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SOLUTION Applied Mechanics Purbanchal University Nepal
SOLUTION Applied Mechanics Purbanchal University Nepal
INTRODUCTION TO DYNAMICS
Mechanics as the origin of Dynamics:
Mechanics is defined as that science which describe and predicts the conditions of rest or
motion of bodies under the action of forces. It is the foundation of most engineering sciences. It can
be divided and subdivided as below:
Mechanics of Compressible
fluids
Dynamics
Statics
Kinematics
Mechanics of
Incompressible fluids
Kinetics
Dynamics:
It is which of Newtonian Mechanics which deals with the forces and their effects, while
acting upon the bodies in motion. When we talk about the motion of the planets in our solar system,
motion of a space craft, the acceleration of an automobile, the motion of a charged particle in an
electric field, swinging of a pendulum, we are talking about Dynamics.
Kinematics:
It is that branch of Dynamics which deals with the displacement of a particles or rigid body
over time with out reference to the forces that cause or change the motion. It is concerned with the
position, velocity and acceleration of moving bodies as functions of time.
Kinetics:
It is that branch of Dynamics which deals with the motion of a particle or rigid body, with
the reference to the forces and other factor that cause or influence the motion. For the study of
motion Newtons Second Law is widely used.
Chapter:- 2
Determination of motion of particles:
In general motion of particles (position, velocity and acceleration ) is expressed in terms of
function as,
X = f(x) , [ x = 6t2 +t3 ]
* But in practice the relation of motion may be defined by any other equation with function of x,
v,& t .
a = f(t)
a = f(x)
a = f(v) etc.
so these given relation are integrated to get the general relation of motion x = f(t) .
Case-I: When acceleration is given as function of time [i.e a = f(t) ] [ a = 6t2+t3]
We know,
a = dv/dt dv = adt
or, dv = f(t) dt
Now integrating both sides taking limit as time varies from 0 to t and velocity varies form vo to v.
vo
dv = f (t )dt
0
v v o = f (t )dt
o
v = v o + f (t )dt .......(i )
o
xo
dx = vdt
0
t
t
x = xo + vo + f (t )dt dt .........(ii )
0
0
x xo =
# Find the velocity and position of a particles after its 5 sec from Rest, which moves with equation of
a = 6t2-4t.
Solution:
Given equation a = f(t) a = 6t2 4t
xo = 0 , vo = 0 and t = 5.
We know,
V0 =
f (t )dt =
v = 2t 3 2t 2
Again,
5
0
6t 3 4t 2
0
2
3
5
5
0
= 200 m / s
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -2
v +
X = xo +
=0+
f (t )dt dt
[0 + 200]dt =
t
200dt = [200t ]0
= 100 m
Therefore, x = 100m and v = 200m/s after 5 second of motion.
Case-II When the acceleration is a given function of position [ i.e a = f(x) eg. x2+4x]
We know,
a = dv/dt = dv/dx . dx/dt = v.dv/dx
or, vdv = adx
or, vdv = f(x)dx
[ a = f(x)]
Now , Integrating both sides of above equation , taking limit as velocity varies from Vo to v as
position p varies form xo to x.
t
vdv =
v2
f ( x)dx
2
i.e
or,
x
v 2 v 02
= f ( x)dx
x
0
2
2
vo
xo
v0
= f ( x)dx
xo
x
2
v = v02 + 2 f ( x)dx .......(1)
x0
Again We know,
V = dx/dt dx = vdt.
Integrating both sides with limits as time varies from 0 to t and position from xo to x .
i.e
xo
dx = vdt ........(1)
o
1
2
v + 2 f ( x)dx dt
xo
2
0
x
2
x = x0 + vo2 + 2 f ( x)dx dt
x0
0
Case III : When acceleration is a given function of velocity (i.e a =f(v) eg. a = v2+v)
We know, a = v dv/dx f(v) = v dv/dx
Or , dx = v dv/f(v)
Integrating both sides taking limit as velocity varies form vo to v and position varies from xo to x
x
v
v
dv
dv
dx
v
x
x
=
=
0
x0 v0 f (v)
v0 v f (v)
dv
v0
f (v )
e.g The acceleration of a particle is defined as a = -0.0125v2, the particle is given as initial velocity
v0, find the distance traveled before its velocity drops to half.
Solution:
Given, a = -0.0125v2 i.e a = f(v) ,
Initial velocity vo, final velocity vo/2
For motion a = f(v) xo = 0, x = ?
v
x = x0 + v
x = xo + v
v0
dv
f (v )
v0
2
v0
0
v
1
1
2
x=
=
dv
dv
2
v
0.0125 0 v
0.0125v
v0
1
[ln v]v20 = 1 ln v0
=
0.0125
0.0125 2v0
dx = udt
x0
dx = vdt
0
x xo = vt
x = xo +vt
Change in position (or displacement) is equal to uniform velocity x change in time [ i.e s = vt]
2.3 Uniform Accelerated Rectilinear motion:
If constant acceleration be a then,
dv/dt = a = constant dv = adt
v0
dv = a dt v v0 = at
0
v = v 0 + at ........(1)
Again for position , we have
v = dx/dt ..(2) from 1 and 2.
dx = (vo +at) dt ,
Integrating both sides over the limits
x0
dx = (v 0 + dt )at x x0 = v0 t +
t
x = x0 + v0 t +
Also, a = v
1 2
at
2
1 2
at
2
dv
dx
v0
vdv = a dx
x0
1 2
(v v02 ) = a(x x0 )
2
v 2 = v 02 + 2a( x x 0 )
xo = Initial position
x = Final position
v0 = Initial velocity.
v = Final velocity
0 = Initial time
t = Final time
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -4
xA
[ xB/A =xB - xA ]
xB/A
xB
Position co-ordinates of A = xA
Position co-ordinates of B = xB
Relative position co-ordinate of B w.r.t A = xB-xA = xB/A
JB = Constant
Arc CD = Constant
Arc EF = Constant
xA
D
xB
AC+DE+FG = Constant
Now,
XA = AC +IH = AC + Constant . (i)
XB = FG +JB = FG + Constant .(ii)
xA
xC
xB
C
J
x
x= f(t)
Slo e
= dx/dt = a1
x1
V1
Slo e
= dx/dt = v 1
t1
a= f(t)
V= f(t)
t1
a1
t1
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -6
If x-t curve is given, then computing slope at each point of x-t curve corresponding v-t curve can be
generated and computing slope at each point of v-t curve a-t curve can be generated.
Again,
From equation (ii)
dx = vdt
x2
x1
t2
t2
t1
t1
v2
v1
t2
t2
t1
t1
dv = adt v 2 v1 = adt
...........(v)
This means change in position in given by the area under curve v-t and change in velocity is given by
area under the curve a-dt.
a
a1
t2
V2
x2
vdt = x2 - x1 x
1
t1
V1
t1
t2
t1
t1
t2
Tutorial Examples:
)
r
t3
2
1) The motion of a particles is defined by the position vector r = 6ti + 4t j + k where r in meter and t in
4
second. At the instant when t = 3 sec, find the unit position vector, velocity and acceleration.
Solution:
We have , r = 6ti + 4t 2 j +
t3
k
4
r
r= r =
(18)2 + (36)2 + 27
4
27
k
4
= 40.81m
27
r 18i + 36 j +
k
r
4
r = r =
r
40.81
r = 0.44i + 0.88 j + 0.165k
Ans
Again,
r
r dr d
t3
v=
= 6ti + 4t 2 j +
4
dt dt
r
3
v = 6i + 8tj + t 2 k
4
At time t = 3 sec.
r
24
v = 6i + 24 j +
k
4
2
r 2
24 2
2
Velocity (v) = v = 6 + 24 + = 25.64 m / s
7
V = 25.64 m/s
r
r dv d
3
Again, acceleration (a ) =
= 6i + 8tj + t 2 k
4
dt dt
r
3
a = 8 j + tk
2
r
At t = 3 sec , a = 8 j + 4.5k
r
2
Acceleration, (a) = a = 8 2 + (4.5)
1
2
= 9.18 m / s 2
Ans
2) A ball is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 9.15m/s. After 1s another ball is thrown with the
same velocity. Find the height at which the two ball pass each other?
Solution:
Let the initial velocity of both balls
V01 = v02 = vo = 9.15 m/s
h be the height at which two balls pass each other t1 be the time elapsed by the first ball before passing second
and t2 be the time elapsed by second.
From the given condition:
t1 t2 = 1 ..(i)
for 1st ball , n = v0t1 9t12 ..(ii)
For 2nd ball n = v0t2 9t22 (iii)
Substituting equation (iii) form equation (ii) , we get,
1 2 2
9(t1 t 2 ) = v0 (t1 t 2 )
2
1
9(t1 + t 2 )(t 2 t1 ) = v 0 (t1 t 2 )
2
2v
2 9.15
(t1 + t 2 ) = 0 =
= 1.865
9
9.81
(t1 + t 2 ) = 1.865 ...........(iv)
Adding equation (i) and (ii) , we get t1 = 1.43 sec and t2 = 0.43 sec
1
h = v 0 t1 9t12 = 3.05m
2
h = 3.05 m
Hence , two balls pass each other at 3.05m above the ground.
3) In the following pulley system, Block 2 has velocity 2m/s upward and its acceleration is 3m/s2 downward
while block 3 has velocity and acceleration 2m/s up ward and 4m/s2 downward respectively. Find the
velocity and acceleration of block 1.
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -8
Solution:
Given, V2 = 2m/s ()
a2 = 3m/s2 ()
v3 = 2m/s ()
a3 = 4m/s2 ()
E
Here ,
AB +CF = constant
GI +HJ = Constant
DE = Constant
Portion of rope around the pulley is also constant.
Now,
X1 = AB + constant ..(i)
X2 = GI +CF+ constant .(ii)
X3 = HJ+CF+ Constant (iii)
Multiplying equation (i) by (2) and adding
(i), (ii) and (iii) , we get
2x1 +x2+x3 = 2AB+CF+CF+GI+HJ+Const.
2x1+x2+x3 = const. ..(iv)
x1
x2
A
1
x3
G
I
2
v1 =
v 2 v3 2 2
=
= 2 m / s
2
2
a1 =
a 2 a3 + 3 + 4
=
= 3 .5 m / s 2
2
2
J
3
Chapter 3
Curvilinear Motion of Particles
3.1
Y
p
r
s
p
r
O
(a)
r
t
r s
p
p
s
r
X
r
o
(b)
(c)
Let, at time t the position vector of particle be r and at another time (t + t ) the particle takes a new
position p' and its position be r !. Then r represents the change in directoin as well as magnitude
of the position vector r . (fig. a) The average velocity of the particles at time interval
t =
r
t
As r and t becomes shorter, P & P gets closer and v is tangent to the path of the particle. (fig c)
And, As t decreases, length of PP ( r ) equals to length of arc s (fig b)
s ds
PP
= lim
= lim
=
t 0 t
t 0 t
dt
Y
Change in position ( r ) can be resolved into two components,
i One parallel to x-axis and ( PP )
ii Other parallel to y-axis ( P P )
r = PP + P P
r
PP
P P
or , lim
= lim
+ lim
t 0 t
t 0 t
t 0 t
p
r
Y
P
vy
vx
P
v
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -10
O
y
X
x
y
i + lim
j
t 0 t
t 0 t
or , = lim
dx dy
i+
j
dt
dt
or , =
or , = v x i + v y j
or , = xi + yj
Then,
V = v + v [Magnitude of Velocity]
2
x
tan =
2
y
vy
= tan
vx
v
1 y
vx
vx =
dx
dy
= x;vy =
=y
dt
dt
[Direction of Velocity]
Y
v
vy
s
v
(a)
ay
v
Q x
(b)
ax
r
O
(c)
v
t
v d v
=
t 0 t
dt
Again, v can be resolved into QQ & Q Q parallel to x & y-axes respectively. Then,
or , a = lim
v = QQ + Q Q
v
QQ
Q Q
= lim
+ lim
0
t
t
t
v
v
y
j
or , a = lim x i + lim
t 0 t
t 0 t
dv y
dv
j
or x i +
dt
dt
or , a x i + a y j
or , lim
t 0
or , a = xi + yj
or , a = (a x ) 2 + (a y ) 2 acceleration in magnitude
ax =
ay =
dv x
dt
dv y
dt
ay
ax
= tan 1 (a y a x ) in direction
Y
dp
du
p
(a)
(b)
p= f(u)= 2u2 +4 u +3
p(u + u ) p (u )
p
dp
= lim
= lim
u
du u 0 u u 0
- (1)
dp
is tangent to the curve as shown in
du
figure(b).
Again,
Considering the sum of two vector functions p (u ) & Q(u ) of the same scalar variable u. Then
the derivative of the vector ( P + Q) is given by:
{P) {Q)
( P + Q)
d
P
Q
= lim
+
( P + Q) = lim
= lim
+ lim
u 0
u 0
u
u u 0 u u 0 u
du
u
d
d P dQ
( P + Q) =
+
du
du du
(2)
Again, product of scalar function f(u) and pf a vector function P (u ) of the same scalar variable u.
Then, derivative of f P is given by:
df . p
du
= lim
u 0
(f
+ f ) P + P f P
u
f
P
= lim
P+ f
u 0 u
u
df P df
dP
=
P+ f
du
du
du
(3)
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -12
Similarly, scalar product and vector product of two vector functions P (u ) and Q(u ) may be
obtained as:
d
dP
dQ
( P.Q) =
.Q + P.
du
du
du
d
dP
dQ
( P Q) =
Q + P
du
du
du
Again,
P = Px i + Py j + Pz k
(6)
where, Px , Py & Pz are the rectangular scalar components of vector P & i, j , k are the unit vector.
(7) [where, P = f (u )]
And,
3.3
(8) [where, P = f (t )]
z as:
r = x&i + y&j + z&k -
(i)
=
where,
dr
= &x&i + &y&j + &z&k
dt
So,
V = (v x2 + v y2 + v z2 )
V = v x i + v y j + v z k
a = a x i + a y j + a z k
a = ( a x2 + a y2 + a z2 )
Y
vy
vx
vz
v
o
Z
When the motion in each axis can be represented independent with each other then the use of
rectangular components to describe the position, velocity and acceleration of a particle is effective
i.e. motion in each axis can be considered separately.
For e.g. for projectile motion, neglecting air resistance, the components of acceleration are:
a x = 0 and a y = g
or , v x = 0 and v y = g
ay
or , dv x = 0 and dy = gdt
On Integrating both sides under the limits,
vx
vy
dv x = 0
and
vx vxo = 0
and
v y v yo = gt
v xo
v x = v xo
v yo
dy = g dt
0
v y = v yo = gt (v)
and
or , x& = v xo
ax
y& = v yo gt
and
dx
dy
= v xo
and
= v yo gt
dt
dt
or , dx = v xo dt and
dy = v yo dt gtdt
Integrating both sides under limits considering motion starts from origin by co-ordinates i.e. x at t=0
; x=0 ; y=0 and at t=t0, x=x0 and y=y0
or ,
x0
dx = v x0 dt
and
yo
dy = v y0 dt g tdt
1 2
gt (vi)
2
Thus motion under projectile can be represented by 2-independent rectilinear motion.
x 0 = v x0 t
and
y 0 = v y0 t
Y
uyo
Xo
Vx
O
Vxo
Vxo
uy
yo
Problems:
1. A bullet is fired upward at an angle of 30 to the horizontal from point P on a hill and it strkies a
target which is 80m lower than the level of projection as shown in figure. The initial velocity of the
bullet is 100m/s. Calculate:
a. The maximum height to which the bullet will rise above the horizontal.
b. The actual velocity with which it will strike the target
Vo = 100m/s
c. The total time required for the flight of the bullet.
A
nmax
Solution:
P
V0 = 100m / s
B
V x0 = V0 cos 30 = 86.60m / s
V y0 = V0 sin 30 = 50m / s
Hill
80m
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -14
V02 sin 2 30
= 127.42
hmax =
a)
2g
hmax = 127.42m ( Ans )
b) Let, V1 y = vertical component of velocity at highest point A = 0
V2 y = vertical component of velocity striking target
H = vertical distance between point A and target = 127.42+80 = 207.42m
Then, V22y V12y = 2 gH
[V1 y = 0]
or , V2 y = 63.79m / s
V2 x = V1x = V x0 = 86.60m / s
[V x0 = cons tan t ]
c)
= tan 1
V zy
V xy
h = (V y ) 0 t 2
Vo= A
A
= 36.37
nmax
P
B
80m
1 2
gt 2
2
1
or , 80 = 50 t 2 9.8 t 22
2
2
or , 4.905t 2 50t 2 80 = 0
Solving ,
xv = t 2 = 11.60 sec ( Ans)
2) The motion of a vibrating particle is defined by the equation x=100sin t and y=25cos2 t , where
x & y are expanded in mm & t in sec.
a) Determine the velocity and acceleration when t=15
b) Show that the path of the particle is parabolic.
Solution:
a) We have,
x=100sin t V x = x& = 100 cos t
a x = &x& = 100 2 sin t
Again, y=25cos2 t V y = y& = 50 sin 2t
a y = &y& = 100 2 cos 2t
= tan 1 (
Vy
Vx
)=0
= tan 1 (
ay
ax
) = 270
b) Since, x=100sin t
x
= sin t
100
x 2
(
) = sin 2 t
100
(i )
Again, y = 25 cos 2t
y
= 2 cos 2 t 1
25
y
or , + 1 = 2 cos 2 t
25
y + 25
= cos 2 t
(ii )
50
or ,
(ii )
For
2
sec
a = 2 sin 2i + cos 2i
[where, 2 is in radian]
Q a = 1.82i 0.42 j
= Total acceleration
0.42
= tan 1
= 193 ( Ans)
ax
1.82
x
t
dx
= 2 cos t dx = 2 cos dt
b) V x = 2 cos t
0
0
dt
or , x = 2 sin t
= tan 1
x2
or ,
= sin 2 t (i )
4
y
t
dy
Again, V y =
= sin t dy = sin tdt
0
0
dx
3.4
Let A and B be the particles moving is a same plane with rA & rB be their position with respect to
XY axis.
Considering New axes (X'-Y') centered at A and parallel to original axes X-Y, the motion of
particle B can be defined with respect to motion of particle A such that:
From vector triangle OAB
where,
rB = rA + r B / A
(i )
XA,YA & XB & YB are co-ordinates of A & B
and similarly ,
w.r.t. XY axes
XB = X A + X B/ A
XB/A, YB/A are co-ordinates of B .r.t. X'-Y' axis
- (ii)
YB = YA + Y B / A
Differentiating equ(i) w.r.t. time, we get:
V B = V A + VB (iii )
r Equation of motion in both x and y axes
In scalar form:
X& B = X& A + X& B / A
X Equation of motion in x - axis
- (iv)
Y&B = Y&B + Y&B / A
Y Equation of motion in y - axis
V( B )x
OR
= V( A) x + V( B / A) x
V( B )y = V( A) y + V( B / A) y
where,
X& A , Y&A are X & Y components of VA
X& B , Y&B are X & Y componens of VB
X& B / A Y&B / A are X & Y components of V B / A
Again,
differentiating (iii) with respect to time, we get:
aB = a A + a B / A
(v )
In scalar,
Downloaded from www.jayaram.com.np/ -17
aB =
(aBx )2 + (a By )2
= tan 1
a By
a Bx
3.4
OR
B/ A
respectively. Then, in curvilinear motion, et and en would change the direction as particle
moves from one point to another.
y
et=dr
ds
r/ s
p
p
r
p
x o
(a)
Then, et = lim
s 0
et =
s 0
r dr
=
s ds
dr
ds
(i )
Again, et = lim
s 0
Therefore, et =
(b)
r
s
s
=1
s
[lim r = s]
s 0
dr
is the unit vector along the tangetn to path.
ds
Let, be the radius of curvature of the path at the point P and et & et ' be the tangent unit vectors at
P and P'. et be the change in unit vector while the particle moves from P to P'.
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -18
ex
y
p
e
r
o
et
ex
en
a =at et + an en
a t =dVet
dt
ex
p
x
(a)
(b)
o
(c)
[As s 0
e t = en 1 in magnitude]
et
de
en = t
(ii )
s 0
d
Similarly,
det
d 1
=
and
= en
(iii)
ds
d
Also,
s
ds
d
= lim
= lim
=
V =
0
t
t
dt
dt
d
V = dt = (iv)
en = lim
d r d r ds
=
. = et v = vet
dt ds dt
V = Vet
(v )
And,
V =
de
de d ds
dv d
dv
dv
et + v t =
et + v t . .
= (Vet ) =
dt dt
dt
dt
dt
d ds dt
1
or , a = V&et + V (en )( )
a=
V2
or , a = V&et +
en
(vi)
Notes:
For increasing velocity at will be in the direction of velocity and fx decreasing velocity at will
be in opposite to the direction of velocity.
If the speed is constant at=0 but an0. [an=0 fx Recti = ]
3.6
eo
er
e
eo
r
P(r, )
r = rer
er
r
x
(b)
(a)
er and e respectively.
Here,
de
de d
de
de
de d
de
e& = = .
= er& - - - - - (ii) direction of is in direction of - e r
d
d dt
d
Now,
r = rer
de
dr d
dr
= (rer ) = er + r r = r&er + re&r
dt dt
dt
dt
&
V = r&er + r&e - (iii) e r = e &
which can expressed as
V = Vr er + V e ,
where
Vr = Radial component of velocity = r&
And, V = Transverse component of velocity = r &
Similarly,
Then, V =
dv d
=
r&er + r&e
dt dt
= &r&er + r&e&r + r&&e + r&&e + r&e&
= &r&er + r&&e + r&&e + r&&e r& 2 er e&r = e & & e& = er&
a = &r& r& 2 er + r&& + 2r&& e
(v )
which can be represented as,
a = a r er + a e
where,
a r = Radial component of acceleration = &r& r& 2
and, a = Transverse component of acceleration = r&& + 2r&&
a=
[ (
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -20
In case of a particle moving along a circular path with its centre at the origin O, we have
r=constant
&r& = 0
or, r& = 0 &
Then,
v = r& e
(vi)
a = r& 2 e + r&&e
(vii)
Problems:
dr
= 6ti + 12t 2 j + 20t 3 k
dt
&a=
dv
= 6i + 24tj + 60t 2 k
dt
Again,
a = a = 36 + (24t ) + 60t
2
1
2
(i )
)]
1
2 2 2
(ii )
Now,
At t = 4sec
V=1294.54m/s [putting t=4 in equ-(i)]
a=964.81m/s2 [putting t=4 in equ-(ii)]
Again,
Tangential component of acceleration,
1
dv d
36t 2 + 144t 4 + 400t 6 2
=
dt dt
1
1
= .
72t + 576t 3 + 2400t 5
1
2
36t 2 + 144t 4 + 400t 6 2
At time t=4 sec, at=963.56m/s2 (Ans)
Now,
at =
a n = a 2 at2 =
(964.81)2 (963.56)2
a n = 49.1m / s 2 ( Ans)
Again,
V 2 (1294.54)
=
=
= 34131.03m ( Ans )
an
49.1
2
2. A car is traveling on a curved section of the road of radius 915m at the speed of 50km/hr. Brakes
are suddenly applied causing the car to slow down to the 32 km/hr after 6 sec. Calculate the
acceleration of the car immediately after the brake have been applied.
Downloaded from www.jayaram.com.np/ -21
915
V V0
= 0.833m / s 2
at = 1
t
a = a n en + at et
a = 0.210en 0.833et
a= a =
(0.21)2 + ( 0.83)2
= tan 1
an
0.21
= tan 1
= 14.2 ( Ans )
at
0.83
= 0.856m / s 2 ( Ans )
3. The plane curvilinear motion of the particle is defined in polar co-ordinates by r=t3/4+3t and
=0.5t2 where r is in m, is in radian and t is in second. At the instant when t=4 sec, determine the
magnitude of velocity, acceleration and radius of curvature of the path.
Solution: We have,
t3
3t 2
+ 3t r& =
+ 3 &r& = 3t / 2
4
4
Again, = 0.5t 2 & = t && = 1
Now, we have
r=
3t 2
t3
+ 3 er + + 3t te
v = r&er + r&e =
4
(i )
Again, at t = 4 sec
v = 15er + 112e
v = v =
Again,
(15)2 + (112)2
= 133m / s 2
( Ans)
3t 2
= + 3t t 2 er + + 3t 1 + 2
+ 3 t e
2 4
4
At t = 4 sec,
a = 442e + 148e
r
1
a = a = ( 442 )2 + (148)2 2 = 466.12m / s 2 ( Ans )
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -22
1
2
2
2
2
t4
3t
2
+ 3t
v= v =
+3 +
4
1
2
dv d t 6 33t 4 27t 2
Qa =
= +
+
+ 9
t dt dt 16
16
2
Qa =
3t 5 33t 3
+
+ 27t
1 8
4
2
t 6 33t 4 27t 2
+
+
+ 9
16
16
2
At t = 4 sec,
at = 16.055m / s 2
Q a n = a (at )
2
] = [(466.12)
1
2 2
(16.005)
1
2 2
a n = 465.84m / s 2
=
(113) = 27.41m
v2
=
a n 465.84
2
Chapter 4
KINETICS OF PARTICLES
NEWTONS SECOND LAW
4.1 Newtons Second Law of Motion:
Newton has given his understanding of motion of particles and their causes and effects in 3
laws.
The first and third law of motion deals with the bodies at rest or moving with uniform velocity
i.e. without any acceleration.
For the bodies under the motion with acceleration the analysis of motion and forces producing
it is done by the application of Newtons Second Law.
Statement of Newtons 2nd Law:
If the resultant force acting on a particle is not zero, the particle will have an acceleration
proportional to the magnitude of the resultant and in the direction of this resultant force.
a2
F2
a1
F1
a2
F2
If F1 , F2 , F3 , etc be the resultant forces of different magnitude and direction acting on the particle.
Each time the particle moves in the direction of the force acting on it and if a1 , a 2 , a3 , etc be the
magnitude of the accelerations produced by the resultant forces. Then,
F1 a1 ,
F1
a1
F2
a2
F2 a 2 ,
=
F3
a3
F3 a3
........
etc
So, when a particle of mass m is acted upon by a force F and acceleation a, they must satisfy the
relation,
F = ma
i.e.
Fxi + Fy j + Fz k = m axi + a y j + az k
) (
where,
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -24
straight line.
(iv) All the above cases defines the first law, hence the Newtons 1st Law of Motion is a particular
case of Newtons 2nd Law of Motion.
4.2
dv
dt
d
(mv) (i )
dt
Multiplying both sides by dt and integrating under the limits, we get:
F =
t2
t1
v2
(ii )
v1
The term F dt is called the impulse ( I ) of the force during time interval (t2-t1) whereas mv is
t1
(iii )
momentum mv1 and the impulse of the force F during the time interval considered.
Or, showing in vector form.
mV2
I1-2
I1-2
mV1
mV1
When several forces act on a particle, the impulse produced by each of the forces should be
considered.
i.e. mv1 + I 1 2 = mv 2 (iv)
where,
1 2
t2
t1
( F )dt = (F + F
t2
t1
t2
t2
t1
t1
+ F3 ..... dt = F1 dt + F2 dt + .....
a1
F2
=0
F1
F1
(ma)rev
4.3
System of Unit:
Units of measurement should be consistent and one of the standards should be followed.
Generally 2 standard units are taken:
a) System de' International Unit (SI unit)
b) U.S. Customary Units (used by American Engineers)
SI Units:
SI stands for System de International. SI units are the world-wide standards for the measuring
system. SI units are fundamental or derived.
4.4
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -26
Considering a particle mass m acted upon by several forces. Then from second law,
F = ma
(i )
F = m a i + a j + a k
= ma x , F y = ma y ,
= ma z
(ii )
(i) and (ii) gives the equation of motion of particle under the force F
or,
= m&x&, Fy = m&y&,
= m&z&
Integrating these equation as done in 3.3, the equation of motion can be obtained.
Again, the equation(i) may be expressed as
F ma = 0
i.e., if we add vector ma to the resultant force in opposite direction, the system comes under the
equilibrium state. This force ( ma ) opposite to the resultant force is called Inertial Force or Inertia
Vector. This equilibrium state of a particle under the given forces and the inertia vector is said to be
dynamic equilibrium.
At the dynamic equilibrium,
Fx = 0, Fy = 0 &
=0
Inertia vector measure the resistance that particles offer when we try to set them in motion or when
we try to change the condition of their motion.
()
to the moment of the force F acting on that particle about the same point.
Let a particle of mass m moving in the XY-plane and the linear momentum of the particle is
equal to the vector mv.
Y
mVy
mV
mVy
y
x
X
[ H
= m( xv y yv x )
(i )
about O
mVy
Q x& = v x
&
y& = v y
v& x = a x
&
v& y = a y
get:
= m(xa y ya x )
Thus, the rate of change of angular momentum of the particle about any point to any instant is equal
()
to the moment of force F acting on that particle about the same point.
i.5
(a)
Equation of Motion
Rectilinear motion of particles:
If a particle of mass m is moving in a straight line under the action of coplanar forces
F = ma
(i ), where F = F1 + F2 + F3
For Rectilinear motion, motion is only along the single coi.e. ax=a & ay=0
Equn-(i) may be written as
F
F
= ma x
=0
F1
ordinate,
F3
F2
ma
p
- (ii)
These are the equation of motion for the particle moving in the straight line.
(b)
i.
Rectangular components
From Newtons second law,
= ma x
= ma y
Fy
= ma y = w = mg
or , a y =
a x = 0
Fx = 0
mg
= g
m
(i)
a y = g
These are the equations of motion.
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -28
FT
at = dV
Fn
dt
an = V2
F = F +F
t
F = ma = m(r&& + 2r&&) `
F = F + F
r
F = ma
Fr = mar
F = ma = 0
F = ma = 0
F = ma = 0
F = ma = 0
F = ma = 0
F = ma = 0
i.6
- (i)
- (ii)
- (iii)
When the force F acting on a particle P is directed towards or away from the fixed point O, the
particle is said to be moving under a central force. The fixed point O is called the center of force.
As shown in the figure, particle P moves along the curve path.
O = origin of co-ordinates
Now,
Fr = Radial component of force F
F = Transverse component of force F
For central motion F = 0
Q F = r&& + 2r&& = 0
1 2 &&
r + 2rr&& = 0
r
d 2&
or ,
r = 0 d r 2& = 0
dt
or ,
( )
( )
[Qr & = h]
2
or , H 0 = 2m( A.V .)
H 0 = cons tan t
[Qh = 2 A.V .]
[sin ce, A.V . = cons tan t & m = cons tan t ]
Hence, when a particle is moving under a central force, Angular momentum is always conserved.
i.7 Newtons Universal Law of Gravitation:
Statement:
Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force, which is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between their centers.
Y
Mathematically,
Mm
d2
GMm
F =
d2
F
Po
dA
(i )
d is the distance in m
rd
F
r
rP
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -30
For a body of mass m located on or near the surface of earth, force exerted by
the earth
on a body equals to the weight of the body i.e. F = mg and d = R (radius of the
earth).
GMm
F = mg =
R2
GM
(ii )
Qg = 2
R
where, g is the acceleration due to gravity with its standard value 9.81 m/s2 at the sea level.
Since, earth is not perfectly spherical so the value of R is different and hence g varies according
to the variation of altitude and latitude.
i.8 Application in space mechanics:
Earth satellite and space vehicles are subjected only to the gravitational pull of the earth after
crossing the atmosphere. The gravitation force acts as a central force on them and hence their
motions can be predicted as follows:
From central force motion,
r 2& = h
(i )
Trajectory of a particle under a central force:
(ii )
( )
1 d 2&
r =0
r dt
On integrating,
r 2& = cons tan t = h
or ,
& =
(iii )
d
h
= 2
dt r
Again,
r& =
dr dr d
h dr
d
=
.
= 2.
= h
dt d dt r d
d
&r& =
1
r
dr& dr& d
h dr&
h d
=
= 2
= 2.
.
dt d dt r d r d
(iv)
d 1
h d r
h2 d 2 1
(v )
r 2 d 2 r
Putting values of & & &r&in equ (i ) we get
&r& =
2
4
r
r
d
r
1
Putting v = , we get
r
d 2u
m h 2 u 2
+ h 2u 2 = F
2
d
d 2u
F
2 +u =
(vi )
d
mh 2 u 2
This is second order differential equation, which is the trajectory followd by the particle which is
moving under a central force F .
Note:
i.
F is directed towards O
ii.
iii.
1
r
(iv)
GM
This equn(iv) is second order differential equation with constant co-efficient 2 . The general
h
solution of the differential equation is equal to the sum of the complementary i.e.
U = Uc+Up
Uc = complementy solution i.e. for tangient condition
wherem,
Up = particular solution i.e. for steady state condition
Uc = A sin + B cos
GM
Up = 2
h
Again,
Uc = A sin + B cos = C (cos cos0 + sin sin0) = C cos(-0)
GM
U = C cos( 0 ) + 2
h
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -32
Now,
choosing 0 = 0 and U =
1
[i.e. inital line is axis of symmetry]
r
we, get:
1 GM
= 2 + c cos
(v )
r
h
Again, we have the equation of conic section,
l
r=
l + e cos
1 1 e
= + cos
(vi )
r l l
Comparing equn (v) & (vi), we get:
e
c = e = cl
l
Again,
1 GM
h2
= 2 l =
l
GM
h
ch 2
e =
which is eccentricity of the conic section.
GM
So, three cases may arise:
a) If e>1 (i.e. conic is a hyperbola)
ch 2
GM
>1
or , c > 2
GM
h
b) If e=1 (i.e. conic is a parabola)
i.e.
e<1
e<1
ch 2
<1
GM
or , c <
satellite
earth
trajectory of motion
ch 2
GM
=1
or , c = 2
i.e.
GM
h
c) If e<1 (i.e. conic is an ellipse)
i.e.
e>1
e>1
GM
h2
Special Cases:
When e=c=0 the length of radius vector is constant and the conic section reduces to circle.
At the last stage of launching satellite into orbit, it has the velocity parallel to the surface of the
earth and the satellite begins its free flight at the vertex A.
Let, r0 , v0 be the radius vector and velocity at the beginning of free flight. Here, velocity reduces to
transverse components only.
v = v = r &
0
Again,
h = r 2& = r02&0
(vii )
h = r02 0 = r0 v0
& =
r = v
1 GM
[cos 0 = 1]
GM
h2
c =
free flight
Vo
GM
r02 v 2
(ix)
powered flight
or ,
v0 =
2GM
r0
(x )
This velocity v0 is called the escape velocity. Since, this is the minimum velocity required for the
vehicle so that it does not return to its starting point.
Vesc =
2GM
=
r0
Vesc =
2 gR 2
r0
2 gR 2
r0
GM = gR 2
mg = GMm
R 2
( xi )
Note:
If Vo>Vesc, trajectory will be hyperbolic
Vo=Vesc, trajectory will be parabolic
Vo<Vesc, trajectory will be elliptical
Among the elliptical orbit, if c=0 then the ellipse reduces to circle.
i.e. putting c=0 in equn(viii), we get
GM
1 GM
= 2 2 vcirc =
r0 r0 v0
r0
vcirc =
gR 2
r0
( xii )
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -34
Vo=Vese
Vo=Vcir<Vese
Vo=Vcir
Vo<Vcir
A
=
=
Vo<<Vese
Areainsideorbit(i.e.Areaof ellipse)
AreaVelocity
ab
Vo
h2
or , =
2ab
h
where,
( xiii )
r1 + r0
2
r0 r1
V1
B
V1
h = r0 v0
Tutorials:
1) A satellite is launched in a direction parallel to the surface of the earth with a velocity of 37000
km/hr from an altitude of 500 km. Determine the altitude attained by it when it covers the angular
distance equal to 135. Also calculate the periodic time of the satellite. Take radius of earth, R=6370
km.
Soln:- Here,
500km
Launching velocity (vo) = 37000 km/hr = 10277 m/s
Radius of earth (R) = 6370 km = 6.37 106 m
V0
Altitude of launching (h) = 500 km = 5
r
5
A
10 m
A
Then, ro = 6.37 106 + 5 105 = 6.87 106 m
h = rovo = 6.87 106 10277 = 7.06 1010
ro
r1
GM = gR2 = 9.81 (6.37 106)2 = 3.98 1014 m3/s2
GM
3.98 1014
= 7.98 10 8
=
2
2
10
h
7.06 10
1 GM
= 2 + c cos
(i )
r
h
At point A =0 and r=ro=6.87106
1
Q
= 7.98 10 8 + c
6
6.87 10
We know,
c = 6.576 10 8
Again, at =135
1
= 7.98 10 8 + 6.576 10 8 cos135 r ' = 30029.44km
r
Downloaded from www.jayaram.com.np/ -35
Then, a =
ro + r1 6870 + 71225.07
=
= 39047.54 km
2
2
b = ro r1 = 22120.49 km
= 4.670647 10 4 sec
= 21 hrs18 min26 sec
2. The two blocks shown in the figure start from rest. The horizontal plane and the pulleys are
frictionless, and the pulley is assumed to be of negligible mass. Determine the acceleration of each
block and the tension in each cord.
A
T1
n
Sol : Let, tension in the cord ACD be T1 & cord BC be T2. From
700kg
figure, if block A moves through distance SA then block B moves
through SA/2.
c
S
V
a
T2
D
QS B = A VB = A a B = A (i )
2
2
2
nd
Using Newtons 2 law for Block A, Block B and Pulley C
Block A:
= mAaA
T1 = 100a A
WA
400kg
(ii )
300kg
T1
Block B:
= mB a B
F.B.D of A
WB T2 = 300a B
T2
300kg
(iii )
T2 2T1 = 0
Pulleys
Since mass of pulley is considered zero, we have:
WB
mBaB
= mc ac = 0
T2 2T1 = 0
(iv )
Qa A = 8.41m / s 2
a B =
aA
= 4205m / s 2
2
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -36
3. The bob of a 3 m pendulum describes an arc of a circle, in a vertical plane. If the tension is twice
of the weight of the bob for the position when it is displaced through an angle of 30 from its mean
position, then find the velocity and acceleration of the bob.
Soln:
Applying Newtons Second Law,
= mat
or , mg sin 30 = mat
at = g sin 30 = 4.9 m / s 2
Again,
= ma x
2mg mg cos 30 = ma x
Qa x = 2 g g cos 30 = 11.12m / s 2
a = at2 + a r2
= tan 1
1
2
= 12.15m / s 2
an
= 36.22
at
Velocity of Bob (v ) = a x
v2
a
=
x
Qv = 3 11.12
4. The motion of a 500 gm Block B in a horizontal plane is defined by the relation r=2(1+cos2t)
and =2t, where r is expressed in meters, t in seconds and in radians. Determine the radial and
transverse component of the force exerted on the block when t=0 & t=0.75 sec.
Soln:
Here,
m = 500 gm = 0.5 kg
r = 2(1+cos2t) - (i)
= 2t
- (ii)
Differentiating with respect to time, we get
r& = -4 sin2t & = 2
&r& = 8 cos 2t
Now,
&& = 0
F = ma = m(&r& r& )
F = ma = m(r&& + 2r&& )
2
= 0 & = 2 &
&& = 0
Q Fr = 0.5( 8 4 4
2
Fr = 118.43 N
= 0.5(4 0 2 0 2 ) = 0
Q F = 0
Similarly for t = 0.75 sec,
Fr = 39.5 N , F = 79.0 N
r& = 4 &r& = 0 r = 2
=1.5 & = 2 && = 0
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -38
Chapter 5
Kinetics of Particle : Energy and Momentum Method
5.1
When a particle moves by the application of force F producing the displacement ds, then the
work done by the force during the displacement ds is defined by:
du = component of force along the direction of motion distance travelled.
Q du = F cos .ds
du = Fds. cos
(i )
F
Fsin
where, ds = d r
F
Fcos
dr
ds
[cos = cos 0 = 1]
du = Fds
[cos = cos 90 = 0]
du = 0
Fcos
s2
s1
(F cos )ds
(ii )
U 1-2
S1
S2
F
U 1 2 = (F cos )x
x = Displacement from A 1 to A2
A2
x
5.1.2 Work of a weight (or Force of gravity)
A1
The work du of the weight is equal to the product
of weight (w) and the vertical displacement of the center of gravity G of the body.
i.e. du = -wdy
A2
y2
du1 2 = wdy
y1
U 1 2 = w( y 2 y1 )
A1
w
U 12 = wy
U1-2 is -ve when work is done on the body
U1-2 is +ve when work is done by the body.
Y1
Y2
Y
U 1 2 = k dx
x1
A2
1
U 1 2 = k (x 22 x12 )
2
work is positive, when x<x, i.e. spring is returning.
r2
r1
1 1
GMm
dr = GMm
2
r
r2 r1
1 1
U 1 2 = wR 2
r2 r1
5.2
(iii )
Q GMm = mgR 2 = wR 2
(iv )
Here, r > R
For a mass m acted upon by a force F and moving along the curve path, the component of
force along the direction of motion is given by:
F t = ma t
dv
dv
dv ds
dv
a
v
Q
=
=
=
t
ds
dt
ds dt
ds
or , F cos ds = mvdv
Integrating both sides, taking limits we get
or , F cos = mv
s1
F cos ds = m
v1
vdv
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -40
1 2 1 2
mv 2 mv1
2
2
1 2 1 2
or , U 1 2 = mv 2 mv1
2
2
or ,U 1 2 = T2 = T1
(i )
or , U 1 2 =
Again, at KE at A1
T1 = 0 [Q V1 = 0]
KE at A2
1 2
mv 2
2
Now, using principle of work and energy,
T2 =
T2 T1 = U 1 2
or , T2 = U 1 2
v 2 = 2 gL
1 2
mv 2 = wL = mgL
2
[L is the vertical height of bob from reference point ]
u
, Taking limit as t 0 we get
t
du
P=
(i ), Putting du = (F cos )ds
dt
ds
P = F cos
dt
Pavg =
or , P = FV cos
(ii )
ds
dt = V
Power output
< 1 [due to losses due to friction ]
Power input
Potential Energy:
Consider a body of weight W, which moves along a curve path from A1 to A2.
Q work done due to weight during the displacement,
5.5
U 1 2 = Wy1 Wy 2 ,
(i )
The work done by gravity is independent of path and is proportional to position, work done by
gravity at any position is denoted by Vg.
U 1 2 = (V g )1 = (V g )2
(ii )
r2
r1
GMm
r
(i )
(ii )
F = mg = w = R 2
2
GMm = wR
wR 2
V g =
(iv )
r
r is the distance of the body from the center of the earth. For large value of r, V g 0
1
1
U 1 2 = kx 22 kx12
2
2
or , U 1 2 == [(Ve ) 2 (Ve )1 ]
(i )
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -42
When, (Ve)1 and (Ve)2 is the PE due to elastic force, then potential energy at any elongation of spring
x
1
Ve = kx 2
(ii )
2
During the elongation the potential energy of the spring increases.
The work of the force is independent of the path followed and is equal to minus charge of
potential energy.
i.e. U 1 2 = (V2 V1 )
(iii )
The force which satisfy the equation is called as the conservation force. The gravity force and the
elastic force are examples of conservative force.
5.6 Conservation of Energy:
We know, work of a force is equal to
U 1 2 = (V2 V1 )
(i ) [V be the PE ]
U 1 2 = V2 + V1
(ii ) [T be the KE ]
U 1 2 = T2 T1
(iii )
where, E = T+V = mechanical energy of the system. Hence, conservation of energy states that
mechanical energy of the system always remains constant.
Examples of Conservation of Energy:
Analysis of Pendulum
For free fall of pendulum from Al, Then
For position A1,
[ V1 = 0 ]
KE, T1 = 0
PE, V1 = wL
T1 + V1 = wL
- (i)
At position A2,
V2 =
2 gL
1 2 1 w
mv 2 = (2 gL ) = wL
2
2 g
PE at A2 (V2) = 0 [ L = 0 at A2, datum]
KE at A2 (T2) =
T2 + V2 = wL
(ii )
For position A
KE at A, (TA) =
1
1 w
mV A2 = 2 gL sin = wL sin
2
2 g
TA + VA = wL
From equation (i), (ii) and (iii), the total mechanical energy of pendulum at any position is same and
is equal to wL.
At A1, Total energy is entirely due to PE
At A2, Total energy is entirely due to KE
At A, Total energy is sum of PE + KE
Note:
For the system interacting with other forms of energy as electrical, frictional, etc all the forms
of energy should be considered. In that case as well the total energy of system is always conserved.
Hence, energy is conserved in all the cases.
5.7
Fy = ma y
dv y
dv x
Fy = m
&
dt
dt
Since mass m is constant
d
d
Fy = (mv y )
Fx = (mv x )
&
dt
dt
Vectorically, we have
d
F=
mv
(ii )
dt
Fx = m
(i )
( )
This equation states, Force F acting on the particle is equal to the rate of change of momentum
t2
t1
Fx dt = m dv x = (mv x )2 (mv x )1
v2
v1
(mv x )1 + Fx dt = (mv x )2
(iii )
t2
t1
Similarly,
(mv ) +
y 1
t2
t1
Fy dt = (mv y )
(iv )
In vector form,
t2
mv1 + F dt = mv 2
t1
(v )
v1 = v x + v y
1
1
v 2 = v x + v y
2
2
F = F + F
x
y
where,
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -44
t2
t1
F dt = Impulse of force = I mp (1 2 )
(vi )
mv1 + I mp (1 2 ) = mv 2
()
Striking the ball with a cricket bat, large force F is applied in a small time (t ) , the resulting
impulse Ft is large enough to change the direction of motion of ball.
mV1
+
mV2
(i )
Here non-impulsive forces (like weight of ball, bat, etc) are not included.
2.
Impact
A collision between two bodies, which occurs in very short interval of time and during which
the two bodies exert relatively large forces on each other is called an Impact.
The common normal to the surfaces in contact during the impact is called the line of impact or
line of action.
Types of Impact:
If the mass centers of the two colliding bodies are located on this line of impact, the impact is
central impact otherwise eccentric impact.
If the velocities of the two particles are directed along the line of impact, it is said to be direct
impact. If either or both particle moves along the line other than the line of impact, the impact is
Line of contact
said to be an oblique impact.
VA
CA
VB
CA
CB
B
CB
Impact/action
Line of
VA
Line of impact
VB
B
A
A
CA
VA
CA
VB
CB
Line of
impact
VB
5.9
CB
VA
(d) oblique ecentric impact
Two particles A and B of mass mA and mB are moving in a straight line with velocities vA & vB.
If vA>vB the particle A strikes B.
Under the impact, they deform and at the end of period of deformation they will move with the
same velocity u.
After the impact the particles may gain their original shape or are permanently deformed,
depending upon the magnitude of impact and material involved which is called restitution.
After the impact and separation the particles move with v A' and v B' velocities.
The duration of time of impact when the particles comes under the deformation and restitution
during impact is called deformation period and restitution period respectively.
U
A
B
A
A
B
B
VB
V
A
VA
VB
Considering that only impulsive forces are acting, the total momentum of the system is conserved.
i.e. m A v A + m B v B = m A v A' + m B v B'
(i )
In scalar form,
m A v A + m B v B = m A v A' + m B v B'
(ii )
(iii )
m A u Rdt = m A v A'
(iv)
mAvA
+
mAv
Rdt
+
where,
mAv
pdt
mAvA
pdt and Rdt are the impulses during the period of deformation and restitution respectively.
Rdt
Pdt
(v )
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -46
Materials of particles
Impact velocity
Pdt = m v m u
From equ(iv), Rdt = m u m v
Rdt = m u m v = u v
Qe =
Pdt m v m u v u
From equ(iii),
A A
'
A A
A
A
e =
'
A
'
A
uv
vA u
'
A
v B' u
u vB
(vii )
Adding respectively the numerators and denominators of equn (vi) and (vii), we get:
e=
(common velocity )
( )
m Av A + mB vB
m A + mB
(ix )
Since e=1,
(x )
v A + v A' = v B + v B'
( xi )
( xii )
Multiplying LHS and RHS of equ(xi) & (xii) respectively and dividing both sides by 2 we get:
1
1
m A (v A v A' )(v A + v A' ) m B (v B' v B )(v B' + v B )
2
2
1
1
1
1
or , m A v A2 m A v A' 2 = m B v B' 2 m B v B2
2
2
2
2
] [
When e, there is loss of KE and this lost energy is converted into heat, sound and other forms of
energy.
m1
m1
1
V1
Line of contact
X
1
m2
m2
V2
V2
Here, line of impact is along y-axis and line of contact is along x-axis. Then the following
phenomena occur.
(a) x-component of the momentum of the particle 1st is conserved
(i )
(ii )
(c) From (a) and (b), the total momentum of the particles in x-direction is also conserved
(iii )
(iv )
(e) y-component of relative velocity after impact is obtained by multiplying y-component of relative
velocity before impact by co-efficient of restitution.
( v
i.e.
(v
'
2y
'
2y
v1' y ) = e( v1 y v2 y )
+ v1' y ) = e(v1 y + v2 y )
(v )
The above five equation are applied for the analysis of the problems related to oblique impact.
Remember:
(a) Along the line of contact, momentum of each particle is conserved.
(b) Along the line of impact, the total momentum of particles is conserved.
Tutorials:
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -48
(a) A 10 kg collar slides without friction along a vertical rod. The spring attached to the collar has an
undeformed length of 100 mm and a constant of 500 N/m. If the collar is released from rest in
position 1, determine its velocity after it has moved 150mm to position2.
200mm
Solution:
Datum
1
Given, K = 500 N/m
Undeformed length of spring = 100mm = 0.1m
We have from conservation of energy, KE + PE at 1 =
150mm KE +
PE at 2
2
i.e. T1 + V1 = T2 + V2
(i )
T1 = 0 [V1 = 0]
V1 = Ve1 + V g1 =
x1 = elongation of spring at 1
1 2
kx1
2
1
2
V1 = 500 (0.1)
2
V1 = 2.5 Nm
at datum
Again,
At point 2, the total length of spring is
1
10 v 22 = 5v 22
2
v 2 = v e2 + v g 2
Y2 =
(0.2)2 + (0.15)2
= 0.25
1
= kx 22 + wy
2
1
2
= 500 (0.15) + 10 9.81( 0.15)
2
v 2 = 9.09 Nm
Putting all the values in equ(1), we get
0 + 2.5 = 5v 22 9.09 v 2 = 1.52m / s
2) A particle having mass 0.5 kg is released from rest and strikes. The stationary particle of mass 0.4
kg as shown in the figure. Assume the impact is direct and elastic. If the horizontal surface has a
dynamic co-efficient of friction = 0.3 , locate the final position of each mass from the origin of the
axis.
Solution:
Applying conservation of energy at Pt. A & B
Lost of energy = work done against friction
Now for mass m1,
KE at A (TA1) = 0
[vA=0]
PE at A (VA1) = mghA = 0.59.81(0.25-0.25sin30)
(VA1) = 0.613 J
1
1
KE at B (TB1) = mv B21 = 0.25v B21 = 0.25v B21
2
2
PE at B (VB1) = 0
[B is datum]
Now, from conservation of energy,
V
o
30
M1
0.5kg
M2
0.4kg
T A1 + V A1 = TB1 + VB1
or , 0 + 0.613 = 0.25v B2 + 0
( )
v B1 = 1.56m / s
( )
(i )
Again, we have:
v 2' v1'
v 2' v1'
=1=
e=
1.56 0
v1 v 2
(ii )
Now, using work energy relation to find the distance travelled by the particle
For M1:
Work done due to friction = T + V
(iii )
[h = 0]
Now,
Work done due to friction = mg distance travelled
distance travelled (x) = -
For mass 1,
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -50
( 0.00748)
= 0.00508m
0.3 0.5 9.81
x1 = 0.00508m
x1 =
( 0.6065)
0.3 0.4 9.81
x 2 = 0.510m
x2 =
3. The magnitude and direction of the velocities of two identical frictionless balls before they strike
each other as shown. Assuming e=0.90 determine the magnitude and direction of the velocity of each
ball after the impact.
Solution:
line of contact
V Ax = V A cos 30 = 7.8m / s
V Ay = V A sin 30 = 4.5m / s
V Bx = VB cos 60 = 6.1m / s
B
m
V By = VB sin 60 = 10.6m / s
30
VA = 9m/s
V Ay = V Ay' = 4.5m / s
And , VBy = VBy' = 10.6m / s
For motion along the line of impact,
m AV Ax + m BVBx = m AV Ax' + m BVBx'
V Ax + VBx = V
7.8 6.1 = V
+V
'
Ax
'
Ax
[m A = m B ]
'
Bx
+ VBx'
VBx' V Ax'
VBx V Ax
(2 )
&
V = 5.4
Resultant Motion:
Adding components of velocities after impact, we get:
V A' =
V B' =
(V ) + (V )
(V ) + (V )
' 2
Ax
' 2
Ay
= 7m / s
' 2
Ax
' 2
Ay
= 12.8m / s
m
o
60
VB = 9m/s
Chapter 6
System of Particles
6.0 System of Particles:
From Newtons law, equation of motion for each particle is
F = ma F
= ma x , Fy = ma y &
(i )
= ma z
=0,
=0&
(ii )
=0
But, for the system involving a large no. of particles, and if the system as a whole is considered, then
each particle of system is subjected to two types of forces:
(a) External Forces:
Forces exerted by the body outside the system and weight of particle.
(b) Internal Forces: [Vanderwaals Molecular Attraction]
Forces exerted by the other particle of the same system.
y
Fi
y
Pi fij
Pj
Pi
fjk
fik
miai
Pk
Fi
Pj
z
z
If P1 be a particle in a system of particles Pj, Pk, etc and Fi be the resultant of external forces on ith
particle and Fij , Fik be the internal forces on ith particle from jth and kth particle. Then,
The sum total of forces on ith particle sum of external and internal forces acting the particle.
Now, from Newtons 2nd law, the resultant of forces acting on the ith particle is equal to miai.
When all the particles are considered simultaneously the internal forces cancel out and the only
external forces acts on the system. Hence, for the whole system
Q (Fx )ext = max
(F )
(F )
y ext
z ext
= ma y
- (iii)
= mat
o
o
f jk
f ij
Fi
f ik
n
d2
r
=
F
+
Fij (i )
i
i
dt 2
j =1
i j
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -52
dt
i =1 j =1
i =1
i =1
n
i j
For considering all particles the summation of internal forces is zero. Hence, equ(ii) modifies as :
n
F = mi
i =1
or , F =
Q Fi = F
i =1
d 2 ri
dt 2
d2
dt 2
(iii )
m r
i =1
i i
If, rc be position vector of mass centre of system of particles and M is the total mass of particles,
then from principle of first moment of inertia (moment due to entire mass = sum of moments due to
individual mass),
(iv )
M rc = M i ri
From (iii) and (iv), we get
F=
( )
d2
M rc
dt 2
d 2 rc
(v )
dt 2
6.2 Linear and Angular Momentum for a system of particles
(1) Linear Momentum for a system of particles:
For a system of particles, applying Newtons 2nd law to any jth particle, we have:
F = M
dv j
j =1
dt
F = M j
(i )
t2
t1
F dt = I ext = M j V j M jV j
j =1
t2 j =1
t1
(ii )
This shows, The impulse of the total external force on the system of particles during a time interval
equals to the sum of the changes of the linear momentum vector of the particles during the same time
interval.
From the concept of mass center,
n
M rc = M j r j
(iii )
j =1
M Vc = M j V j
(iv )
j =1
(v )
Thus, the total external impulse of a system particles is equal to the change in linear momentum of
the particles, moving with the mass center velocity.
Downloaded from www.jayaram.com.np/ -53
dt
For system of particles the angular momentum equation for the
ith particle about origin O is given by:
y
o
= mi vi ri =
n
d
ri Fi + ri Fij =
ri Pi
j =1 dt
(i )
M
fij
rc
r1
o
z
o
o
ri Fi + ri Fij =
i =1
i =1 j =1
j 1
d n
ri Fi = & o
dt i =1
Since, internal force vanishes for all particles, the moment also become zero for all particles. Hence,
n
M A = & A
Thus, the total moment of external forces acting on an aggregate of particles about a fixed point A
in an inertial reference equals the rate of change of the angular momentum relative to the same point
A and same inertial reference.
Again, considering center of mass of the aggregate of particles
[ ci position of i w.r.t. CG ]
ri = rc + ci
[Q p = linear momentum]
o = ri pi
i =1
[(
){ (
or , o = v c + ci mi v&i + & ci
i =1
)}] (v)
pi = mi vi mi v&i
& r& = r& + &
i
c
ci
Carrying out the cross-product and extracting rc from the summation we get:
n
]
) r& + (
( )
= rc mi r&c + rc mi & ci + mi ci
i =1
i =1
i =1
i =1
ci
mi & ci
We know that the sum of the first moment of mass about the centroid is zero i.e.
m
i
ci
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -54
(
[ = r M r& + ]
) [ m = M ]
[Q =
(v )
o = rc M r&c + ci mi & ci
i =1
cu
mi & ci
where, c be the sum of the angular momentum about the center of mass .Similarly for any point
A, we get:
A = rAC M r&AC + c
(vi )
or , M A = rAC M a AC + & c
(vii )
[ & A = M A ;V AC = a AC ]
(F )
(F )
(F )
x ext
y ext
z ext
= (ma x )
= (ma y )
(i)
= (ma z )
If mass center of the system of particles is considered with co-ordinates G (x , y , z ), Then we have:
( m)x = (mx )
( m)y = (my )
( m)z = (mz )
( m)&y& = (m&y&)
( m)&z& = (m&z&)
(ii)
( m )a = (ma )
( m )a = (ma )
y
- (iii)
where, a x , a y & a z are the components of acceleration a of G (i.e. center of mass) of the system,
From equ(i) & equ(iii), we have:
(F )
(F )
(F )
x ext
y ext
z ext
= ( m )a x
= ( m )a y
- (iv)
= ( m )a z
which defines the motion of center of mass of system. It shows that the center of a system of
particles move as if the entire mass of the system and all the external forces were concentrated at that
point G.
6.4
Conservation of Momentum:
We know that the final momentum of the particle is obtained by adding vectorically its initial
momentum and the impulse of the force F during the time interval considered i.e.
Downloaded from www.jayaram.com.np/ -55
mv1 + I mp (1 2 ) = mv 2
mv + I
1
mp (1 2 )
= mv 2 (ii )
since the internal forces vanish considering the all particles only impulse due to external force exists
i.e.
mv + (I
1
mp (1 2 ) ext
(iii )
= mv 2
mv = mv
1
(iv)
Thus, when the sum of the impulses of the external forces acting on a system of particles is zero, the
total momentum of the system remains constant.
Again, considering mass center G ( x , y ) of the system, we have,
( m)x = (mx )
( m)y = (my )
- (v)
( m)v = (mv )
( m)v = (mv )
x
( )
( m )v = mv
(vi)
Thus, When the sum of impulses of the external forces acting on a system of particles is zero, then
mass center of the system moves with a constant velocity v.
6.4 Kinetic Energy of a system of particles:
Considering a system of particles, the total K.E. relative to xyz axes of system of n particles
can be obtained as
y
1
KE = mi vi2
i =1 2
(i )
(ii )
Again, ri = rc + ci
vi = vc + ci
1
KE = mi v c + & ci
i =1 2
)(
1 n
= mi v c + & ci . v c + & ci
2 i =1
n
1 n
1 n
2
&
KE = mi vc + mi v c . ci + mi & ci2
2 i =1
2 i =1
i =1
C.ci
ci
V ni
Vc
Vi
X
o
o
z
[Q (a + b)(. a + b) = a
+ 2a.b + b 2
But,
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -56
=M
m &
and
i =1
ci
=0
So, we get,
KE =
1
1 n
Mvc2 + mi & ci2
2
2 i =1
Hence, KE of the system of particles = KE of the total mass moving with the mass center velocity +
sum of the KE of individual particles having velocity relative to the center of mass.
6.5 Work-Energy Principle: Conservation of energy for a system of particles:
Work of the force F exerted on the particle during the displacement = change in KE
i.e.
u12 = t 2 t1
(i )
Similarly work of the conservative force is independent of path followed and is equal to minus of the
change in potential energy.
i.e.
u12 = (v 2 v1 )
(iii )
U 1 2 = (V2 V1 ) = V1 V2
(iv )
(v )
Thus for the particle moving under the conservative force, the sum of KE and PE remains constant.
KE + PE = Total Energy (E) = constant
E1 = E2 Hence, Energy is conserved.
Principle of Impulse and Momentum for a system of particles:
The angular momentum of particle about origin O = moment of the first momentum of
particle about the origin.
Y
6.7
Qho = mv y x mv x y (+ )
mvy
mv
H o = m(xv y yv x )
mvy
( )
H& o = M o
ext
(iii )]
t1
mAvA
(Fext)dt
A
B
C
t1
+
mB vB
mCvC
x
t1
(Mo)ext.dt
t1
i.e.
t2
t1
(F )dt = (mv)
ext
( )
= mv 1
(F )dt =
t2
ext
t1
t2
t1
(M )
o ext
dt
(mv ) + (I )
1 2 ext
( )
= mv
(i )
(H ) +
o 1
t2
t1
(M o )ext dt = (H o )2
(ii )
Comparing these two equn it shows that sum of momenta (linear momentum or angular momentum)
of particles at time t1 and the impulse of the external forces are equipollent (Not actually equivalent
for particles but equivalent for rigid body).
When there is no external forces,
(System momenta)1 = (System momenta)2
Types of system of particles:
(a) Constant System of Particles:
The system which neither gain nor lose particles during their motion are called the constant
system of particles. e.g. Rigid bodies
(b) Variable System of Particles:
The system which are continuously gaining or losing particles or doing both at the same time
are called variable system of particles. e.g. Hydraulic turbines, Rockets, etc.
6.8
B
S
mivi
mi vi
F t
A
( m)VA
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -58
In this system it continuously gains particles flowing in and looses an equal no. of particles
flowing out, so this type of variable system of particles is reduced to auxiliary constant system of
particles, which remains constant for a short time t
If m amount of mass enters the system s, at time t . Then,
The momentum of the particles entering the system = (m )v A
The momentum of the particles leaving the system = (m )v B
And, the impulses of the forces exerted on s =
F .dt
and
m v
i i
t .
m
vR v A
t
dm
F =
v B v A (ii )
dt
This equation gives the resultant of the forces exerted by the vane on the stream. This principle is
applicable to the following mass as:
(a) Fluid diverted by a vane/ hydro-turbines/ properties
(b) Fluid flowing through a pipe
(c) Jet engine
(d) Fan
F = lim
t 0
V
m m
S ( m)Va
m+
m v + (m )v a + F t = (m + m ) v + v
( )
or , F t = mv + m v v a + m v
)
(i )
()
F t = mv (m )u
m
u
t 0 t
or ,
F = m lim t lim
or ,
F = m dt
t 0
dv
dm
u
dt
dv
dm
u=m
dt
dt
dm
F +
u = ma (ii )
dt
or ,
F +
dm
u is the thrust which tends to slow down the motion of s. This is in case of
dt
gaining mass. If system s looses mass (as propulsion of rocket) the thrust generated would increase
the motion of s.
Tutorials:
(1) Two particles shown in fig oscillate on the smooth plane in the r-direction.
(a) Write the differential equation of motion for each mass.
(b) Find equation of motion for the center of mass
(c) Write the expression for KE & PE of the system of particles.
m2g
m1g
K1X1
X2
X1
K 2 (X2-X1)
F2
F2
F2
K1
K2
F2
R2
R1
= m1 &x&1
k1 x1 + k 2 ( x 2 x1 ) = m1 &x&1
= m2 &x&2
F2 k 2 ( x 2 x1 ) = m2 &x&2
F = ( m)&x&
x
[&x&c = acceleration of
c.m.]
F2 k1 x1 = (m1 + m2 )&x&c ,
F2 k1 x1 = M&x&c
(c) K.E./P.E. of the system of particles:
1
1
KE (T) = m1 x&12 + m2 x& 22
2
2
PE (V ) = V g + Ve = O + Ve
[V
= 0, being at datum
1
1
2
k1 x12 + k 2 (x 2 x1 )
2
2
1
1
2
(V ) = k1 x12 + k 2 ( x 2 x1 )
2
2
(2) A nozzle discharges a stream of water of cross-sectional area A=100 mm2 with a speed of
v=50m/s, and the stream is deflected by a fixed vane as shown in the figure. The density of water is
103 kg/m3. Determine the resultant force F exerted on the stream by the fixed vane.
Solution:
Weve from the principle of Impulse-Momentum for particles
60
Here,
VA = VB = 50 m/s
Area, A = 100 mm2
dm
mass flow-rate =
= AV = 5 kg / s
dt
Now, Cancelling
mVB
B
B
s
Fx =
F t
s
Fx t
mivi
( m)vA
50m/s
Fy t
mivi
dm
v sin 60 = 216.5
dt
F = Fx i + Fy j = 125i + 216.5 j
F = 250N
= 60
(3) A system consists of three particles A, B and C as shown in the figure and have velocity,
V A = 5i 8k m / s, VB = 4i + V y j + V z k m / s and Vc = 6i + 3 j 2k m / s respectively. If the masses
of these particles are mA = 3 kg, mB = 1 kg and mc = 2 kg respectively and the resultant angular
momentum o of the system about origin O is parallel to the z-axis, determine the value of o .
4m
VC
C
3m
VA
A
5m
B
Z
VB
o = ri mi vi
= rA mA v A + rB mB vB + rc mc vc
= 3 j + 5k 3 5i 8k + 4i + 5k 1 4i + Vy j + Vz k + 4i + 3k 2 6i + 3 j 2k
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
x = 0
& y = 0
(5V y + 84) = 0
(111 4V z ) = 0
(ii )
(iii )
&
V z = 27.75
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -62
Chapter 7
Kinematics of Rigid Bodies
7.1 Introduction:
Particle:
It is a material body which is so small that its dimension can be treated as negligible in
comparison to other dimensions involved.
Rigid bodies:
It is combination of two or more particles, which are connected in such a way that they do not
change their relative positions due to application of external forces.
The various points or particles in rigid bodies may have different motions but their motion are
so related such that their relative position remains unchanged.
In reality all the rigid bodies deform in application of external forces but in negligible amount.
Translation:
A motion is said to be translation if any straight line drawn on the body obeys the same
direction. If all the particles move parallely along straight line, it is said to be rectilinear translation
and if the path are curved, the motion is said to be curvilinear translation.
7.2
If rA and rB be the displacement vectors of the particle A & B during t , then for translation
rA rB
=
v A = v B (i )
t
t
Similarly,
v A v B
=
a A = aB
(ii )
t
t
Thus, for any body in translation, all the points have the same velocity and acceleration at any given
instant.
For curvilinear translation, there is change in direction and magnitude of velocity and acceleration at
every instant. For rectilinear translation velocity and acceleration follow same direction during entire
motion.
7.2 Rotation:
A motion is said to be rotation when the particles in the rigid bodies (slab) moves in concentric
circles, with common fixed center O.
If the particle in the slab moves d at time dt, then the angular velocity is given by:
A1
A1
B1
B1
A1
B1
B1
d
dt
(i )
=
From (i)
dt =
d d 2
= 2
dt
dt
d
(ii )
d
d
=
d
d
d
(iii )
d
Anti-clockwise direction is taken +ve and clockwise direction is taken ve.
(1) For Uniform Rotation:
=
= cons tan t
= o + o t +
t 2
2
2
2
= o + 2 ( o )
(r ) 2 = r 2
r
B
B
B1
B2
B1
d
A
A
A1
A2
A2
B2
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -64
B1
B1
B2
B 2
B 2
B2
A1
A2
A2
A2
A1
7.4
VB = V A + VB A
(i )
VA
VA
A
VB/A
r
B
VB
VB/A
VB
VB = VA +VB/A
VB
Plane motion
translation with A
Rotation of B about A
VB A
l
&
VB / A = V A cos
[lv = r ]
VA
[same result can be obtained by choosing ' B' as reference point ]
(ii )
l cos
Hence, Angular velocity of Rigid body in plane motion is independent of the reference point.
=
7.5
W
A
UA
UA
plane motion
translation
Rotation
VA
VA
plane motion
in stantarems of rotation
B
C
VB
VB
VA
VB
(c) If magnitude V A = VB , then c would be at infinite and the body would translate.
Note:
Acceleration of various particle on the slab cannot be determined by this method. Hence, it is
used to compute only the velocity of particles at any instant of time.
and
VB = VB C .
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -66
Definition:
A particle with in a system of rigid body may have motion with respect to a moving frame
inside the body. In such case an additional comp. of acceleration of the particle with respect to the
moving frame comes into the existence, this complementary acceleration in case of moving frame is
called coriolis acceleration, ' a c ' which is perpendicular to the direction of relative velocity of particle
with respect to frame.
x
u
Y
Y
x
O
Absolute frame
Stationary frame
Relatix frame
or moving frame
Axis xay rotates
With avg. velocity w
Bel.Velocity
Wr
bs. velocity
ac
Calculation:
Consider the motion of particle P, which moves along a path on a slab s. The slab rotates
along a fixed point O. Motion of P is given by r & with respect to fixed axis (XOY axis) and by r
& , with respect to axis attached to slab s and rotating with it. It is required to determine the
absolute motion of P and relative motion of P with respect to S.
We know from radial and transverse component of velocity
(V ) = r&
(V ) = r& = r & + &
&
(i ) [ = + ]
p r
Y
Y
Case I:
When P is fixed on slab s and the slab allowed to rotate with
respect to XOY, then P coincides with P'
V p = V p' ,
r& = 0
'
p r
=0
&
(V )
'
p
= r&o
(ii )
Case-II:
When slab is fixed and P is allowed to move, then
Vp = Vp s
(V )
p s r
= r&
&o = 0
o = cons tan t
&
(V )
p s
= r&1
r
s
& &1 = 0
(V )
1 = cons tan t
r = cons tan t
p
p
(iii )
X
X
V p = V p' + V p s
(V ) = (V ) + (V )r
p r
p' r
(a )
(a )
&
p/s
p r
p'
p/s
(v )
(vi )
Calculating the acceleration of point p when the slab is rotates as P also moves with respect to
slab it is observed that, instead of being
a p = a p ' + a p / s , we get
a p = a p ' + a p / s + ac ,
where a c has the vector component as
and,
(ac )r
(ac )
= 2&r&&o = 2 (V p s )
(ac )r
(a )
= 2 (V p / s )r
(vii )
(viii )
The coriolis acceleration a c is thus a vector perpendicular to the relative velocity V p / s and of
magnitude to z. V p / s and direction of a c is perpendicular to the vector
V p/s .
(i )
VB = V A + VB / A
If the body rotates with angular velocity ' ' about the point
A, then
[V
(ii )
V B = rB / A
B/ A
= rB A
rB/A
A
Further, we have
aB = a A + a B / A
or , a B = a A + r B / A + r B / A
[Q a ] = dtd (V
B/ A
B/ A
)=
d
rB/ A
dt
rA
(iii )
d
rB/ A
dt
d
+ rB/ A
dt
= r B/ A + r B/ A
aB/ A = r r B/ A + r B/ A
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -68
where is the angular acceleration of the body at instant considered. The equ (ii) and (iii) show that
the most general motion of a rigid body is equivalent to the sum of a translation (in which all
particles of the body have the same velocity and acceleration) and of a motion in which particle A
is assumed to be fixed.
i.e. The motion of any particle B with respect to A would be characterized by the same vectors
& . Thus & are independent of the choice of reference point but the moving frame should
remain parallel to the fixed frame of reference.
Tutorials:
1. The end B of the rod AB as shown in the figure moves with constant velocity, VB = 0.9 m/s ( )
Determine:
Y
(a) Angular velocity and angular acceleration of the
A
rod
(b) Velocity and acceleration of end A
Solution:
5
Here,
3m
Y A = 3m & X B = 4m
= tan 1 (3 4)
Again,
VB =0.1m/s
X
4m
3
4
2
Again, a B = &x& = 5 (cos )& 2 + (sin )&& = 5 (0.3) + && = .0
5
5
&& = 0.12
3
4
2
or , a A = 5 ( 0.3) + ( 0.12 ) = 0.75
5
5
4
or , V A = Y A = 5 0.13 = 1.2m / s
5
V A = 1.2m / s
&
a A = 0.75 m / s 2
(2) In the engine system shown, the crank AB has a constant clockwise angular velocity of 2000rpm.
For the crank position indicated, determine:
(a) the angular velocity of the connecting rod BD
(b) the velocity of position P.
Solution:
Here, the crank AB rotates about point A,
2N
2 2000
rad / sec =
= 209.4rad / sec
60
60
= 209.4 75 = 15.68m / s
AB = 2000rpm =
VB = ( AB ) AB
=
B = 13.94
3
8
BD
AB
0
40
Now, for the motion of connection rod BD, which is a plane
P
D
A
motion:
the velocity VD is horizontal and VB is as obtained above. Resolving motion of BD into a translation
with B and rotation about B, we get:
B
B
B
WBD
50
50
VB
VB
VD/B
D
D
VD
Plane motion =
VB
Translation
Rotation
VD/B
50
Now, we have
VB
VD = VB + V D / B
(i )
V D = V p = 13.05m / s
Again,
V D / B = BD BD BD =
VD / B 12.37
=
= 61.9rad / s
BD
0 .2
BD = 61.9rad / s
(3) A double gear rolls on the stationary lower rack. The velocity of its center A is 1.2 m/s directed
to the right. Determine:
R
(a) the angular velocity of the gear
B
(b) the velocities of the upper rack R and of point D of
gear.
D
Solution:
VA = 12mm/s
(a) Angular velocity of the gear:
C
Distance moved by the center of gear for each
revolution = 2r1
R2 =100mm
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -70
xA
=
Then, 2r1 2
x A = r1
[x A = 2r1 = 2 ]
(i )
Differentiating,
x& A = V A = r1
or , 1.2 = 0.15
= 8rad / sec
VA
VA
V B/A
A
V D/A
VA
C
VB
VD
A
VA
VA
V C/A
VC
= tan 1
Chapter 8
Plane Motion of Rigid Bodies
Forces, Moments & Acceleration
8.1
Considering a rigid body acted upon by several external forces, F1 , F2 , F3 , etc. Let, the rigid
body be made of a large number of particles of mass mig = (i = 1,2.....n ) and G be the mass center of
the rigid body whose motion can be considered with respect to xyz axis.
Then, from Newtons 2nd law:
F = ma
- (i)
a = Acceleration of the CG G
where,
M
M
(ii )
= H& G
The equations of motion (i) and (ii) express that the system of external forces is equivalent to the
system consisting of vector m a attached at G and couple of moment H& G .
8.2
H G = ri' mi vi'
i =1
(i )
where, ri' and mi vi' be the position vector and linear momentum of Pi about the G with respect to
x'y' frame.
Again,
vi' = ri'
H G = ri' ri mi
i =1
= ri'2 mi
i =1
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -72
H& G = I & = I
(iii )
H& G = I
Thus the rate of change of the angular momentum of the slab is equal to I and in perpendicular to
the direction of the slab.
8.3 Plane motion of a Rigid body : DAlembats Principle:
Statement:
For a rigid body of mass m moving under the action of several forces F1 , F2 , F3 , etc , the
external forces acting on the rigid body are equivalent to the effective forces of the various particles
forming the body.
Considering mass center G of the slab as reference point, we have:
(F )
(F )
x eff
= (m )a x
y eff
= (m )a y
(i)
Again, we have:
(m)a
(m)a
x
y
= (m )a x
(ii)
= (m )a y
(F )
(F ))
x eff
eff
= Ma x
(iii)
= Ma y
()
a = a + a'
a = a + a n' en + at' et
(iv )
eff
= ma = ma + ma n en + mat et
i.e. effective force = force due to translation about G + Force due to rotation about G
Considering the case of Translation:
During translation, all the particles in the body moves along G such that total moment of force
and ma x = 0]
For Translation,
(M )
or , H&
G eff
=0
eff
=0
F eff = ma
(v )
'
t
at' = r ' ,
Now considering all the particles of slab under rotation
(M
G eff
&
= (M G )eff = I
F
F
M
= Ma x
= Ma y
G
(x)
= I
Note:
For translation, effective force reduces to m a . For rotation, effective force reduces to I and for
the plane motion effective force is the sum of the both.
Application of Rigid body motion in plane:
8.3
()
For a rigid body in plane motion, there exists a fundamental relation between the forces F
()
()
acting on the body, the acceleration of its mass center a and the angular acceleration of the
body.
F = ma x + ma y + I
()
()
This relation may be used to determine the acceleration a and angular acceleration
produced by a given system of forces acting on a rigid body, or to determine the forces which
produce a given motion of the rigid body.
The equation may be separated as:
Fx = ma x
Fy = m a y
= I
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -74
In such cases, the definite relationship exists between mass center, acceleration a and angular
acceleration between the several bodies, under constrained motion.
Solution for such motion is obtained in two steps:
(i)
(ii)
When a mechanism consists of several moving parts, each moving part is considered separately
and the problem is solved.
Two particular cases of constrained motion are:
(i) Non-centroidal rotation:
Rigid body is constrained to rotate about a fixed axis which does not pass through main
center.
The mass center G of the body moves along a circle of radius r centered at the point O.
i.e. = .0
If = const
at = r = 0, then a = a x i.e. normal component only and the force generated thus is called
centrifugal force.
Rolling Motion:
If the disk is constrained to roll without sliding the acceleration of its mass center G and its
angular acceleration are dependent.
Here,
x = r
(i )
Differentiating w.r.t time, we get
&x& = a = r
(ii )
If the mass center G does not coincide with its geometric center O , the relation (ii) does not hold
true.
Then, the relation becomes
Then,
( ) ( )
a = aG = ao + a G / O = a o + a G / O t + a G / O
where,
(aG / O )n = (OG ) 2
F = (F )
F = (F )
x
x eff
0 = ma x a x = 0
y eff
T = ma y
T
m
180 15 9.81
ay =
= 2.19ms 2
15
a y = 2.19ms 2
ay =
Q a = a G = 2.19ms 2
Again,
Moment of external forces = Moment of effective turns
i.e.
= (M G )eff
Tr = I = mr 2
2
2T 2 180
=
=
= 48.0 rad / s 2
mr
15 0.5
= 48 rad / s 2
Acceleration of Cord
( ) = a + (a )
a cord = a A
A/G t
= aG + . AG
= 2.19 + 48 0.5
a cord = 26.2 ms 2
Tutorials 2 contd .....
Resolving a into two components:
a x = a cos 60 = 1.339
a y = a sin 60 = 0.520
Now, equating system of external forces to a system of equivalent forces, we get
Now,
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -76
1 2 25
(1.2)2 = 3kgm 2
ml =
2
12
I = 3
w = mg = 25 9.81 = 245 N
ma x = 25 1.339 = 33.5
I =
ma y = (25)(0.52) = 13
Now, we have:
Again,
(F ) = ( F )
x
x eff
F = (F )
y
y eff
R A = 136.6 N ( )
Chapter 9
Plane Motion of Rigid Bodies
Energy and Momentum Method
9.1
U 12 = Change in KE = T2 T1
T1 + U 1 2 = T2
where,
T1 KE at P1
T2 KE at P2
9.2
The work of force F during the displacement from its position s1 to s 2 is:
U 1 2 =
s2
s1
(F cos )ds
(i )
where, F is magnitude of force F and is the angle between the force and the direction of motion.
If F and F' are two forces turning a couple, then moment of couple is:
M = F .r
Under the application of external forces (F & F'), the displacement of points A & B to A'B", the
motion may be divided into two parts:
(a) Point A & B undergo equal displacement dr1 to point A' & B'.
(b) Point A' remains fixed and B' moves to B" with the displacement dr2 equal to rd.
During the first part of motion, work due to force F = Work due to F' and cancels out due to
opposite in sign.
During the second part of motion, work done is given by:
du = F .dr2 = Frd
du = Md
[Q M
= rd ]
2
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -78
T =
i =1
n
1
(mi )v 2 = 1 (mi )v 2
2
2 i =1
1
Mv 2
2
(B) Kinetic Energy in Rotation:
Considering a rigid body rotating about fixed axis and point O, then
1
1
1
2
KE = (m )v 2 = (m )(r ) = 2 r 2 m
2
2
2
1
KE = I o 2
Q r 2 m = M.O.I. of the body about the axis of rotation = I o
2
This formula is valid for any axis of rotation.
T =
1
1
1
2
mr 2 + I 2 = m(r ) + I 2
2
2
2
1
1
or , T = mv 2 + I 2
(ii ) [Q r = v = velocity of G ]
2
2
So, the total KE of rigid body in plane motion is the sum of KE of body due to Translation about CG
T=
1
1 2
2
mv and KE of body due Rotation about CG I .
2
Initial PE (V1) = 0
If the rod moves by an angle , the CG of the rod moves by
L sin
vertically downwards from its
2
initial position.
1 sin 1
= mgL sin
2 2
2
Now, for the final position, the instantaneous center of rotation is located at C and also we have
1
that CG = L
2
r
1
1
Then, V2 = CG = L = L
2
2
V2 = mg
1
1
1
1 1
2
mV22 + I 22 = m(L ) + mL2 2
2
2
2
2 12
T2 =
T2 =
1 mL2
2 3
2
I = 12 mL for rod
1 mL2
2 3
2 1
mgL sin
2
3g
2
= sin
L
Note: DAlemberts Principle should be used to find the reactions at the sliders.
9.6
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -80
IF
or, L = mv
n
or, H G = I
Then,
Then, we have :
(i )
(ii )
2
2
I 1 + Fdt xx + Fdt y = I z
1
y
1
x
(iii )
i.e. if
ext
=0
mv1 = mv 2 &
(H o )1 = (H o )2
In some cases as when the line of action of all external forces pass through G or when sum of the
angular impulses of the external forces about G is zero, then
9.8 Impulsive Motion and Eccentric Impact:
Remember : The definition of Impulsive Force and Impulsive motion . Eccentric impact
Considering two bodies which collide under the eccentric impact. Let VA and VB be the
velocities before impact of the points of contact A and B. Under the impact, the two bodies will
deform and at the end of period of deformation,
component of UA = Component of UB, along the line of impact.
[During deformation both bodies move with same velocity.]
At the end of period of restitution, V A' and VB' be the velocities of A and B as shown, Assuming
the bodies are frictionless. Then, component of restitution is given by:
Downloaded from www.jayaram.com.np/ -81
where,
Rdt
e=
Pdt = magnitude of impulse during the period of deformation
(i )
Pdt
The relative velocities of two particles before and after impact along the line of impact is related as:
(V ) (V ) = e[(V ) (V ) ]
(ii )
(V ) (V ) = Relative velocity along the line of action after collision
or , e =
'
B n
'
A n
A n
'
B n
B n
'
A n
(V A )n (VB )n
mv n Pdt = mu n
I r Pdt = I 1
(iii )
(iv )
Pdt = mv mu
Pdt = I I
n
(v )
I 1 r Rdt = I '
(vii)
Rdt = mv
Rdt = I
mv x'
Iw'
where, v ' and ' represent the velocity of mass center and angular velocity of body after impact.
From (i), (iii) & (v), we get:
e=
mu n mv n'
mv n mu n
e=
u n v n'
vn u n
(vii )
e=
I 1 I '
I I 1
e=
1 '
1
(viii )
Again,
Multiplying the numerator and denominator of equ(viii) and adding respectively to the numerator
and denominator of (vii), we get:
u n + r1 v n' + r '
e=
v n + r (u n + r1 )
e=
(u A )n (v A' )n
(v A )n (u A )n
(ix )
(x )
e=
(v ) (u )
'
B n
B n
(u B )n (v B )n
( xi )
Adding the numerator and denominator of (x) and (xi) respectively, we get:
(u A )n (v 'A )n + (v B' )n (u B )n
e=
(v A ) n (u A )n + (u B )n (v B )n
e=
(v ) (v )
'
B n
'
A n
(v A )n (v B )n
e =
( xii )
Relative velocity of colliding body along the line of impact after collision
Relative velocity of colliding body along the line of impact before collision
Tutorials:
1. Gear A has a mass of 10 kg and a radius of gyration of 200mm, while gear B has a mass of 3 kg
and a radius of gyration of 80mm. The system is at rest when a couple M of magnitude 6 Nm is
applied to gear B. Neglecting friction, determine:
(a) The number of revolutions executed by gear B before its angular velocity reaches 600 r/min.
(b) The tangential force which gear B exerts on gear A.
Solution:
(a) Considering the peripheral speed of gears be equal, we have
rA w A = rB wB
w A = wB
rB
100
= wB
= 0.4wB
rA
250
dN
w A = 0.4 wB = 25.1rad / s
I A = m A k A2 = 10 (0.2) = 0.4kgm 2
2
I B = m B k B2 = 3 (0.08) = 0.0192kgm 2
2
T2 =
T1 + U 1 2 = T2
0 + 6 B = 163.9
B = 27.32 rad
or , B = 4.35 rev
Re v = 2
[s = r ]
U 1 2 = F ( A rA ) = F ( B rB ) = F (27.3)(0.1) = F (2.73)
0 + F 2.73 = 126 J
F = 46.2 N
2. A 2 kg sphere moving horizontally to the right with an initial velocity of 5 m/s strikes the lower
end of an 8 kg rigid rod AB. The rod is suspended from a hinge at A and is initially at rest. Knowing
that the co-efficient of restitution between the rod and sphere is 0.80, determine the angular velocity
of the rod and the velocity of the sphere immediately after the impact.
Solution:
We have from Impulse-Momentum Theorem,
(System Momentum)1 + (System External Impulse)1-2 = (System Momentum)2
Let, VR and VR' be the initial and final velocity of Rod CG, and ' be the angular velocities of
the rod and Vs and Vs' be the velocities of sphere.
Now,
Taking moment about A,
(i )
Here,
V R' = r ' = 0.6 '
1
1
2
ml 2 = 8 (1.2 ) = 0.96kgm 2
12
12
Substituting these values in equ(i) ,
I =
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -84
or , =
or , =
VR' Vs'
Vs VR
[Vs
= 5m / s,
VR = 0,
= 0.8]
(iii )
(iv )
(v )
Vc' = 0.143m / s
3. A 20 gm bullet B is fired with a horizontal velocity of 450 m/s into the side of a 10 kg square
panel suspended from a hinge at A. Knowing that the panel is initially at rest, determine:
(a) The angular velocity of the panel immediately after the bullet becomes embedded.
(b) The impulsive reaction at A assuming that the bullet becomes embedded in 0.0006 sec.
Solution:
Applying Impulse-Momentum Equation:
(System Momentum)1 + (System External Impulse)1-2 = (System Momentum)2
Taking moments about A:
m B v B (0.35) = m p v 2 (0.225) + I p w2 (1)
x-components:
m B v B + Ax t = m p v 2 (2)
y-components:
0 + Ay t = 0
(3)
1
1
2
mb 2 = (10)(0.45) = 0.3375kgm 2
6
6
Putting values in equ(i), we get:
M.O.I. for square panel I =
v 2 = (0.225)w2
(4 )
Ax = 1017 ()
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -86
Chapter 10
Mechanical Vibrations
10.1.1 Introduction
A mechanical vibration is the motion of a particle or a body which oscillates about a position of
equilibrium. When a system is displaced from a position of stable equilibrium, it tends to return
to its initial position under the action of restoring force or elastic force.
The time interval required for the system to complete a full cycle of motion is called period of
The maximum displacement from mean position is called as amplitude of the vibration (A).
vibration ( ) .
Types of Vibrations:
Free Vibration
:
Forced Vibration
:
Undamped Vibration :
Damped Vibration :
T = K et
W = T = K st (i )
where,
st
W = Weight of particle
T = Force exerted by spring
unstretened
position
(no wt)
equilibrium
position
-Xm
T=K( st +x)
o
equlibrium
P
w
Q
+Xm
ma
(ii )
F = Kx
[sin ce K st
=W]
The negative sign indicates that the force is towards the equilibrium position.
From (ii)
F + Kx = 0 m&x& + kx = 0
d 2x
or , m 2 + Kx = 0
dt
2
d x K
or , 2 + x = 0
dt
m
d 2x
or , 2 + P 2 x = 0
dt
K
(iv ) Putting = P 2 , where P =
m
K
is circular frequency
m
The motion defined by equ(iv) is called as Simple Harmonic Motion. Particular solution of the above
differential equation i.e. x1 = sin pt
And, the general solution :
x 2 = cos pt
&
x = Ax1 + Bx 2
x = A sin pt + B cos pt
(iv )
(vii )
The value of arbitrary constant A and B depends upon the initial conditions of motion.
At time t=0, position x = x o , then from equ(v)
(ix )
B = xo
vo
(x )
P
The vibration also can be represented in circular motion of point Q with angular velocity P and
radius of rotation x m which form a simple harmonic motion.
From the equation of simple harmonic motion in circular motion, we have:
A=
-Xm
Xm
x
+Xm
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -88
x = xm sin ( pt + )
v = x& = xm P cos( pt + )
a = &x& = xm P 2 sin ( pt + )
Period , =
2
and
P
Frequency of Vibration, f = 1 e =
P
2
Again,
Maximum Velocity (v m ) = x m P
Maximum Acceleration (a m ) = x m P 2
dt 2 x
+ P2 x = 0
dt 2
d 2
+ P 2 = 0 (i )
2
dt
and
Let us consider a square plate of 2b sides, which is suspended from the mid-points O on one of its
sides.
If the plate is tilted such that OG makes angle then we have,
' = & & = &&
[Qa
mat = mb&&
ma = mb& 2
ext
or , w sin .b = mat b + I
or , wb sin = m b&& b + I &&
( )
(ii )
12
2
5b
= 2
P
3g
(vi )
l
g
p = 2
5b
, This shows that the square plate will oscillate as a pendulum with
3
5b
with O as its center.
3
Consider a body of mass m suspended from a spring and subjected to period force P of
magnitude = Pm snt undergoing damped vibration.
At any displacement x from equilibrium position, then the equation of motion will be given by:
+
F = ma
or , Pm sin t + w k ( st + x) = ma = m&x&
or , Pm sin t w k st kx = m&x&
(i )
or , m&x& + kx = Pm sin t
[Qk st
= w]
(ii )
&x& = x m 2 sin t
(iii )
Pm k
1 w p
Pm
k mw 2
(iv )
[Putting k / m = P
, P is circular frequency
The first two terms of equ(v) represent a free vibration of the system and the third part represents
forced vibration and the frequency involved is forced frequency.
Magnification Factor =
xm
1
=
(v )
Pm k 1 (w P )2
Tutorial
1. A 50 kg block moves between vertical guides as shown. The block is pulled 40 mm down from its
equilibrium position and released. Determine the period of vibration, the maximum velocity and
maximum acceleration of the block.
Solution:
P P
Here, = 1 + 2 = +
k1 k 2
For equivalent single spring with k
P P P
= = +
k k1 k 2
1 1
1
= +
k k1 k 2
k =
P =
k1 + k 2 4 + 6 10
=
=
4 6 24
k1 .k 2
k
m
Now,
2
=
P
v m = x m P = 0.04 x
Time Period ( ) =
a m = x m P 2 = 0.04 x
2. A cylinder of mass m and radius r is suspended from a looped cord. One end of the cord is
attached directly to a rigid support, while the other end is attached to a spring of constant k.
Determine the period and frequency of vibration of the cylinder.
Solution:
Taking positive sense as clockwise and measuring the displacement from the equilibrium position:
Here,
x = r
= &&
= 2 x = 2 r
a = r = r&& ( )
(i )
ext
mgr T2 (2r ) = ma r + I
(2)
T2 = To + k = mgr + k .2r
T2 = mgr + 2kr
(3)
( )
1
1
Solving, we get:
8k
&& +
=0
3m
The motion is S.H.M. where,
8k
P2 =
3m
8k
P =
3m
2
P
= 2
f =
P
2
f =
1
2
1 2
I
mr
=
3m
8k
8k
3m
-By Er. Biraj Singh Thapa (Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering, Biratnagar)/ -92