerswere pulsedso that
echoesfrom nearby objectswere receivedduring the
recoverytime of the diplexer and hencewere not
processed.In the so-calledincoherentpulsesystemsa
Doppler signalis obtainedby mixing receivedsignals
from fore and aft beams;thishas two undesirable
consequences.Firstly the returnson the fore and aft
beamsmust overlapin time if mixing is to take place,
this meansstabilizationand/or wide beamsmust be
used. Secondly,the Doppler shift on the individual
beamsis not available,hencethe senseof direction of
the velocity vector (forward or backward)and the
verticalvelocity cannot be computed.
With modern radarsf.m.c.w. is the most common
type of transmission.The spectrumof the transmitted
sigrd consistsof a largenumber of sidebandsas well

177

asthe carrier. Theoreticalanalysisof f.m.c.w. reveals

an infinite number of sidebandsspacedby the
modulation frequency f,n amplitudeof individual
sidebandsbeing determinedby Besselfunctions of the
first kind of order n and argumentrn where n is the
sidebandconcerned(first, second,third, etc.) and rn
is the modulationindex,i.e. ratio of deviationto
f.. By usingthe Doppler shift of a particular
sideband,and choosingan appropriatevalueof m to
give sufficient amplitudeof the sidebandconcerned,
suppressionof noisedue to returnsfrom the radome
and other nearby objectsis achieved.
A problemcommonto both pulsedand f.m.c.w.
Doppler radarsis that of altitude holes. In a pulsed
systemifthe echo arrivesback at the receiverwhen
a subsequent
pulseis beingtransmittedthen it is
gatedout by the diplexer and no Doppler shift can
be detected.Similarlywith f.m.c.w.,if the
round-trip travel time is nearly equal to the
modulationperioda deadbeatwill occurwhen
mixing transmittedand receivedsignals,and again
no Dopplershift will be detected.
If a low modulatingfrequencyis use'dthe first
altitude hole may appearabovethe operating
ceiling. Howeverlow p.r.f. in pulsesystemleadsto
low efficiency and the possibilityof interferenceif
the p.r.f. is in the rangeof Dopplerfrequencies
expected(eudio). For f.m.c.w.givena choiceof
sidebandused,typically third or fourth, and
modulationindex,typically2l or 3, suchasto
avoidradomenoise,the modulatingfrequencymust
be fairly high to allow a reasonabledeviation. A
fairly high modulatingfrequencyis usually varied
eithercontinuously(wobble)or in discretestepsto
avoid altitude holesat fixed heishts.

Over-WaterErrors
Doppler navigatorsmeasurethe velocity of the

Fig lO.l I Frequencymodulatedcontinuouswave

transmittedsignaland receivedgroundechospectrum

174

aircraft relativeto the surfacebelow them. When

flying over water that surfaceitself may be moving
due to seacurrentsor wind-blownwater particles.
Randomseacurrentsare of speedsusually a good
bit lessthan half a knot, and this small el'fect
averages
out sincethe currentsare in random
directions.Major seacurrentsdo not exceed,say,
3 knots and sincedirection and approximatespeed
areknown they can be compensatedfor.
Wind-blowndropletswould give an error lessthan
the wind speed,about 3 knots error for l0 knots
wind with the error varying as the third root of the
wind. On long flights such an error will be reduced
by averaging.
.
o
i
o-

k___ Overwater
caltoralon
:
I
shrfterror

Frequency
Fig.10.12 Over-water
calibtatiory
shift
Whenflying overland the beamsilluminatean
areacontainingmany scatteringparticles.Generally
the backscatteringcoefficientsover the whole
illuminated areawill be of the sameorder givingrise
to the Dopplerspectrumshownin Fig. 10.8. Over
smooth seathe situation is different; a larger
fraction of the incident enerS/ will be returnedon
the steepestpart of the beam sincethe surface
backscatteringcoefficient will dependon the angle
of incidence.The net resultis to shift the Doppler
spectrumasshownin Fig. 10.12,so that the mean
Doppler shift is lessthan it should be for the
aircraft velocity.
The error introduced,which could be up to 5 per
cent,is known as over-watercalibrationshift error.
The narrowerthe beam widih the lesssignificantthe
error,so someDopplersaredesignedto produce
beamsnarrow enoughto keep the error within
acceptablelimits. Other Dopplershavea manual
land-seaor seabias switch which, when in the seaor
on position respectively,causesa calibrationshift in
the oppositesenseby weightingthe response.of the
Doppler shift frequencyprocessingin favour of the
higherfrequencies.For a carefully chosen
compensationshift the error can be reducedby a
f-actorof about ten.

Antenna axis

N(ml

Ground track
o

Lobc
switched
beams

.L

t '

Frequency

Fig. 10.13 Lobe switching

Lobe switching is a more successfulmethod of

reducingcalibrationshift error. The beam angleof
incidenceto the ground is switchedby a small
amount periodically. The illuminated areasfor the
two switchedanglesoverlap,as do the Doppler
spectra.The Doppler shift frequencyused for
velocity measurementis where the spectracross.
This crossoverpoint correspondsto the retum from
the samegroup of scatterersat the sameangleof
incidenceand is thus not affectedby over-water
flight. Figure 10.13 illusrratesthe technique,which
porks far better when track-stabilizedantennassince
then the lobe switchingis at right anglesto the
isodops.

Navigation CalculationS

The ground speedand drift angleinformation is

normally presentedto the pilot but in addition is
used,togetherwith headinginformation,to givethe
aircraft position relativeto a destinationor
forthcomingwaypoint. To achievethis the pilot
must set desiredtrack and distanceto fly before
take off. In Fig. l0. | 4 the pilot wishesto fly from
A to B, a distanceof 50 nauticalnriles,with desired
track 090. Thc aircraft has flown for 6 min at a
speedof 500 knots on a headingof 100 with a drift
o[ 27" starboard,thus the total distanceis 50
nauticalnrilesand the aircraftis at point C. The
trackerror is 37-, tlre alongdistanceto go is
X = l0 nauticalmiles:the acrossdistanceis
Y = 30 nauticalnriles.
In order to seehow the Doppler navigatorarrives
at the alongand acrossdistances
indicatedto the pilot
we must considerthe informationavailable:
' Groundspeed(s) and
- Doppler radar
dril't angle(6)
- gyromagneticcompass
Heading(I/)
Desiredtrack (Til)and
- pilot
Distance(D)

Fig. 10.14 Navigationcalculations

To arriveat along distanceto go (X) and across

distance(y) the true track (?') and track error angle
(E) areneeded. We have,assumingdrift to starboard
aspositive:

T =H+6
E = T-Td
x = D -JjScosf,'dr
Y = tssinEdt

(r0.8)
(10.e)
(10.10)
/ ( 1 0 . l1)

where I is the time of flight, and the senseof the

acrossdistanceis positiveto the right.

Block DiagramOperation
Moving Antenna System
Figure 10.15 illustratesa block diagrambasedon the
MarconiAD 560, a systemintroducedin the
mid-I960s and usedon a'varietyof civil aircraft. It is
still to be found in service.
The sensoris an f.m.c.w. type employing
wobbulation of the modulatingfrequencyf^ to
avoid altitude holesand usingthe Nth sideband
(tr/ = 3 in the AD 560) to avoid unwantedinterference
due to radomevibrations. For the choice.ofthe third
sidebanda suitablemodulationindex is 2.5. obtained
by usinga deviationof t I MHz on the 8800 MHz
carrierand a modulatingfrequencyof 400 kHz.
Two mixer stagesgive the Doppler shift frequency

179

Transmitter/receivcr

Aerial unit
p--

Heading

F----+ Drifi

Set tiack

Autopilot
Steering
ind.

Ground
speed

Trackcr

+
Memory

Set
zero
Set
distance

=TTo diStance

i Computer I
!

Displayunit

Fig. 10.15 Moving aerial Doppler block diagram based on

the Marconi AD 550

fo. The first mixes the receivedsignalwith a sample

of the transmittedsignal,the requiredsideband
(1200 kHz in the AD 560) beingselectedby the
intermediatefrequencyamplifiers. The secondmixes
.fy'times f^ with the selectedsidebandto extract fi.;
by meansof a low passfilter with a cut-off frequency
' ofabout 20kHz.
There are two transmit and two receivelinear
slotted arrays. Anti-phaseand in-phasearraysare
usedfor transmit and receive,an arrangementwhich
can be shown to compensatefor changesin
wavelength.The arraysareconnectedto appropriate
inlets/outletsby an r.f. switch(varacterdiodesin the
AD 560). Fore and aft beamsareobtainedby
providingfor connectionto eitherend of eacharray,
while port and starboarddeflectionis achievedby use
sequence
is
of sidereflectors.The beam-switching
180

important where pitch and azimuth drive of the aerial

is concerned;the AD 560 sequenceis port forward,
starboardaft, starboardforward, port aft, a complete
cycle taking I second.
The Doppler spectrumis fed to two loops: one
coarseand one fine. The searchloop providesfor
coarseadjustmenlof a ground-speedmeasuringshaft
which determinesthe frequency of a voltagecontrolled
oscillator(v.c.o.) in the tracking loop through a
feedbackpotentiometer. With the searchloop nulled
the v.c.o. frequency is approximatelyequal to the
meanDoppler shift frequency,a discriminatorwithin
the tracking loop is then able to apply an error signal
to the speeddrive so as to position the ground-speed
shaft accurately. The Doppler can then be saidto be
locked on, and any changein ground speedwill be
trackedby the fine trackingloop.

drift angle(azimuth drive) and so give track to

another differential synchroin the displayunit. The
Sterboard
rotor of the seconddifferentialsynchrois set by the
drift
operatorat the desiredtrack angle,hencethe output
is the differencebetweentrack and desiredtrack,
Timo
i.e. track angleerror6.
The resolverin the computerunit resolvesground
Noseup
speedS into its alongand acrossspeedcomponents
S cos.EandS sin^Erespectively.In the AD 560 a ball
1 second
resolveris used,thus givingmechanicalanalogue
a tracking
in Dopplershiftwith aerialmisalignment computing. The ball is drivenby
Fig 10.16 Change
oscillator-fedsteppermotor, hencethe rate of
rotation is proportional to ground speed. The axis of
rotation dependson the angleof the drive wheel
If the antennaaxis is not aligred with the track of
the aircraft, either in pitch or in azimuth, the Doppler which is set by a servoposition control systemto be
equal to the track error angle. Two pick-offwheels
strift will changewith beam-switching.With
mounted with their axesat right anglesrotate at a
occurs
in
Doppler
the
change
misalignmentin azimuth
rate dependingon the alongand acrossspeeds.These
at a rate of I Hz, while if the misalignmentis in pitch
the rate is 2Hz. This follows from the beam-switching rotations are repeatedin the displayunit by meansof
servodrivesand causethe counlersto rotate. The
and rate (seeFig. 10.16). Reference
sequence
alongdistancecounter is arrangedto count down from
pitch
and
to
the
waveformsof 2 and I Hz arefed
the initial distanceto the waypoint until it reaches
any
misalignment
respectively;
circuits
azimuth drive
zero when the aircraft will be on a line perpendicular
of the antennawill be detectedby the drive circuits,
to the desiredtrack and passingthroughthe waypoint.
resultingin the antennarotating so asto align itself
If both alongand acrossdistancesreadzero
shift
with the aircraft track. At this stagethe Doppler
simultaneouslythe aircraft is over the waypoint.
accurately
and
four
beams
on
all
is the same
representsground speed,alsothe anglebetweenthe
Fixed Antenna System
aircraft and antennalongitudinalaxesis equal to the
Figure10.17may be usedto explainthe principlesof
drift angle.
a fixed antennasystemto block diagramlevel. The
and
search
the
in
both
s.n.r.
is
measured
The
antennaconsistsof planararraysof slotted waveguide
tracking loops. If the searchloop checkis not
satisfactoryfor three out of the four beamsthe three or printed circuit, separatearraysbeingusedfor
transmissionand reception. Beam'switchingis
servodrivecircuits are disabled.The sigrralto noise
to
to.go
achievedusingvaractordiode or ferrite switchesto
the
system
causes
loop
tracking
the
checkin
couple the transmitterand receiverto the
memory if it is not satisfactory. In memory the
appropriateport.
shaft are fixed and a
antennaand ground-speed
The receivedsignalis mixed with a sampleof the
drift
and
memory flag appearsin a ground'speed
transmittedsignaland the wanted sideband
give
the
f.m.c.w.
to
continues
angleindicator. The sensor
filtered out and amplified. If only ground speedand
ground'speedand drift anglefor as
last-measured
drift angleare requiredfurther mixing may take place
long as the poor s.n.r.continues.
to extract the Doppler frequenciesasin the moving
Ground-speedoutput from the sensoris in two
antennacase;howeverthe senseof the shift (positive
to
coupled
forms.- A synchrorotor is mechanically
or negative)is lost. If the three velocity vectorsin the
The
feed'
three'wire
giving
a
shaft
the ground-speed
direction of the aircraft cq'ordinatesare required,an
trackingv.c.o. frequency,which is proportional to
intermediatefrequency,feis retainedwhich will be
ground speed,is fed to a sine'cosineresolverin the
dependingon
computer and alsoto a frequencydividerwhich scales reducedor increasedby an amount
radiated.
is
being
beam
which
per
nautical
pulse
and shapesthe sigral so that one
The time-multiplexed Doppler shifted ,fq siSnals
mile is fed to a distance flown indicator (integrating
are separatedby a demultiplexerdriven by the
counter).
control and feedingfour tracking
beam-switching
gives
a
A synchrotransmitterin the antennaunit
oscillatorsbecomelocked
Voltage-controlled
loops.
to
the
drift angleoutput sincethe body is bolted
frequencies
the
incoming
to
fO ! fo by sweeping
driven
by
is
rotor
the
and
part
antenna
ofthe
fixed
lock on. The four
they
until
through their range
the azimuth motor. A differentialsynchro
and differenced,as
summed
then
are
outputs
tracker
transmitteris usedto add heading(from compass)to
Pf

SA

181

Heading

Attitude

x
o
x
o

=
E

]
z
E
Air speed

Variation
initial position
and waypoints

Fig 10.17 FixedaerialDopplerblockdiagram

appropriate,in a combiningnetwork to provide

ground-speedand drift-angleoutputs and, with a
signals/r, fy and/2 proportional to aircraft
compassinput, will providenavigationdata to a CDU
co-ordinatevelocities(seeAppendix, Al 0.3).
givinga two-unit Doppler navigationsystem. Digital
Within the computer/display
unit (CDU) the
outputsareprovidedin accordance
with ARINC 429
aircraft referencedvelocity componentsare
(DITS) and ARINC 582, thereis alsoan optional
transformedinto track-orientatedearth-referenced
synchrooutput for drift angle.This unit, introduced
componentsusingattitude signals(pitch and roll)
n 1979,may heralda comebackfor Dopplerin
from a verticalreferencegyro (seeAppendix, A10.4). airline servicesinceit has beenorderedby Boeingfor
With a headinginput and waypoints,in terms of
installationin their 727s and,737s.
to be usedin
desiredtrack and distance,set in by the pilot the
conjunction with Lear Siegler'sperformanceand
computercan integratethe alongand across
navigationcomputer system(PNCS).
velocitiesto givedistanceto go and across-track
error (distance)respectively.
The CDU may offer latitude and longitude
rcadoutof position by transformingthe aircraft
velocitiesinto north-orientatedhorizontal components.
True north, as opposedto magneticnorth, may be
usedas the referenceif the pilot is ableto enter the
variation. With attitude, headingand true air speed
inputs the output from an airspeedtransformation
circuit or routine may be comparedwith the velocity
transformationto give wind speedand direction.

Installation
TheDopplernavigator
system
illustrated
in
Fig. 10.I 5 requiresfive units asindicated;i.e. antenna,
transmitter-receiver,
tracker,computer and display
unit. The Marconi AD 560 comprisesthe five units
mentionedplus a junction box, ground-speed
and
drift-angleindicator, distance-flownindicator and a
control unit (or simply a panel-mountedswitch).
The weight of the AD 560 is about 30 kg which
shouldbe comparedwith Marconi'slatest Doppler
the AD 660 which weighs5 kg (sensoronly).
The AD 660 is a single-unitDoppler sensorgiving
Fig. 10.18 AD 550 (courtesyMarconiAvionicsLtd)
'182

:1 I

i
t .

{:,-:"*
.
l::

ril,:.:
tri l

i ,

i f

Fig. 10.19 Doppler7l antenna/electronics

unit (courtesy
the DeccaNavigatorCo. Ltd)

Figure10.18showsthe AD 660 with cards

removed.Note the useof large-sca1e
integrated
circuitscommonin all modernsystemsaswe
approachthe 1980s.The antennais a printed circuit
microstripproducingfour beamstransmitted
sequentially.The transmitteris a f.m. Gunn diode
oscillatorgeneratingover 200 mW at a carrier
frequencyof 13.325GHz. Computationand control
is achievedthrougha microprocessor.
The DeccaDoppler7l and 72 aredesisnedfor
v./s.t.o.l.(vertical/shorttake-offand landing)aircraft
operatingbelow 300 knots and fixed-wins aircraft
operatiggup to 1000knots respectively.
these
Efstemshavehad civilian saleslimited to aircraft with
specialneedssuchas certainhelicopteroperationsand
surveying.Figures10.19-10.22 showunits of a
typicalDeccaDoppler7l installation.Interconnections
aresimple;all three indicatorsbeingdriven directly
from the antenna/electronics
unit. A headinginput is
requiredfor the PBDI which, togetherwith the
antenna/electronics
unit, forms a basictwo-unit
system,the two metersbeingoptional. Another
lq._19.?0 Doppter7l position,bearinganddrift indicaror
optional unit is an automatic chart display driven by
(PBDI)
(courtesy
theDeccaNavigator
Co.I_tay
the PBDI or a more sophisticatedreplacement,a
TANS computer.

183

error areusually
error and track-angle
Across-track
availableasoutputsfrom a CDU fbr useby an
autopilot. Obviouslywarningsignalsmust alsobe
providedto indicatethe integrityof the steering
signalsto the userequipment.

Controlsand Operation
We shallconsiderthe Doppler71 as an example,
variationsexist.
althoughobviouslyconsiderable
P.B.D.I.
Indicator,controllerand generalpurposeprocessor
w i t h p r o g r a m m cea p a c i t yo f 1 5 0 0 1 6 - b i tw o r d s .
memory.
Battery-protected

and drift meter

Fig. 10.21 Doppler7l ground-speed
(courtesythe DeccaNavigator
Co. Ltd)

Switches
l. DOP TEST: groundcheckingof sensor;
ST BY: inputsinhibited,displaytlashes;
LAND/SEA: allowscorrectionfor overwater
calibrationshift error to be switcltedin.
2. LMP TEST: checkof displayand lamps;
HDG/VAR: displayof headinginput and insertion
of m agneticvariations;
FIX: positiondisplayedis fixed; Doppler
arestored;warninglamp
incrementaldistances
flashes:slewswitchesoperable:
POS:aircraftlatitudeor longitudedisplayed;
GS/DFT: groundspeedand drift angledisplayed:
BRG DIST: bearingand distanceto next waypoint
displayed;
waypointlatitudeor longitude.
WP: selected
3 . W A Y P O I N TI t o l 0 : a l l o w s f o r w a y p o i n t
selection.Waypointscan be insertedor changed
at any time.
latitude,longitudeor
4. LAT LONG: three-posttion
both (alternately)displayed.
5. SLEW:two switchesusedfor insertingvariation.
and
presentposition,waypointco-ordinates
resettingthe numericdisplaysas required.
\Displays

l. Numeric:twb groupsof threeseven-segment

filamentsshow data selectedby seven-position
switch.
2. Sectordisplay:indicateslatitude no*fh (N) or
south(S), longitudeeast(E) or west(W).
The Doppler 70 seriessystemsare c.w., three-beam
displayshowingtrack error,
(not switched)K-bandradars.Adequatedecoupling 3. Trackerror: analogue
to the selectedwaypoint.
in degrees,
betweentransmitterand receiveris inherentin the
desigr,so allowingthe useof c.w. A localoscillator 4. Warningindicators:incorporatedin analogue
displayto givewarningof Doppler failure
signalis usedfor mixing, so providingan intermediate
(or memory),computerfailureor test mode
frequencyt the Dopplershift. Furtherdetailsof the
selected.
systemareincludedbelow.
(courtesy
Fig.10.22 Doppler7l hovermeter
theDecca
Co.Ltd)
Navigator

184

Ground-Speedand Drift Meter

Drift anglerange:i 39.9o.
Displayofground speedup to 300 knots and drift
Altitude: 45 000 ft abovesround level.
angle+ 30o (expandedscale).
Supply2
: 8 V d . c . , 2A .
Powerfailure and memory warning flags.
Manualsettingof drift and ground speedprovided for.
Testing
Hovcr Meter
Displays:
ModernDopplershavea considerable
amountof
along-heading
velocity- range-10 to +20 knots: built-in test equipmentwith which to carry out
across-heading
velocity- ranget l5 knots;
checks.Syntheticsignalsmay be generated
by
verticalvelocity - ranget 500 ft min-r.
switchingantennasat a much higherrate than normal,
thus leadingto the memory flag clearingand a given
readingpossiblyappearingon the ground-speedand
Characteristics
drift-angleindicator. This might be the effect of
pressingthe test switch on the ground under memory
conditions.If airborneand in memorya similar
ARINC Characteristic540, airborneDoppler radar,
wasissuedin 1958 and lastprinted in January1960; checkcould be carriedout, but ifin the signal
condition,i.e. Dopplershift presentand s.n.r.
it is no longermaintainedcurrent. For this reason
satisfactory,
then a goodand easycheckis to operate
detailsof a currently availablesystem,the Decca
the slewingswitchesto offset ground-speedand
Doppler7l arelisted. Sincethis is primarily a
helicoptersystema'very brief data summary for the
drift-anglereadings;on releasethe readingsshould
MarconiAD 660 systemaimed at the airliner market
return to their original positions. This check will
causea small error in the computedposition but this
hasalsobeenincluded.
DeccaDoppler 7l
Power: 100 mW
Frequency:13'325and 13.314GHz.
Intermediatefrequency:10.7MHz.
Beamwidth: 5o in depressionplane, I lo in broadside
plane.
Depressionangle'.67".
Modulation:none,c.w.
Number of beams:three continuous.
Along-headingvelocity rangeto computer: -50 to
+300knots.
Across-heading
velocity rangeto computer: ! 100
knots.
Supply: I l5 V, 400 Hz, single-phase.
Altitude range:0-20 000 ft over land or over water
when surfacewind ) 5 knots.
Accuracyof sensor- lessthan O'3Voor 0.25 knots
(whicheveris the greater(overland)).
Acquisitiontime: within 20 s.
Indicatedaccuracy,ground speedand drift meter:
3'5 at 100 knots; 5 at 300 knots, drift t 0'5o.
Indicatedaccuracy,hover meter: along and across
velocitiesI I knot, verticalvelocity t 40 ft min-I.
Marconi AD 660
Power:200 mW.
Frequency: 13'325 GHz.
Modulation:f.m.c.w.
Number of beams:four, sequential.
Velocity range: l0-800 knots.

End

Simulated
flight path

151
Sta$ 2

065

WPT 2

Stage 1

Start
Fig, 10.23 Test conditionsfor simulatedflight to check
computer(seetext)

185

can be eliminatedby sleivingin the oppositedirection

by the sameamount to producea cancellingerror.
To check the computer/displaypart of a Doppler
navigatora coursemust be simulatedby setting
compassheading(d.g., directionalgyro, selected),
drift angleiground speedand waypoint courseand
distanceusingappropriateslewingcontrols. Having
set everythingup the computeris switchedon for a
timed run, at the end of which the displayedreadings
d-rouldbe asindependentlycalculated. Usually a
figuresfor
written procedurewill give the necessary
sucha checkbut in any casethey are reasonablyeasy
to work out. As an example,startingwith the
following:
Waypoint I

track 335"

Waypoint 2

track 065"

Appendix
Aircraft and Earth
RelationshipsBetrrveen
Co-Ordinates
A s i n F i g .A l 0 . l l e t i ' , i ' , k ' b e o r t h o g o n aul n i t
vectorsdefining a right-handedco-ordinatesystem
with the positivedirection of the axis spannedby i'
beingforward along the aircraft'slongitudinal axis
and ihe positivedirection of the axis spannedby i'
beingstarboardalong the aircraft'slateral axis.

distance15 nauticd
miles
distance15 nautical
milqs

OlO"
Heading
l0o starboard
Drift
Ground speed 600 knots
at the end of the simulatcd two-hg flight the across
distanceshouldbe zeto, the distancefTown42
nauticalmiles and the time taken 4 min l4'5 s, all to
within the tolerancelaid down for the system.
Ramp test setshavebeenproducedfor Doppler
systems,usually purpose-builtby the manufacturerof
as are, for example,
the radar and not general-purpose
one will
sets.
Sometimes
etc.
test
ILS,
VOR, DME,
switcheswhich can be
find meterswith associated
usedto monitor variousinternal voltagesandior
currentsbut this is more likely on older multi'unit
equipment.
It is important for accuracyto ensurethe antenna
is alignedwith the aircraft'slongitudinalaxis. The
Doppler will interpret any slight misalignmentasa
drift-angleerror. lnitial alignmentof all antennasis
importantbut with a fixed antennasystemoncethe
hole is cut in the airframe,correctly aligned,the only
causefor concernafterwardsis that the antennais
fitted the ccrrectway round. With moving-antenia
systemsan alignmentprocedurefor the antenna
mounting is carriedout initially by usingsightingrods
on the mountingand the aircraft' Viewingthe rods
from a distanceto ensurethey arein line, and then
tiglrteningthe securingbolts throughthe slotted
holesin the mountingplate,will ensurethat the
changedwithout a need.
antennacan be subsequently
one shouldbe
although
for an alignmentcheck.inspections.
on
rnajor
out
carried

r86

FE. At0.l Aircraft co-ordinates

As in Fig. A 10.2let i, i , k be orthogonalunit
vectorsdefining a right-handedco-ordinatesystem
with the positivedirection of the axis spannedby f
beingforward alongthe aircraft'slongitudinalaxis
projectedon to a plane parallelto the ground and the
positivedirection of the axis spannedby 7 being
starboardalong the aircraft'slateral axis projectedon
to a planeparallelto the ground.

k
Fig.A10.2 Earthco-ordinates
Further le! positivepitch be nose'upand positive
roll be starboardwing-down,then from Figs.A10.3
and A10.4 we have:
i'=
k'=

icosP-ksinP
isinP+kcosP

i'= TcosR+/rsinR
k'= -i sinR+kcosR

sinceZ is thevectorsumof Vd,VA' and l/y'. Thus:

vn = hvi+av{+vvl
of the projeition
whereft, a andv arethe magnitudes
system
ofz on to eachaxisof the co'ordinate
i . e . u= h i + a i + v k
FromFigsA10.5,A10.6andA10.7we seethat for:
b e a mI
beam2
b e a m3
beam4

h= -H
h= H
h= H
h=-H

a= A
a= A
a= -A
a=-A

v
v
v
v

=
=
=
=

V
V
V
V

whereI/ = cos0 cosa;.4 = cos0 sina; Z = sind.

k'
F8. A10.4 Aircraftroll
Thus the matrix of transition from l, i, k to i', i',
/c' is givenby:

'[i
lrrhn]
:-il
F::

Fig. A10.5

f cosf
=10
l-sin P

sin P sinR
cosR
cosP sinR

Velocities in longitudinal/lateral plane

vi{

sin P cosRl
-sinR
l=U
cosP cosRJ

l!1,
If the aircraftvelocityvectorl/ hasco-ordinates
Vt, Vv with respectto i, i, k andVfi , Va', Vf with
lo i',i',k'we have:
respect

w=Mxv,,\

V(/
Fig. A10.6 Velocitiesin planenormalto longitudinal/lateral
plane

(Al0.l)

i.e. Vy = Vrt cosP + Vj sinPsin R + Vi sinPcosR

- Vl sin R
Va' cosR
V.e=
=
-Vi
+ Izf cosP cosR
+
Va'
cosP
sin
R
Vv
sin P

The Doppler Shifts for a Four-Beam Janus

Configuration

Fig. A10.7

Aircraft velocity vector

Now the Dopplershiftsaregivenby/2 =2Vnf lc'

Themagnitude
of the relativevelocityvector24, in
thedirectionof anybeamis the innerproductof the. therefore:
aircraftvelocityvectorV andthe unit vectoralong
fi = 2f (-H Vl +,a Va'+ Y Vl)lc
a. Thus:
thebeamcentroid,
Vx'+ V Vf)lc

VR= V'u
=(Vi+V71'+Vv).u

fr=2f(HVil+A
f s = 2 f ( H V r i - A vA'+ v vi)lc
fc = 2f(-H vi 'l v; + v vi)lc

(Ar 0.2)

187

The Aircraft Velocity in Earth Co-Ordinates

Expressedin Termsof DopplerShifts
- From equations(A10.2) we have:

fe)

c(fz + fq)
v l = c ( fi +ft) - __4TT

(Ar0.4)

where
Kp = 47cof .", "

v1i= c(fz;fr\=+*-fr
c(h v; =c(20p.=-rrr

W=MxWir;:itil

(A10.3)

c
i,4 = AEos;1il-;
"! Y

__:_

4f sin 0

are known constants.

rl4 is obtained from pitch and roll signalsandf1,f2,fg

are the Doppler shifts measuredon beamsl, 2 and 3.
Substituting
for Vfi, Vt' , Yi from equations
(A10.3) Note beam4 is redundantbut could be usedfor
(Al0.l) we have:
checking purposes.
into equations

188

11 Radioaltimeter

Introduction
The meaningof the terms aircraft altitude or height is
complicatedby the variousreferencesused from
which the height can be measured.A barometric
altimeter sensesthe static pressureat aircraft leveland
givesa readingdependenton the differencebetween
{his pressureand the pressureat somereferencelevel.
For aircraft flying aboveabout 3000 ft, the reference
of paramountimportanceis that levelcorresponding
to a pressureof 1013.25mbar(29-92in.Hg),the
so-calledmean sealevel. The other barometric
referencesusedare local sealevel and airfield level.
The pilot is able to set the referencelevel pressureat
l0l3'25 mbar,QNH (localsealevel- regional)or QFE
(airfield level),the Q codesbeingusedin
communicationwith air traffic control(ATC).
Converselythe radio altimeter measuresthe height
of the aircraft abovethe ground. lf an aircraft is in
levelflight the barometricaltimeter readingwill be
steadywhile the radioaltimeterreadingwill be
varying unlessthe aircraft is ffying over seaor plain.
It follows that radio altimetersare most usefulwhen
closeto the ground, say below 2000 ft, and
particularly so when landingproviding the final
approachis over a flat surface. As a consequence,
radio altimetersdesignedfor usein civil aircraft are
low-levelsystems,typical maximum rangesavailable
being 5000, 2500 or even500 ft in the caseof usein
automaticlandingsystems.Military aircraft can
utilize high-levelradio altimeters.

BasicPrinciples
Radioheightis measuredusingthe basicideaof radio
ranging,i.e. measuring
the elapsedtime between
transmission
of an e.m.waveand its receptionafter
reflectionfrom the ground. The heightis givenby
hAlf the productof the elapsedtime and the speedof
light:

necessary
in orderto 'mark' tlie time of transmission.
both f.m. and pulsedtransmissions
areused. The
methodof time measurement
dependson the type of
modulationusedand the complexityof the airborne
equipmentwhich is acceptable.Threebasictypesof
altimeterare marketed:pulse,conventionalf.m.c.w.
(frequencymodulatedcontinuouswave)and constant
diflerencefrequencyf.m.c.w.
The bgsicprinciple of a pulsedsystemis simple,
sincethe transmittedand receivedpulsesclearly
representeventsbetweenwhich the time can be
measured.With f.m.c.w.thereis no singleevent
duringone cycleof the modulatingfrequency;however
specifictimesduringone-halfcyclecanbe identified
by the instantaneous
frequencybeingtransmitted.
Sincethe transmitterfrequencyis continuously
changing,the receivedsignal,which hasbeen subject
to delaydue to the round-triptraveltime, will be
different in frequencyto the transmittedsignalat
any instant in time. The differencefrequency,fi,
can be shown to be proportional to the height as
follows.
Assumea triangularmodulatingwaveformof
frequencyfm and amplitudesuchthat the carrier,'/",
is modulatedovera rangeA/. This situationis
illustratedin Fig. I I .l . Th two-waytraveltime is
2Hlc where11is the heightand c the speedof light.
The magnitudeof the rateof changeof transmitted
frequencyis 2 . A/. f^ (= 0.5 Lf lO10.25fil. The
productof the elapsedtime and the rateof changeof
frequencywill givethe diflerencein frequency
betweentransmittedand receivedfrequencythus:

f n = 2 . L f. f ^ . 7 ,
= 4 . A f. f ^ . H l c

( rl . r )

Tltus the measurement

of the beatliequencv
determinesthe heightsince4 .Lf . f^jc is a known
constantfrrr any particularsystem.
The beatfrequencyis constant,for triangular
modulation,exccptat thc turn-aroundregiontwice

& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & &p&e&
( r?b.egisnwget h e e l a p s e d t i m e i n
r c&y&c &
l e&. & & &S&i&
n&
c e&t&
u&
r n&- &
a r&o&u&
n&
d t&a&k &
e s&p=l 4a 9c 2
e ti n

microseconds).
Energyis radiatedat a frequencyh the band
42OO'44O0
MHz. Modulation of the carrieris

havethat the average

beatfrequencyfor 2Zps is
fnl2 l'orthe restof the moclulating
cycle;thebeat
frequencyis constantat fi . If the averagebeat

189

Thfi will result in'a vertical dhplacetnent of thc graph

of the receivedsigral in Fig. I l.l. The effect for a
descendingaircraft (positiveshift) is shown in
Fig. I1.2. As canbe seenthe beatfrequencyis
fn - fa andfi, + f6 for equalperiods. If we take the
averageover half a ntodulationperiod we get

Transmittcd

Un +fa +fn - fil2 =fh asrequired.Thisassumes

fn ) fa which will be the casewith a radio altimeter.

Received

o
C
o
t
ct
o
E
o
.9
!
o
G

Fig.I l.l A FMCWradioaltimeter- frequency/time

relationship
frequencyover one modulatingcycle is detectedwe
will havea measuredfrequencyfi givenby:

C'

= (((tlf; -2r)fn + rfnl2)fm

fn '=
fm(r - 3Tfmlz)

(l1.2) o

With the aircraft at about 2000 ft andf^ = 2OOHz

we have:
fn = fn (l _ 0.0012)

Q'

Fig.I 1.2 Theeffectof Dopplershifton beatfrequency

i.e. an error of about 2.4 ft at 2000 ft. On the ground

therewill still be an elapsedtime, due to built-in
tlsingequation(l l.l) we seethat for a systemwith
delay,ofabout 0.12 ps corresponding
to a residual
A.f = 100 MHz (42504350 MHz) andf ^ = 200 Hz
altitude(seelater)of 57 ft, say. Whenwe use
the beat frequencyfi = (4 X 100X 106X 2OOH)/
(984 X 106)= 8011sothe rangeol fp lor a
0'12 ps andf^ = 2OOHzin equation(l 1.2)we
Illlll=
find that the erroron the grounddue to the averaging 0-2500ft altimeterwith a residualaltitudeof 57 ft
kHz. Thiswide bandrvidthcan
of the non-constant
would be 4'56-?.04'56
beatfrequencyis about 0.002 ft
which is insignificant.
be reducedby' maintaininga constantdifference
In practicea perfecttriangularmodulating
frequencythusimprovingsensitivity.Sincefi
frequencyis difficult to achieve,someroundingat
dependson both Lf andf * we canvary eitherin
the turn-aroundtakingplace. In fact with any
inverseproportionto the heig.htso keepingfi
reasonably
shape-modulation
waveform,it canbe
constant.
servoloop nrustmonitor the
shownthat the average
beatfrequencywhen usedin
The necessary
equation( I I .l ) will yield a heightreadingwhich is
frequencyand control the modulatorso as
diff'erence
c o r r e cw
t ithinacceptable
i m i t s . A p p e n d i xI L I
to changeLl'or frt accortlingly.The control signal
provesthis for sinusoidalfrequencymodulation,whichrepresents
the heightof the aircraft, Sincethe
is easierto obtainsincethe rateof changeof carrier
controlledvariableis madeinverselyproportionalto
frequencyis boundedin magnitudeby unity.
heightit becomesdifficult to employthe technique
lf thereis relativemotion betweenthe aircraftand at lower heights.particularlywhenA/ is varied. This
of
b1'the contpromise
the groundimrnediatelybelow the receivedfrequency latterproblenrcanbe overcorne
will experience
a Dopplershift,/a (seeChapterl0).
c o n v e n t i o n a l al yt l o w a l t i t u d e sa n d r v i t h
operating
190

constantj[ otherwise,or by modifying feedbackin

the loop such that fp varieswith any changein
altitudebut not oversucha greatrangeas it would
with no feedback.The Frenchlnanufacturer
TRT
producealtimeterswith constantfi at all heights,
control beingachievedbyvarytngf^; the tolerance
+ I ft or I per centis met.

FactorsAffecting Performance
Ihe accuracyof a radioaltimeterdepends
fundamentallyon the precisionwith which the time
of transmission
is marked. For precisetiming a wide
transmittedspectrumis requiredsincethis would lead
to a steepleadingedgein a pulsedsystemor, in the
caseof f.m.c.w.,a largefrequencydeviationwhich
effectively givesan expandedscale. Ofcourse a finite
spectrumis transmittedand in fact is limited to a total
spreadof between4200 and 4400 MHz by
(the band 1600-1660MHz
internationallegislation
hasalsobeenallocatedfor useby radioaltimetersbut
is no longerused).
In an f.m.c.w.systema countermay be usedwhich
the numberof cyclesor half-cycles
measures
in one
periodof the modulation.Sincethe counteris unable
to measurefractionsof a cycle,other than possiblya
half, the count is a discretenumber. The process
resultsin a quantizationerror calledstepor fixed
error. We may rewriteequation( I I .l ) as:

H=&,=#

(l r.3)

where,rV= fnlfn is the number of beat frequency

cycles(to nearestintegerbelow)in the modulation
cycle. Sincely' is an integerthe height measuredwill
be subjectto a quantizationerror calledsteperror
equalto cl4Al'which with A/= 100 MHz is2.46 ft.
In practicein any one rnodulationperiodthe
actualcount will dependon the nurnberof
positive-going
zerocrossings
of the beat frequency,
this could be N or N + I dependingon phasing.So if
the phasingvariesthc count will jurnp betweeny'y'and
Iy'+ | and backso avertgingout the steperror
p r o v i d i n gt h e t i r r r cc o n s t l n t< l ft h e i n d i c a t i n g
c i r c u i ti s
l a r g ec o r n p u r ew
' t li t h t l t 0 t i r r r eb e t w e e nc o u n t
f l u c t u a l i o n s l. t c l n b e s h o w t rl h a t t h ec o u n tw i l l
changelirr a charrgcin lrcightol'u quarterof a
w a v e l c n g tohl t l r c r . l ' . A t t l r el ' r c q u e n cuys e df o r
r a d i oa l l i r r r c t c ri .st( l u i t r t cor l ' a w a v e l c n g tilsr l e s st h a n
I i n . l n d l r c n c cr r r r l c sl lsy i r r go v e ' vr c r ys n t o o t h
s u r l a c etsh c l l L r c t t r l t i r r g
l d i o l r c i g hw
t ill cause
a v e r a g i nogr r l o l ' t h c e r r o r . l ) e . l i b e r a t ewl yo b b l i n gt h e

phaseof the modulation frequencywill alsohavethe

desiredeffect providingthe wobbulation rate, say
l0 Hz, canbe filteredout.
lf a frequencydiscriminatoris usedto measure
frequencythe steperror is not presentsince
is continuousratherthan discrete.With
measurement
conventionalf.m.c,w.altimeters.
however.the ranse
of frequenciesto be measuredis largeand
discrirninatorcircuitssufficiently stableand linear are
difficult to achieve.With a constantdifference
frequencyf.m.c.w.altimetera discriminatorcan
easilybe usedto detect the smallchangeswhich
occur in l7r.
The receivedsignalstrengthvarieswith the height
ofthe aircraft. From the radarrangeequationthis
variation is as the fourth power of the range;however
with an altimeterthe greaterthe range(height) the
greaterthe areaof the target(ground)is illuminated.
For radio altimeterstherefore.the variationis as the
squareof the range.The gainfrequencycharacteristic
of the differencefrequencyamplifier(f.m.c.w.)
should be suchthat the higher frequenciesare
amplifiedmore than the lower. Sucha characteristic
helpsby reducingthe dynamicrangeof the
frequency-measuring
circuitand alsoreduceslow
frequencynoise.
Part of the two-waytraveltime is accountedfor by
the aircraftinstallationdelay(AID). Since,ideally,
the radio altimetershouldreadzero feet cln
touchdown,the residualaltitudewhich accountsfor
the AID is madeup of cablelength,multipliedby a
factor (typically l'5) to allow for propagationspeed,
and the sum of the antennaheights.It is important
that the systemis calibratedso asto allow for AlD.
One method which hasbeenr.rsed
for an altimeter
utilizedfor blind landingis to measurethe difference
frequencyon touchdownon a numberof flight trials
of a particulartype ofaircraft. The frequencyarrived
at empiricallycanbe injectedinto the difference
frequencyamplifieron the benchand the setcan then
be adjustedto givea zero feetoutput. A mole
commonmethodis to calibrateby cuttingthe
antennafeedersto an appropriatelength;this will be
describedunderthe heading'lnstallation'.
Transmitter-receiver
leakagecan be viewedasnoise
which limits the receiversensitivityand alsomay
transmit
causean erroneousreading.Useof separate
will givespaceattenuation,a
and receiveantennas
figurein the regicnof about75 dB shouldbe aimed
e l t i m e t eor u t p u t i s
f o r i n a n i n s t a l l a t i ow
n here,tha
usedin critlcalsystemssuchasautomaticIandingand
g r o u n dp r o x i m i t yw a r n i n g( g . p . w . s . ) .
Signalsoccurringat nearzerorangearecausedby
reflectionsfrorn landinggearand other appendages,
191

(al

(cl

Tx

Multipath

r.caraf \
\
\

t
Time (pulsed).
Freq.(f.m.c.w.)

performance
Fig,I1.3 Somefactorsaffecting
aswell as the leakagesignalreferredto above. In
pulsedsystemsand lowest frequencytracking
(spectrumfiltering)in f.m.c.w.systemsis usedto
both constant-difference
frequencyand pulse
altimetersa trackingloop is employedto follow the
retain accuracy.
changesin altitude. Initially, the altitude will be
The altimeter can be designedwith a responsetime
unknownso a searchmode is enteredwhich,while
in the orderof a few milliseconds;
howeverone does
seekingthe correct altitude, will vary receivergain.
not normally wish to follow the snrallestvariationsof
As previouslydiscussed,
at low altitudesthe gainwill
the groundbelow. The output is usuallyfilteredwith
be low, thus while searcfuing
in the frequency
a time constantof saya few tenthsof a second.
(f.m.c.w.)or time (pulsed)regionof the unwanted
signalsthe largegain reductionensuresthey are weak.
The groundreturnis relativelystrongensuringlock-on Block Diagram Operation
to the correctsignaland henceindicationof the
actualradioaltitude.
As alreadymentionedtherearethreemain approaches
Multipath signalsarisesincethe first-time-around to radio altimeters.Most altimetersareof the f.m.c.w,
echowill be reflectedfrom the airframeback down
type, the majority of thesebeingconventionalfor the
to the groundand returnasa second-time-around
sakeof simplicity. Althoughtrackingf.m.c.w.and
echo. Whilethis multipathsignalwill be considerably pulsedsystemsare more complex they do have
weakerthan the requiredsignalthe height-controlled advantages
overconventionalf.m.c.w.aswill be
gainwill in part nullify this favourable
situation. In
from the previousparagraphs.Simplified
appreciated
trackingaltimetersthe initial or subsequent
search
block diagramsfor the threetypeswill be considered.
canbe in the directionof increasing
altitudeso
lockingon to the correctsignalfirst, a similar
Conventionalf.m.c.w. Altimeters
approachto outboundsearchin DME.
The transmitterin a modernequipmentcomprisesa
Aircraft pitch and roll will meanthat the beam
solid-stateoscillatorfrequencymodulatedat typically
centreis no longervertical;howeverif the beamis
100-150Hz rate. Whilemost of the power
fairly broad,at leastpart of the transmittedenergy
(0'5-l W) is radiatedfrom a broadlydirectional
will take the shortestroute to the ground. Provided antennaa smallportion is fed to the mixer to beat
receiversensitivityis adequatetherewill be sufllcient with the receivedsignal.
energyreceivedfrom the nearestpoint for accurate
The echois mixedwith the transmittersamplein a
measurement.
strip-linebalancedmixer to producethe beat
A consequence
of broad beamsis that in flying
frequency.Useo{ a balancedmixer helpsin reduction
overroughterrain,reflectionswill be receivedfrom
of transmitternoisein the receiver.The gainof the
anglesother than the vertical.Sincethe non-vertical wide bandbeat frequencyamplifierincreases
with
pathshavea longertwo-waytraveltime the spectrum frequencyto compensate
for the low signallevelof
of the differencefrequencywill be spread(ground
(highaltitude). Signallimiting
the high frequencies
diffusion). The spectrumshapewili be steepat the
removesunwantedamplitudevariationsand givesa
low frequencyend corresponding
to the correci
suitablesignalform for the counter.
altitudemuch the sameasthe pulseshapein a pulsed
frequency-measuring
circuit
A cycle-counting
systemwill havea steepleadingedge,(see
Fig. I l.3b
providesa d.c. signalto the indicator. Basically
and c). This spectrumwideningis increasedby
suitableswitchingcircuitscontrol the chargingol'a
aircraftroll and pitch. Leadingedgetrackingin
capacitorso that a fixed amountof chargeis
192

Fig. I1.4 ConventionalFMCW altimeterblock diagram

Ft. | 1.5 Constant difference frequency FMCW altimeter

block diagram
pnerated for each cycle (or half-cycle) of the

rmknownbeat frequenry. With the simplesttype of

indicatorthe total chargeper second(current) is
hdicated on a milliammeter calibratedin feet.
Condant Differencc Frequency f.m.c.w. Altimeten
This approachis similar to a conventionalf.m.c.w.
dtimeter at the r.f. end. The beat frequency
anplifier is a narrow band with gain controlled by
&e loop so that it increaseswith altitude. A tracking
discriminatorcomparesthe beat frequency,/6, with
ainternal reference,fr;if the two are not the same,
tr crror signalis fed to the loop control.
The outputs of the loop control circuit are usedto
-t the modulator frequency,f^ (or amplitude if
&viation, Al is controlled), to set the gain of the
anplifier and to drive the indicator. The changein
f- (or A/) is such as to make/6 = /' . Obviouslyany
dage in height will lead to a changein/6 and

consequentloop action to bring/6 back to the

requiredrate;in doing so the indicator feedwill
change.lf f6 andf, are far removed,searchaction is
instigatedwhereby the modulator frequency(or A/)
is made to sweepthrough its rangefrom low to high
until lock on is achieved.
hrlsed Altimeters
A simplifiedblock diagrarfiof a typical pulsed
altimeteris shownin Fig. I 1.6. Suchaltimetersare
manufacturedby, amongothers,Honeywell;the
figuresmentionedin the descriptionof operation
which follow arefor the Honeywell7500Be series.
A p.r.f. generatoroperatingat 8 kHz keysthe
transmitterwhich feedsthe antennawith pulseof r.f.
of 60 ns duration and frequency4300 MHz. The
radiatedpeakpower is about 100W. A time reference
signal,/6, is fed from the transmitterto initiate a
precisionramp generator.

19:t

reliablesignal(tive or six pulses)is receivedwhen the

track loop becomesoperational.
Tx
During track the overlapofthe track gatepulse
and videopulsedeterminesthe magnitudeof a current
which is comparedwith a reference(offset) current.
to
Wherethe two currentsareequal,the output of the
rate circuit (integrator) is zero, otherwisea positiveor
negativevoltageis fed to the rangecircuit. The range
circuit (integrator) adjustsits output voltage,Vp, if
Ramp
its input is non-zero. Since I/p determinesthe timing
of the track gatepulse any changein /p will cause
I
I
the previouslymentionedoverlapto alter until such
1r6ck gate
|
pulse
time as the loop is nulled,i.e. overlapcurrent=
|
I
N
reference
current. Any changein height will
Video rcturn
thereforeresult in a changein Zp to bring the loop
back to the null condition.
Automaticgaincontrol (..g.c.)and sensitivitytime
Fig.I 1.6 Pulsealtimeter
blockdiagram
control(s.t.c.)are fed to the receiverwherethey
control the gain of the i.f. arnps. During searchthe
The ramp voltageis comparedwith the range
a.g.c.circuitsmonitor the noiseoutput of the receiver
voltage,/4, which is proportionalto the indicated
and adjustits gainso asto keepnoiseoutput constant.
height. When the ramp voltagereachesVp atrack
The s.t.c.reducesthe gainof the receiverfor a short
gatepulseis generatedand fed to gateB and an
time, equivalentto say50 ft after transmission,
and
elongatedgatepulseis fed to gateA. The detected
then its controldecreases
linearlyuntil a time
video pulseis also fed to gatesA and B. A further
equivalentto say200 ft. This actionprevents
gatepulseis fed to the a.g.c.circuits.
ircquisition
of unwantedsignals,
suchasleakage,
Unlessa reliablesignalis detectedwithin the
duringthe searchmode.
elongatedgatepulsethe trackisearch
circuitwill
During track the a.g.c.maintainsthe video signalin
sigralthe commencement
of a searchcycleand break the a.g.c.gateat a constantlevel. This is importantto
the track loop by removingits reference
currentfeed.. ensureprecisetracking of the receivedsignalsinceany
During searchthe searchgeneratordrive to the range variationin amplitudewould causethe areaof overlap
circuitensuresthat I/p, startingfrom a voltage
to track gateand videosignalsto change.At low
representing
zerofeet,runsout to a voltage
heightson track the a.g.c.reducesthe receivergain,
representing
2500 ft. The searchcyclerepeatsuntil a so helpingto avoidthe effectsof leakage.Whenthe

-JI||l--

194

heightincreasesthe leakagesignalis, of course,gated

out. givingtime discrimination.

height readingof the radio altimeter it is likely that

therewill be a signalfailure detected. Sincethis is
due to attenuationbecause
ofexcessiverange,and
not a failure or degradationof the altimeter,it is
desirablethat no warningof failure is given and that
Monitoring and Self-Test
the pointer on the indicator is parked out of view.
A cruise-monitoring
circuitmay be incorporated
The integrity of the radio altimeter output is vital,
particularlyin automatic landingapplications. Circuit which, usinga delayedand attenuatedfeed between
transmitterand receiver,
checkscontinuing
redundancyand comparisonis an effectiveway of
dealingwith the problem. For exampletwo separate satisfactoryoperationin the absenceof a detectable
receivedsignal.Any warningto the autopilotmust
dtitude-measuringcircuits may accepta feed from
not be affectedby cruisemonitoring;it shouldbe
the mixer and independentlyarrive at the aircraft's
activewheneverthere is a lossof r.f. or when any
height. Should the two heightsbe different by more
than an acceptableamount, a warning signalis sent to other failureis detected.Contraryto the above,
many radioaltimetersreactto a lossof signalby
the indicator and any other systemsto which the
parkingthe pointer and displayingthe flag.
height inlormation is fed. A disadvantage
of using
The antennaand feeder,if not properlymatched
redundancyand comparisononly is that no attempt ii
to
the
transmitter,will give rise to a reflectionwhich
madeto eliminatethe causeof failure, so information
may causeproblemssinceit will be delayedwith
is lost.
respectto the transmittedsignal.A directional
Self-calibrationis an approachwhich is able to
couplingcircuit may be usedto monitor the reflected
compensatefor small errors. If a part of the
v.s.w.r.
and so givea warningof excessive
signal
transmitteroutput is passedthrough a precisiondelay
The
monitoring
and
self-calibration
circuits
vary
line the resultingsignalcan be usedto provide a
'check
a checkis
height'. For examplein a conventionalf.m.c.w. greatlyin detail and in how comprehensive
systemthe delayedtransmittersamplemay be mixed carriedout. All, however,on detectinga failurewill
providea warning signalto operatea flag in the
with an undelayedtransmittersampleto give a beat
indicatorand a similar,but usuallyseparate,
warning
frequencywhich may be comparedwith a suitable
signal
to
other
systems,
dependent
on
radio
altitude
frequency.
lf
the
two
frequencies
are
reference
information. In particularif a tie-inwith autopilot
different the modulatingsignalis adjustedto bring
the warningsignalwill control
them in line; for example,if the beat frequencyis too hasbeenestablished,
within
the autopilot systemwhich
an
interlock
circuit
A/ by
low, equation( I I . I ) tellsus that increasing
prevents
erroneous
information
dictatingthe flight
will,
the
modulating
signal
amplitude
in
increasing
providelatchedindicator
turn, increasethe beat frequencyas required. Similar path. Somemanufacturers
ideasmay be appliedto constant-differencefrequency lightson the front panelof the transmitter-receiver
which give an indicatioq of the areaof failure.
f.m.c.w.and pulsedaltimeterswheresuitable
A self-testfacilityis usuallyprovidedwherebya
parametersare adjustedasnecessary.
delayline, ideallybetweenantennas,
is switchedin,
A self-calibrationloop suchas describedabove
thusgivinga predetermined
readingon the indicator.
may operatecontinuouslyusingwhat is essentially
A disadvantage
of sucha facility is that it introduces
redundantcircuitry. Howeverin equipmentwhere
devicessuchasco-axialcablerelays
the altitude is measuredby meansof a loop, suchas a electromechanical
which are,of course,somethingelseto go wrong. It
servoedslope(controlledf^) f.m.c.w.system.we
may be arguedthat checkingthat the readingon the
wherethe
may havesequentialself-calibration
groundbefore take-off is somespecifiedIigure near
measuringloop is switched,perhapsthree times per
zerois adequate,
but nevertheless,
someform of
mode.
second.into self-calibrate
in-flighttest facilityis usuallyrequired.
Checkingreceivedsignalquality is a featureof
On pushingthe self-testbutton, providingthe
most altimeters. In a pulsedsystemthe presenceof
detectedreceivedpulsesin a gatepulseis feasible;in a equipmentis operatingcorrectly.the failurewarning
frequencyaltimeter the presence output shouldbe activeso causingthe warningt'lagto
constant-difference
of a spectrumcentredon the requiredbeat is checked. appearon the indicatorand,moie important.
preventingthe autopilotutilizingradioaltimeter
With a conventionalf.m.s.w.altimeterone cannot
an interlock
information. As an extra safeguard.
checka particularpart of the time or frequency
shouldbe providedso asto preventself-testoncethe
domainbut signalplus noiseto noiseratio may be
autopilotor any other systemhasbegunto makeuse
monitored.
of the radioaltimeterheightoutput.
Whenthe aircraft is flying abovethe maximum
195

Indicator
As mentionedpreviously,a milliammetermay be used
to indicateheightbut an altemativeis a servo-driven
pointer. A decisionheight(DFI)facility is also
provided.The pilot setstlle DH bug to the required
heightreadingand in doingso determinesthe voltage
V1, fed to a comparator.The other comparatorinput
is a d.c. analoguealtitudesignalwhich if lessthan Iz4
w i l l c a u s et h e D H l a m p t o l i g h t ,s o w a r n i n gt h e p i l o t
that the aircraliis flying below the DH setting. A
b l o c kd i a g r a mo f a n i n d i c a t o irs s h o w ni n F i g . I 1 . 7 .
whereisolationamplifiershavebeenomitted for
simplicitv.

usedparticularly laterally to avoid roll error in which

caseleadingedgetracking(pulsed)or spectium-filtering
(servoedslopef.m.c.w.)must perform adequately.
The antennasmust be mountedsufficientlyfar apart
to avoidexcessive
leakagebut not so far apartasto
producea largeparallaxerror at touchdown,a spacing
between20 in. and 8 ft may be required.
lf the spacingbetweenantennas,mounted
longitudinally,is 8 ft and the midpoint of the line
joining the antennasis, say,7 ft abovethe groundon
touchdown,then half the shortestdistancebetween
the antennasvia the groundwill be (42 + 72)o'sx g 11
givinga parallaxerror of I ft on landing. This may be
takeninto accountwhen calculatinethe residual

l E
a-L-$oH set
\
E
Comparator
DH bug
or index
Differential amp

Fig. I 1.7 Simplified servodriven indicator

Indicator

Installation

--TSelf

lFla(
FigureI 1.8 illustratesa singleradio altimeter
test
I
installationshowinginterfaceand selectionlinks.
Supply
Co-axialfeederspassr.f. energyto and from the
Transmitterreceiver
transmitand receiveantennasby way of
separate
ato
switches.Whenself-testis activatedthe transmitted L r n K sfl M
OD
energyis fed to the delayunit whereit is attenuated
anddelayedbeforebeingfed back to the receiver.
For a particularinstallationfeederlengthand delayis
known so the correctreadingon self-testmay be
and enteredin the pilot checklist and
calculated
functionaltest procedure.
The antennasarebroadlydirectional,flush-mounted
hornsoften beingemployedgivinga beamwidth
Fig.I1.8 R a d i o a l t i m e t e r i n s t a l l a t i o n
betweenabout 20o and 40o. Broaderbeamsmay be

196

To other
systems:
autopilot,
GPWS,
flight
director

Fig. I1.9 ALA-5lA (courtesyBendixAviohicsDivision)

DH ind.

lrt Lamp\

Alt display
tape
DH Select
-_''Buq

Flag

DH ref.
symbol

AlC ret.
symbol

DH tao

Mast(_

DH adjust
and self
test button

./

oH select/'
Test Knob

FiE I l.l0 KI 250indicatorfor usewith KRA l0 radio

(courtesy
KingRadioCorp.)
altimeter
in respectof leading
altitude. Good performance
edgetrackingor spectrumfiltering will make parallax
in antenna
error worse. A further consideration
reflectionsfrom
positioningis avoidingexcessive
in this
suchasthe undercarriage;
protuberances
respectsidelobe energymust be kept low (say 40 dB
down).
The transmitterreceivermust be mountedwithin

Fig. ll.ll

Typical moving vertical scale indicator

reachof the antennarsincethe feederlength is

critical. Sincethe transmiiteris relativelylow power,
coolingis not a severeproblembut forced-aircooling
energy
ableto copewith up to 50 W of dissipated
may be required.The powersupplywill be I l5 V a'c'
4OOHz if the equipmentis to ARINC specifications
but 28 V d.c.equipmentswill be found.
Aircraft Installation DelaYAircraft installationdelay(AID) is the elapsedtime
197

betweentransmit and receivewhen the aircraft is at

touchdown,and is due to the delay in the feedersand
the height of the antennasabovethe ground. In order
that the indicator will readzero feet on landins the
installationmust be calibrated. Variousmetho-dshave
bien used,by far the most common being that laid
down in ARINC 552,{; AID is definedby the formula:

interchangeability
of transmitter-receivers
between
different installations.
In practiceon a new installation,havingdetermined
suitablepositionsfor the antennas,
a minimum cable
length for feasiblet.r. location will be found.
Equation( I I .4) cannow be usedto decidethe AID
and to calculatethe cablelengths.ARINC 552A and,
installationmanualsprovidea
AID = P+K(Ct+Cr)
( r 1 . 4 ) usually,manufacturers'
graphfrom which cablelength can be readoif. Ar un
where:
. e x a m p l ec o n s i d e r P =l 0 f t , m i n i m u mt o t a l c a b l e
P is total minimum path length between transmit l e n g t h =l 0 f t a n d K = 1 . 5 .W e h a v e
and receiveantennasvia the ground when the
P + K (Ct + Cr) = 25 ft so the 20 ft AID cannot be
aircraft is in the touchdownposition (minimum used. If we choose40 then total cablelenethis
path length is specifiedto avoid parallaxerror); (40 - l0)/l .5 = 20 ft, whereaswith 57 *.luu.
K is the ratio of the speedof light to the speedof
3l'3 ft. One shouldbe careful,when usinga graph,
propagation
of the co-axialcable(typically 1.5); to ensurethat it corresponds
to the type of cable
C1is the transmitterfeederlength;
(RG - 9/U in ARINC 552A) and further
beingr"rsed
C, is the receiverfeederlength.
check the axeswhich may be total cablelength or
(AID is not in fact aircraftinstallationdelay
eachcableand total path or antennaheight(each
sinceAID is an elapsedtime whereasthe
cableys.antennaheightin ARINC 552A).
right-handsideof ( I I .4) is in feet. A more
accurateterm would be residualaltitude.)

Calibrationis achrevedby cutting the cablesto a

lengthwhich givesan AID of 20, 40 or 57 ft (figures
of 40,57 and 80 fr arequoted in draft proposaisfrom
ARINC in 1978). The transmitter-receiver
is bench
calibratedfor the 57 ft AID standard.Groundingone
of threepins on the t.r. plug by meansof a jumper
externalto the unit selectsthe appropriatezero-bias
adjustmentto give the 20,40 or 57 ft AID as
required. The result of choosingthis method is

(J

+
o

P------->
Fig.ll.l2
198

An AID calibration
chart(& = 1.5)

Interface
Wereit not for the usewhich is madeof radioaltitude
informationby other systems,
it is doubtful whether
many civil aircraftwould carry radioaltimeters.The
outputsavailableareheigirt,rateof changeof height,
trip signalsand validity (l1agor warning)signal. Some
of thesewill be fed to the autoland/autopilot
system,
the g.p.w.s.and a flight director.
Most frequentlyusedarea d.c. analogueof aircraft
heightwherevera systemneedsto continuously
monitor radioheightand,essential,
a switched,
lail-safevalidity signal(invalid low). The rate signal,
i.e. rate of changeof height,may be derivedin the
systemutilizingthe heightsignal,but if providedwill
take the form of a phase-reversing
a.c.analoguesigral
(ARINC 552A). The trips areswitchabled.c. voltages,
switchingtaking placewhen the aircraft transits
througha pre-setheight,the DH bug is sometimes
calleda pilot set trlp. Againtrip signalsmay be
generated
in thosesystemsusingthe heightanalogue
sigrral.
Autolandor blindlandingsystemsmust haveradio
heightinformationwhich will be usedto progressively
reducethe gain of the glideslopesignalamplifier (not
radio)in the pitch channelafter the aircraftpasses
overthe outer marker,and will alsobe usedto
generatetrip signalswithin tlte autoflarecomputer.
The followingis a brief summaryof eventswith radio
heights:
140 ft (a) radioaltimeterinterlockswitchedin;

(b) changes
in response
to glidepathsignals;
120 ft (a) preparatoryfunctions;
90 ft (a) check 140 ft operation:
50 ft (a) glidepathsignaldisconnected;
(b) throttle closureinitiated;
(c) pitch demandmaintainscorrectdescent
rate;
20 ft (a) rudderservodisconnected;
(b) aileronscentred.

used. Whetherdual or triple installationsare used

dependson the probabilityofan undetected
degradation;
consequently
dual radioaltimeterswill
only be usedwhere monitoring, self-calibrationand
redundancyare deemedsufficiently comprehensive
and reliable.
As soon as'onefits more than one radio altimeter
to an aircraftthe possibilityofinterferenceexists. If.
the number I systemwere to receivea leakagesignal
from number 2 a falseheight readingmay result. Also
This sequenceis applicable,for example,to a
sincethe antennasarebroadlydirectionaland all
-l
BAC I I series500 aircraft usingan Elliott series
facingdownwardsthe echo from number I will be
ll00 auto touchdownsystem.The 140and 90 ft
receivedby number 2 (and 3) and vice-versa.
trips are fed from the radio altimeter;the othersare
Various safeguards
areemployed. Minimum
generated
in the autoflarecomputer.
coupling
may
be
achieved
by separating
the pairsof
The g.p.w.s.needsradioheighttrips on all modes
antennassufficiently (at least8 ft, say) and possibly
profile
sincethe
changes
abruptlyat differentheights.
ensuringthat the E fieldsof adjacentpairsare at right '
Mode2 operationisexcessive
terrainclosurewarning
and so dependson the rateof changeof radio height. angles(seeFig. I l.l3).
As a iurther precautionmultiple-installation
The trip signalsand the rate signalwill normally be
altimeters
will employ different modulation
generated
within the g.p.w.s.using
validheight
frequencies.As an exampleof how this helps,
irrformationfrom the radioaltimeter.
considerFig. 11.14wherewe havetwo altimeters,one
Somemulti-functionflight directorinstruments
operatingwith a modulation frequencyof 100 Hz,
havea risingrunwaysymbolwhich movesup to meet
an aircraft symbol as the aircraft descendsto
touchdown. Operationis typicallyoverthe last
100 ft. The verticalmovementof the rising runway
t l
dependson the height analoguesignalfrom the radio
--rj t Faltimeter,while its lateralmovementis controlledby
t
t
l
l-+:
o
the ILS localizeroutput. Failure of either radio
c
fb
iA
o {
f ' c
altimeteror localizercauses
the risingrunway to be
o
obscuredby a'RUNWAY' flag.
r
I

IOO MHz

Multiple Installations
All-weatherlandingswill only be safeif information
fed to the autolandsystemis reliable.To achieve
reliabilityof radioheighta multipleinstallationis

til

til
>20in
No. I

l.- *l

>20 in
No. 2

1/105
1/100
F i g . I l . l 4 D u a l - i n s t a l l a t i o nm o d u l a t i o n l i e q u e n c i e s
(100 and 105 Hz)

Er-

til

-l

>20 in

No. 3

Fig. I l. | 3 Triple-instaltation
aerialarrangements

199

..]:GJ,:

the other 105 Hz (e.9.CollinsALT 50). Assumethat (b) Two trips: singlemake contactsswitchingsupply
at one instancein time 're' in one of the receiverswe
from userequipmentbelow pre-setheight.
havetwo signalsboth at fc F 4300 MHz) and both
Adjustable0-2500 ft t 6 per cent and
increasingin frequency;one at 100 Hz rate,the other
500-1500ft I 6 per cent.
at 105 Hz rate. One-hundredth
of a secondlaterthere
will be a non-zerobeat frequencyf6 glen by rateof
Optional (additional to above)
(a) Synchrooutput representingheight to be
changeof frequencyof the most rapidly changing
signalmultiplied by the time lag of the slowesr. So:
employedfor displaypurposes.Sameaccuracyas
(a) above.
=
f n ( L f x 1 0 6 x1 0 0 x 2 ) x ( / )
(b)
Altitude rate 400 Hz phasereversing,200 mV
= ( 1 0 0x 1 0 6
x 1 0 0x 2 )x ( l / 1 0 0- l / 1 0 5 )
1 0 0f t - r m i n - l
= 9'5MHz.
Accuracy:greaterthan t 20 f.p.m. or f l0 per
Thus after one cycle of f^ the interferingbeat is well
c e n tu p t o 5 0 f t ; t 3 0 f . p . m .o r t l 0 p e r c e n t
out of rangeof the differencefrequencyamplifier
50-500ft.
(c) Additional trips: three at 0-200 ft t 3 per cent t
bandwidth. The beat will changeat a 5 Hz rate,
rcachinga nraximumof 100 MHz.
3 ft; two at 0-500 ft t 3 per cent t 3 ft; one at
The different modulation frequenciesare selected
1000-2500ft t 6 per cent. i
jumper
in a sinrilarway to AID, i.e. by a
between
appropriatepins,the jumper beingpart of the fixed
installation.A similartechniquefor pulsealtimeters Ramp Testing and Maintenance
could be to employ sufficiently different p.r.f.s to
'height'
ensurethat the
changedue to an,interfering It is importantto stressthat due to the extensive
pulsewould be at a rate fast enoughto prevent
interfaceit is essentialthat the radio altimeteroutputs
lock-on by virtue of the altimeter time constant.
are compatiblewith thosesystemswhich it feeds.
If we alsoconsiderthe programpins usedto select
modulation frequencyand AID and, further, critical
Characteristics
feederlengths,it is clearthat replacement
of units or
partsof the fixed installationmust only bd carried
The following are selectedand summarizedfrom
out when completecompatibility,both internaland
A R I N C5 5 2 4 .
external,hasbeenestablished.
A functional test on the ramp is quite straightforward.
Input I Output r.f. Coupling
The radio altimetershouldreadnearlyzero feet when
50 f,) RG-9/U (or equivalent)co-axialcable.
switchedon. If the antennasaremountedforwardof
Cable+ antennas.w.r.lessthan l.l : I over frequency the main wheelsthe readingwill be lessthan zero;
rcnge4210-4390MHz.
if aft of the main wheelsgreaterthan zero. The flag
shouldclearshowingthe r.f. path is not brokenbut
Altitude Range
not provingthe loop gainis sufficient;attenuation
From 2500 ft to a'few feet'belowtouchdown.
shouldbe introducedto checkthis but is unlikelv to
be calledfor.
Loop Gain
Whenself-testis operatedthe correctreading
Sufficientto ensureproper operationup to 2500 ft
shouldbe obtainedand the flag should appear. While
assuminga total feedercablelength of 30 ft of
keepingthe self-testswitch pressedthe DH bug may
RG-9/U,a groundreflectioncoefficientof 0'01 and
be adjustedfrom.a higherto a iower readingthan the
with an additional9 dB loop gain for contingencies height pointer, the DH lamp being first lit and then
(e.g.longeror differenttype ofcable).
the pointer.
asthe bug passes
extinguished
Special-to-typetest setsare availablewhich allow
Outputs
variationof simulatedaltitude:this is usefulfor
checkingtrip signals.On somealtimetersoperating
Basic
the self-testcausesthe pointer to sweepagaindue to a
(a) d.c. altitudeanalogue:V = 0.2h +0.4 below
variationin simulatedaltitude.
480 ft; V -- l0 + l0 In ( (/, + 20)/500)above
480 ft (ln beinglog to the basee).
Accuracy:greaterof ! 2 ft or 2 per cent up to
500 ft, 5 per cent thereafter.Time constant0.1s.
200

Appendix

Sinusoidal Frequency Modulation

Alsozlz= Lf l2f^, whereA/is total range'od7 /

l
frequencyvariationso:
vl,,= kV1V, sin (nAlI
+ 2nfrT)

cos(2nf^t * n f*T)
(A I I .4)

If the carrier Vs sin 2nf.t is frequencymodulatedby The beat frequencymay be found by differentiating
a sinusoidalwaveform, V* sin 2rf^t, then the
the argument(angle)in (Al 1.4)with respectto time
output of the transmitter,vs,and the receivedsignal, and dividing by 2z to give
vr, are givenby:
fn = -((n LfT)(2nf^) stn(2nf*t - nf^T))l2r
= nLfTfln sin(2nf^t -nf*T+n)
vt = Vtsin(2rfrt +rnsin2nf*t)
(All.l)
(All.5)
rr = Vr sin (2nf, (t - f) + m sin 2nf* (t - T))
Note the minus sign resultingfrom the differentiation
( A l 1 . 2 ) of the cosineterm hasbeenreplacedby a phaseshift
of n radians.The average
beatfrequencyoverhalf a
where ?nis the two-way travel time and m is the
modulatingcycle,l 12fm, is:
modulationindex (constantin this application).
If receivedand transmittedsignalsare fed to a
7n= 2f* Ullrr^1a,1
multiplicative mixer we have, after some
= r LffmT cosnf^T
(Al l_6)
manipulation,a differencefrequencysignalof:
AgainsinceT 4 | I fm, cosn/rrI= l, so:
v1 = kV1V, sin(2m sin(nf*T)X
7n o 2Lff^r
cos(2nf*Q - fl2)'1 + ZtrfrT)
(All.3)

= 4Lff^Hlc

wherek is a constant of proportionality. Since T is

much smallerthan I I f^ we may write:

(Al1.7)

This is the sameasequation(l l,l) derivedassuming

a
linearmodulatingwaveform.

sin nf*T x f^T

201

12 Area navigation

controlled airspaceis lacking in detail but is sufficient

to make clear the disadvantages.With heavy traffic
we havemany aircraft occupying a relativelysmall
Beforeradio aidswere available,pilots navigatedby
in particularthe scheduled
visualcontact with the ground and were responsible proportionof the airspace,
the
airways. To free aircraft
in
aircraft
air
transport
for their separationfrom other aircraft. With the
a navigationsystemwhich "
one
needs
airways
the
from
adventof radio and improvedinstrumentationit
area,hence area
a
large
used
over
be
safely
can
becamepossibleto fly in situationswhere the ground
tied to fixed points,
irrevocably
and
not
navigation,
could not be
couldno longerbe seenand separation
on the ground. But one
beacons,
VORTAC
as
such
guaranteed.From suchbeginningsthe need for airon ,',cango too far; the thought of aircraftconverging
navigationaids and controlled
and ground-based
from all directionsis frightening.Whatis
an
airport
regionsbecameapparent:
'dog
legs'
is new airwayswhich can remove
In the 1930sthe airspaces':rroundingcertain busy needed
thus shorteningroutesand
ones,
parallel
existing
and
controlledzoneswith
airportsbeganto be designated
times.
relatingto weatherand to qualifications, flight
restrictions,
benefitsof areanavigationare not alwayseasy
The
placedon thosewho wantedto enterthe zone. With
possibleto realize. For examplein the United
even
or
growth
of
a
the growth of air traffic has come the
the areasmost usedby air traffic of the
Kingdom
system.
worldwidecontrolledairspace
'shape'ofthis
transport type is largely coveredwith
scheduled
was
controlledairspace
The
areasand zonesalreadyand an
control
airways,
influencedby the introductionof one of the earliest
area
navigationwhich will benefit
to
extension
ground-based
navigationaids,radio range. This
to achieve. However,in
difficult
is
equipment,introducedin the 1930s,gavefour beams economically
regionssuchasBritain,
busy
small
but
geographically
which suitably equippedaircraft could follow. Beam
is
an
extremelyusefulbool
equipment
navigation
area
flying wascontinuedand intensifiedwith the adoption
aircraft which
general
aviation
of
number
large
to
the
a
system
of
controlled
VOR
and
so
of
confirmed
in
uncontrolled
and
the
airways
beneath
potter
around
airwayswhich radiatefrom ground stations. The
but with
possible
before,
was
generally.
It
airspace
airwayslink control areaswhere a number of airways
easier.
much
now
it
is
equipment
correct
the
convergeover cntresofhigh-density traffic. Neither
the airwaysnor the control areasstart at ground level,
asdo control zoneswhich arecentredon one or a
groupof airports.
Generalized Area Navigation System
The airwavs.control zonesand coritrol areas
constitutecontrolledairspacewithin which instrument Area navigationequipment is not new although the
flight rules(lFR) are in force. Only.instrument-rated acronym RNAV. is fairly recent. In fact RNAV could
havebeenimplementedin the 1950shad the choice
pilcts flying aircraft fitted with a minimum
for an internationalstandardbeen the Decca
iquipment complementcan usecontrolled airspace
for navigationalpurposesalthough,for non-conformingNavigator. Other equipmentsproviding navigation
facilitiesover a wide areaand not tied to fixed points
flights, i specialvisualflight rules(VF'R) clearance
are Loran and Omegaof the ground-basedsystems
canbe obtained from air traffic control (ATC) to
enteror cross.Within controlledairspaceseparation and Dopplerand InertialNavigationSvstemsof the
variety. Unfortunatelyall of these
is the responsibilityof ATC, whereasin uncontrolled self-contained
expensivethan VOR/DME which is
more
are
pilot
who,
systems
airspacei1 is the responsibilityof the
use. The adventof airbornecomputers
in widespread
serviceif in an
however,canbe givena separation
navigation
hasnow madepossiblesophisticated
advisoryserviceareaor on an advisoryroute.
systemsincludingan RNAV systernbasedon
The abovedescriptionof the structureof
Development of Airspace Organization

m2

R/DME. The trick is to 'shift' the position of the

headingand drift angleor
co-locatedbeaconsto a phantom beaconor waypoint
track angleand ground speedor
location chosenby the pilot. The pilot useshis
wind directionand speedor
VOR/DME instrumentationh the sameway as
cross-track
distanceand track error,etc.
before,exceptthat steeringcommandsare ielatedto
Analoguepresentation
on HSI:
a waypoint remote from the beacon.
headingand track
The computer power, of course,allows much more
coursedisplayand setting
than the generationof steeringcommandsto phantom
desiredtrack
beacons,severalnavigationsensorand air data
lateralsteeringcommand.
outputsmay be mixed to provide a meansof lateral
Analoguepresentation
on attitudedirector:
and verticalnavigationand a display of data which
pitch and roll steeringcommands.
can take many forms. The all-purposesystemis
Analoguemap presentation:
illustratedin Fie. 12.1.
route,beaconand waypointdata.

Flight data
storage unit

Automatic data
entry untt

Control and
display unit

Navigation
computer unil

Conventional
instrumentation

Electronic,
moving
or proJected
Map display

Possible
sensor inputs

II

Aar data inputs

Fig. l2.l

Generalareanavigationsystem

The computer. usingstored data and inputs from a No attempt hasbeenmadehere to give a definitive
list
rzriety of sensors.calculatesthe aircraft position
of displayeddatasincethereis considerable
variation.
absolutelyin termsof latitudeand longitudeand also
The datarequiredfor the computerto performits
relativelyin terms of deviation tiom the desiredflight functionareof threetypesand canbe input to the
path. A variety of display formats may be usedas
systemin threedifferentways. For regularlyflown
follows.
routes'hard' datasuchaslocation,elevationand
frequencyof VORTAC beaconsand airports,
Digital read-outon display and control unit:
standarddepartureand arrivalroutes(SIDSand
presentposition, latitude/longitudeor
STARS) etc. will be storedin a flight data storage

203

unit (FDSU), typically on magnetictape. Waypoint

position,'soft' data.may be enteredor amendedin
'scratchpad'
flight by meansof a keyboardand
displayon the control and displayunit (CDU).
Real-timedatafrom navigationand air datasensors
arecontinuouslyavailablefor input from a varietyof
sources.
'soft' the
in
The data relatingto waypoints are
sensethat they canbe amendedbut they may be
'hard' dataon a magneticor punchedcard
storedas
and input via an automaticdataentry unit (ADEU).
This facility is usefulsincean operatorcould havethe
waypoint data for all regularlyflown routes recorded
on cards,the correctone being chosenfor a particular
flight.
{r
Sincethe information from the sensorsis in
analogueform analogueto digital conversation
(A/D) is necessary
beforethe computercan handleit;
in the areanavigationsystem
be
may
A/D circuits
itselfor in the systemswhich feedit.
The form of areanavigationsystemsis by no
meansfinalized,and with the varietyof inputsand
outputspossibleit seentsunlikelythat functional
to the sameextent as
will be achieved
standardization
it haswith other systemssuchaslLS, VOR, ADF,
eLc- Onecoukl write a bttok on those RNAV and
availablenow
VNAV (verticalnavigation)eqttipttrents

(1979) but herespacewill only allow a brief

RNAV. with
of VOR/DME-based
discussion
583'l ' Future
and ARINC Characteristic
examples,
and
of
microcomputers
use
on
depend
developments
displaysystems(see
utilizationof flexiblec.r.t.-based
ChapterI 3).

RNAV PrinciPle
VOR/DME-Based
The basicidea is simple;signalsfrom existingVOR
and DME co-locatedbeaconsareusedto giverange
and bearing,not to the stationbut to a waypoint
;pecifiedby its rangeand bearingfrom the station.
To achievethis the RNAV triangle(Fig. 12.2)hasto
be continuouslysolved.
We have:
pr: distancebetweenbeaconand aircraft;
0 1: magneticbearingfrom beaconto aircraft;
p2: distancebetweenbeaconand waypoint,
02: magneticbearingfrom beaconto waypoint;
p3: distancebetweenaircraftand waypoint;
03: maflneticbearingfrom aircraftto waypoint.
The quantitiesp1 and 0I areknown from normal
VOR/DME operation.the quantitiesp2 and02 are
enteredby the pilot, hencetwo sidesand an included

V O R/ D M T

-\
t'z

Waypotnl

Fig. 12.2 RNAV. trirnglc

204

/"

1,3

angleof the RNAV triangleare known, so p3 and 0 3

can be found.

= ((iz-xr)2 + (y, - yr)')6t

b, = i;:' rdi-i',l4,i:it
wherexL = p1-sin0 p
yk=pkcosok

Q2:)

k=1,2

lf (y, - y r)l(x, - x,) ) 0, 0. is in eitherthe

north-eastor south-westquadrant;if
Oz - y t)l@z xr) ( 0, 03 is in eitherthe north-west
or south-east
quadrant,if yz - y, = 0, 0g is either
0 o r l 8 0 " , w h i l e i xf z _ x r = 0 , 9 : i s e i t h e r g 0 o r
270". The ambiguitycanbe resolvedby observing
that 03 will only changeby a smallamountfor
successive
calculations.An exampleis givenby
Figure12.5wherewe have:

41!s

,,,LK
Fig. 12.3 Vector solution of RNAV. triangle

01
x1
x2
pr
0r

=
=
=
=
=

9 0 . 0 2= 1 8 0 p
, r = 4 0 , p 2 = 3 0 1s o :
40 sin 90 = 4O,yr = 40 cos90 = 0
3 0 s i n l 8 0 = 0 , ! z= 3 0 c o s l 8 0 = - 3 0
( e 4 q ' + ( - 3 0 ) 2 ) o ' s= 5 0
tan-r (-30/-40) = 36.87 0r.
1 8 0+ 3 6 ' 8 7= 2 1 6 ' 8 7.

The solution of the trianglecan be found by

analoguemethodsasin one of the earliestRNAV
computersfor the generalaviationmarket, the
King KN74. The vectorsP{0 1 un6Pzf02 ^t"
representedby squarewaveslilfroseamplitirdesare
If the previouslycalculatedd3 was 216 then the new
proportional to p1 and gz and whosephasesrepresent 0 " is 216'87.
to 01 and 02 respectively.From Fig. 12.3we see
that:

P r l t = =p z l 0 z : p r l t l

( r 2 l. )

wherethe minus sigr indicatesvector subtraction.

Thusif we reversethe phaseof the squarewave
representingOrl0: anAadd this to the squarewave
representingpz l!2 we will havea waveform the
fundamentalof which represents
p3 and 03 in
amplitude and phaserespectively.
Y axis (N)

Fig.12.5 RNAV.triangle
example

(X, Y) andpolar(p, 0) co-ordinates

Fig.12.4 Cartesian
The solution may also be found by a digital
computer. Expressions
for p3 and 03 canbe found
by convertingto cartesianco-ordinates
(seeFig.12.4)
then revertingto polar co-ordinates.Thus:

&-

The programfor the solution of the RNAV

trianglecould be basedon the aboveor someother
formulation of the problem. Sincethe programis
fixed it will be storedin read-onlymemory (ROM).
The trigonometricfunction valuesmay alsobe stored
in ROM to speedup calculations.Note that complete
sine and cosinetablesneednot be storedsince
sin d = cos (0 -90), also
c o s 0 = - c o s | 1 8 0- 0 l i f 9 0 1 0 1 2 7 0 a n d
c o s0 = c o s ( 3 6 0- 0 ) i f 2 7 0 < 0 < 3 6 0 .

Thus, for example,a cosinetable for angles0 to 90

only is sufficient. A look'up table for the inverse
tangentfunction is more problematicaland can be
avoidedby a reformulationof the equations(12.2) to
be solved,for exampleby usingthe cosinerule
althoughhere ambiguity is introducedin the solution
for 0 3 which is slightly more complicatedthan that
arisingfrom (12.2).

DME/VOR
a
Mean sea level

N(m)

Fig.12,7 Slantrangetriangle
RNAV. vector

Waypoint

tl3

Course
deviation
distance

Inbound
course selected

(o8s)

Fig. 12.6' Deviationtriangle

distance(pt) *e needto solvethe slantrangetriangle

shown in Fig. 12.7. The beaconelevationmust be fed
into the equipmentfrom a FDSU, ADEU or by
meansof a keyboard. Aircraft altitudeis obtained
from an encodingaltimeter. Usingthe notation of
Fig. 12.6 we have:
Pr = (@r), _ (A_E)\o3
Sim.ilarcalculationsare necessaryif the systemhas
VNAV capability,i.e. if steeringcommandsin both
pitch and roll are obeyedthe aircraft will achievea
specifiedaltitudeat the activewaypointor at a
specifieddistancefrom the current waypoint.

NP-2041A
BendixNav.ComputerProgrammer

Introduction
The NP-2041Ais a ten waypointRNAV computer.
may be enteredfrom a
The waypointparameters
keyboardon the front panelor from a portable
reader.Bearingand distanceto the
magnetic-card
activewaypoint are found by solvingfirst the slant
rangetrianglethen the RNAV triangle.ln addition
the unit can be usedfor frequencymanagementfor
both v.h.f.communicationand navigation.
( r2.3) The completeRNAV systemcomprisesan
N P - 2 0 4 1 Aa, C N - 2 0 1l A c o m m . / n a vu.n i t , a
'-p3sin(0"-0t)
t.p
DM-2030DME, an IN-20l44' electroniccourse
Ifp is negativefrom (12.3) then the aircraft is to the deviationindicatorand an bncodingaltimeter.
of HSI and RMI is achievedthroughan
Presentation
left of the desiredinbound course. For examplein
IU-2016Ainterfaceunit. The abovepackagecanbe
F i g . 1 2 . 6i f 0 3 = 2 7 0 " , 0 c= 3 0 6 ' 8 7 "( t o ) a n d
to
with an ADF and a transponder
pr = 50 thenp = 50 sin 36'87 = 30 nauticalmiles
complemented
(a 3 ,4,5 triangle)with aircraft to right of courseby
makeup a BX 2000 system.Other optipnsarea
reader
if 03 = 306'87" znd0c.=2700 weatherradarinterfaceand a magnetic-card
30 nauticalmiles,whereas
HP-67
(modifiedTexasSR52 or Hewlett-Packard
then p = 50 sin (-36'87) = -:0 nauticalmiles,i.e.
aircraftowners
scientificcalculator).Largebusiness
aircraft to the left of courseby 30 nauticalmiles.
or nearlyfull
full
for
a
possible
customers
be
would
In the abovefor accuratenavigationthe RNAV
may be
aircraft
singlecngined
while
small
package,
plane;
triangle;hould be in the horizontal
c
o
m
m
. / n a va.n d
V
F
R
s
y
s
t
e
m
:
i
.
e
.
t
h
e
b
a
s
i
c
w
i
t
h
f
i
t
t
e
d
the
from
beacon
DME
to
the
distance
unfonunately
an indicator.
aircraft is givenas slant range. To obtain ground

Coursedeviationcalculationinvolvesthe solution
of another triangleshown in Fig. 12.6. It is normal
with RNAV to give the deviationin terms of distance
rather than angle,at leastout as far asa specified
range. Solution of the deviationtriangleis possible
sinceone side,p3,.andall anglesareknown. So using
the sine rule:

#=m&'r

206

RNAV.system
Fig.12.8 BendixNP-2O4lA-based
Although herewe are concernedmainly with the
RNAV computer,a brief descriptionof the other
unitswill be given. The CN-201lA (Fig. 2.2) is a
panel-mounted
unit containingtwo v.h.f.
two
transmitter-receivers,
communications
an audioselectionpanel,
VOR/LOC receivers,
glideslope
receiver(optional),markerreceiver
(optional)and varioussystemcontrols(a less
comprehensive
CN-2012Amay be usedwith the
and
NP-2041A).The IN-2014,{indicatoris discussed
illustratedin Chapters4 and 5 (Figs4.7 and 5.3).
interfaceunit
The IU-20164 remote-mounted
outputsto levels
convertsVOR/LOC and glideslope
and
that satisfyHSI and/orRMI requirements
performsother functionsnot of interestin this
context. The DME, encodingaltimeter,HSI and
RMI requireno commenthere,havingbeendealt
with elsewhere.The calculatorsare simply modified
to attacha plug-inconnector.

KTS/TTS: displaysground speed(BRG/KTS window)

and time to station in minutes(DST/TTS window)
to waypoint in RNAV or APR modd or to
VOR/DME stationin VOR/LOC mode.
The SBY and ACT windows displaythe number
(0-9) of the standbyand activewaypoint. The
'IN'
legendis illuminatedif courseshown(CRS
window) is inboundwhile'OUT'legend(below
'IN' legend)is illuminatedif courseshown is
outbound.
The Mode selectorcontrolsthe mode of operation
asfollows:

OFF: self+xplanatory.
VOR/LOC: conventionalnavigation,the waypoints
arethe stations.
RNAV: waypointsare remotefrom the associated
stations.Lrft/Right coursedeviationis linear
within 100 nauticalmiles,full-scaledeflection
(f.s.d.) being 5 nauticalmiles,from 100 nautical
Display and Control
miles out deviationis angular.
Figure 12.9 illustratesthe front panel of the
APR: as RNAV but linear deviationup to 25 nautical
digitaldisplays
NP-2041A.Therearesevenseparate
miles,f.s.d.being l'25 nauticalmiles.
indicators. 'TEST': specifieddisplayfor satisfactoryoperation.
eachemployinggas-discharge
seven-segment
The quantity displayedin eachof the windows
Data is enteredby meansof the keyboardor by
dependson the position of the DisplaySelector
magneticcardreader.Of the l6 keys 1l aredual
witch and,for someof the displays,the Mode
functione.e.FREQ./I , NAV.2/. (decimalpoint), etc.
Selectorswitch. With the DisplaySelectorset to:
Data entry must alwaysbe in the correctsequence
parameters
FREQ.,
asfollows:
shown
in
waypoint
SBY: standby
B R G / K T S .D
, ST/TTSE
, L X l 0 0 a n dC R S
l . p r e s sS B Y W P T ,F R E Q . ,C O M . l , C O M . 2 ,
windows.
parameters
for
SBY.
B R G ,D S T ,E L , C R S ,N A V . I , N A V . 2 ,A D F
shownas
ACT: activewaypoint
key asrequiredto select
or XPR (transponder)
BRG/DST:displaysbearing(BRG/KTSwindow) and
for data;
appropriateaddress
distance(DST/TTSwindow) to activewaypointin
2. pressnumberkeysto enterdata;
RNAV or APR mode or to VOR/DME stationin
window and if correct
VOR/LOC mode.
3. checkdata in app.r-opriate

207

\__',,

Fig. 12.9 NP-2041A (courtesy Bendix Avionics Divrsion)

press'ENTER' key.
An annunciatorlight indicateswhen a key is being
pressed.
As an examplethe sequencefor the entry of
NAV.I frequencyis:
l. selectKBD on COM.iNAV. unit;
2. setmodeselectorto VOR/LOC;
3. pressNAV.I key, ensuredot in FREQ.window
flashes;
4. pressappropriatenumberkeys,e.g. 109'80,
ensurereadoutin FREQ.window (scratchpad)
is correct:
5. press'ENTER' key. Frequencywill be
transferred
from FREQ.window to NAV.I
window in COM./NAV.unit within which the
NAV.I receiverwill be tuned to that frequency.
A lurther exampleis given by the insertion of a
waypointparameter,
saystationelevation200 ft for
with waypoint3:
beaconassociated
l. modeselectorto any positionother than'OFF'
or'TEST':
2. displayselectorto SBY;
3. pressSBY WPT key;
4. pressnumber key 3, ensure3 appearsin SBY
u,rndow:
20a

5. pressEL key, ensuredot in EL X100 window

flashesl
6. pressnumberkeys0 and 2 in that order,ensure
02 appearsin EL Xl00 window (scratchpad);
7. press'ENTER'key.
i.e. FREQ.,3RG,
The other waypoint parameters
DST, CRS may be enteredin a similarway. To enter
outbound coursewe pressthe CRS XFR key having
previouslypressedCRS key and enteredinbound
course.
Two keys not previouslymentionedareWPT XFR,
which transfersSBY waypoint number to ACT, and
LPP,which loadsthe presentposition of the aircraft
into waypointzero.
Block Diagramdperation
Microcomputer The heart of the NP-2041Ais a
which comprisesa central processor
microco-rnputer
unit (CPU),systemcontroller,ROM, RAM, system
clock and hput/output (l/O) ports. The CPU is an
the associated
chips
8080A 8-bit microprocessor,
being drawn from the same8000 seriesfamily e.g.
8224 clock generator8228 systemcontrol and bus
peripheralinterfaceetc.
driver,8255 programmable
The microcomputeracceptsdata in a suitableform

fRot{t
PAr{tt0tSPLAYS

0tsPtAY
0ArA
coitIR0t

CARDRTADTR
INPUT

M I CROCOM
PUITR

v(n mf
lilPUl

PARAtttt
I U NI N C
DAIA

|Il v^t
NPUT

ll,AY POllil
8 I A RI N G
IURI

t I N I A RI Z T D
WAYPOINT
v A RI A8 r t

t?.t9 Np-2041Ablock
diagram(courtesyllendir
lq.
AvionicsDivision)
from the keyboard. selection-switch,carrl

reader, nav.
receiver,
DMEreceiver
anoatti_ei.r.-ii"ln"o", a",, long asa memoryhold voltage(external)is
maintained.In additionthere
is subjected
to arirhmeric
onatugj.oi'oo.r;tii3",
is 2K bits of storein
_o
thenoutputin a suitablef*;;i"",h..
*o]r
whie-h
provid.,,
,".;;;;riJlug" ro,
itoi,'Bra,
l:li,:1.
oara
trom the CpU. disranceto
comm./nav.
andInterlaceunits.Theoperations
*aypoini. L."rringto
on
waypoint,qtc. Volatii
dataareperformedby rr,r.cpti-*iri.r,
lost(<lumPeri)
ffi;;;;
whentheequipment
instructions
and/ordatafrom nOU',naii
rl'r#;l:?js
_
flO
porrs.Thelistof instructions^(progia",i'iri"
i<OU, Inputs Waypointpararneters.enter
CPUstoringthea<jdress
of thecurrentandnext
the microcomputer
,tjr^e.
via the keyboardor card_reider;;.;i;.;:';?n
rnstruction
in internalregisters.
An inr;;;.;;;; ,uy
a key
beto carryout anarith
solutionof oneof ,h. JT:t::^:ptration aspartof tire
or to readdaraout of,
microprocess".
or wntedatainro,," ,/lfi:i::
a*j"ept,,iiiH:,?i|.,l,?i.:t:.r.
A key can be pressed
TheROMprovides
Zo rni urt., ,fr. p*ri.", ,"..
a.t3t1l^19n-v^olatile
(permanent)

"t,i*n.,'i"."
ild;:i:i'*:f?f int"iu"

menrory
ofe6Kbits(e6x l0l4 = ,816;

The card-readirinterfaceraises
the signallevelto that
suitablefor TTL operation,"d
s;;;;;;; rn'i"irrrrp,
signalw-hichcauseithe microprocessor
basic
;fdsi,.'**OV
service
loopsVOR/LOC,
to break the
l"o
service
loop in prosresswhile it ,.;;;;
APR..The
totatnon-votatile
[eM i, zriiir'
i"ii*onr.
Datafronr tne VOR receiver
r,?.rage
for
is in rhe form ol two
the.
te
rs
fo
gar1m9
r
I
0
way
poin
lir^"td_t-lg.
rs. constantamplitudesquare.
Inedarain rhenon_volatile
waves,
RAMin onlyr"iuii,.O
,, phaseand variable(var.)phase. reference(ref.)
Th. ;L;;;;;;;*"*

friri. rr,o
storagespaceis usedfor rhe prograr's
tbr the four

zop

waypoint are serially shifted out to the ECDI lbr

between the ref. phaseand var. phasesignals
Ospiayin the courseand distancewindow.
VOR
A
the
station.
to
representingthe bearing
Comm./nav.frequencymanagementis achievedby
voltagecontrolled oscillator(v.c.o.) is phase-lockedto
parallel
b.c.d.addressand dataoutputsfor tuning
-OR
type phase
the ref. phaseusingan exclusive
purposes.
comparator. (If two squarewaves,of equal frequency
'l'
'0'
The bearingto the waypoint is fed to the ECDI
are applied
and phase,switchhg between and
and
alsothe interface unit in the form of the RNAV
to an exclusive-OR gatethe output will be zero since
ref. phaseand RNAV 30 llz var. phasgderived
Hz
30
0@0 = 0 and I @l = 0; if not in phasethe mean level
waypoint bearingoutput LSI and waypoint
from
the
of the output will be non-zero). The ref. phase-locked
d/a
converter. The feed to the waypoint
variable
signalis fed to the var. phase-lockloop where it is
from the I/O ports is in digital format.
LSI
bearing
with the var. phase,the difference
phase-compared
processesthe RNAV 3QHz ref. and 30 Hz
ECDI
The
controlling the repetition rate of pulsesfrom a second
var.phasesto produce left/right deviationsignalsto
integratedcircuit)
v.c.o. The VOR LSI (large-scale
'bar'. The interfaceunit sirnilarlyprovides
drive the
countsthe pulsesfrom the variablerate v.c.o.to
left/right deviation signalsfor the HSI (and possibly
obtain the bearingwhich is fed to the l/O ports as a
autopilot).
four-digitb.c.d.numbertwo digitsat a time (since
The displayintensity control setsthe intensity
databus is only 8 bits wide).
of the sevensegmentindicatorsand front panel
level
The DME distancedata input is in the form of a
with the settingof the
in accordance
annunciators
pulsepair where the time interval betweenpulses
' D I M ' c o n t r o l o n t h e c o m m . / n a vu' n i t . A c o m m o n
the distance(12'36 ps per nauticalmile)'
represents
'DIM' control is usedfor all units of the BX 2000
The DME ISI convertsthis time-intervalinto a
systemto ensureuniform intensity of lighting.
four-digitb.c.d.numberwhich, asin the caseof the
VOR LSI output, requirestwo readingsfo transfer
the data through I/O Ports.
King KDE 566
An encodingaltimeterfeedsdatavia buffers'
(interface)to setlatchesin the I/O ports. The data
in 500 ft incrementssincethe C1, C2 and C4 Introduction
changes
linesfrom the encodingaltillleterarenot connected The KDE 566 is an automaticdatainput/output
system(ADIOS) usedwith the KCU 5654 control
(seeChapter8).
u n i t ( F i g . 1 2 . 1 2 )f o r m i n gp a r t o f t h e K N R 6 6 5
The flag signalsof externalequipment(e.g.nav.
and DN{E)aremonitoredby the flag interface.If an digitalRNAV systemillustratedin Fig. 12.11. The
completesystenr,which may havemore units than
invalidsignalis detectedthe flag interfaceoutput is
thoseshown.will not be describedsincea systemwith
computer.
ports
to
the
l/O
through
transferred
hasalreadybeendiscussed'
similarcapabilities
Finally,the mode and displayselectorinterface
an ADEU in any detailso
not
considered
We
position
of
have
translatethe informationrelatingto the
566 follows. In f'act
of
the
KDE
description
brief
that
are
a
logic
levels
the appropriateswitchesinto
rather
than an ADEU
an
ADIOS
is
called
the
unit
ports.
I/O
the
to
applied
sincethe magneticcardsmay be recordedby the
unit usingdata frotn the KCU 5654.memoryaswell
Outputs Data to be displayedon the front panel is
data
asprovidingthe dataentry or input function from
display
ports
to
the
transferredthroughthe I/O
cards.
pre-recorded
b
.
c
.
d
.
a
d
d
r
e
s
s
,
b
.
c
.
d
.
o
f
d
a
t
a
c
o
n
s
i
s
t
s
T
h
e
control.
The magneticcardsare about the sizeof a business
dataand decimalpoint. The displaydatacontrol
(frequency,
cathode cardand can storethe waypointparameters
decodesthe dataand providesthe necessary
waypoint
and
outbound,
course
inbound,
course
gas
displays'
discharge
and anodedrivesfor the
ten
The appropriatedatawill not be displayedbut will distanceand bearingfrom the beacon)for up to
if a flagsignalis detected.For waypoints. A numberof cardscanbe preparedfor
be replacedby dashes
(from-to) can
examplethe BRG/DST flag in RNAV mode will show frequentlytravelledroutes. The route
top
right
corner
and
the
on
each
card
DME
noted
search'
be
flag,
DME
for any of the following: nav.
cannot
be
they
so
that
the
data
to
fix
of
off
1,
loss
clipped
with
nav.
paired
frequency
not
test,DME
nav.or DME input signalsor ILS frequencyselected. changed.
by the computer
The RNAV flagsignalgenerated
must alsobe fed to appropriateexternalequipment. Block Diagnm Operation
The KDE 566 operationis bestexplainedin termsof
The selectedinboundor outboundcourseof the
the
to
its modesof operationwhich aremonitor, record,
distance
the
computer
and
waypoint
active
210

Card slot

KCU 565A
memory/control/display

DME Tune
Digital
distance
DME dist.

KDr571
dist. spd/tts
indicator

Digital course
glideslopedev. and flag
RNAV./VOR/LOC
dev. and ftag
KN 581 RMI

Fig. l2.l I King KNR 665 RNAV. system

thereis a synchronizing
sequence
of 6 bits set to I
followedby 2 bits at 0. The datacycleconsistsof
l0 X 5 X l6 = S00 bits sincethereire l0 waypornts,
5 waypointparameters
and l6 bits for each
parameter.A further96 bits followingwaypoint9
'test
aredesignated
waypoint'. Thuswe havea total
of 904 bits from the KCU 5654 which arestoredin
four shift registermemoriesprovidinga more than
adequatestoragespaceof 1024bits. In this mode
the KDE 566 memoryis a mirror imaseof the
K C U 5 6 5 , 4m e m o r y . U p d a t i n go . . u r c e v e r yI 1 . 3m s .
RECORD
The recordmodeis activatedwheneverthe recorcl
button is pushed.The modewill not be entereduntil
Fig.12,12KCU565A(courtesy
KingRadioCorp.)
the end of a memory-refreshing
cycleassignifiedby
tl.reoutput of the memorysynchronizer
to the mode
enterand error. The mode control circuit nronitors
control circuit.
the recordand enterbuttonsand the belt position
On insertinga cardin the slot a microswitchis
detectorto determinewhich mocleshoul,ibe actlve
closedby the cornerof the cardunlesspreviousiy
andso instructthe restof the svstem.
clippedoff. The recordbutton switchis in series
w i t h t h e m i c r o s w i t c ht ,h u sw h e nt h e b u t t o ni s p r e s s e d
MONITOR
t h e n t e m o r yi s t e m p o r a r i l yf r o z e n .t h e m o t o r d i i v e
& r i a l d a t ai s c l o c k e di n f i o m t h e K C U 5 6 5 A t h r o u g h systentis activatedand the cardbegins
to travelout
the memorydatagatingand voltagetranslation
of the slot providedrhe cardis whJe and fully
circuit.the clock pulsescomingfrom the rnasterclock inserted.The motor.drivesa belt which has
small
in the KCU 5654. lmmediatelyprior to a data cycle holesin it at appropriatepointsallowinglight
from a

211

KDE 566

KCU565

!KDE 566

Mastor
clock in

Front
panel

Serral
data out
Serial
data in
Read/write

Enter button
I

Record button

1 4 vI
tov I to all l.C.'s
s v j

PWR switch

Fig. 12.13 KDE 565 block diagram(courtesyKing Radio

Corp.)

lamp to shinethrough onto a photoresistorin the belt

p o s i t i o nd e t e c t o ri n p u t .
- Whentl.recardhasbuilt up speedthe mode control
is notified by the positiondetectorthat all is ready
for recording.The datais clockedout of the four
to four magreticheadswhich record
shift registers
the digitaldataat the appropriatepointson the card

212

thc ferromagneticoxide in one of tlyo

by magnetiz-ing
on whether0 or a I is toie--''
directions.depcrrdilrg
recorded.A systt:nicounteris advancedone count
eachtirlc thc nremoryis clocked. Bctweenwriting4
and previously
bits (at a lirrre)the card advances
recordeddatais erased.After 256 countsthe data
hasall beenrecordedand the systemreturnsto the
m o n i t o rn t o d e .

ENTER
A card, on which a set of data are recorded,is pushed
fully home in the slot closinga microswitch so
positionedthat it will closeeventhough the corner of
the cardis clipped. Whenthe enterbutton switch,in
serieswith the microswitch,is pressed,the motor
drive systemis startedand the card travelsoutward.
When the card reachesa position slightly before where
datarecordingbeganthe belt positiopdetector
notifies the mode control when then'enablesall enter
circuitry.
The magneticheadsread data from the cardssince
the changingmagneticfield, asthe card passesover a
magnetized
part, will causea currentto ilow in the
coil wrappedaroundthe headcore. Because
of the
way in which the datawererecordedthis current
occursin pulses,positiveor negativedependingon
whether I or 0 was recorded.Eachof the four heads
feedsan amplifier and thencethe thresholddetecrors
which providedigitaldataoutputs. The digitaldata
arefed to the datadecoderswhich enterthe datainto
the correctmemory channelsequentially.The
four-channelcount multiplexergathersthe counts
from all four channelsproducingone count ourpur
for the counterand decoder.
Whenthe cardhastravelledpastthe end of the
datatracksthe belt positiondetectorinitiatesthe
error checkphasevia the mode control. The counter
and decoderoutput is examinedto determineif
4 X 256 = 1024bits havebeencounted. If the count
is correctthe mode control gatesthe masterclock to
memory,actuatesthe read/writeline to the KCU
565A and entersthe contentsof memoryinto the
KCU 565.4memory. After datatransferis complete
the KDE 566 returnsto the monitor mode.
ERROR
If the count from the counterand decoderis not
1O24the mode control initiatesa flashinered error
light and returnsto the monitor mode. lio attemptis
madeto enter datainto the KCU 565A.

Standardization
The first meetingsof the AEEC areanavigation
sub-committee
wereheld in 1969to discussan ATA
statementpreviouslyprepared.Threepossible
systemsfor airlineusewereproposed:a simpleMark
l, a sophisticated
Mark 2 and a Mark 3 which involved
an expansionof INS. The ARINC characteristics
lor
the Mark I and 2 systemswerepublishedin i970:
however,beforepublicationof the Mark 3
characteristic
it wasdecidedthat the Mark I system,

which by this stagewas no longer '$mple', and the

Mark 3 systemshouldbe combined,hence
the
publicationin 1974of the ARINC Characteristic
583-l Mark l3 areanavigationsystem.The remainder
of this sectionwill be usedto briefly describetne
Mark 13 system.
The Mark 13 is a three-dimensional
systemdesisned
for usein all typesof commercialtransportaircrafi.
The basicinformationrequiredfor lateraland vertical
navigationis derivedfrom a mix of VOR/DME and
INS dataplus altitudefrom an air dlta iomputer or
sinrilarsource.If INS dataarenot available
VOR/DME fiing with air data/magnetic
heading
smoothingis usedin which caselossof VOR/DME
dataleadsto an air databaseddeadreckoninsmode.
The parameters
of at leasttwenty waypoiits are
providedfor usingmanualor automaticentry. Two
successive
waypointsdefine a greatcircle leg with
respectto which navigationand steeringcommand
or deviationsignalsarefed to conventional
indicators
to givelateraland verticalcommandsand in addition
areproducedfor useby the AFCS. Both parallel
track and verticalpositioningat any point on the
track arecapabilities
providedby the system;in the
latter casevisualand auralaltitude alert sisnalsare
generated.
The Mark l3 systemcomprises
two units, a
navigationcomputerand a controland displayunit,
with the possibleaddition of a flight data storage
unit. Processing
of the inputsand generating
the
outputsshouldbe performedby the NCU while the
CDU providesthe pilot/systeminterfaceincluding
control of the INS when usedasan RNAV source.
The sys.eminputs are as follows:
VOR omni-bearing:analogueor digital;
DME slantrange:pulsepair,variablespacing;
INS: presentpositionlatitudeand longitude;
INS: true headingand velocity(NiS and E/W);
altitude:analogueor digital;
baronretriccorrection:only if analoguealtitude
uncorrected;
TAS: synchro,a.c. analogueor digital for data
smoothingand d/r;
magneticheading:synchro;
VOR warning:discretehigh or low level;
D M E w a r n i n g :d i s c r e t e ;
altitudewarning:discrete;
TAS warning:discrete;
magneticheadingwarning:discrete;
progralncontrol: pinswired to chooseinput
rlpiions:
phase:26 V 400 Hz;
a.c.reference
go-around:discretefrom AFCS,

213

altitude alert cancel:discrete;

Mach number: synchroor digital;
IAS: synchro;
ILS localizer/glideslope
deviation:d.c. analogue;
localizerfailure: discrete;
glideslopefailure: discrete;
AFCSengaged:
discrete;
autothrottle engaged:discrete;
digitalclock input: ARINC 585.
The systemoutputs are as follows:

omni-bearingto waypoint: sin/cosfrom four-wire

resolver;
relativebearingto waypoint: synchro;
crosstrackdeviation:high- or lowlevel d.c. analogue;
vertical track deviation:ascrosstrack;
lateral track angleerror: synchroor'digital (b.c.d.);
drift angle:synchroor digital (b.c.d.);
lateral track changealert:.28V d.c.;
vertical track changealert: 28 V d.c.;
lateralsteering(roll command):a.c. or d.c.
analogue;

Fig 12.t4 TIC T.34A RNAV. test set(courtcsy

Tel-lnstrumentElectronicsCorp.)

214

vertical steering(pitch command):as lateral;

to/from: high-or low-leveld.c.;
desiredlateraltrack: synchroor digital(b.c.d.);
track angleerror plus drift angle:synchro;
distanceto waypoint:digital(b.c.d.)0_399.9
nauticalmiles;
presentposition(lat./long.):digital(b.c.d.);
groundspeed:digital(b.c.d.)0-2000knoti:
t i m e t o g o : d i g i t a (l b . c . d . 0
) - . ] 9 9 . 9m i n :
crosstrackdistance:digital(b.c.d.),O-3gg.g
nauticalmiles;
lateraltrack angle;digital(b.c.d.);
desiredaltitude:digital(b.c.d.)0-50000 ft;
secondsystemdata: two-wiredatabus:
RNAV systemfailure:high-or low-leveldiscrete:
altitudealert failure:discrete;
digitalbus warning:discrere;
a u t o t u n ev a l i d :d i s c r e t e ;
altitudealert: discreteauraland visual.:
VOR frequency : 2l 5 selection;
systemstatusannunciation:28 V d.c. onceper
second;
high deviationsensitivity:28 V d.c. when selected;
VOR frequencyalert: 28 V d.c.when discrepancy;
paralleloffset track alert: 28 V d.c.when selected:
speederror: d.c. analogue;
speederror warning:discrete.

TestingRNAV

An RNAV systemis simply a computerwhich actson

data from externalsensors.In order to check for
standardoperationthesesensorsmust give known
inputs to the RNAV system. For examplewe could
useappropriateVOR and DME test setsto give a
bearingand distancefrom beaconof lg0'anA fO
nauticalmiles respectively,then with a waypoint
positionof 090" and .10nauticalmilesfrom the
beaconthe RNAV bearingto the waypoint shouldbe
53.13" and the RNAV dislance50 nautlcalmiles
sincewe haveset up a 3 : 4 : 5 triangle. This simple
examplecan be extendedto incorporatethe other
inputs demandedby more sophisticatedsystems.
Flagoperationmust be thoroughly tested. A self-test
which checksthe displayand displaydrive and
perhapsother circuitsis usuallyprovided.
Tel InstrumentElectronicsproducean RNAV test
set,the T-34A,which is in fact a combinedDME/VOR
ramp tester. The convenience
of suchan
arrangement
is obvious.The DME sectionis virtually
the sameas the TIC T-24A (Chapter7) the VOR
sectionis similaFffffie TIC T-278 (Chapter4) but
with additionalfeitures,i.e. 108.05MHi r.f. ind
b e a r i n gosf 4 5 " , 1 3 5 o 2, 2 5 " ,3 I 5 o .
It shouldbe remembered
when trouble-shooting
that, if the systemincludesan ADEU or FDSU,
mechanicalproblemsmay occur affectinginput of
data. Poor contactbetweenreadingheadand
The precedinglist of input and output signalsis
magneticcardor tapecancausea lossof data. If the
ratherlengthybut illustratesthe computingpo*.,
cardor tapednve slowsdown but the readine
-magnetic
availablein modernequipment.Detailsof ihe sienal frequencyremainsthe same
then the rateof
characteristics
canbe found in ARINC 5g3. The last flux is slowerand hencethe headoutpui
is lowered.
eightof the inputsand the lasttwo of the outputsare Whenrecording
a slowdrivecauses
biis to be wntten
designated
asbeinggrowthinputsar outputs. The
on top of eachother (pulsecrowdinglosses)
while if
method of achievingthe necessary
outputs, giventhe the drivespeedsup the bit is recordedovera longer
inputs, is left to the designerand will vary in both
lengthof track leadingto incorrectheadoutput if
hardwareand software.
replayedat normalspeed.

215

13 Gurrentand future
developments
conditionswhere previouslythe aircraft would have
to be grounded.
The reluctanceto replacean equipmentwhich is
Changesin aircraft radio systemsoccur more and
perfbrmingadequatelyreducesthe sizeof the rnarket
more frequently due to the improvingstateof the
for the radio systemmanufacturer.Of coursethereis
art. The first airborneradio equipnrentsused
problem with new aircraft which will have the
no
thermionicdevices,
cat'swhiskerdetectorsand large
latestprovenequipmentfitted. Paradoxically,
the
parallelplate tuningcapacitors;
power,weightand
situationwe haveis that the aircraftfitted with
sizewere restrictionson the developrnentof such
equipmentemployingthe lateststateof the art are
equipments.In the 1950stransistorized
equipment
more likely to be in the generalaviationcategory,
beganto appearalthoughnot completely
sincethat marketis very much biggerthan that for
transistorized,
the r.f. stages
beingreluctantto
conrmercial
airliners.
succumbto solid state. Even now the thermionic
Completelynew systemsdo not appearvery
deviceis still with us in the shapeof the magnetrortr
frequently,althoughwhen they do it is often
and the c.r.t.but not, I think, for very long. Claims
the improvementin the stateof the art has
because
concerningan all solid-state
weatherradarweremade
made the impossiblepossible.An airborneOmega
aboutmid-1979,a commerciallyviableequipment
receiverwasnot a viablepropositionuntil the
appeared
in 1980(e.g.CollinsWXR700). The c.r.t.
will remainwith us for many yearsbut will, I'm sure, computerpowerand memorycapacitynecessary
could be economicallymade availablein a box of
eventuallybe replacedby a matrix of
reasonable
size.
electroluminescent
elements.
SyqtemssuchasVOR, DME, ILS, etc. require
Transistorizedequipmentis of coursestill
enorrnouscapitalinvestmentand so once adoptedon
marketed,but many of the transistors,
diodesand
a largescaletend to last an extremelylong time.
resistors
now appearon integratedcircuits. The
During and immediatelyafterWorldWar II many
emergenceof first small scaleintegration(SSI) then
but only a few
airborneradiosystemsweredeveloped
medium scale(MSI) and now.largescaleintegration
new
systems
developed
since
the
1950shave
survived;
(LSI) of evermore componentson one chip has
replacements
for
been
internationally
agreed
not
revolutionized
the designof air radiosystems.In
existingsystemsbut providedcompetitionfor them.
particularusingLSI techniques
to produce
The microwavelandingsystem(MLS) which will
microprocessors
opensup a wholenew world.
succeedILS will be the first replacement
system,as
The rate of developmentin the last decadeor so
for
to
competing
system,
decades.
opposed
that
means
many aircraft fly with a rangeof
It must be mentionedin the introductionto a
technologiesrepresentedin their electronicsystems.
chaptersuchas this that the changeswe are seeing,
It is not inconceivablethat an aircraft could be in
haveseenand will be seeing,are to a largeextent due
servicewith a valveweatherradar,a transistorized
to vastexpenditureon defenceand spaceresearch.
ADF and an RNAV systememployinga
Havingstatedthe obvious,I will now briefly give my
microprocessor,
or someother combinationwhich
would make it a flying electronicsmuseum. That this thoughts,occasionallysupportedby facts, on what is
to come.
happensand will continueto do so is the company
accountant's
choicenot the engineer's
or the pilot's..
The replacementof one systemby another
performingessentiallythe samefunction must be
The State of the Art
justified in termsof increasedsafety,increasedpay
load,increased
reliabilityor an improvementin
and other LSI circuits are usedin
The microp*ocessor
performancewhich allowsflights to be made in
the currentgeneration
of radiosystems(1979). lt
lntroduction

216

seemsclearthat such circuits will be used more and

r.f. field continueswith perhapslessobviousresults.
more for succeedinggenerationsnot only for
A logicaloutcomeof the development
of low-noise,
computingpurposes,in the conventionalsense,but
reliable,small,solid-state
r.f. amplifiersand sources
alsofor control of virtually everything. Often, in
must be to mount t.r.s adjacentto antennadownleads
equipments,a microprocessor
will be under-utilized so that r.f. cablesand waveguides
longerthan a couple
of inchesare a thing of the past. Reliability is the key
but nevertheless
it will still be a cheaperapproach
in this latter developmentsincesucht.r.swould be
than usingthe minimal amounfof hard-wiredlogic
relativelyinaccessible.
and furthermore spareprocessingpower is available
for expansion. All one needsto do is add the
necessary
software. I doubt if special-purpose
LSI
circuitswill appearin greatvariety sincethe volume
The Flight Deck
ofproduction required for a reasonableunit cost is
very large. Havingsaid that, we alreadyseespecial
The flight deck will be radicallydifferent in future
ISI chipsfor VOR and DME signalprocessing.
with flexibleelectronicdisplaysreplacing
The cqmpleteall-purposeairborne computer is
conventionalinstrumentation
and a keyboardwith
'completely
not with us yet and may neverbe. By
alphanumeric
and dedicatedkeysreplacinga massof
all-purpose',I mean a computer systemwhich
rotary and toggleswitches.The trend hasalready
monitors all sensors,drivesall displays,performs all
in Chapters9 and
started,examplesbeingdiscussed
control functions and is the only equipment with
that conventional
12. This is not to suggest
which the pilot can communicatedirectly. Such a
completely;
display/controlwill disappear
computercould be built today but there are
will be neededas
instrumentation
electromechanical
problemssuchas reliability, duplication or
back-upfor the electronicdisplaysand toggle
triplication being necessary,the need for performing
switcheswill alwaysbe usedfor certain functions. As
severaltasksat the sametime and the huge I/O
examplesof the way thingsaregoing,work by Boeing
interface. Certainly in the near future, and indeed
and British Aerospacewill be discussed.
now, airbornecomputerswill work in specific
function areassuch as navigation,flight control, flight Boeing767
management,etc. although someof thesefunctions
Thereare a number of featuresof the 767 flight deck
visibility
may be combinedand performedby one computer.
worthy of mention, such asspaciousness,
Interwiring is beginningto changeradically in
and comfort; our main concernhere,however,is the
aircraftinstallationsdue to our ability to handle large displayand control of radio systems.Rockwell'Collins
quantitiesof fast time multiplexed digital data. The
are to provide their multi-colour EFIS-700electronic
prospectof a main serialdigital data highway with
flight instrument systemwhich includestwo shadow
spursout to sensors,for incoming data, and control
maskc.r.t. indicators:an electronicattitudedetector
and/or displayunits, for both incoming and outgoing indicator (EADI) and an electronichorizontal
data,is a very real one. Again we havethe problem of situationindicator(EHSI). Computationand
reliabilitybut the savingin interwiring will be
alphanumericdisplaywillbe providedby the Sperry
significant.This is happeningnow in certain
flight managementcomputersystem(FMCS). There
functionalareassuchas frequencycontrol and
will be an EADI, EHSI and FMCSfor eachpilot,
passenger
entertainmentsystems,and will be extended. while an additionalcentrallyplacedelectronicdisplay
In this context mention should be made of the useof
will be usedaspart of the cautionand warning
optical fibreswhich can handledata at a very much
system.
fasterrate than conventionalcables(15 X 106 bits per
The EADI presentationis similarto a conventional
second;cf.2400 bits per second,say). In additionto
attitude-directorindicator-one of which is fitted as a
the increasedcapability the cheapness
of the raw
back-up. Blue and black fields representsky and
materialsand the immunity to interferenceare
earth respectivelywith a white line, separatingthe
advantages
which make it virtually certain that we
two fields,as the artificial horizon. There are scales
(left), speeddeviation
shallseehbre optics usedin the future and would see for roll (upper),glideslope
them now were it not for the difficulties encountered (right) and pitch (verticalcentreline).In addition
in connectingthem together.
there is a risingrunway symbol and a radio altitude
The increasein the use of digital sigrals and the
digital readout. The information displayedfrom
ability to processthem has a most noticeableimpact
radio aidsis glideslopedeviationagainsta scale,
in the aircraft in that controllers,displaysand
of a symbolic
localizerdeviationby lateral.,movement
facilities are all changed,meanwhile progressin the
runway and radio altitude by verticalmovementof
217

q-"ff
W:.

(courtesy
Fig.l3.l Boeing767flightdeckmock-up
Boeing
Commercial
Aeroplane
Co.)
the symbolic runway and by digital readout. Decision
height selectedand operatingmodesare also
displayed. The facility exists,with an EADI, for
blankingof scalesnot in use.
The flexibility of a computer-drivenc.r.t. displayis
fully utilized in the EHSI by providingfor operation
in three modes:map display,full compassdisplayor
VOR/ILS modewith a lull or partialcompassrose.
Weatherradardata can alsobe displayedmaking a
dedicatedweatherradardisplayan optional extra.
Whenpresentingdata in map form the display is
orientatedtrack up; a verticaltrack line with range
marksjoins a symbolicaircraftat bottom centreto a
boxeddigitalreadoutofthe track at top centre.
Headingand presetcoursare givenby distinctive
218

pointen on a partial scalenear the top of the display.

trend
Ground speed(from INS), a three-segment
vector(projectedpath), wind direction and speed,
plannedflight betweennamedwaypoints,vertical
operatingmode and weather
deviation,range.scale,
radardata are all shown. A variety of coloursare
usedto avoid confusionin the interpretationofthe
largeamount of data in a 4'7 X 5'7 in. display. A
conventionalRMI providesback-up.
The FMCSwill mix storeddaia and data from
severalradio and non-radiosensorsto provide
position fixing, optimized flightpath and speed
guidance,drive for the EADI and EHSI and also
hardwareand softwaremonitoring to assistin
trouble-shooting.A four-million-bit disk memory

systemwill be employed to provide storageof data

suchaslocation of airportsand VOR stations,
selected
companyroutes,standarddepartureand
arrivalroutes(SIDSand STARS)and aircraft/engine
parameters.Communicationwith the systemis
providedby a l4-line c.r.t. display with24 characters
per line, for display of navigationand performance
data,and alsoa full alphanumerickeyboard plus
dedicatedkeys.
British AerospaceAdvanced Flight Deck
Work by the British Aircraft Corporation and Hawker
SiddeleyAviation on the evolution of flight decksinto
a form which would include integratedelectronicdisplaysbeganback in the early 1970s. The resultswere
sufficientlyencouragingto commence,jointly, an
advancedflight deck programin January1975. Electronic displaysand controls havebeen studiedwith
regardto engineeringfeasibilityand human factors.
The programhascome up with an exciting view
of the flight deck of the future. The main display
consists
of seven9 in. c.r.t.ssplit into two discrete
sub-systems.
Threedisplays(Sl, 52 dnd 53) centrally
locatedon the instrument panel presentaircraft
systemsand engineinformation while four displays
(Fl, F2, F3 and F4) split two eachsideof the panel,
presentflight information. ln addition,two further
c.r.t.s(Dl and D2) areprovided,one eachsideof the
maininstrumentpanel,for documentation,e.g.
checklist,performancedata,etc.
The flight information displaysare an EADI and
of informationis in a
m EHSI. Presentation
conventionalformat, the EADI being similar to an
ADI but with information in both analogueand
digital form surroundingthe ADI earth/groundcircle.
The EHSI canpresenta conventionalHSI type
displaywith full compassroseand lateraldeviation
bar or a map-likedisplaycompletewith route and
weatherradardata. Like the EADI the EHSI has
flight information either sideof the main displaybut
in this casein digital form only. A facility to switch
the displayfrom one c.r.t. to the other will help
shoulda malfunctionoccur. In additionthereare
back-upinstruments.
conventional

easierand saferinterpretation. Work hasbeen done

by NASA usinga Boeing737 in which the EADI
displayformat is suchas to give the pilot the next
best thing to the VFR view when landing(Flight,
I I September1976).
As conventionalelectromechanical
instruments
giveway to c.r.t.sso c.r.t.swill one day giveway to
solid-state
devices.Litton Systemsof Toronto have
recentlyannounced(1979) a 3 X 4 in. displaymade
up of nearly 50 000 LEDs. The matrix is
computer-drivento providethe requireddisplay.
The advantages
over the c.r.t. are reducedsizeand
longerlife (m.t.b.f.).
A displaytechniqueparticularlysuitablefor ILS
approaches
is that of a head-updisplay. Such
displaysare commonplaceon modern military
aircraft.Whenlandingusingpanel-mounted
instrumentsthe pilot must look up to establishvisual
contact. If suchcontactis not possiblelookingdown
againto return to instrumentscould createproblems
of fastassimilation
of the dataon instruments.With
a head-updisplay the approachguidancesymbolsare
of opticaldevicesso
projectedby somearrangement
that they canbe viewedthroughthe windscreen.
Civil airlinerswill be fitted with suchdisplays(e.g.
Airbus4300) althoughit shouldbe noted that with
two pilots one couldbe eyes-upand one eyes-down
duringapproachto avoidan abortiveattemptto
acquirevisualcontact.

Packages
Multi-System

and the
With the adventof micro-electronics
smallunit size,it is possibleto bring
consequent
varioussystemstogetherin one package.In the days
of valveswe had one system- many boxes,whereas
now it is possibleto think in termsof onebox - many
examples
qystems.In fact we havealreadydiscussed
in Chapter12. As a further,
of multi-systempackages
-implemented,
example,considera
andyet-to-be
antenna.Thereis no reasonwhy the
radar
Doppler
for the Dopplerradar,an inertialsensor,
electronics
sensor,srichasLoranor Omegaor
a radio-navigation
VOR/DME,and a navigationcomputershouldnot all
be mountedon top of the fixed Dopplerantenna
Altemative Instrumentation
forminga singlepackage.Control,displayand radio
developments
The Boeingand BritishAerospace
sensor
antennaswould all needto be remote in suchan
abovedo not depart from the conventional
discussed
installation.
displayformat for the main part of the EADI and the
EHSIdisplay.Obviouslyin usingelectronicdisplays
symbolsa wide rangeof
showingcomputer-generated
Data Link
possibilitiesfor display formats exist; however,any
departurefronr conventionwould requirepilot
A two-waydigitallyencodedautomaticinformation
retrainingand would haveto be justified in termsof

219

::'$
.

m#G

iG*-

Fg. tf.Z Experimentaladvancedflight deck (courtbsy

BritishAerospace)

link hasbeenthe subjectofperiodic discussion

by
variousworkinggroupsfor over30 years.If and
whenthesystemwill be implemented
andwhatr.f.
dtannelswill be usedif any arestill unknown. ARINC
?,20

project paper 586 providesdetailedinformation on a

possiblesystemwith an entertainingappendixon the
history of automatic communicationsfor aircraft by
the then Chairmanof the AEEC. W.T. Carnes.

lFr

In fact an ATC automaticdatalink doesexist

in
the form of the secondaryradarsurveillance
radar
system(Chapter8) which will probablybe extended
sometime in the future(seeADSEL/DABSbelow).
Herewe areonly concernedwith a two_way
automaticdatalink utilizingv.h.f.,h.f. or Satcom
for universaluse.
Participatingaircraft

b
\ \
\ \
\ \

\ r

, / // t| \\\ \

, /

r ' /

\ \

Subscriber
terminals
line or
radio(microwave)
link
Fig.13.3 DataIink system
The datalink is essentjally
ground-controlled.
Aircraft participatingin the syitem are .polled,
by the
groundstationwhich transmitsa sequence
of digital
signalssplit into messages
eachof which containsa
particularaddress
(aircraftregistrationnumber)and
suitabletext. The airborneequipmentresponds
if it
recognizes
its addressin the pollingsequ.n.. which is
repeatedat a rate determinedby the giound
station.
Messages
will be eitherto/from ATC 6r to/from the
airlinecompanyand may relateto clearances,
altitudechanges,
positionreports,flight_planchange,
weatherdata,etc. The text of the messages
will be
routedto/from terminalson the grounaita a
polnt-to-pointcommunications
network
interconnecting
the groundstationand the terminals.

ADSEL/DABS
The problemsof fruit and garblingwerediscussed
in
Chapter8; suchproblemsincrease
with trafflc
d e n s i t y .A d d r e s s e l e c t i vS
e S R( A D S E L )a n d
discrera
e d d r e sbse a c o ns y s r e m( D A B S )h a v eb e e n
developedin the UK and USA respectively
in an
effort to postponethe dateby which the iCAO SSR
systemwould becontesaturated.In additiona new

systemwill provide for a transferof more

informationthan is possiblewith currentSSR,enable
ntoreaccurateand reliabletrackingby ATC and
so
help in the development
of automatecl
approach
control systems(CAAS _ cornplrterassisie.t
approach
sequencing)
and further.form an indispensable
part
of a proposedbeacon-based
collisionavoidance
s y s t e m( B C A S ) .
A memorandumof understanding
wassignedby
the FAA (for the USA) and the CAA (for tie UK)
earlyin 1975to allow for future deveiopment
of
selectively
addressed
SSRsystemson a co_operative
basis.We arestill someway off an ICAO standard
system,but wheneverit comesit will be compatible
with SSRso that existingairborneequipm.ni
may
continueto be used.
A R I N C C h a r a c t e r i s t7i c1 8 ( N o v e m b e rl 9 7 g _
draft) laysdown a specification
for a transponder
which lorms part of rhestandardSSRsvstem
(ATCRBS- ATC radarbeaconsystemjandDABS.
pl , p2 and F: pulseparameters,
In that characteristic
frequencies
and SLSprovisionsur. ui fu, itandard
SSRbut the ability to respondto modesA and C
interrogations
only is requiredratherthan A, B, C
and D.
- Two typesof interrogationwill be possiblewith
the new system,an ATCRBS/DABSail_callor a
DABS only. The all-callinterrogationwill consist
of
threepulsesPl, P3 and p4 togetherwith a SLS
control pulseP2. The pl, p2 and p3 pulseparamerers
are as for the ICAO SSRwhile p4 is a 0.g pulse
the
irs
leadiirgedgeof which is 1.5gs after the leadingedge
A" ICAO transponderwill ignorep4 *f.,it.
:f.P:
a
DABS transponder
will recognize
the interrogationas
all-calland respondwith the all-callreplv.
A DABS interrogationconsistsof pt and p2
preamblepulsesand a datablock. The datablock
is a
singler.f. pulseeither 15.5or 29.5ps longemploying
differentialphaseshift keyed(d.p.s.k..y
midutation.
With this type of modulationa lg0" phasechangeof
the carrierat a databit phasereversal
position
represents
a 'l'while no phasechangerepresents
a .0,.
The first phasereversaloccurs0.5 pi after the leading
edgeof the datablock,this is the sync.phasereversal.
Subsequent
phasereversal
positionsoccurat time
0'25l/lrs (N>2) after the sync.phasereversal.The
maximumvalueof iy'is 57 or I l3 giving56 or I l2
databits transmittedat a 4 M bitls rate. The trailing
edgeof the datablock has0.5 ps of r.f. addedto
ensurethe demodulationof the lastbit in the dara
block is completedwithout interference.
An optionalP5 may be radiatedasan SLS control
pulsein the sameway that p2 is radiatedfrom an
ICAO interrogator.p5 will be transmitted0.4 ps

Preamble3.5us
2rs

Data Block 15'5or 29'5rs

0.5 0.5 0.25

0'8 rs

ffi

53 54 55 56 57

'

Sync.
phase
reversal

56 or 112
phase reversalpositions

o'l------{l* O'aj ".- o.r

FS

ll

ll

FS

pS

rf = t03O MHz

Phasereversal
'l
Positionbit :

Phase reversal
position bit : 0

Fig. 13.4 ADSEL/DABS

format
interrogation
before the sync.phasereversal.For an aircraft fitted
with a DABS transponderthe receivedP5 amplitude
will exceedthe amplitudeof the data block hencethe
transponderwill not decodethe d.p.s.k.modulated
sigral. An ICAO transponderequippedaircraft will
not reply to a DABS interrogationsincethe P2 pulse
will triggerthe SLS suppression
circuit.
A DABS transponderwill generateICAO replies
(12 information pulses)in responseto ICAO
interrogationsand DABS repliesin responseto all-call
and DABS interrogations;DABS transpondersalso
generatesquitterat randomintervalsto allow
acquisitionwithout interrogation(similarto DME
auto-standby,
Chapter7).
A DABS replyis only similarto an interrogationin
so far asit containsa preamblefollowedby a data
block of 56 or I l2 bits. The preambleconsistsof four
0'5 ps pulseswith the spacingbetweenthe first pulse
andthe second,third and fourth pulsesbeing 1.0,3.5
from leadingedge
and4'5 prsrespectively,
measured
to leadingedge. The data block begins8 prsafter the
222

leadingedgeof the first preamblepulseand usespulse

positionmodulation(p.p.rn.)at a data rateof I M
bit/s. In the I gs intervalallottedto eachdatabit a
0'5 gs pulseis transmittedin the first half il the data
b i t i s a ' l ' a n d i n t h e s e c o n dh a l f i f a ' 0 ' . T h e d a t a
block is thus 56 or I l2 ps long. The r.f. is 1090MHz
asfor the ICAO SSR.
Thereare four typesof interrogationfrom an
ADSEL/DABSinterrogatorall of which havethe
samepreamble.The all-calldatablock containsa
of 28 onesin a 56-bitblock,the all-callreply
sequence
detailsof data
containsthe aircraftaddress,
equipmenton boardand parity bits for
interchange
purposes.A surveillance
interrogation
error-checking
and parity bits and alsoa
ol 56 bits containsaddress
dn t h e
r e p e aot f t h e h e i g h ti n f o r m a t i o nr e c e i v e o
ground. An aircraftrecognizing
the address
in a
interrogationwill replywith a 56-bitdata
surveillance
block containingthe altitudeor identity. The
of dataarein I l2-bit blocks
remaininginterchanges
both ways,a comm.-Ainterrogationgivingriseto a

5 6 o r 1 1 2p s

Preamble

br o.5
<H

o.5

<H

l+-)

Data Block

o.5
{+

l'','l',,r1

r-r-r:l-T-'l

I'lolrlolrl

P.P.M.cxample
lol ....0
. 11

Fig.13.5 ADSEL/DABS
replyformat
comm'-B reply and a comm''c^inte.rrogation
giving.
simplexsystememployingfrequencymodulation
riseto a comm'-Dreply'
A-B inteichang!involves *orld b.-rr.d with ujtir,l una
ao*ntinr. frequencies
.The
altitudeor identity aswell asother data,anican be
separated
by between4 and l0 MHz. Aircraft
usedlbr trackingpurposeswhile the c-D interchange
Saicom.unt.nnu,would be broadlydirectional,
contansan extended-ren_gth
message
segmentof g0
possiblywith switchablelobes.
bits in both directions'one thingnot yet decidedis
The accuracyof any Satnav.systemwill dependon
the methodby which datawill be traniferredinto
the knowledgeof satellitepositionand so a numbe.f
and out of the transponder
from varioussensors
and
trackingstationsare requiredon the ground. Since
to variousdisplaysvia a suitableprocessor.Two.
the airb"orne
equipmenimusthaveth! oatarelatingto
areproposedfor the interface,firstly using
the satelliteporition a link must be established
T:tl99t
ARINC 429 digitalinformation transferryrt*r
betweenthe trackingstation and the aircraft, most
(DITS) format, secondly.a
synchronousI M bitisec
probablyvia the satellite.Knowingthe positionof
interfacewhich would allow datarequested
in an
the satellitethe airborneequipmentmustestablishthe
uplink to be containedin the next downlink.
aircraft'spositionrelativeto the satellitein orderto
The systemhasonly beenbriefly described:
the
obtaina dx.
readeris referredto ARINC 718 for further details.
The variousmethodsby which a fix canbe
obtainedinvolvesomecombinationof measurement
of angularelevationof a satellite,rangeof a satellite
Satcom. and Satnav.
and rateof changeof rangeof a satellite(Doppler
shift). Directionof arrivalof a signalat tire saiellite
Therearemany satellites
ih orbit aroundthe earth
may be
methodswhereby
-foundusinginterferonteter
beingusedfor relayingtelephoneand television
the satelliteantennas
aremountedon long booms
signals,.weather
sensing,
observation
and military
(say50 ft) and the phasedifferencein signals
arrrvins
navigationand communication.(For a comorehensrve
at the antennasis measured.Rangemeasurement
reviewseeFlight,28 October197g.) Unforiunately
may be obtainedin a similarfvay to that employedin
noneso far areusedby civil aircraftand it is not
DME. In a range-rate
systemthe Dopplerstrilt tf a
known (by the author)when suchusewill occur.
signalfrom the satelliteis recordedovlr a periodof
However,brief commentscanbe madeon the
say l0 min, then the aircraftpositioncan be computecl
principlesinvolved.
from the time of zeroDopplershift and the slopeof
A possiblev.h.f.Satcom.systemis described
in
the frequency/time
graphat zeroshift.
ARINC Characteristic
566. The satelliteis simplya
The range-rate
m.ethodcanprovidean accuratefix
repeaterfor voiceand datacommunications
beiween aboutonceevery lI h, usinga satellitein a 500-mile
a i r a n dg r o u n d . I f t h e s a t e l l i t e
isat synchronous
circularorbit, obviouslyfor aircrafta largenumberof
altitude(22 000 nauticalmiles)the service
areawould satellites
must be usedto reducethe tirne_interval
be 4l per centof the earth.ssurface.a OouUle_cfrannel
betweenfixes. The aircraftvelocityand altitucle

must be accuratelyknown during the time taken to

obtain a fix asthe satellitemakesa passover the line
of closestapproachto the aircraft. The US Navy use
sucha systemflorsurfaceship navigation.
Angle-only,rangeonly or angle-range
methods
may be used. In thesesystems,by usinga two-way
link betweenthe aircraft and a ground station via the
satellite,the computationof aircraft position can be
carriedout on the ground,the databeing sent to both
aircraft and ATC. A range-onlysystemwhich should
comeon line in the 1980sis the Global Navigation
System(NAVSTAR.) using24 satellites;however
use
may be restrictedto military aircraft and ground
personnel.
The frequenciesinvolvedfor Satnav.are likely to
be v.h.f.or around1.6GHz. It will obviouslybe
advantageous
if a group of satellitescould be usedfor
both communicationand navisation.

simulationsshowedthat both systemswould do the

job and the choiie must havebeendifficult. One
factorwhich helpedswingthe vote musthavebeena
reductionin cost of the TRSB systembroughtabout
by the developmentof cost-minimizedphased-array
techniques(COMPACT)by Hazeltine.A conventional
electronicbeam scanningarray consistsof many
radiatingelementseai,hof which is fed by an
electronicphaseshifter. Changingthe phaseof the
r.f. energyradiatedby eachelementcausesthe far
field beam to scan. With COMPACTthere is nearly a
4: I reductionin the numberof phaseshifterseach
of which feedsall radiatingelementsthrougha
patentedpassive
network. The resultis accurate
bearnscanningwith low sidelobesat a reducedcost.
The principlesof TRSB are quite simple. Consider
a radio beam scannedrapidly to and fro; an
appropriatelytuned receiveron an aircraft within
rangeof the beamsourcewould receivetwo pulsesin
one completescan,as the beamswept past twice.
The pulsespacingis relatedto the anglemade
Microwave Landing System (MLS)
betweenthe centroid of the scannedsectorand the
line joining aircraft to beamsource. Note that the
The long, controversialand heated argument about
systemas describedis ambiguoussincethe computed
which systemwill be adoptedas the successor
to ILS
anglecould be either sideof the centroid of the
endedin 1978 with the choiceof a time-referenced
scanning
beam(TRSB)system.The requirementwas scannedsector. Ambiguity may be removedby,
'to' and which is the 'fro'
for a landingsystemthat would allow for a variety of
knowing which is the
scan,
curvedor straight-lineapproacheswithin a large
or by knowing the scancycle start time, i.e. the
'to'
volumeof airspaceand that would not suffer to the
half cycle. For accuracy
commencementof the
sameextent as ILS from multipath effects.
precisiontiming circuits must be used.
The main contendersby the time the final decision
For lateraland verticalguidanceazimuth scanning
wasmadewere the USA with TRSB and the UK with
and elevationscanningbeamsare required. Preamble
a commutatedDoppler. Demonstrationsand
instructionsmust be usedto identify the beamswhich.

Scan cycle

tt related to {l
Fig. I 3.5 Principlesof TRSB

224

are synchronizedso that one time dift-erencefor each and C2.

The particularmodc useddependson the
beamis measuredin a 150 ms frame. Back beamand aircral'tllt and
the type of groundstaiion.
flare measurements
are alsopossibleon a t'ull system
which will be usedin conjunction with a high-accuracyMode AB Angular
and rangeinformation is available
DME. Reflectedbeamreceptioncan be elinrinatedby usinga standardland-based
MADGE station. The
time_gating(echo suppression).The r.f. employed
direction from which the aircral'tis interrogatineis
will be in the Ku band.
nreasured
by the groundstationinterferom-eterfthe
The battle lbr ICAO recognitionis not the whole
subsequent
reply containinghorizontaland vertical
story of MLS, systemshavingbeendevelopedior
deviationfrom an approachor overshootpath
specialapplications;MADGE (microwaveiircraft
determinedby the sitingof the grounduni.nno arrays.
digital guidanceequipment) is an MLS-based
The azimuth deviationwith respectto the approach
on-groundderivedinterferometry, developedby the
path centreline is displayedon a purpose-built
British company MEL(see below); SCAIvILS(small
precisionrangeand azimuthnreter(pRAM). while on
communityairport MLS) is a Hazeltineproduct using a standardcross-pointer
deviationindicatorazimuth
their COMPACTantennasfor the TRSRsystem.
and elevationguidanceis givento an approachpath
selectedby the pilot. The overshootpath is selected
Microwave Aircraft Digital Guidance
by the pilot in azimuthonly, elevationdeviationis
Equipment(MADGE)
with respectto the ground-dellned
overshootpath.
Rangedata,derivedby measuringthe elapsedtime
betweeninterrogationand reply.is displayedon a
Introduction
PRAlvl.With an appropriatelink in the wiring of the
MADGE is a microwave,secondary
radarsystem
airborne
installationor on receiptof a commandin
which providesguidanceto a landing site for any
ground
the
stationreply the rangedatais sentto the
suitablyequippedaircraftwithin a rangeof abour l5
interrogations.
miles. As well as providing flexibility in the approach groundinterlacedwith subsequent
The two typesof air-to-ground
transmission
are
path,asone would expectin any successor
to ILS, a
referredto asA channel- interrogation:B channeltwo-way data link is establishedwhich resultsin
rangedata.
deviationand rangeinformation being availablenot
only in the air but alsoat the landinesite.
Mode C Two alternativesfor Mode C are available,
The MEL EquipmentCompanyllmited (A
PhilipsCompany)havewon sufficient military orders both providingguidanceto a point offset horizontally
from the landingsite,by at least200 metres. Such
to assurethe future of MADGE. The first extensive
guidanceis suitablefor helicoptersoperatingto
civilianusewill be in the North Seaoil fields where.
offshore platforms. In addition to azimuth ind
one platform is alreadyequipped.
elevationand rangedataone of two arrowson the
PRAM indicatesto the pilot on which side of his
Basic Principles
aircraftthe landingsiteis situated.
The systemprovidesboth rangeand angulardata.
The rangeis derivedin the sameway as with DME,
Unlike Mode AB the pilot-selected
angularoffset
of the approachpath is not available
i.e.measurement
takesplacein the airborne
with Mode C.
equipmentafter an air-to-groundinterrogationand a
The particularapproachpath usedis ground-defined,
subsequentground-to-airreply. The air-derivedrange henceMode C is known asthe groundcontrolled
may be containedin the interrogations,
subsequent
to mode(GCM). The platform installationis rotated
the recognitionof valid replies,in order to make this
to the correctcompassbearingwithin one of four
information availableon the ground.
sectorschosenby the pilot, the choicebeingrelayed
Azimuth and elevationanglesare ground-derived, b y r l t .
usinginterferometryor, in the caseof elevation,radio
The two ModeC alternatives
areMode Cl and C2
altitudeand range. If the latter is the caseboth range which differ in the way elevationguidanceis derived.
and radioaltitudedata must be transmittedfrom
With Mode Cl radio altitudeand rangeare
air to groundin order that the elevationtrianglemay
transmittedto the landingsite.wherethe elevation
be solvedfor elevationangle.The angulardatais
anglecan be computedsincethe sineof the angleis
containedin the reply to the airborneequipntent's
equalto the ratio of the radioaltitudeto the (slant)
interrogation.
range.With ModeC2 elevationinformationis derived
asin Mode AB.
Modesof Operation
Mode C I allowsgreaterflexibiJityof approach.
Therearethreemodesof operation,namelyAB, Cl
The aircraftcan be guideddown a glideslopeto a point

225

remote from the landingsite (say 0'5 nautical miles

away) from where the final approachis completedin
levelflight. The parametersof the approachpath are
under the control of the ground station for both
ModeCl and C2.
lnterferometry
A basicinterferometerconsistsof trvo antennas
feedingreceivers,the outputs of which are compared
in phase. If the radiatedwavearrivesfrom a direction
other than normal to the planeof the two'antenna
array then the energyarrivingat one antennawill
havetravelledfurther than that arrivingat the other
by a distanced. The phasedifferencebetweenthe
antennasignalswill dependon d which, in turn,
dependson the direction of arrival.
A two-antennainterferometeris of little usesince
an ambiguousmeasureof the direction of arrivalis
obtained. For exampleconsiderthe antennasspaced
I cm apart and a wavelengthofthe radiatedwave
equalto tr cm. lf d = 0, I, 2),,etc. the measured
to
phasedifferencewill be zerocorresponding
with respectto the
directionsof arrival0, measured

" .r"
i
't,i

Fig. 13.8 MADGE,hardware(courtesyMEL Equipment

Co. Ltd)

226

Fig 13.7 Two antennainterferometer

normal, givenby sin 0 = 0, tri Q,2ltlQ, etc. Thus with
I = 100 cm, say, and tr = 6 cm, then for zero phase
d i f f e r e n c0
e c o u l db e 0 , 3 ' M , 6 ' 8 9 , e t c .d e g r e e s .
To resolvethe ambiguity severalantennasmust be
usedin a lineararray. Phasedilferencemeasurements
can be madebetweenany two antennasignalsto give
directionof arrival.
collectivelyan unambiguous
With the spacingof the antennaschosento be in the
ratio2:4 : 8 : l6 : 32 the derivedangleword canbe
codeddirectly in binary.

Conbrlls and Instrumentation

A Mode AB controller has the following controls:
l. 'OFF/STANDBy/ON'. Whenin standbythe
input to the modulator is inhibited wirh a
.
3-min warm-up delay for the transmitteris
initiated.
2. GROUND/AIR control. Four thumbwheel
switcheswhich selectthe ground and air
addressand the frequencyof operation.
3. Angle offsets. Three rotary switcheswhich
allow the pilot to selectone of a variety of
elevationand azimuth anglesfor approach.
For overshootazimuth offset only is provided.
4. 'TEST'. A push switch which activatis the
built-in test equipment(b.i.t.e.).

The length and message

content of the interrogation
word, which is assembled
in the logic unit, depenis
on the mode of operation. For A channel(M;de AB)
a 25-bit word requestingguidanceinformation rs
transmittedat a jittering meanrateof 50 Hz.
B channel,containingrangeand other data in a 60-bit
word, can be interlacedwith A channelinterrogations
a t a f a c t o r ys e tr a t eo f 2 . 5 , 5 , l 0 o r 5 0 H z . C m o d e s
useonly one interrogationword 60 bits long at a
jittering meanrate of 100 Hz. -BothCl and C2
interrogations
containguidanceinterrogationdata
and range,but in additionmodeCl transmitsradio
altitude information. Appropriateair and ground
addresscodes,asselectedon the controller, form
p a r t o f t h e g u i d a n c ien t e r r o g a t i o n .
The interrogationword pulsetrain,suitably
In addition, if the controller is dual mode i.e. Mode
processed
in a line receiverand pulsemodulattr,
'ANGLE
AB and C an
OFFSETS'/,SECTOR
GCM'
controlsthe grid voltageof a travelling-wave_tube
five-positionswitch is provided to allow the pilot to
which amplifiesthe r.f. from a solid-statesource
selectwhich of the four approachsectorshi desires phase-locked
to 56 timesa referenceoscillator
for ModeC (GCM) operation or, if usinga Mode AB
crystal. A 4-bit parallelcode,determinedbv the
station,the angleoffset controls may be enabledby
frequencyselectionat the controller,selectiwhich of
s e l e c t i n g ' A N G LO
E FFSET'.
four crystalsis to be usedasa reference.The pulse
The PRAM and crossed-pointer
deviationindicator codeanrplitudemodulatedfrequencyof between
havebeenmentionedpreviously.In additionthree
5 ' 1 8 2 5a n d 5 . 2 0 0 5G H z i s f e d v i aa l o w - p a sfsl i t e r
optionalindicatorsmay be fitted:
and circulatorin the microwaveassemblyto one of
l. Overshootwarning. Only activeduring Mode two antennasselectedby a switchwhich is
controlledby the logicunit.
AB operation. Thereare two activestites of
Receivedsignalsareamplifiedand detectedin a
this ntagneticindicator.in one of which
double-superhet
receiver,then passedto the logic
indicationof the serviceability
of the ground
unit.
lncoming
noise
pulsesarecombatedby
overshootinterferometeris given;the other
reducingthe receiversensitivityasthe rate ofreceived
givingovershootwarning. .Off is displayed
pulsesincreases.Interference
from multipathechoes
when the indicatoris not active.
2. Low-fly warning. Similarto ( I ) aboveexcepr is avoidedby settinga thresholdlevelin accordance
with the amplitudeof the first pulseof the incoming
that the activestatesshow eitherthat the
word. The weakermultipathechoeswill be unlikely
elevationfailurewarningflagis pulledin
to exceedthis thresholdwhich returnsto zero at the
(elevationsafe)or that the aircraftis low.
end
of eachreceivedword.
3. Excessazimuthdeviation.Only usedin
The
reply is clockedinto a shift registerand then
Mode C. A lamp which flasheswhen the
checkedfor validityand parity. Validity is
aircraftis more than 60 metresfrom the
determinedby comparingair and groundaddress
approachpath and within t nauticalmile of
codes
receivedwith thoseselected.A ranseclock.
the landingsite.
w h r c hw a ss t a r t e dw h e n . t h ei n t e r r o g a t i oI o
nok place,
is stoppedon completionof .asuccessful
validitv and
p a r i t yc h e c k .
Block Diagram Operation
The systemfunctionsin eithersearchor track.
The installationcomprises
an interrogatorset(logic
U n t i l t h e r a t eo f v a l i d a r e rde p l i e si s a c c e p t a b lteh e
u n i t) . a n i n t e r r o g a t osre t( t r a n s m i t t e r - r e c e i v ie r ) .
logicunit causes
the t/r output to switchbetween
controller,an antennaselector,two antennasand up
forwardand rearantennasat a 0.5 Hz rale. llavins
to five dilferentindicators,possiblyduplicated,as
acquired
a r e l i a b l er a n g ev a l u e a, t r a c k i n gg a t ei s
described
previously.All electroniccircuitry is
generated
so that only thosereplieswithin I gs
c o r r t a i n ewd i t h i n t h e l o g i cu n i t a n d t r a n s m i i t e r - r e c e i vbefore.
er
and 2 ps after,the expectedtime of arrival
(ti r) with tl"reexceptionof that containedin the
areaccepted.With repliesregularlyfallingwithin the
PRAM.
trackinggatethe rangeof changeof rangeis

227

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g s

a
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ii>

computed. If the rate exceeds30 knots antennasvitchingceases,

the forwardantennabeingselected
for decreasingrange,the rear antennafor increasing
range. Each antennahas a polar diagramwhich is
180" wide in the horizontal plane and 40o wide in the
vertical plane.
With validity and parity confirmed rangeand angle
data is fed to the output control logic circuits. Digital
rangeand azimuth information is fed to the PRAM,
the azimuth information beingunaffectedby the
selectionof angleoffsets. Azimuth and elevation
information is comparedwith the selectedangle
offsets,the resultingdigital differencesare then
convertedinto analogueguidanceoutputs which are
fed via matchingresistorsin the interfacejunction
box to the cross-pointer
deviationindicator. The d/a
convertergainis progressivelyreducedas the range
decreases
from I nauticalmile. This reduction in eain
is known as beam-softening
and resultsin meter
deflectionbeingpropoitionalto lateralratherthan
angulardisplacementfrom the approachpath.
Warningsignalsaregenerated
within the logicunit.
Flag drivesare fed to the cross-pointerinstrument
being28 V for validinformation,0 V duringa fault
condition. A low-fly warningis provided in Mode
AB, or an excesselevationdeviationsignalin Mode C.
Azimuth warningsare the excessazimuth deviationin
Mode C and the overshootsignalin Mode AB. The
PRAM display is enabledby the azimuth flag signal.
For Mode Cl a radio altimeterinterfaceunit is
requiredto digitize the analogueheight signalfrom
the radio altimeter. As a checkthe digitizedheightis
convertedback into analogueform, then compared
with the height input. A fault signalis fed to the logic
greaterthan 1 25 ft is detected.
unit if a discrepancy
The fault signalis also generatedif the radio
altimeter'sflagoutput showsa lault condition. With
a fahlt detectedthe elevationflag showsand the
heightinformationpresentbit in the interrogation
word is negated.
Selected System Parameters
Transmitterpeakpower: 150W nominal.
T r a n s m i t t efrr e q u e n c yc h a n n e l s5: 1 8 2 ' 5 ,5 1 8 8 ' 5 ,
5 1 9 4 ' 5 . 5 2 0 0 'M
5 Hz.
Receiverfrequencychannels:5004'5, 5010'5,5016'5,
5 0 2 2 ' 5 .5 0 2 8 ' 5 .5 0 3 4 ' 5M H z .
lnterrogationword rate: 50 Hz mean(A channel);
100 Hz mean(C channel).
Word jitter: + 2 ms (A channel);+ I ms (B channel).
M e s s a gbei t r a t e : l ' 0 1 1 2 5 M H z n o m i n a l .
lnterrogationword length:25 bits (A channel);
60 bits (C channel).
Reply word length:60 bits (all channels).

Message
format: non-retum.to-zero(n.r.z.).
Height data, down link: I I bits (binary).
Rangedata,down link: l6 bits (b.c.d.).,
Elevationdata, up link: 9 bits.
Azimuth and flag data,up link: l5 bits.
+ 2'5 to t l0o
Analogueazimuthguidance:selectable
full scale.
Analogueelevationguidance:selectablet 0'5 fo t 5"
full scale.
Azimuth coarseoutput: t 45o full scale.
Elevationcoarseoutput: t25" (A channel):-5 to
+20' full scale(Cl channel).
Rangeoutput: 25 nauticalmilesat l0 V;30 nautical
m i l e sa t l 2 V .
Velocity output: I 200 knots full scale.
Digitaloutputs: I '01 125 MHz, bi-phasen.r.z.
Anglesand flags:28-bit word at reply rate.
Rangedata: l8-bit word at interrogationrate.
Digital resolution:azimuth0'235'; elevationO'144":
range9'26 metres.

Collision Arioidance
hasbeenthe
Up until 1979collisionavoidance
responsibilityof ATC tbr aircraft flying under IFR
while pilots are responsiblefor their own safety
underVFR. This situationis likely to continuelbr
sometime in the future eventhough a workable
collision avoidancesystem(CAS) hasbeen developed.
A self-containedsystemwould protect the
ofwhether other aircraft
equippedaircraft regardless
were similarly equippedor an ATC servicewas
available.Sucha systemcould be built measuring
of change,and directionof all aircraft
range,range-rate
within a certainvolume of spacearound the protected
aircraft. Receiveddatacould be usedto compute
projectedpathsso that the risk of collisioncould be
a warninggivenor
evaluatedand,if necessary,
initiated. The costof sucha
automaticmanoeuvre
systemprovidingthe accuracyrequiredis prohibitive,
at leastfor the time being.
As an alternative,we may havea co-operative
systemand this is an areain'which work hasbeen
exist:
done. Two possibilities
radar
l. an interrogator/transpondersecondary
systemwhich could measurerangeand
range-ratein much the sameway as DME does
but with obviousproblemsin crowdedairspace
wherethe systemis most needed;
2. a time multiplexedsystemin which all aircraft
transmitin turn without interrogation.
The calculationof the rangeat nearestapproach

229

q
(miss distance)is complicated and requiresprcsent
relativepositions,ipcluding altitude, and the speed
and track ofeach aircraft involved. One approachis
to usethe componentof relativevelocity
perpendicularto the line joining the aircraft asshown
in Fig. 13.10whereV1 , Va, Vn arethe velocity
vectorsof aircraft A, aircraft B and B relativeto A
respectively,while X is the measureof the risk of
collision.Another,simplermethodis to usethe
rangedividedby the range-rate,measureof the risk
beingknown as tau (r). In both methodsa minimum
valueof the risk measureis set,below which evasive
actionis taken. With the latter method,however,
when the closingvelocity is small r is not a good
measureof risk and a minimum rangecriterion
shouldbe includedin the system.

The CurrentGenerationof ARINC

Characteristics

ln 1979a numberof new ARINC Characteristics

(700 series)were adoptedby the AEEC. The systems
coveredincluderadio altimeter,DME, ILS, VOR,
ADF, Selcal.,p.a. amp.,v.h.f. comms,weatherradar
detailthe
and ATC transponder.Thesecharacteristics
for radioequipmentin the 1980s.
airlinestandards
between
Thereareobviouslymany rninordifferences
and somemajor onessuch
new and old characteristics
asthe incorporationof DABS into the ATC
transponder.However,the most significantchangeis
the switch to serialdigital signalsfor both system
outputsand control. The detailsof the digital
information transfersystem(DITS) are givenin
429-2publishedI March 1979.
ARINC Specification
Additionalinformationis givenin projectpapers453
and72A,the very high speed(VHS) bus and digital
tively,
frequencyifunctionselection(DFS) respec
althoughthesepapershad not beenadoptedby May
1979.
for the transfer
the standards
The DITS describes
Aircraft of digitaldatabetweenall avionicssystenls,
not just
I
/
radio. Data flow is one way only, via twistedand
Aircraft
shieldedpairsof wiresat a rateof l00K bits per
A-L
s e c o n d( K b s )o r l 2 t o l 4 ' 5 K b s( 1 0 0 0K b s f o r V H S
The systemis basedon 32-bitwords. The
bus).
threatgeometry
Fig.13.10 Collision
encodinglogic for eachbit is basedon a voltage
'Hi'
stateat the beginningof a bit
As an exampleof a systemwe will briefly consider transition,a
'Null' statebeforethe end of
was
workable
as
long
ago
as
which
to a
CAS
Bendix
returning
the
interval
1969. The systeminvolvesan airborneclock,
t h a ti n t e r v arle p r e s e nat sl o g i c ' l ' s i m i l a r l ya ' L o ' t o
'0'. The transmittervoltage
while on the ground 'Null' represents
a logic
computerand transmitter-receiver
+
1
0
! I V . 0 1 0 ' 5 V a n d- 1 0 1 I V f o r t h e
and clock accuracyof the systemis
syncl.rroniz-ation
l e v e lasr e
' N u l l ' a n d ' L o ' s t a t e sr e s p e c t i v e l y .
'
H
i
'
,
During
a
3
s
of
an
atontic
clock.
by means
assured
lnlornrationis codedin one oi severalways:binary
intervalknown as att epoclt,eachparticipating
aircrafttransmitsduringone of 2000 time-slotseach
codeddecirlal(b.c.d.).two's contplementfractional
of 1'5 ms duration:while one is transmittingthe rest
binary(b.n.r.)or the InternationalStandards
(lSO) alphabetNo. 5. Codel'or graphics
of altitudeand other data(e.g.
organisation
listen. Transmission
yet beendefined. Discretedata suchas
rnade.
not
is
has
data
heading)
'code'. Wordsare
The groundstationkeepsall aircraftsynchronized on/off switchingis simplya I -bit
4
and hence
by a gapof at least bits betweenwords,
synchronized
in time;and frequencyof transmission
propagation
by the fact that thereis no voltage
time
and
gap
from
is recognized
a
rangernaybe measured
is carriedout b1'one parity
r
ntay
be
Errcir
checking
shift.
Thus
Doppler
rate
fiom
transition.
range
'bit
per word, the requiredparity is odd. i.e. tlte total
onceduringeachepochfor all reporting
calculated
numbeo
r t ' ' l s ' i n a w o r di s o d d .
aircraft. Commandsto the pilot basedon the
of eachword is label.
The basicorganization
computer'sevaluationof the risk are: aircraftabove,
identifier(SDI), dirtafield.
t e l o w ,p r e p a r et o c l i m b , source/destinatic-rn
p r e p a r et o d i v e ,d i v e .a i r c r a f b
are givenby
clinrband l'ly level. The comrnands
s i g n / s t a t ums a t r i xa n df i n a l l y ,b i i 3 2 , p a r i t l . T h e f i r s t
8 b i t s o f e a c hw o r d a r ea s s i g n etdo a l a b e l u h i c h
b a c k - l i g h t el e
d g e n dosn o n ei n d i c a t o r .
identifiesthe informationcontainedin the data fleld,
Any CASwhich may eventuallybe adoptedwill
e . g .v . h . f .c o m m .f r e q u e n c yD, M E d i s t a n c es,e l e c t e d
be like the Bendixsystem,but
not necessarily
c o u r s ee. t c . B i t s9 a n d l 0 a r eu s e df o r t h e S D I w h e r e
discussed
and
techniques
certainlysomeof the tactors
a word needsto be directedto a specificsystemof a
abovewill be relevant.
230

:g

multi-systeminstallationor the sourcesystemof a

multlsystem installationneedsto be identified. The
SDI is not availablefor alphanumericwords (lSO
alphabetNo. 5) or where the bits are usedaspart of
the data field when the resolutionrequireddemands
matrix
it. Bits 30 and 3l areusedfor the sign/status
no
t,
to,
test,
right,
North,
which represents
wordsareusedto
computeddata,etc. If several
too long for one word then the
transmit a message
signistatusmatrix is usedto indicatefinal word,
intermediateword, controlword or initial word.
The aboveideasare best illustratedby examples:
l. ADF. typicalword
0 0 0 I I 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0I I 0 I 0 0 0 0
l 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
'0
The label 0 0 I I 0 I 0' is followed by SDI
'0 0' the all-callcode. Data field bits I I ,12 and
l3 areb.f.o. - on/off (0 for off), ADF/antenna
mode (0 for ADF) and sparerespectively.Data
field bits 14-29arethe frequencyselectbits with
'
bits 21-29the 1000kHz selectiod,bits 23-26the
1 0 0k H z , b i t s l 5 - 1 8 t h e I k H z a n db i t 1 4 t h e
0'5 kHz selection.The exampleshownreading
f r o m b i t 1 4 .i s
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
l 0 l 0
l
+ 800 +1000
+
l0
0.5+5
= l8l5'5 kHz.
herebut in any case
is not applicable
Sign/status
00 canbe readaspositive.The final bit is setto
0 to make total one count odd.

distancewith the most significant bit (m's.b') of

the most significantcharacter(m.s.c.)beingbit
29. The eximple shown readingback from bit 29
is
1 0 0 0 0 l l 0
0 l l l
0 1 0 o l 0 l
2
5
7
8
6
nautical miles
DITS words reprcsentingparametersare generated
in units such asVOR receivers,DME interrogators'
etc. and will terminatein navigationcomputers'
display driversor indicators. The rate of
transmissionof suchwords varies,for examplethe
minimum rate for DME distanceis 6 times per
secondwhile radio height is 20 times per second;
DITS radio controlwordssuchasexamples(l)
and (2) aboveare transmitted9 times per second'

ConcludingRemarks

currentradiosystemswith
This book hasconsidered
examplesof a rangeof technologies.The final
chaptir hasattemptedto showdirectionsin which
radio systemsmay progress.We will certainlysee
Ut-S and most probablyADSEL/DABS' Flight decks
will makefull useof flexibleelectronicdisplaysbut a
instrumentsand
minimalcomplementof conventional
indefinitely.
will
remain
controls
Modulatingsignalswill probably remainanalogue
in propagatingsystems,sinceto go digital would
requlreishifi up the frequencyscaleto accommodate
the wider bandwidthsrequired. Eventhough the
2. ATC transPonder,tYPicalword
basisof the systemswill be analoguesigrals,they will
'go digital'asearlyaspossiblein the circuitry'
0 0 l I I 0 l I 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0I
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Cornputlngpower will increasebeyond that which we
order are
The datafield bits I l'17 in ascending
can employ; this hashappenedalready,the-power is
altitudereportingon/off (0 for on), inertial
there,all we needto do is think of the applications'
computer,
referencesystem/flightmanagement
after which there will be yet more computingpowei'
for future
i.e. IRS/FMCinputswhich arereserved
Perhapsthe biggestquestionmark is ov-erthe
use(0 for IRS),ident. on/off (1 for on)' altitude future of VOR/DME asthe standardICAO
datasourceselect(0 for No. l), IFR/VFR which navigationalaid. Possiblereplacements
arev'l'f'/Omega'
for future use(0 for IFR) and X-pulse Satniv. in one form or another'or evenLoran C; the
is reserved
on/off (0 for off). Datafield bits l8 to 29
of thesebeingthat they arelo.ng.range'
advantages
codefor Mode A replies
representpilot-selected
A poisiblescenariois an aircraftfitted with a
with bits l8-20 the D codegroupselect,2l-23
varietyof deadreckoningand positionfixing nav'
the C,24-26 the B and 21'29 the A codegroup
aidsin a minimumnumberof boxesbackedup by
select.The exampleshownreadingback from
accurategroundtracking,immenselypowerful
datalink'
bit 29 is
groundcomputersand a corpprehensive
0 0 r 0 l 0 l 0 l 0 0 0
CAS and MLS of the required
u
-ultiple
ivith
r
a
0 =code
5
I
J
accuracythe aircraftof the future couldgo from
ramp t; rampwithout the interventionof the pilot
(b.c.d.)
3. DMEdistance
andln almostperfectsafety. This could be
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 1I I I
now, but would be cost prohibitive;
developed
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
who wantsa robot flying the'plane?
anyway
and
for
the
DME
exclusively
datafieldis used

The

Recommended
reading

As the readeris probablyawarethereis a dearthof

books on avionics;those that exist and concern
themselveswith aircraft radio are perhapsa little
dated.In contrastthe numberof booksivailableon
electronics,
computersand radiois staggering.
I have chosento list most books availableon
avionicswhich I think are worthy of the reader's
attention. For sourcesof backgroundmaterialon
basictheoryof electronics
and radio the readeris
perhapsbest advisedto, visit a suitablelibrarv or
bookshopand pick out thosewhich seemto suit him
or her best. Sincethis is a fbrmidabletask. I have
listedsomebookswhich I think may be useful.
A briefnote is givenasa guideto contentand level
of each.

A very good book but the emphasis

is on
operationaluseso the theorygivenis brief.
C o m p l e m e n t a rt yo t h i sb o o k .
8. S.E.T.Taylor and H.A. parnrer.Grountl Stutlies
for Pilots. Volurne l, Radio Aids. Granada
( 3 r d e d i r i o n ,1 9 7 9 ) .
Coversthe needsof prospective
contnrercial
pilots in so far asthe useof raclioaidsis
concerned.
9. J.L. McKinleyand R.D. Brenr.Electricitt,and
Electronicsfor Aerospatc Vchit.les.MeGruw-t{ill
( 2 n de d i t i o n t, 9 7 l ) .
Coversfundamentaltheoryand brielly
d e s c r i b easv i o n i c s y s t c n ) 5B. t s i c .
10. D.C. Green,Transmissiott,st'slarrs,
ll. pitnran
l. M. Kayton and W.R. Fried (Editors\, Avionics
(1978'1.
NavigationSystems.John Wiley and Sons(1969). I l . D . C .G r e e nR
, a d i o S y s t e n r lsl ,. p i r n r a n( l 9 7 g ) .
Authoritativebook which.isstill of
1 2 . D . C .G r e e nR
, a d i o S l t s t e m sI l,l . P i t r r r a (n1 9 7 9 ) .
considerable
interest.Coversradio and
1 3 . D . ( ' . G r e e nE
, l e c t r o n i c s , l l .p i t m a n( l 9 7 g ) .
non-radioaids. Postgraduate
1 4 . D . C .G r e e nL, ' l e t , t r o t i l c ' s , l lpl .i t r n a n( 1 9 7 g ) .
engineerlevel.
2. G.E. Beck(Editor),NovigationSysterns.yan
s o o k sa r ew e l l w r i t t e na n d
A l l o l ' G r e e n 'b
NostrandReinhold( 1971\.
i l l u s t r a t e dT. e c h n i c i alne v e l .
Similarto Kayton and Fried.alsoconsiders
1 5 . J . E . F i s h e ra n d I l . B . G a t l a n dL, l e c . t n t n i cf sr i t m
marinenavigationsystems.Equallyworthy
Theoryinkt Prac'tice.I)ergrrnon
( lrrd ediiion.
but not, perhaps,ascomprehensive
t9761.
sinceit has
almost300 l'ewerpages.
Mainly concerned
with designtif circuits.
3. B. Kendal.Mqnualof Atktnics. Granada'l9791.
U
n
d
e
r
g
r
a
d
u
a
t
e
a
n
d
p r a c t i s i negn g i n e e r s .
'
Biasedtowardsair tral'ficcontrol aspectsof
16. G.A. StreitrnatterarrdV. I:iore.Microprocessors
aircraltoperations.Complementary
to this
Thcoryanl Applit'utr,lrs.Reslorr( lg79).
book.
O n eo f t h c b e s to l ' a r c c e n tn u n r b e o
r f books
4. E.H.J. Pallert,Airuaft ElectricalSystems.
on mlcroprocessors.
P i t r n a n( 2 n d e d i t i o n .1 9 7 9 ) .
f 7 . A . J . B a d e nF u l l e r M
, i c r o w a v e sp. e r g a m o n
5. E.H.J.Pallett,Aircraft Instruments. pitman
( l n d e d i t i o n .l t ) 7 t ) 1 .
( 2 n d e d i t i o n .t q Sl ) .
L l n d e r g r a d u al cl e' v e l .U s e f udl e s c r i p t i o nosf
6. E.H.J.Pallett,Automatic Flight Control.
c o l n p ( ) n e nat sn dd e v i c e s .
Granada( 1979)'.
18. Telec'onntwic'utlons
S-r,s/enls
Llnits, l-6. Course
All of Pallett'sbooksarewell written with
( - h a i r r n a nG: . S m o l . T h e O p e nU n i v e r s i t yp r e s s
goodillustrations.Very usefulto avionics
( l(r76).
engineers.May be considered
ascomDanion 19. L.'lect rrtrnag,tct i( s and L'Iect ron ics. Cou rse
v o l u m e st o t h i sb o o k .
C h a i r r n a nJ:. J . S p a r k e sT. h e O p e nU n i v e r s i t l ,
7. N.H. Birch and A.E. Branrson, night Briefing
P r e s(sl 9 7 J) .
J'rtr
.&/ors,Volume3,Radb Aidsto Air Nayisatiort.
Both l5 and l(r arehighlyrecomnrended
as
P i t m a n( 4 t h e d i r i o n .1 9 7 9 ) .
c o u r s en t a t c r i a l .

232

'

I am sureI have omitted many books which are

equalin merit to those listed. The editions referred
to ( I st unlessotherwiseindicated) are those with
which I am familiar; the readeris rCvisedto check
that theseare the latest editions.
I havenot mentioned any mathematicstextbooks.
but for thosewho wish to study aircraft radio
systemsin depth, considerablemathematicmaturitv
is needed. Many books havetitles which are variations
on the theme 'Mathematics,forTechnicians'most of
which will be useful. The Open University is againa

usefulsourcefor thoserequiringappliedmathematics
at undergraduatelevel.
A huge sourceof materialon avionicscomesfrom
organizations
which arenot publishinghouses.The
readeris advisedto consultthe publicationslistsof
nationalaviationauthorities,suchas the CAA and
FAA, and alsoARINC and ICAO. Aircraft and
equipmentmanufacturers
producecomprehensive
manualsof varyingstandardswhich will be consulted
by the reader,asa matterof course,in the execution
of his dutiesin the aircraft industrv.

83

Glossary

a.c. - Alternating current: current flow which

navigation rystems.
changesdirection periodically.
Altitude trip - A discrete signal from a radio
Acquisition - The recognitionof a signal.
altimeter which changesstateas the aircraft passes
ACU - Antenna CouplingUnit.
through a pre-determinedaltitude.
A/D - Analogueto Digital conversion.,,
a.m. - Amplitude modulation: meaningfulvariation
Address- A"Brq,qpof pits which identify a particular
of the amplitude of an r.f. carrier
location in memory oi'idiri'e other data sourceor
Analog,analogue- A quantity or signalwhich varies
destination.
continuouslyand representssomeother
ADF - Automatic Direction Finder: a systemcapable
continuouslyvarying quantity;hence an analog
of automaticallygivingthe bearingto a fixed radio
circuit which processes
suchsignals,an analog
transmitter.
computerwhich performsarithmetic operationson
ADI - Attitude Director Indicator: an instrument
suchsignals.
which demandsattitude changeswhich, if
AND gate - A logic circuit which givesan output of
I if, and only if, all its inputs are l.
executed,causethe aircraft to fly a path
determinedby radio or other sensors.
Angle of cut - The anglebetweentwo hyperbolicor
ADSEL - AddressSelectiveSSR: British
circularl.o.p. at their point of intersection.
developmentof SSR,compatiblewith DABS.
Antenna,aerial - A devicespecificallydesignedto
a.f.c. - Automatic frequencycontrol: automatic
convertr.f. current flow to electro-magnetic
tuningof a radio receiver.
radiation,or vice versa.
AFCS - Automatic Flight Control System.
a.o.c.- Automatic overloadcontrol: a circuit which
a.g.c.- Automatic gain control of a radio receiver.
preventsan excessive
rateoftriggeringofa
AID - Aircraft InstallationDelay: the time elapsed
transponder.
betweentransmissionand receptionin a Radio
APU - Auxiliary Power Unit: a motor-generator
Altimeter installationwhen the aircraft is in the
fitted to an aircraft for the purposeof providing
touchdownposition.
ground power and startingthe main engines.
Air Data Computer- A unit which senses,
evaluates A/R - Altitude Reporting: automatic coded
and outputs quantitiesassociated
with altitude,
transmissionof altitude from aircraft to ATC in an
airspeed,
verticalspeedand Machnumber.
SSRsystem.
Air speed- The speedof an aircraft relativeto the air Array - A group ofregularly arrangeddevices,for
massthrough which it is flying.
example,antennasor memorycells.
AIS - Audio IntegratingSystem:the electronic
ASP - Audio SelectionPanel.
interfacebetweencrew membersand audiosources Associatedidentity - The identification of co-located
and destinations.
VOR and DM!. beaconsby synchronized
Algorithm - A sequenceof stepswhich alwaysleads
transmissions
of the sameMorsecodecharacters
of a conclusion.
from eachbeacon.
Alphanumerics- Displayedcharacterswhich may be Astable- Havingno stablestate.
lettersor numeralsor both.
ATC - Air Traffic Control.
Altimeter- Pneumatic:a pressure
measuring
device ATE - AutomaticTest Equipment.
calibratedin feet;alsobarometric,pressure
and
ATU - AntennaTuning Unit.
servoaltimeter. Radio:a systemwhich measures A-typedisplay- A c.r.t. displayin which the timebase
the heightof an aircraftabovethe earth'ssurface.
deflectionis horizontaland the signaldeflectionis
Altitude hole - [,ossof signalin an f.m.c.w.radardue
vertical.
to round trip traveltime beingequal to the
Automatic standby- seeSignalcontrolled search.
modulationperiod:of importancein Doppler
234

:!

.d
- l

:{

Backlash - PleyGdfrdrani:l
linkage such as
scannerdriles,
Balun - Balancedto unbelancedtransformer: used.
for example. rn conncstint a co.axial feeder
(unbalanced)to a (xntrc fed half wavedipole
antenna(balancedl.
- The referencepressurelevql of a
Barometric di
barometricdtimeter asset by the pilot.
Base- The integral value of the number of sym[ols
in a countrngsystem. The central regionof a
bipolar transistor.
Baseline- The line joining two ground stations in a
hyperbolicnavigationsystem.
b.c.d. - Binary coded decimal: a positional code in
which eachdecimaldigit is binary coded as a 4-bit
word.
Beamsoftening - Progressivereduction in gain of
demandsignalchannelin landing systems.
Bearing- The angle,measuredin a clockwise
direction,betweena referenceline through the
aircraft and a line joining the aircraft and the
object to which bearingis being measured.The
referenceline may point to magneticor true Norfh
or be in line with the aircraft'slongitudinal axisfor
magnetic,true or relativebearingrespectively.
Beat frequency - The difference frequency resulting
when two sinusoidsare mixed in a nori linear
device.
b.f.c. - Beat frequencyoscillator: an oscillator,the
output of which is mixed with an incoming c.w.
signalin order to producean audiblebeat
frequency.
Bidirectional - Refersto an interfaceport or bus
line which can transferdata in either direction.
Binary number system - A counting system using 2 as
its baseand employing the symbols0 and l.
Binary signal- A signalwhich can take on one of
two states,one lepresentingthe bit 0, the other
the bit l.
Bipolar transistor - A solid state device utilizing two
typesof current carriers:holesand electrons;
capableof amplifying or switchingfunctionspvhen
usedin suitablecircuits.
Bistable- Havingtwo stablestates.
Bit - A singlebinary digit, i.e. the symbol 0 or l.
BITE - Built In Test Equipment.
Blade antenna- A rigid quarter wave antenna,the
bladeshapeof which givesoperationover a wide
band of frequencies;electricalcomponehtsmay be
housedwithin the blade for the purposeof
improvingthe performance.
BNR - Signalrepresentinga binary number.
Bonding- Electrical:interconnectingmetal parts
with conductorsin order to eliminatepotential

differences.Mechanical:joining parts to one

anotherby methodsother than thoseinvolving
bolts,screwsand rivets.
Booleanalgebra- The algebraof two state,or binary,
variables.
Buffer - A circuit used for isolating or matching
purposes.
Bug - A fault, usually in software. A mark, fixed or
set,on a meter face.
Bus - One or more conductorsusedas an
information path. A conductorusedto cany a
particularpower supply to varioususer
equlpments.
Byte - A specificnumber of bits (usually 8) treated
asa group: 8-bit word.
c - Standardnotation for the speedofpropagation of
e.m.wavesin freespace:c = 3 x 108 metresper
sec= 186000 milesper sec= 162000 n.m. per sec.
CADC - CentralAir Data Computer.
Capsule- An evacuatedairtight containerusedto
detect changesin pressure.
Capture- The sensingof a radio beam suchas occurs
in ILS.
CAS - CollisionAvoidanceSystem.
CDI - CourseDeviationIndicator:an instrument
which presentssteeringsignalsto the pilot which,
if obeyed,causethe aircraft to follow a particular
flight path.
CDU - Control DisplayUnit.
Cell - A circuit or deviceusedfor storingone
characteror word, the locationbeinggivenby a
particularaddress.A singlechemicalsourceof
electromotiveforce(e.m.f.).
electronic
Chip - A collectionof interconnected
componentsformed on a singlesiliconwafer.
joint which.by
Chokeflange- A type of waveguide
givesa good
of
a
half-wave
stub,
use
short-circuited
electricalconnectionacrossthejoint.
CIWS- CentralInstrumentWarningSystem.
Clarifier- Tuningcontrol for the insertedcarrier
oscillatorneededfor s.s.b.reception.
Clear- To placeone or more storagelocationsin a
particularstate,usuallyO.
circuit in a system;
Clock - The basicsynchronizing
the waveformfrom sucha circuit.
Clutter- Unwantedradarreturns.
Co-axialcable- A pair of concentricconductors
by an insulatingmaterialand usedfor
separated
of r.f. currentsup to about
line transmission
4 GHz.
Code - A systemof symbolsand rulesusedfor
represe
nting informationsuchasnumbers,letters
and control signals.

2!F

Colocation- VHF navigationand DME beacons

sharingthe samegeographicalsite; such beacons
will operateon pairedfrequencies
and use
a s s o c i a t ei d e n t i t y .
Commutator - A mechanicalor electronicrotating
contactdevice.
Compassrose- A circular scalemarked in degrees
and usedfor indicatingaircraft heading.
Computer - A machineor systemwhich performs
arithmeticand logicalfunctions;maybe analogue
or digital,electronicor mechanical.
Contour - Blankingof the strongestsignalsin a
weatherradar.
Control bus - A bus usedto carry a variety of
control signals.
CPU - CentralProcessing
Unit: a devicecapableof
executinginstructionsobtainedfrom memory or
other sources,a term often usedfor a
microprocessor.
Crossmodulation - Modulation of a desiredsignalby
an unwantedsignal.
Crosstrackdeviation- The perpendiculardistance
betweenaircraft position and the desiredtrack.
c.r.t. - Cathoderay tube: an evacuatedthermionic
devicewhich hasan electrongun at one end and a
fluorescentscreenat the other;the electronbeam
from the gun writes a pattern on the screenwhich
is a function of analoguesignalsappliedto the
device.
Crystal- A frequencysensitivedeviceusedto
determineand maintain the frequencyof
oscillatorsor establishnarrowpassor stop bands
within closelimits. A point contactdiode which
may find useas a mixer or rectifier in microwave
systems.
CVOR - ConventionalVOR (beacon).
CVR - CockpitVoice Recorder.
c.w.-Continuous wave:continuoustransmission
of
unmodulatedr.f. duringthe time the transmitteris
keyed.
Cycle - One of a recurringseriesof events.
D/A - Digitalto Analogueconversion.
DABS - DiscreteAddressBeaconSystem:American
development
of SSR;compatiblewith ADSEL.
Ilata - That on which a computeror processor
operates;
singular:datum.
Databus - Usuallyeither8 or l6 bi-directionallines
capableof carryinginformation to and from the
CPU,memoryor interfacedevices.
Datasavememory - A memory devicewhich does
not lose the data storedin it when power is
switchedoff. May requirea battery.
dB - Decibel:unit of relativepoweror voltage
235

measuredon a logarithmic scalewith multiplying

factorsof l0 and 20 respectively.
dBm - Unit of power: decibelsrelativeto I rnW.
d.c. - Direct current:currentflow in one direction
only.
d.d.m. - Differencein depth of modulation: refersto
the 90 Hz and 150 Hz modulating frequenciesused
in ILS.
Deadreckoning- Calculationof position using
vehiclespeedor acceleration,time in motion,
direction and the known co-ordinatesof the initial
position. The absoluteerror in a dead reckoning
systemincreases,
without bound, with distance
flown.
Deccanavigator- A c.w. hyperbolic navigation
system.
Decimalnumber system- A counting systemusing
l0 asits baseand employingthe symbolsO,1,2,
3,4,5,6,7,8,9.
Decometer- A phasemeter usedin the Decca
navigationsystem;threeareemployed:purple,
red and green.
fletector - An electroniccircuit which de-modulates
amplitude or pulse-modulatedwaveforms.
D/F - DirectionFinding.
DH - DecisionHeight: the height at which the
runway shouldbe in view when on an approach.
Differentiator - A devicewhich givesan output
proportionalto the rate of changbof input.
Digital - A systemor deviceusingdiscretesignalsto
representparticular valuesof a varying or fixed
quantity numerically;a signalin sucha system.
Diode- A semiconductor
or thermionicdevicewhich
preventsflow of current in one direction.
Dipole, half wave - An antennaconsistingof two
co-linearlengthsof conductoreachone quarter
wavelengthlong at the desiredfrequencyof
operation. The two polesmay form a 'V' shapeif
a more omni-directionalpolar diagramthan a figure
of eight is required.
Direct access- Capability of readingdata from a
particularaddressin memory without havingto
access
throughprecedingstoragearea.
Disc - Storagedevicegivinglargecapacity and almost
direct access.'
Discretesignal- A signalcharacterizedby being
either'on'or'off'.
Discriminator- A circuit which convertsfrequency
or phasedifferencesjnto amplitude variations.
DITS - Digital Informition TransferSystem:
A R I N C4 2 9 .
DME - DistanceMeasuringEquipment: a secondary
radarsystemcapableof measuringthe slant range
of a fixed transponder.

Doppler effect - The changein frequencynoted ,

nearest100 ft.
when a wave sourceis moving relativeto an
EPROM - ErasableProgrammableROM: a ROM
observer.
which, usingsuitableequipment,canbe erasedand
Doppler navigation system * A dead reckoning
re-programmed.
systemconsistingof a Dopplerradarand a
computer which, with headinginformation from a Fan-in- The numberof inputsthat canbe handled,
compass,calculatesthe position of the aircraft.
usuallyby a logiccircuit.
Doppler radar - A primary radar systemwhich
Fan marker - A position fixing aid for en route
utilizes the.Dopplereffect to measuretwo or more
airwaysnavigation:alsoZ marker.
of groundspeed,drift angle,longitudinalvelocity, Fan-out- The numberof circuitswhich canbe driven
lateralvelocity,verticalvelocity.
from an output terminal,usuallyof a logiccircuit.
Doppler shift - The differencebetweentransmit and Fasterect- The applicationof a largervoltagethan
. receivefrequenciesin a systemsubjectto the
requiredfor normalrunningto a gyro in orderto
Dopplereffect.
reducethe time takento achieveoperatingspeed.
Doppler spectrum- A band of Doppler shift
f.e.t. - Field effect transistor:a solidstatedevice
frequencies
producedby a Dopplerradarwith a
utilizingone type of curretrtcarrier(c.f. bipolar
finite beamwidth.
transistor).
DPSK - Differential PhaseShift Keying: a form of
Fetch - The part of a digital computercycle during
digitalrnodulationin which a phasereversal
which the locationof the next instructionis
'l'.
indicatesthe binary digit
determined,that instructionis takenfrom memory
thift angle- The anglebetweenheadingand track.
and enteredinto a register.
d.s.b.- Doublesideband: transmission
of both side Filter - A circuit which selectswanted or rejects
bandsof an a.m.wave,the carrierbeingsuppressed. unwantedsignals,
usuallyon the basisof frequency.
Duplexer - A devicewhich permits sharingof one
Firmwave- Instructionsstoredin ROM and hence
not easilyamended.
circuit or transmissionchannelby two signalsin
particularuseof one antennafor receptionand
Flag- A signalwhich hastwo discretestates,one of
which (low) usuallyindicatesfailure.
transmission.
DVOR - Doppler VOR (beacon).
Flagbit - The softwareequivalentof a flip flop
which may be usedasan indicator,for example,to
d.v.s.t.- Directview storagetube: a type of c.r.t.
indicatethe beginningor end of a pieceof data.
with a high intensity display.
Flare - The final phaseof a landingduring which the
Dynamic RAM - A type of RAM in which data
rdte of descentis reducedwith height.
storedwill fade unlessperiodicallyrefreshed.
Flashover - Dischargethrough air between
conductorsacrosswhich a largepotentialexists.
EADI - ElectronicADI: similarlyECDI and EHSL
EAROM - ElectricallyAlterable
ROM:seeEPROM. Flight level - With a pneumaticaltimeterreference
s e ta t 1 0 1 3 . 2 5m b a ro r 2 9 . 9 2i n . H gt h e i n d i c a t e d
Earth - seeGround.
ECL - Emitter CoupledLogic:logiccircuitsemploying height,to the nearesthundredfeet,is thc flight
to mode
.bipolar transistorsgivingvery fast operation,
level;thereply from an ATC Transponder
C interrogations.
reasonablefan-in and very good fan-out.
e.h.t.- Extra high tension:a sourceof e.m.f.,usually Flight log - A devicewhich recordsan aircraft's
flight path in the horizontalplane,for example,a
measuredin kilovolts,usedasa supplyfor c.r.t.'s
power
transmitters.
rollermap.
and high
Flip flop - A circuit havingtwo stablestates,often
Elapsedtime - The time betweentransmissionand
referredto asa bi-stable.The circuit remainsin
receptionin a radarsystem.
Electroluminescent- A property of deviceswhich
one stateuntil triggered,two triggersbeing
convert electricalenergyto light.
requiredto revertto the originalstate.A
e.m. wayes- Electromagneticwaveswhich include
mono-stablemay be referredto as a flip flop.
representation
of a
Flowchart- A diagrammatic
radio and light waves.
e.m.f. Electromotiveforce.
sequenceof operationswhich are often algorithmic.
f.m. - Frequencymodulation:meaningfulvariation
Enable- A signalwhich allowsa circuit to give an
of the frequencyof a carrier.
output; alternativelya gate(signal).
Fruit - UnwantedSSR replies.
Encodingaltimeter - A pneumaticaltimeterwith a
parallelcoded output of9 to I I bits representing Frequencypairing - The permanentassociationof
frequenciesin different systemssuchasVOR/DME
the aircraft'sheight abovemean sealevel to the

237

and Localizer/GlidesloPe.
Freeze- Not allowing updating of a weather radar
picture.
f.s.d. - Full scaledeflection.
Garbling - Receivedsignalsoverlappingin time.
Gate - A circuit, the output of which dependson
certaininput conditionsbeingmet; for example
AND, OR, NAND, NOR gates.A switching
waveform. The regionof an f.e.t. which controls
the output current.
Gimbal - A frame in which a gyro is mounted so as
to allow freedomof movementabout an axis
perpendicularto the gyro spin axis.
Glidepath/glideslope- The vertical plane approach
path to a landingsite. That part of ILS which
providesverticalguidance.
GPWS- Ground Proximity WarningSystem.
Gray code - A one bit changecode.
Grey region- A condition of uncertainty.
Ground - A point of zeropotential;alsoearth.
Ground plane - A surfacewhich completelyreflects
e.m. wavesand which, at the frequencyof interest,
behavesasif it extendsto infinity in all directions.
Ground speed- The speedof an aircraft projectedon
to the earth'ssurface.
Ground wave - A radio wave which follows the
earth'ssurface.
Gunn diode - A solid statedeviceutilizing the
bunchingof current carriersand finding '
applicationasan oscillatorin microwavesystems.
Gyroscope,gyro - A spinningmassfree to rotate
about one or both of two axesperpendicularto
one anotherand the axis of spin. In the absenieof
externalforcesthe spin axis direction is fixed in
space.

Hexadecimalnumber system - A counted system

using l6 asits baseand employingthe symbols
o , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9A ,, B , C , D , E , F .
High levellanguage- A vocabulary,togetherwith
grammaticalrules,in which eachstatement
correspondsto severalmachinecode instructions
so making the task of programmingleSstedious;
examplesare BASIC, FORTRAN, ATLAS,
PASCAL. etc.
Hot mic. -'A microphonewhich is permanentlylive
irrespectiveof crew operatedswitch positions;
live output is fed to the CVR.
HSI ' Horizontal Situation Indicator: an instrument
displayinginformation from the compassand v.h.f.
navigationaids,the latter being in the form of
deviationsignalswhich, in the caseof VOR, relate
to a courseselectedon the sameinstrument.
Hyperbolicnavigation- A meansof navigationusing
a co-ordinatesystemof hyperboliclines definedby
ground basedradio transmitters.

i.c. - Integratedcircuit: a devicecontaining

electroniccircuitsinseparablyfabricatedas an
integralpart of the deviceitself; often referredto
as a chip.
i.f.- Intermediatefrequency:the fixed frequencyat
which most of the amplificationand selection
takesplacein a superhetrodynereceiver.
IFF - Identification Friend or Foe: military version
of SSR.
IFR - Instrument Flight Rules: apply when VFR are
excludedby virtue of flying in controlled airspace
or lack of visibility.
IIS - InstrumentLandingSystem:the current
standardICAO approachaid.
Impatt diode - Impact avalanchetransit time diode:
a silicon p-n junction reversebiasedto its
avalanchethreshold;can be arrangedto act as a
Handshake- Electricalverificationthat a data
in microwavecircuits,henceits
negativeresistance
transferhastaken place.
oscillators.
use
in
with
in
Hard data Data which remains memory
Impedance- The total oppositionto the flow of
power removed.
varieswith
current;in generalimpedance
Hardware-- The sum total of componcnts of a system
frequency.
which havea physicalexistence.
in.Hg - Inchesol mercury: a unit of pressure
Hard uV - Hard micro volts: the voltageacrossan
measurement;the height of a column of mercury
load.
open circuit
beingmeasured;
supportedby the pressure
Headup display- Equipmentwhich allows
29.92 in.Hg= 1013.25mbar= I standard
information to be visuallypresentedto the pilot
atmosphere,i.e. the pressureat meansealevel.
while looking through the windscreen.
- A signalwhich prevents,aparticularcircuit
Inhibit
of
the
aircraft
nose
direction
tail
to
Heading The
from performingits function.
in degrees
clockwise
longitudinalaxismeasured
INS - Inertial NavigationSystem:a non radio
from eithermagneticor true North.
navigationaid which computesthe aircraft'sposi
Height ring The ground return from a vertical
tion by deadreckoningusingthe measuredaccele'
gives
a
bright
height
sidelobein a WeatherRadar
of an airbornegyro stabilizedplatform.
ration
the
origin.
p.p.i.
on
centred
the
on
ring
238

Lenc - A region bounded by lines of equal phasein

trctmction - Coded rnformation which causesa
the Deccaor Omeganavigationsystems.
computer to perform an operationusuallyon data
latch - A circuit that may be locked into one of two
availableat an addresswhich forms part of the
particularstableconditions.
instruction.
lnstruction set - The sum total of instructions which Leading edge- The edgeof a pulse which occurs first
in time; cf. laggingedge.
can be executedby a particularcomputer.
leakage - Unwantedcouplingbetweentransmit and
lntegrator - A device,the output of which is
receiveantennas.
proportional to the sum of past inputs.
LED - Light Emitting Diode:'a semiconductordiode
Intensity Modulation - Variation of the velotity of
which emits light when forward biased.
the electronbeamin a c.r.t. so asto causea
Limiter - A circuit which limits the voltageexcursior
correspondingvaliation in intensity of the
of a waveform.
brightnessof the display.
Interface- The point at which two parts of a system Linear array - A one-dimensionalarray of antennas
arrangedto producea beam which is narrow in
or two systemsmeet.
one plane,for example,a slotted waveguide.
lntprferometer- An antennaarray, togetherwith
l.o. - Local oscillator:the circuit usedto provide an
phasediscriminators,capableof measuringthe
output which is mixed with an incomingr.f in
directionof arrivalof an e.m.wave.
order to producethe i.f. in a superhetrodyne
lnterlace Time multiplexing of modesof
in
radar
system;
receiver.
in
a
secondary
interrogation
particularmodesA and C may be interlacedin
Load - A devicewhich drawscurrent; to connect
sucha device.
SSR.
Interrogator- The independentpart of3 secondary Localizer- That part of ILS givingazimuth guidance.
binary
radarsystem.
Logic circuit - A circuit which processes
signalsin accordancewith the rulesof Boolean
lntemrpt - The suspensionof the executionof a
usedin digitalsystems.
algebra;extensively
currentroutinewhile a computercarriesout an
alternativeroutine; the signalwhich triggerssuch
L,ook-uptable - A circuit, the output of which is the
function valuecorrespondingto the input which
anactron.
a ROM which, for
the argument;usually
represents
I/O - lnput-Output.
example,might storethe sine(function values)or a
IRS - Inertial ReferenceS)'stem:the heart of INS'
largenumberof differentangles(arguments).
Isodop - The line joining thosepoints on the earth's
antenna-' An antenltaconsistingof a coil of
waves.
Loop
e.m.
which
reflected
from
surface
wire, usuallywound on a ferritecore,which,
originatingfrom an airbornetransmitter,suffer the
ideally, reactsonly to the changingmagneticfield
sameDopplershift.
in an e.m.wave;an ADF or an Omegaloop antenna
coils.
two mutuallyperpendicular
in
has
employed
frequency;
variation
of
Jitter Random
l . o . p .- L i n e o f p o s i t i o n .
DME and MADGE in orderthat wantedreplies
l.oran - Long rangeaid to navigation:a pulsed
may be recognized.
hyperbolicpositionfixing system;LoranA obsolete,LoranC - current,Loran D - short
Key - To turn on a radiotransmitter.
rangeversionof Loran C (Loran B - never
Keyboard- A devicewhich allowsan operatorto
operational).
input-informationinto a computer;the keysor
or LSA diode - Limited Space- chargeAccumulation
characters
switchesmay representalphanumeric
diode:similarto Gunn diode.
dedicatedfunctions.
l.s.b.- Leastsignificantbit in a binaryword- Lower
Klystron - A thermionic deviceemployingvelocity.
sideband:the sidebandof an a.m.transmission
nrodulationof an electronbeamand capableof
which is of lower frequencythan the carrier.
oscillatingor amplifying continuouslyat
- LargeScaleIntegration:a largenumber of
ISI
microwavefrequencies.
circuits(usually1000or more)on a singlei.c.,
Knot -- The unit of speedusedin air and marine
similarlySSI(small),MSI (medium)and VLSI
navigation:I knot = I nauticalm.p.h.
(very large).
Laggingedge- The edgeof a pulsewhich occurslast Lubber line - A referenceline againstwhich a movlng
scaleis measured.
in time, i.e.the right-handedgeif the pulseis
or drawnagainsta time
viewedon an oscilloscope
to the right.
scaleincreasing

239

Machinelanguage- The basicinstructions,in binary

characteristicsof a carrierwave in order to impress
code,executedby a computer;maybe written
informationon it.
down in hexadecimal
Monostable- A deviceor circuit with one stable
or octal code.
condition to which it will return, after a specified
MADGE - MicrowaveAircraft Digital Guidance
delay,when disturbed.
Equipment: a secondaryradarsystemwith civil
Morsecode - Combinationsof dots and dashes
applicationasan approachaid to offshore
to lettersof the alphabetand to numerals.
assigned
platforms.
FET: an
Magnetron- A thermionic deviceemployingvelocity MOSFET- Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor
f.e.t.wherethe gateconnectionis insulatedfrom
modulation of an electronbeamin a magneticfield
the drain to sourcechannelby an oxide of silicon.
and capableof oscillatingat microwavefrequencies
m.p.e.l.- Maximumpermissible
exposurelevel:in
with very high power output for short periods.
relation to microwaveradiation.
Magslip- A four wire synchroresolvercommonly
usedto resolvea timebasewaveforminto sine and MP mode - Multipulsemode: a transmissionsequence
which allowslane ambiguitiesto be resolvedin a
cosinecomponentswith respectto the azimuth
DeccaNavigationSystem.
angularposition of a radarscanner.
m.s.b.- Most significantbit in a binary word.
Main bang - The transmissionfrom a pulsedradar.
m.s.l.- Meansealevel.
Main lobe - The predominantcigar-shaped
part of a
MTL - Minimum TriggeringLevel; the signal
directionalantennapolar diagram.
amplituderequiredto initiatean action;of
Marker beacon- A radio aid transmittinga vertical
significancein secondaryradarsystems.
directionalbeam so allowinga pilot to fix his
Multiplexing - Transmittingmore than one signal
position on an app.roach
path or airway.
over a singlelink; signalsmay be separatedin time
mbar - Millibar:a unit of pressure
measurement;
or frequency.
1013.25mbar = I standardatmosphere
i.e.the
pressure
Multivibrator - A circuit which can be rn one of two
at meansealevel.
states,neither,one or both of which may be stable,
Memory - A devicervhich storesinformation for
future use.
henceastable.monostableand bistable
Microcomputer- A contpletedigital computing
multivibrators.
systemthe hardwareof which comprises
a
NAND gate - A logic circuit which givesan output of
microprocessor
and other LSI circuitssuchas
0 if, and only if, a.llits inputs are l.
memoryand input/outputports;a singlechip with
NDB - Non-DirectionalBeacon:a radio transmitter
circuitscapableol' providingcontrol.arithmetic/
at a known geographicalsite for useby ADF.
logicoperations.
nlentoryand input/output.
logic - Representationof the bit I by a lowNegative
Microphone,mic. - A transducer
which converts
voltageand the bit 0 by a high voltage.
soundwavesto electricalsignals.
n.m. - Nauticalmile: the lengthof a minute of arc ot
- A chip which providesthe control
Microprocessor
longitudeon the equator;approximately6076 ft
and arithmetic/logic
operationsrequiredby a
o r 1 8 5 2m .
digitalconrputer;a chip caprbleof processing
Noisefigure - The s.n.r.at the input of a receiver
informationin digitaltbrrn in accordance
with a
dividedby the s.n.r.at the'output:a measureof
codedand storedsetof instructionsin order to
receivey,'noisiness'.
c o n t r o lt h e o p e r a t i o no l ' o t h e rc i r c u i t r yo r
Nor\-retumto zero - A binary signalwhich makesa
equlpment.
transitiononly when the bit I needsto be
Microstrip - Transntissionlinesand p3i\ive
represented.
componentsformedbv depositingmetalsrripsot'
Non-volatilemembry - A memory that holds data
suitableshapesand dinrensidns
on one sideof a
afterpowerhasbeendisconnected.
dielectricsubstrate.
the other sideof which is
NOR gate - A logic circuit which givesan cutput of I
completelycoatedwith metalactingas a ground
if, and only if, all its inputsare0.
plane.
Null - A no error signalcondition in servosystems.
Microwaves- A.vagueterm usedto describeradio
frequenciesabove1000 MHz.
Indicator.
OBI - Omni-Bearing
MLS - MicrowaveLandingSystem:replacementfor
Selector:the controlwith
OBS- Omni-Bearing
ILS.
which the pilot selectsthe desiredVOR radial.
m.o. - I\'lasteroscillator:the circuit which provides
Octal number system- A counting systemusing8 as
the frequencyreferencein a radio transmitter.
its baseandemplo.,ingthe symbols0, I , 2, 3, 4, 5 ,.
Modulation - Variation of one or more
6.7.
240

Omega- A c.w. hyperbolic navigationsystemgiving

worldwide cover.
Omnidirectionalantenna- An antennawhich radiates
in or receivesfrom all directionsequally; impossible
to achievein three dimensions.
Omni-station- A VOR ground transmitter.
One bit drange coile : A binary code in which only
one bit in the word changeswith each count, for
example,Gray code.
One shot - A monostablemultivibrator.
On-line- Refersto equipment in direct interactive
communicationwith a computer. Refersto the
installationand commissioningof a systemor the
stateof a systemwhen operational.
ONS - OmegaNavigationSystem.
OBencentre- A p.p.i. display in which the radial
timebaseline has its origin on an arc of non zero
radius,the arc representingzero n.m. range.
OR gate- A logic circuit which givesan output of 0
if, and only if, all its inputs are 0.
Orrgn - A point with zero co-ordinates;the
illuminatedspot on the screenof a c.r.t. at the
start of the timebase.
Orthogonal- At right angles(.in two or three
dimensionalspaces).
PA - Passenger
Addresssystem. Power amplifier.
Page- A number of words treated as a group; within
memory typically 4096 consecutivebytes; for
displaypurposesa portion of memory which can
convenientlybe displayedon a VDU.
Pairedfrequencies- seeFrequencypairing.
Parallaxeror - The readingerror resultingfrom
viewingan instrument or display from other than
headon.
Paralleloperation - Used by a digital systemin
which one line or circuit dealswith only one bit
in a word.
Parity - A bit or bits addedto a group of bits such as
to make the sum of all bits odd or even,hence'odd
or evenparity which can be checkedfor error
detectionor correction.
p.e.p.- Peakenvelopepower: a measureof power in
s.s.b.systems;sincecarrierpower cannotbe quoted
the r.f. power dissipatedat the peakof the
modulatingwaveform is given in specifications.
Performanceindex - A global measureof the quality
of a WeatherRadar system;relatedto maximum
range.
Peripherals- Units or devicesthat operatein
conjunctionwith a computerbut arenot part of it;
more generally,units or systemsconnectedto a
but not part of the
systemunderconsideration
system.

Phantombeacon- A waypoint, in an RNAV system

basedon VOR/DME, at which no actualradio
beaconexists,its positionbeingdefinedin terms
of bearingand distancefrom the nearestin-range
beacon.
Photosensitive- A devicewhich changesits electrical
characteristicswhen exposedto light; for exarnple
photocell,photodiode,phototransistor.
diode:may.be
PIN diode - P-type/lnsulator/N-type
frequencies.
power
at
high
switch
usedas a higtr
on an
Pitot pressure- The dynamicair pressure
aircraftcausedby its movementrelativeto the air
masssurroundingit; dependenton both air speed
and staticpressure.
Planararray - A two-dimensionalarray of antennas
arrangedto producea beam which is narrow in
two planes,for examplea flat plateslottedarrayas
usedin WeatherRadarsYstems.
p.l.l. - Phaselock loop: a circuit which, by usinga
an error signal,
phasediscriminatorto generate
controlsan oscillatorso as to makeits output
equal in phaseand hencefrequencyto an input or
demandsignal.
Polardiagram- A plot of points of equal field
strengthwhich givesa diagrammaticrepresentation
of the directionalpropertiesof an antenna.
Polarization- The planeof the e-fieldin an e.m.
wave.
Polling- lnterrogationof circuits,units or systemsto
determinetheir stateof readinessto receiveor
transmitinformation;scanninginterruptlinesto
determinewhich, if any, requireservicingby a
computer.
Port - A circuit providingelectricalaccess(in or out)
to a system,usually a computer system.
Positionfeedback- A signalrepresentingthe position
of the output of a positioncontrol servosystem
which may be comparedwith an input or demand
signalso as to producean error signal.
Positionfixing - Finding the position of a vehiclein
relationto a groundfeaturesuchasa radio beacon.
Positivelogic - Representationof the bit I by a high
voltageand the bit 0 by a low voltage.
Potentiometer- A three'terminalvariableresistor;
betweenthe wiper terminaland
the resistance
eitherof the end terminalsvarieswith adjustment;
the resistancebetweenthe end terminalsis fixed'
p.p.i. - Planpositionindicator:a radardisplaywhich
showsthe relativepositionof targetsin a plane;
targetson the samebearingwill be superimposed
on the display if they havethe sameslant range.
of
p.p.m.- Pulsepositionmodulation:transmission
(in
of
position
time)
tEe
varying
by
information
pulseswithin a grouP'
241

p.r.f. - Pulserepetition frequency: the number of

pulsesper second;may be usedto quantify pulse
groupsper second.
Primary radar - A radar (radio detecting and ranging)
systemwhich detectsthe reflectionsof its own
transmissions
from an uncooperativetardet.
Programpins - A group of connectorpins Jomeof
which may be groundedto selectparticular modes
of operationof a systemfrom severaloptions
available.
hogrammable - The capability of accepting data
which altersthe electricalstateof internal circuitry
so as to be able to perform one of severalpossible
tasks.
hogramme counter - A CPU registerwhich holds the
addressof the next instruction to be fetched from
memory; automaticallyincrementedafter a fetch
cycle.
hogramme, progrtrn - A set of instructions.
arrangedin an orderedsequence,
which determine
the operationscarriedout by a computer.
PROM - ProgrammableROM; programmedafter
manufactureaccordingto the user'ssilecifications;
generallynot reprogrammable.
p.r.p. - Pulserepetition period: the reciprocalof
p.r.f.
p.t.t. - Pressto transmit or pressto talk.
Pr.rlse
compression- A techniqueusedin radar
systemswhich allowsa relativelywide pulse to be
transmittedand a narrowpulseto be processed
in
the videocircuits.

Radome- A detachableaircraft nosecone'madeof

dielectricmaterial;more generallyany dielectric
panel or antennacover.
RAM - Random AccessMemory: a memory which
affords immediateaccessto any location whereby
information may be written in or read out.
Raster- The pattern tracedby the electron beamin
a c.r.t.
RBI - RelativeBearingIndicator: displaysthe
relativebearingof an NDB.
Read- To senseinformation containedin some
devicesuch as memory or an input port.
Real time - Computation relatingto a processduring
the time that the processoccurs;the resultsof
such computation may be usedto control the
relatedprocess.
Refreshing- The processof restoring the chargeof
capacitorswhich store the contentsof dynamic
RAM: at intervalsof, for example,slightiy lessthan
I ps cellsare automaticallyread, the resultsthen
being written into the samecells.
Register- A memory devicewith minimal access
time usedfor the temporary storageof binary
coded information; usually a collection of flip
flops,onefor eachbit which can be stored.
Resolver- A devicewhich can give signals
representingthe sine and cosineofan angle.
r.f. - Radio frequency.
Rho-Rho-Rho- A position fixing systemwhich
relieson measurementof distanceto fixed points:
rho-rhosystemsgiveambiguousfixes.
Rho-theta- A position fixing systemwhich relieson
Q+ode - A code usedin R/T operationsto identify
measurementof distanceand bearingof a fixed
the nature of commonly usedmessages,
for
point.
example:QFE - atmosphericpressureat airfield
Rising runway - A runway symbol on a flight
level;QTE- true bearingfrom groundstation;
director driven laterally by localizersignalsand
QNH - atmosphericpressureat local sealevel.
verticallyby radio altimetersignals.
QE - QuadrantalError: the errorintroducedin ADF RMI - Radio MagneticIndicator: an aircraft
due to re-radiationfrom the airframe.
instrumentwhich indicatesrelativeand magnetic
Qfactor - A measureof the selectivityof a tuned
bearingsderivedfrom VOR and ADF.
circuit.
RNAV - Area navigation:navigationwhich doesnot
Quadrature- At right angles:a 90o phasedifference
necessarilyconfine the aircraft to a fixed airways
betweensignals.
system.
Quarter-waveantenna- One of the conductorsof a
ROM - ReadOnlyMemory: containspermanently
half wavedipole mounted on a ground planewhich
storedinformation written in during manufacture;
servesto 'reflect' the quarter-waveconductor so as
random accessis availableto all stored
to produce,effectively,a dipole.
information.
Routine - A list of correctly sequencedcomputer
Radarmile - The time taken for an e.m. warc io
instructions;the terms routine and programare
travel I n.m. and back,approximately12.36 ps.
often interchangeable
but the former is usually
Radial - One of a set of straighthalf linesterminating
appliedto a commonly usedset of instructions
at a fixed point; a line of radio bearingfrom a
which may be calledby other programs.
'VOR station.
R/T - Radio telephony: speechcommunicationby
Radio, radaraltimeter - seeAltimeter.
modulatedradio waves.
242

when squitter is received;known also as automatic

Scanconversion- In position: the conversionof
standby.
co-ordinatesfronr rho-theta(angleand distance)to
X-Y (orthogonalgrid). In time: the conversion
Skin effect - The tendencyof a.c. at h.f. and above
to avoid the centreof a conductor so reducingthe
betweenrate of receipt of data and (usually faster)
useful crosssectionalareaand henceincreasing
rateof display.
resistanceto'current flow.
Scanning- The processof causinga directionalbeam
of e.m.radiationto sweepthrougha sectorof
Skywave-- A radio wave refractedback to earth by
the ionosphere.
space.The processof polling interrupt lines or
Skywavecontamination- Receptionof a skywave
devices.
and groundor spacewavesimultaneously;an
Scott-T transformer - Used in synchro systemsfor
exampleof multipathpropagation.
three-wireto four-wire conversionor vice versa.
Slant range- The actual rangeof a targetin a plane
Scratchpad- Memory, often on the CPU chip, in
horizontal.
which is not necessarily
which data neededfor subsequentoperationsmay
be temporarily stored. Display on which data may SLS - Side Lobe Suppression:a techniqueusedin
be checkedbeforebeingenteredinto the main
SSRto preventinterrogationby sidelobes.
s.m.o.- StabilizedMasterOscillator.
memory.
s.n.r.- Signalto noisepower ratio.
Search- The processleadingto acquisition.
Soft data - Data which is lost when power is removed.
Secondtrace echo An echo or return of a radar
- Programs,languages
and proceduresof a
Software
transmissionwhich givesa falserangereadingsince
part
of
software
hasa
no
system:
computer
transmission
receiver
after
a
at
the
it arrives
' physicalexistenceother than as written down on
subsequentto the one givingrise to the echo.
by the state
paperor storedin codeasrepresented
Secondaryradar - A radar systemwhi,chrequiresa
of a signalor device.
by an
target;a radiolink is established
cooperative
- A radio wavewhich travelsin a straight
Spacewave
interrogator,the return or reply being suppliedby
line being neither refractednor reflected.
on receiptof the interrogation.
a transponder
Spectrum- The sum total offrequency componnts
Selcal- Selectivecalling:automaticalertingsystem
of a signal.
usinga v.h.f.or h.f. groundto air link to a
SPI - SpecialPositionIndicator: an additionalpulse
particular aircraft or group of aircraft.
of r.f. which may be radiatedby an SSR
Sequentialaccess- Readingdata from a particular
transponderfor identificationpurposes.
addressin memory havinggone through preceding
Squitter - Random transmissionof pairs of pulsesof
storageareain order to find that address;for
r.f. from a DME beaconas requiredfor the
example.storageon magnetictape.
'
in
which
operationof signalcontrolledsearch.
system
by
a
digital
Used
Serialoperation
s.s.b.- Singlesideband:the transmissionof one
one line or circuit dealswith all the bits in a word
sidebandof an amplitudemodulatedwave.
sequentially.
Radar:a secondary
Servoloop - A systemin which a signalrepresenting SSR- SecondarySurveillance
transponder
an
airborne
employing
system
with
an
radar
for
back
comparison
output
is
fed
the
which transmitsinformationrelatingto identity
the amplifieddifference,or error
input reference,
and/or altitude;rangeandbearingis availableby
signal,beingusedto control the output.
elapsedtime and usinga directional
measuring
indicator Sevensmall bar-shaped
Seven-segment
interrogation.
light sourcesarrangedin a figure of eight pattern,
suclithat activatingparticularcombinationsof the Stable- A mechanicalor electricalstatewhich is
automaticallyrestoredaftera disturbance.
sevensourcescausesa characterto be displayed'
used
memory- Memorywhich storesinformation
commonly
Static
Shadowmaskc.r.t. A type of c.r.t.
in sucha way that it doe'snot needrefreshing.
for colourdisplays.
serially
Static pressure- The air pressuredue to still air;
Shift register- A registerwhich is accessed
with height.
decreases
both in and out; variationscan giveparallelto serial
s.t.c.- Sensitivitytime control:variationof receiver
o r s e r i atlo p a r a l l ecl o n v e r s i o n .
gainwith time so asto makethe output amplitude
Sidebands- Thosebandsof frequencies.either side
independentof the rangeof the receivedsignal
of the carrierfrequency,producedby modulatioit.
source.
Sidelobe- Thosepartsof a directionalantennapolar
Subroutine- A smallprogramor routinewhich may
diagrameithersideof the main lobe.
be calledby a largerprogramor routine to perform
Signalcontrolled search- Allowing DME to
only
a specificoperation.
transmitting
and
searching
hence
commence

243

,ar(

Super flag - A high level warning signal providing

sufficient current at 28 V d.c. to energizea relay so
indicatingvalid or no-warningstatus.
Superhetrodynereceiver,superhet- A radio receiver
in which the receivedsignalis mixed (hetrodyned)
with a tuneablelocally generatedsignalin order to
produce a constanti.f.
Sweptgain - An alternativeterm to s.t.c.
s.w.r. - Standingwaveratio: seev.s.w.r.
Synchro devices- A type of transducerwhich
convertsangularposition to an electricalsignalor
vice versa;all synchrosare transformerswith both
rotatableand stationarycoils. Three wire devices
establisha unique relationshipbetweenthe rotor
angleand the voltagedistribution in the three coil
stator; four wire devicesestablishvoltageswhich
dependon the sine and cosineof the rotor angle
and are thus termed synchroresolvers.
Designationsare STRX or TR: synchro torque
receiver;STTXor TX: synchrotorque transmitter;
DTTX or TDX or CDX: differential synchro torque
transmitter;CT: control transformer;RS: synchro
resolver.
Synchronization - Changesrelated in frequency, time
or position.

Track - The actual direction of movementof an

aircraft projectedonto the earth and measuredin
degreesclockwisefrom magrreticNsrth.
Track angleetror - The angulardifferencebetween
track and desiredtrack.
Transducer- A devicewhich convertsinput energy
ofone kind into output energyof anotherkind
which bearsa known relationto the input.
Transponder- The triggeredpart of a secondary
radarsystem.
t.r.f. - Tuned radio frequency: a basicradio receiver
in which selectionand amplification of the
modulatedsignalis carriedout in the r.f. stages,
there being no i.f.
Trigger- A signal,usually a pulse,which initiatesa
circuit action.
Tri-statebuffer - A buffer which can assumeone oi
three states:0 or I when requiredto feed a load,
high impedanceotherwise;the high impedance
stateexistsin the absenceof an enablesignal.
TRSB - Time ReferencedScanningBeam: adopted
by the ICAO as the techniqueto be employedby
MLS.
TTL - Transistor-Transistor
Logic: logic circuits
employing bipolar transistorsfabricatedon i.c.s.
giving fast operation and good.fan-inand out.
TACAN - Tactical Air Navigation:a military sysrem Tunnel diode - A type
of semiconductordevice
which givesrho-thetanavigation;therangingpart
which can be made to exhibit a negativeresistance
has the samecharacteristics
as DME.
characteristic
undercertainconditions.
Tape,magnetic- Storagederriceusingsequential
TVOR - Terminal VOR: a low power VOR station
access.
situatedat an airfield.
Telephone,tel. - A transducerwhich converts
Two.from five code - A code commonly usedfor
electricalsignalsto soundwaves.
frequencyselection;any two from five wiresmay
Time base- A waveformwhich changeslinearly with
be groundedgiving ten possiblecombinations,ohe
time; the term is normally appliedto the waveform
for eachof the digits 0-9.
which causesregulardeflectionof the electron
beamin a c.r.t. so as to trace a line representinga
USART - UniversalSynchronous/Asynch
ronous
time axis, the line alsobeing referredto as a
Receiver/Transmitter:a devicewhich interfaces
timebase.
two digital circuits the timing of which may or
Time constant- A measureof the degreeof
may not be related;similarlyUART and USRT.
resistanceto change:if a systemis subjectto an
u.s.b.- Upper sideband: the sidebandof an a.m.
externalinfluencewhich causesit to changefrom
transmissionwhich is of higher frequencythan the
one stateto anotherand it wereto executethat
carrier.
at
WEROM - Ultra-violetEraseable
ROM: an EPROM.
' change a rate equal to the initial rate it would
completethe changein a time equal to the time
constant.
Varacterdiode - A voltagecontrolled variable
To/From - Refersto selectedVOR radialsor
capacitance;the capacitancevarieswith reverse
omni-bearings;
if the pilot complieswith VOR
bias.
derivedsteeringcommandshe will be flying
v.c.o.- Voltagecontrolledoscillator.
towardsthe beaconif a 'to' flag is in view and
Velocity feedback- A signalwhich is proportional to
away from the beaconif a 'from' flag is in view.
the rate of changeof positionof the output of a
Topple - The effect of allowingthe angularvelocity
servosystem;in position control systemssuch
of a VRG to fall below that at which it exhibits
feedbackis usedto limit hunting, i.e. an excessive
the propertiesof a gyro.
number of overshoots.
24

VFR - Visual Flight Rules: apply in uncontrolled

Wavelength- The distandebetween points of
airspacewhen visibility allows;limitations on pilot
identicalphaseangle;wavelengrh), = c/f.
qualificationsand equipmentfitted are minimal
Waypoint- A significantpoint on a route.
under VFR.
Wheatstonebridge - An electricalmeasuringcircuit
Video signal- The post detector signalin a radar
consistingof four impedance.rrn, .onn.-.tedin a
receiver.
closedchain;with an excitationsupply,connected
Volatile memory - A memory that losesstoreddata
to two oppositeterminalsin the chainthe currenr
when power is disconnected.
drawn
from the other two terminalsis determined
VOR - VHF Omni-Range:a systemgivingthe bearing
by the ratio of the impedances.
to a fixed groundradio beacon.
Whip antenna- A quarter-wave
antennamadefrom a
VORTAC - VOR and TACAN beaconson the same
t h i n r n e t a rl o d .
geographical
site,i.e. co-located,
are termed
Word - A groupof bits treatedasan entity; it may
c o l l e c t i v e lay V O R T A Cb e a c o n .
representan instruction,address
or quantitv.
VRG VerticalReference
Gyro: a gyro to which
Write - To recordinformation in somedevicesuchas
gravltycontrolledfbrcesareappliedby an erection
a memory or output port.
systemsuchas to maintainthe spin axisin lhe
verticalplane;usedto givesignafs
proportionalto
X-Y display- A p.p.i.displayon which rarget
pitch and roll.
positionis determinedin termsof horizontal(X)
v.s.w.r.- Voltagestandingwave ratio: the ratio of the
randvertical(Y) diSplacement
from a datum point:
maximum to minimum voltageof the standing
it may be referredto as t.v. display.
waveset up on a mismatchedline;
= (l + (pr/pr)o.ty(l _ prlpr)o.s)
v.s.w..r.
> I
7*nner diode - A diode operatedwith reversebias so
equalityindicatinga perf'ectmatch,p, and p1
that breakdownoccurs,the breakdownvoltage
beingthe reverse(or reflecteci)
power and forward
remainingconstantfor a wide rangeof ,.urrri
(or incident)powerrespectiveli.
currents.
Zone - A regionboundedby hyperboliclines
- A hollow, round or rectangular,
Waveguide
metal
separatedby a distanceequal to half a wavelength
tube which is usedto transmite.m.energyat
of the fundamentalfrequencyof a Deccachain.
microwavefrequencies.

245

Exercises

2. Draw a block diagramof an f'm' transmitter'

The following exercisesare givento test the reader's
3. Draw a block diagramof a superhetreceiver'
this
knowledgeaid understandingof the contnt of
4. Describefour differentways in which binary
volumeiihis aim will be best achievedif the questions
in electroniccircuits'
digitsmay be represented
arenot readuntil one is ready to attempt them'
usedfor airborne
commonly
5.- Desiribe fwo codes
Havingworked through eachchapterthe exercises
selection.
radio frequencY
associitedwith that chaptershouldbe attempted'
6. Compareanalogueand digital representationof
attempted
be
should
given
which
are
papers
Six test
data.
It
is
only aftir ihe whole book hasbeen read'
test
each
7. Discussbriefly the following:I'C'A.O', ARINC'
to
devoted
be
recommendedthat one hour
found
ATA 100, national aviationauthorities'
oapertthe answersare not givenbut are to be
papers
*iittin ttte relevantchapters' Ideally the tst
reader
Joufd be markedindependently,however'the
subjective'
albeit
strouldbe able to givean assessment,
Ghapter2
of his attempt at the written answer-typepapers'
can be achievedfrom test
An accurateassessment
io
l. Describetypicalantennatunitrgarrangements
oaper6 by givingone mark for eachcorrectly
system'
comms
h'f'
a generalaviation20 channel
utt.rnpt.a qu.ttion, deductinghalf a mark for each
List and statethe functionof typicalaudio
t:
' incorrectly attemptedquestion,leavingthe-score
aircraft'
systemson a largepassenger
unchangedfor eachquestionnot attempted,then
when a crew member
hupptnt
*hui
Describe
i.
multiplying the resultby 10/6 to givea Percentage'
transmitson v'h.f. comms'
Someof the questionscan be usedto Senerate
Draw the block diagramof a CVR showing
4.
drawing
with
others,for example,thoseconcerned
the sourcesof the inPuts'
ramp tests,listingcontrols,etc' could clearly
block diagrams,
typicalv.h.f' commsantennas'
Discuss
5.
apply to any of the systemsdescribedherein' Even
a howl;
e:. itr- to mii' feeduackin an AIS leadsto
it is
*iittun extlnded set of questions,assuggested,
fault?
the
isolate
how would You
unlikely that the syllabusfor any coursewill be
prospective
example,
For
completelycovered.
aircraft radio maintenanceengineerswill be required
to satisfyexaminingbodiesand/or employersin the
Chapter3
following areas:
ADF
l. List the soulcesof errorsaffecting
operation'
how it
2'. Describequidrantalerror and explain
maYbe ctlrrected.
swingts
3. Describehow an ADF groundloop
out.
In addition they must show evidenceof havinghad - carried
RMI
Draw a situattondiagramand a dual pointer
4.
of
responsibilities
the
to
assume
experience
sufficient
200"(M)
ol
a
heading
on
piesentationfor an aircrait
an engineer.
anotherat
*lth un NDB due north of the aircraftand
are
ADFs
2
and
I
numbers
which
to
:OO; ,.tutiu.
Chapter1
tunedresPecttvelY'
basicprinciplesof ADF'
of bandwidthin an 5' Exp[ainthe
1 . C o m m e n ot n the significance
6. Draw an ADF block installationdiagram'
information link.

basicelectricaland electronicprinciples
. legislation
ramp,hangarand workshoppractices
readingwiring and schematicdiagrams
fault findingskiils,etc.

246

Chapter4
l.
Describethe differencesbetweenthe radiated
signalsfrom Doppler and conventionalVOR stations
and explain why airborneequipmentoperation
is not
affected.
?. Explain the terms automaticand manualVOR.
3. Draw a situation diagramfor an aircraft on
a
headingof 090'(M) with i selectedradial of 2g0;
and
with a fly right demand and from flag showing
on the
flight director.
4. Draw a dual VOR block installationdiasram.
5. Describehow information derivedfrom"a VOR
receiveris presented
to the crew.
6. DiscusstypicalVOR antennas.

a DME ihterrogator (assumeswitched on and any

warm up time expired).
?. Explain how echo protection can be achievedin
DME.
Why might a DME interrogatorreceivelessthan
?l^
IOO%replies'!
4. Describethe arrangements
for colocated
beacons.
5. Describe,in generalterms,how you would
carry
out a ramp test of DME.
6. Draw a simplifiedDME block schematicdiagram.

Chapter8

Explain the needfor and the implementationof

l,
SLS in SSR.
2. Explain the terms fruit and garblingas appliedto
SSR.
l.
Explain why a marker sensitivityswitch is
3. What is successive
required.
detectionand whv is it
2. Describethe needfor and a typical implementa_ necessaryin an ATC transponder?
4. Draw a block schematicdiagramand explain the
tion of loadingcompensation
fo, an ILS installation.
actionof a decoderin an ATC transponder.
Draw a block diagramof a glideslope
receiver.
1
5.
Describehow barometricaltituie may be
Describethe outputsfrom iLS to the aircraft,s
t.
encodedinto a form suitablefor selectingthe reply to
instrumentationand to other systems.
a mode C interrogation.
5. Describe
I L S a n dm a r k e ri h a n n e l l i n g
6. Draw a typicalATC transponder
arrangements
statinghow selectionis made.
controller.
statingthe purposeof eachcontrol.
6. Describe,in generalterms,how you would
carry
out a ramp test of an ILS.
Chapter 5

Chapter9
Chapter 6
Compareplatformand line of sightstabilization.
l.
l.
Explainhow, in distancerelatedphasemeasuring 2. Describe,briefly, video signalprocessingin a
digitalweatherradar.
navigationsystems,
errorsdue to changes
in clock
3. Describehow a p.p.i.displaycan be usedto
offset can be minimized
presentinformationrelatingto weatheraheadof the
2. List the factorsaffectingpropagationof Omega
aircraft,
signalsstatingfor each,how, if atill, compensation
is
4. How doesa weatherradarflat plateantenna
made.
achievea narrowdirectionalbeam?
3. Describebriefly the generalprocedurefor skin
5. Describethe safetyprecautions
mapplngprior to decidingthe positionof an Omesa
to be observed
when operatingweatheriadar, statingthe possible
antenna.
consequences
4. Describehow Deccachainsaredesignated.
ofnot doingso.
6.
Describe
5. Explainhow laneambiguities
you would checka waveguide
how
run
in De"cca
may be
for condition
resolvedby usingthe Mp mode.
7. Discusscontour,STC and AGC in a weather
6
Describethe characteristics
of the radiatedsignals
radar.
fromaLoranCchain.
8. Describehow rangeand bearingresolutionmay
.
be improvedin a weatherradarstatinethe
d i s a d v a n t a goefst a k i n gs u c hm e a s u r e i t og i v e
Chapter7
rmprovement.
9
Explainthe basicprinciplesof operationof a
l. Describethefour possiblemodesof operation
of
Ryan Stormscope.
247

Chapter10
l. Describethe Doppler effect asutilized in an
airborneDoPPlerradar.
2. Explain how a moving antennaDoppler radar
measuresdrift angle'
3. Discussfactorsleadingto a choiceof f'm'c'w'
for Doppler radars.
4. Explain the needfor a land/seaswitch'
5. Driw a simplifiedblock diagramof a Doppler
navigationsYstem.
6. Describe,in generalterms,how you would carry
out a ramp test of a Doppler navigator.

the airlinerof the 1980sand beyond,payingparticular

of informationfrom
attentionto the presentation
radio sensors.
2. Explainthe basicprinciplesof how an automatic
datalink usingh.f. and/orv.h.f. commscould be set
up.
3. CompareADSEL/DABSwith currentSSR.
could be
4. Explainone way in which satellites
usedfor navigationPurposes.
5. Describe,briefly, a TRSBMLS'
6. Explain how a collision risk measuremay be
arrivedat.
7. CompareDITS with currentmethodsof
informationtranst'er.
8. Explainthe principlesof interferometry.

Chapter11
Distinguishbetweenbarometricand radio
l.
altitude commentingon the usefulnessof both.
2. Explainthe basicprinciplesof an f.m.c.w.
altimeter.
3. Why doesDoppler shift havea negligibleeffect
on a radio altimeter?
4. List the sourcesof error in radio altimeter
systems.
of using constant
5. Explain the main advantages
differencefrequencyaltimetersoverconventional
f.m.c.w.altimeters.
6. Draw a block schematicdiagramof a pulsedradio
altimeter.
7. Which systemsrequiresignalsfronl a radio
altimeter? What are the signalsinvolved?

Chapter12
l. Draw the block diagramof a generalarea
navigationsystem.
2. Explainthe basicprinciplesof RNAV basedon
VOR/DME beacons.
3. Draw and labeltypical RNAV, deviationand
slantrangetriangles.
4. Describethe functionsperformedby a typical
digitalnavigationcomputerbeingpart of a VOR/DN{E
basedRNAV system.
5. Explainthe actionof a typicaldataentry/record
unit.
6. Describe.in generalterms,how you would carry
out a ranlp testof a VOR/DNIEbesedRNAV system.

Test Paper1
l. Compare,briefly, the differenttypesof antenna
which may be found on aircraft.
2. Draw a simplifiedblock diagramof a computer
and statebriefly the functionof eachblock.
3. Draw and explaina simpleanti'crosstalk
network.
4. With the aid of a block diagramexplainthe
actionof an h.f. ATU.
5. Describehow informationfrom an ADF is
to the pilot.
presented
6. Explainhow displayednoiseis reducedin a
digitalweatherradar.

Test Paper2
Describetwo waysof modulatinga c.w. carrier'
l.
2. Discussnavigationusingradioaidsunder the
deadreckoning,rho'theta,rho'rho-rho,
headings,
theta-thetaand hYPerbolic.
3. Draw a simplifiedblock diagranrand explainthe
payingparticular
actionof a frequencysynthesizer
to
se,lection.
attention
4. Draw a block diagramof a VOR receiver'
5. Definethe termsjitter and squitter.
6. Describe,in generalterms,how you would carry
out a ramp testof a line of sightscanner
stabilizationsYStem'

Test Paper 3
Chapter 13
l.
244

Describein generaltertns,the instrumentationof

Describethe modesof propagationusedwith

l.
airbclrneradioequiPment.

2. Define the terms hardwareand software.

3. Describe,with the aid of a sketch,a typical h.f.
wire antennainstallationpaying particular attention
to safetyfeatures.
4
Sketcha typical error curve for ADF statingeE,
loop and field alignmenterrorsfor your curve.
5. Draw and explain a simplified ATC transponder
block diagram.
6. Draw a typical weatherradar control panel
statingpurposeofeach control.

Test Paper6

l.
An e-m. waveof frequency30 MHz will havea
wavelength
of (a) l0m, (b) lOcm,(c) l0 ft.
2. A loop antennais usedf or (a) VOR and ADF,
(b) ADF and Omega,(c) Omegaand VOR.
3. Above30 MHz propagationis by (a) space
wave,(b) sky wave,(c) ground wave.
4. Fadingat l.f. and m.f. may be due to (a) poor
receiversensitivity,(b) atmosphericattenuation,
(c) simultaneousreceptionof sky and ground wave.
5. A carrierof amplitude5 V is amplitude
Test Paper4
modulatedby a signalof amplitude3 V, the percentage
modulationis (a) 157o,(b)tbJ%,(c) 60Io.
l. Describehow a capacitive type antenna operates; 6, A constantamplitudemodulatingfrequencyof
500 kHz causes
list systemswhich might usesuch an antenna.
a carrierto vary between8798.5MHz
2. Explain how an interrupt signalmight be usedto and 8801.5MHz, the modulationindex is h\ ll3.
(b) 3, (c) 6.
achievea data transferfrom a radio sensorto a
7. Which of the following is not equivalentto
navigationcomputer.
2 3 ' s ? ( a ) l 0 l I 1 2 ,( b ) 2 7 s , ( c ) 1 5 , u .
3. Describebriefly the basicprinciplesof ILS.
8. The b.c.d.equivalentof 3C16is (a) 0l l0 0000,
4. List the facilitiesprovided by a typical general
(b) I I I 100,(c) 001I I 100.
aviationAIS.
9. Which of the following, wherethe l.s.b.is an
5. Draw a simpleinterlock arrangementfor a dual
odd parity bit, represents
h.f. installation.
68,e? (a) 10001001,
( b ) I 1 0 0 0 1 0 0(,c ) 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 .
6. Describehow the possibility of lnterference is
10. An addressbus usuallyconsistsof (a) l6
minimizedin a multiple radio altimeter installation.
bi-directionallines,(b) l6 unidirectional lines,
(c) both bi- and uni-directional
lines.
I l.
Rho-thetanavigationis the basisof
Test Paper5
(a) VOR/DME, (b) Omega,(c) ADF.
12. To avoid earth loops in audio systemscable
l.
Describe,briefly, the fetch-decode-increment.
screensshould be (a) earthed at both ends,
executecycle of a computer.
(b) not earthedat eitherend,(c) earthedat one end
2. List sourcesof interferenceto aircraft radio
only.
systemsand statemethodsusedto minim2e the
13. An aircraft v.h.f. communicationstransceiver
effectsof suchsources.
will provide(a) 720 channelsat 50 kHz spacing,
3. Discussthe term squelch.
(b) 360 channelsat25 kHz spacing,(c)720 channels
4. Explain the principlesof lane ambiguity
at 25 kHz spacing.
resolutionin ONS.
14. An aircraft at flight level l0O will be able to
5. Describe,in generalterms,how you would carry
communicatewith a v.h.f.groundstationat 100 ft
out a ramp test of a VOR.
abovem.s.l. at an approximatemaximum rangeof
6. At a point in a 180 n.m.leg of a flight the
(a) 123 n.m.,(b) 12.3n.m.,(c) 135 n.m.
following situation exists:
15. The minimum 1000Hz, 30%modulatedsignal
heading
090"(M)
levelto achievean output s.n.r.of 6 dB from an
drift
10"port
airline standardv.h.f. receiveris (a) I pV, (b) 3 gW,
distanceto go
80 n.m.
( c ) 0 . 1 8x l 0 - r 2 W .
desiredtrack
085"(M)
16. A typical a.f. responseof a v.h.f. transceiveris
Draw the situation diagramand calculatethe across
(a) 500 to 2000 Hz, (b) 300 to 25OOHz,
distancereadingif the wind and headinghave
(c) 300 to 4000 Hz.
remainedunchangedfor the leg so far. (Assume
17. Typical radiatedpower from an airline
=
0.017 radians/degree
and that sin 0 0 if 0 < 0.2
standard
v.h.f. commstransmitterwould be
radians).
( a ) . 1 0W , ( b ) 3 0 w , ( c ) 5 0 w .
18. In an airline standardh.f. installationthe ATU
would reducethe v.s.w.r.of the antennaand ATU

249

combinedto betterthan (a) l.l: l, (b) 1.3:I,

( c ) 1 . 5 :l .
19. An ARINC standardh.f. commssystemhas a
typical power output of (a) 400 W p.e.p.,(b) 700 W

transmitin the range(a)962

37. TACANbeacons
to l2l3 MHz,(b) 1030to 1090MHz,(c) 978 to

l2l3 MHz.
38. DME gives(a) range,(b) slant range,(c) ground
speed.
(c) 1000W p.e.p.
p.e.p.,
is codedby (a) the
39. If a DME is in track subsequentlossof signal
20. A Selcaltransmission
will causethe equipmentto (a) search,
numberof r.f. bursts,(b) thepulsespacing,
(b) automaticallystandby,(c) go into memory.
(c) the modulatingtonesused.'
(a)
radiated
reduces
40. Mode A and C pulsespacingare, respectively
An anti-crosstalknetwork
ii.
(a) 8 and 2l gs, (b) 12 and 36 ps, (c) 8 and l7 ps.
interference,
(b)
reduces
conducted
interference,
41 . Selectionof 5237 on an ATC transponderwill
(c) preventstransmissionon both h.f. systems
givethe following pulses,in order of transmission
simultaneously.
2 2 . A i r l i n e s t a n d a r d A D F s w i l l , a f t e r Q E c o r r e c t i o(na, ) F l A l A 4 B . 2 C l C 2 D l D 2 D 4 F 2 ,
(b) Fl cl Al c2 A4Dl B2D2D4 F2,
havean error bound of (a) 3', (b) 5", (c) 8".
23. The averageof the absolutevaluesof the peaks (c) Fl Cl C2 Al A4B2Dl D2D4 F2.
42. The output of an encodingaltimeter for an
of an ADF error curvegive(a) field alignmenterror,
(c)
altitude of 7362 ft would give the code
(b) loop alignmenterror,
QE correction.
phasc
(a)
reference
Al A2 A4 Bl B2 C2C4D2,(b) Al A2 A4B/.,
phase
the
leads
Itthe
varlable
)4.
(c) A2 ,44 Cl C2.
by 30" the magneticbearingto the VOR station will
43. The -3dB bandwidth of an ATC transponder
Ue1a):O', (b) 210",(c) 150b.
the
is (a) 6 MHz, (b) 3 MHz, (c) 12 MHz.
090'
and
of
receiver
25. With a selectedomni-bearing
An
ATC transpondershould not reply if
phase
by
280'.
4.
referenci
phase
lagging
the
variable
(a) Pl > Y2.+ 9 dBs,(b) Pl > P2 + 4.5 dBs'
the flighi director will show (a) fly right; from,
(c) Pl ( P2.
(b) fly right;to, (c) fly left; to.
45. An X-band weather radar will operate at
is
VOR
receiver
of
a
26. The frequencyrange
(a\9375 MHz, (b) 5400 MHz, (c) 8800 MHz.
( a ) 1 0 8t o I 1 7 . 9 5M H z ,( b ) 1 0 8t o 11 1 . 9 5M H z ,
Secondtraceechoesare avoidedby
6.
( c ) I l 8 t o 1 3 5 . 9 5M H z .
(a)
a p.r.f. greaterthan someminimum,
choosing
is
at
27. The VOR audio identificationtone
a p.r.p.greaterthan someminimum,
(b)
(c)
choosing
1020
Hz.
(b)
1000
Hz,
(a) 1350Hz,
)6. Which of the following is a localizerfrequency? (c) increasingeither or both of the receiver
sensitivityand transmitterpower.
(a) I10.20 MHz, (b) 109.15MHz, (c) I12.10 MHz.
glideslop
e
. The pilot reportspronouncedground returnstc
does
47
)9. In which oi tire following bands
(c)
sideof the display,the most likely causeis
(b)
u.h.f.
one
(a)
v.h.f.,
h.f.,
operate?
(a) systempermanehtlyin the mappingmode,
3b. If the 90 Hz tone predominatesin a localizer
(b) scannertilt faulty, (c) gyro toppled.
receiverthe deviatiorrindicatorwill show (a) on
(c)
(b)
fly
right.
48. Broken radial lines are observedon the weather
left,
fly
course,
31. The v.j.w.r. of a localizerantennashouldbe no radarindicator, the most likely causeis (a) a.f.c.
circuit sweeping,(b) dirt in the magslip,
more than (a) 5: I , (b) 3: I , (c) I .5:I .
for
(c) interferencefrom anotherradar'
32. An ONS, usingsoftwarecorrection
49. A weatherradarwith a p.r.f. of 200 and a duty
predictableerrors,will giveaircraft position to an
cycle of l0 x 10-3 would havea bandwidth of
u..uru.y (r.m.s.)of (a) l-2 nm, (b) 0-l nm,
approximately(a) I MHz, (b)_500kHz, (c) 3 MHz.
(c) 2_inm.
facilities
gives
navigation
worldwide
50. A typicalmemory sizefor a digital weather
3t. Omega
I
1.33
and
on
10.2,
transmitting
(a)
stations
radaremployingan X-Y displayis (a) 4 kbit'
five
using
(b) 8 kbit, (c) 32 kbit.
13.6 kHz, (b) eight stationstransmittingon.10.2,
placedstations 51. If Pand R aretheVRG pitch and rollsignals
11.33and 13.6kHz,(c) strategically
signals.
respectivelyand 0 is the azimuth anglethen the
transmittingfrequencymultiplexed
(a)
demandsignalfor a line of sight stabilization
of
a
mastet
usually
consists
34. A Deccachain
pat, (c) independentsystemis (a) Psin0+ Rcos0,(b) Pcos0+ Rsin0,
and three slaves,(b) a master-slave
(c) Pcos0x Rsin0.
statlons.
52. An X-bandDoppler radarshowsa ground
35. The usablenight rangeof Deccais about
of 400 knots, a reasonableestimateof the
speed
(c)
(b)
360
nm.
(a) 120 nm,
240 nm,
shift would be (a) 5 kHz, (b) 500 Hz,
Doppler
100
kHz,
(a)
pulsed
at
r.f'
radiates
C
Loran
36.
kHz.
,c) 12
(b) pulsedr.f. at 14 kHz, (c) c.w. at 100 kHz.
250

53. An f.m.c.w. Doppler radar operating at a

frequencyof 8800 MHz, modulatedat 500 kHz with
a depressionangle of 60' will have altitude holes at
multiplesof approximately(a) 500 ft, (b) 2000 ft,
(c) 8000 ft.
54. Wobbulationin a Doppler radar is usedto
overcomethe effects of (a) reflections from the
dielectricpanel,(b) overwatercalibrationshift errors,
(c) altitude holes.
55. A radio altimeterwould not be connectedto
(a) MADGE, (b) a flight director, (c) an ATC
transponder.
56. The DH lamp comeson when the aircraft is
(a) over the outer marker, (b) below a pilot set
barometricaltitude, (c) below a pilot set radio
altitude.
57. It is found that the most suitable positions for a
and antennas
radio altimetertransmitter-receiver

leadsto a minimum total feeder length of 9 ft and an

path length of 8 ft; what
antennaround-antenna
would be a suitableAID setting? (a) 20 ft, (b) 40 ft.
(c) 57 ft.
58. A phantom beaconis (a) a co-located
VOR/DME beaconwith no identity transmission,
(b) a TACAN beacon,(c) relatedto a VOR/DME
beaconby pilot set distanceand bearing.
59. An aircraft is 20 n.m.'and045'(M) from a
VOR/DME beacon;the rangeof the current waypoint,
which is due eastof the beacon.is shownas 20 nm;
approximatelyhow far is the waypoint from the
beacon?(a) 20 nm, (b) 30 nm, (c) 40 nm.
60. MADGE mode Cl deriveselevationinformation
by using(a) radio altitude and slant range,
(b) interferometry,(c) a directionalbeamnarrow in
elevation.

:!,

251

Index

Acquisition,108
ADSEL,22I
Aircraft installationdelay, l9l, 197
Airwaysmarker,72
Altitude hales.178
Angleof cut, 8l
Antennaeffect,5 I
Antennatuning unit, 33
Antennas.3
Area navigation
display and control, 207
generalized
system,202
RNAV computer,206
2I 3
standardization,
principles,204
VOR/DME-based
ARINC, 19,230
Associated
identity, I l1
ATC 600A (rFR), 120,136
ATC transponder
block diagramoperation,128
characteristics,
I 35
coding,123
controlsand operation,127
encodingaltimeter,132
falsetargets,125
installation,
126
interrogation,
l2l
principles,
121
ramp testing,135
rcply,122
sLS,125,128,133
Attitude director indicator,'l4, 217
Audio integrating
system,37
Audio selectionpanel,38
Auto standby,106
Autoland,198
Automaticdata input/output, 210
Automaticdirectionfinder
block diagramoperation,47
calibrationand testing,55
characteristics,
55
' controlsand operation,54
installation.52
principles,45
systemerrors,49
Automaticoverloadcontrot. t28
Azinruthmarks,154
Balancinghalf cycle,15I
Balun,63
Baseline, 8 l. 95
Basicrate,l0l
Bearingresolution,143
Beatfrequencyoscillator,48

252

Bendix

BX-2000,206
cN-2011,2l
NP-2041A,206
RDR lE,164,166
R D R 1 1 0 0 ,r 4 8
RDR 1200,146
Boeing
7 4 7 ,t 4 , 3 7
767,217
British Aerospaceadvancedflight deck, 219
Cabininterphone,37, 4O
Centilane,80
Clock offset, 82
Coastalrefraction,50
Cockpitvoicerecorder,38,42
Coding,8
Codingdelay, l0l
Collins
Alt 50, 200
E F I S - 7 0 02, 1 7
wxR700,216
Collision avoidance,229
Colocatedbeacons,ll0
Conductivitymap,85
Conto.ur,143, 154
160
Cosec'beam,
Cossor555, 67, 78
Coursedeviationindicator,63
nrosstalk,r.3,33
i ,bi,221
Datalink, 219
D e c c aA t \ C 8 1 , 1 0 2
DeccaDoppler 70 serie.,183
Deccanavigator
a m b i g u i t i e9s7, , 9 9
antenna,
99
chain,95, 96
installation,99
Mk 1S/Danac,99Mk 19,99
positionfixing,96
signals,96
Decisionheight.69, 196
Decometer,95,96
Deviationindicator,70
Directview storagetube, 144
DITS,230
Diurnaleffect, 85
DME
I 14
analogue,
' block diagramoperation,ll2

channel arrangements, I l0
characteristics. I I 7
controls and operation, I l2
digital, I l4
g r o u n d s p e e d ,1 0 9
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , 10 6
i n s t a l l a t i o n ,I I I
interrogation, 109
principles, 105
ramp testing, 119
reply,109
time to station, 109
Doppler navigation system
antenna mechanization. I 74
beam geometry, I 75
characteristics, I 85
controls and operation, 184
Doppler effect, 173
Doppler shift, 173, 187, 190
Doppler spectrum, 175
f i x e d a n t e n n a s y s t e m ,1 8 1
installation,182
movlng antennasystem,179
navlgation calculations, I 79
o v e r w a t e re r r o r s , 1 7 8
testing,185
t r a n s m i s s i o n ,1 7 6
Drift angle,174
Drift indication (weathcr radar). 160
Echo protection, 108, 125
Electromagnetic propagation, 4
E l e c t r o m a g n e t i cr a d i a t i o n , 2
Electromagnetic spectrum, 4
Encoding altimeter, 132, 210
Fan marker, 72
Field alignment error, 52
Flat plate antenna, 145
Flight interphone, 37, 38
F r a m e p u l s e s ,1 2 2
F r e e z e ,1 4 8
F r e q u e n c yp a i r i n g , 7 1 , I l 0
Fruiting,125
Carbling, 125
Geomagnetic field, 85
Ground conductivity, 85
G r o u n d c r e w c a l l s y s t e m ,3 8 , 4 2
Group count down, 128
H e a d u p d i s p l a y( H U D ) . 2 1 9
Hc4}rt ring, 145
ILF- ;cmms
rn:enna, 30
t{c<i diagram operation, 32
*r:rlieristics,
34
ccqu=:lr and operation, 3l
-m[ls'a.
l!
re-'-.=-:i
:*- f9
irr-

-:- 35
:

tt[IO,rl
llcltd

l*.uil*:
::Cr:).
148
-5lI{
f
series. 193

Horizontalsituationindicator,63, 217
Hyperbolicnavigationprinciples,80
ldentification,friend or foc, l2 I
IFR
ATC 600A, 120, 136
NAV 40IL, 67
NAV 4O2AP,78
R D 3 0 0 ,1 6 7

ILs

a n t e n n a s ,7 6
block diagram operation, 72
categories,69
characteristics, 77
controls and operation, 76
coverage,70,72
difference in depth of modulation, 70
fiequency pairing,7l
'glideslope,
70
identification, 70
installation, 74
loading compensation, 75
I o c a l i z e r ,6 9
matker,72
principles, 69
r a m p t e s t i n g .7 8
I n d e x i n g , 1 0 2 ,1 0 4
Instrument flight rules, 202
Intensity modulation, 140
Interference, I 3
lnterferometer , 223, 226
I n t e r r o g a t o r , 1 0 5 , 1 2 1, 2 2 7
Isodop, I 75
Janus configuration, 175, 187
Jitter,106
Khg

K C U s 6 5 A ,2 1 0
K D E 5 6 6 ,2 1 0
Kr 20416,'ts
KMA20,75
K N 7 2 .7 3 ,7 5
KN 74,205
K N 7 5 ,7 5
K N R6 6 5 , 2 l l
K N S8 0 , 1 2 ,l l l
K P I5 3 3 ,l l l
K P r 5 5 2 ,6 4
KX 1758,75
KY 196,2r,23
Laneambiguities,86, 97
Lanecount, 80
Laneslip,80
Lanewidth, 80
Laning,80
Line of position,79
Litton LTN 211,87
(lLS), 75
Loadingcompensation
Lobeswitching.179
Loop alignmenterror,52
Loopantenna,3,45
'
Loop swing,55
LoranC
block diagramoperation,I 03

rli

253

"&t

LoranC Gont'd)
chain,101
installation,102
principles,102
signals,101
MADGE
block diagram opention, 227
controls and instrumentation, 227
parameters,
229
principles,225
Mapping,150
Marconi
A D 5 6 0 ,1 7 9
A D 6 5 0 , 1 8 2 ,1 8 5
Master,80
Maximum permissibleexposivelevel, 164
Microcomputer,9, 26, 94, 208
Microwavelanding system'224
Middlemarker,?2
Modal interference,85
Modeinterlace,122
Modulation,5
Mountain effect, 50
MP mode,97
Multiplexing, T
N A V 4 0 1 Lo F R ) , 6 7
NAV 402AP(tFR),78
Night etfect,50
Noisefigure,170
effect,85
Nonspheroidal
Notching,99
Omega
broadcastpattem, 84
characteristics,95
controls and oPeration,90
hardware,93
installation, 87
interface.89
position fixing, E6
ramptesting,95
signalpropagation,84
skin mapping,8T
software,90
stations,83
Omni-bearingselector,63
Opencentre,15l
Outboundsearch,108
Outer marker,72
Overwatercalibration shift error, l?8
38, 40
address,
Passenger
entertainment,38, 4l
Passenger
reply, 108
Percentage
index, 171
Performance
Phantombeacon,58, 203
Phaseoffset,82
Pictorialnavigationindicator,63, I I I
Ptanposition indicator, 140
Planararray, 145
Polar cap disturbance,86
Polardiagram,3
Precipitationstatic,l3
Programdiscretepins, 89

2g

14l
Pulsecompression,
Pulsecrowding,215
Pulsewidth limiter, 129
Quadrantalerror, 5 I
Quadrantalerror correctioncuwe,57
Quadrantalerror corrector,5 2
Radarrangeequation,169
Radarsystemstester,165
Radio
categorization,4, I I
historical develoPment,I
principles,2
receiversand transmitters,7
Radio altimeter
block diagramoperation, 192
200
characteristics,
factors affecting performance,19I
indicator,196
installation,196
installationdelay,l9l, 197
interface,198
monitoring and self test, 195
multiple installation,199
principleq,189
ramp testing,200
sinusoidalfrequencymodulation, 201
Radiomagneticindicator,53
Radome,147
Rangemarks,151,154, 157
Rangeresolution,l4l
Rate aiding, 86
RCA
AVQ 85,114
DataNavlI, 162
Primus20. 154
P r i m u s3 0 , 1 5 5 ,1 6 l
Primus40, 151
Primus50, 16l
Primus200, 146,163
WeatherScoutI, 147
RD 300 (IFR), 167
Reciprocalsearch,108
Residualaltitude, 190, 19l, l9E
P$o2,Rho3navigation,79, 8l
58, 105
Rho-thetanavigation,
'14,199
Risingrunway,
139,158
RyanStormscope,
223
Satcom/satnav,
Scannerstabilization, 143, L57
Scott-T-transformer,.93
Seabias,178
Search,107
Secondtraceechoes,142
Secondarysurveillanceradar, l2l
Selcal,35
Senseantenna,45
Sensitivitytime control, 143,194
interphone,38, 40
Service
-sia;i;fibe

;;tression,'I 25,r28,Bt

Signalactivatedsearch,105
Skin mapping,87
Slantrange,105,206
Slave,80

Solareffects,85
SperryFMCS,217
Spikeeliminator,129
Spoking,149
Squelch,22, 23
Squitter,106
50
Staticinterference,
Staticmemory,108
50
Stationinterference,
Stationrate.101
139, 168
Stormscope,
L-band,ll1, 126
Suppression,
Sweptgain, 143
TACAN, IO5
TerminalVOR.58
TIC
T24A, ttg
T268, T288, T298,78
T278,67
T 3 0 B ,6 7 , 7 8
T 3 3 8 ,T 4 3 B ,1 3 7
T50A, 120
Time referencedscanningbeam,224
Track,107
105,12l, 160
Transponder,
TRT radio altimeters,191
Velocity memory,108
Vertical effect, 5 I
VHF comms
block diagramoperation,23
28
characteristics,
controlsand operation,22
installation.20
principles,20
ramp testing,29

Visual flight rutes,69, 202

VLF comms,87

voR
automatic,manual,61, 65
block diagramoperation,55
characteristics,65
controlsand operation,65
conventional,58
doppler,6l
identification,59
installation,63
o u t p u t s , 6 36, 6
principles,58
ramp testing,5T
VSWR check,weatherndat,167
Weatherradar
analogue,l50
beaconmode, 160
162
characteristics,
conditionand assembly,164
controlsand operation,147
digital,rho-theta,15I
digital,t.v. (X-Y), 156
installation.146
multifunctiondisplay,161
other applications,160
principles,140
ramp test, 165
safety precautions,154
scanner,145
scannerstabilization, 143, l5'l
Wobbulation,f 78, l9l
Z-matker,72
Zone,Decca,96

255