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Atomic structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
INTRODUCTION
Atom:- The smallest particle which can take part in a chemical reaction with out losing its identity is known
as atom.
Subatomic particles: Electrons, protons and neutrons are known as subatomic particles.
Electron:- The negatively charged fundamental particle present in an atom with negligible mass is called
electron.
The mass of an electron is 1/1836 of mass of proton or hydrogen atom. In atomic mass units it is equal
to 0.000548 amu or 9.1095 X 10-31kg. Its charge is 1.6022 X 10-19coulomb.
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Discovery of Electron : Sir William Crookes designed a cathode ray discharge tube in which cathode rays are observed only
at very low pressures and very high voltages. These rays consist of negatively charged particles called
electrons.
To vacuum pump
Anode
High voltage
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Cathode -
Characteristics of cathode rays : 1) Cathode rays are not visible but their behavior can be observed with the help of a fluorescent or a
phosphorescent.
2) These rays travel from cathode to anode.
3) These rays travel in straight lines in the absence of electric and magnetic fields.
4) But these rays deflect like negatively charged particles in electric and magnetic fields. Hence the rays
constitute negatively charged particles and are known as electrons.
5) These rays are independent of the nature of the cathode material and nature of the gas present in the
cathode ray tube.
These facts conclude that electrons are the negatively charged fundamental particles present in all the
substances.
Charge to mass ratio of Electron (e/me) : - Charge to mass ratio of electron is calculated by J.J.
Thomson as follows.
e
1.75882 x 1011 C kg 1
me
Charge on the Electron :- The charge on the electron was calculated by Millikan in oil drop experiment
as 1.60 x 10-19 coulombs.
The mass of the electron can be derived as follows.
me
e
9.1094 x 10-31 kg
e / me
Atomic structure
Proton:- The positively charged fundamental particle present in the atom is called proton.
The mass of a proton is 1.007277 amu or 1.67252 X 10-27 kg. Its charge is same as that of electron.
Discovery of proton : Protons are discovered in canal ray experiment. These rays are produced in modified cathode ray
tube.
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Relative
Mass in amu
charge
-1
0.000542 amu
+1
1.00727 amu
0
1.00867 amu
-1.602 x 10-19
+1.602 x 10-19
0
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Electron
Proton
Neutron
Charge
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Particle
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Neutron:- The neutral fundamental particle present in the atom is called neutron.
The mass of a neutron is 1.00898 amu or 1.67495 X 10-27kg. It has no charge.
Discovery of neutrons: Chadwick discovered neutrons by bombarding a thin layer of Be with particles.
Mass in kg
9.1 x 10-31 kg
1.672 x 10-27 kg
1.674 x 10-27 kg
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Atomic number (Z):-The number of protons or the number of electrons in an atom is called atomic
number. It is represented by 'Z'.
Moseley discovered a simple relation between the frequencies of the characteristic X-rays of an
element and its atomic number.
v = a(Z-b)
= frequency of X-rays
Z = atomic number
a,b are constants which are characteristic of elements
Mass number(A):- The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called mass number. It is
denoted by 'A'.
A = no. of protons + no. of neutrons
A = Z + no. of neutrons
no. of neutrons = A - Z
Isotope:- Isotopes are the atoms of an element with same atomic number but differ in their mass numbers
i.e., The isotopes of an element have same number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons.
eg., Hydrogen has three isotopes - Hydrogen(1H1), Deuterium (1H2) and Tritium (1H3). They have same
number of protons (one) but the numbers of neutrons are 1,2 and 3 respectively.
Isobars :- The atoms of different elements with same mass number but different atomic numbers are called
Isobars.
Eg., 6C14, 7N14
Atomic structure
Atomic weight:- The atomic weight of an element is the average weight of all the isotopes of that element.
Note:- Atomic number is a whole number but Atomic weight may be a fractional number.
ATOMIC MODELS
J.J.Thomsons model:
According to this model, an atom has a spherical shape in which the positive charge is uniformly
distributed. The electrons are embedded into it in such a manner as to give the most stable electrostatic
arrangement.
Rutherfords planetary model :
Gold foil
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Experiment:
A narrow beam of - particles is passed through a thin gold foil which is surrounded by circular
screen made up of fluorescent zinc sulphide. Whenever - particles strike the screen, a tiny flash of
light was produced at that point.
Lead plate
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Photographic plate
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Observations:
1) Most of the - particles pass through the foil undeflected.
2) A small fraction of the - particles were deflected by small angles.
3) A very few - particles bounced back i.e. were deflected by 180o.
Conclusions:
1. Most of the space in the atom is empty.
2. The positive charge in the atom is concentrated in the small dense portion called the nucleus.
3. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths called orbits. It resembles the solar
system.
4. Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.
Drawbacks:
1) Rutherfords model could not explain the stability of atom. According to electromagnetic theory,
the charged particle under acceleration should continuously emit radiation. Hence the electron moving in
the orbits must lose energy and fall into the nucleus. But this is not happening.
2) This model could not explain the electronic structure and energy of electrons.
3) It could not explain the atomic spectra.
Atomic structure
NATURE OF LIGHT
Light is considered as an electromagnetic radiation. An electromagnetic radiation consists of two
components i.e., Electric component and Magnetic component which are perpendicular to each other as
well as to the direction of path of radiation. The electromagnetic radiations are produced by the vibrations
of a charged particle.
wavelength
E amplitude of electric field
M amplitude of magnetic field
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The properties of light can be explained by considering it as either wave or particle as follows.
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Frequency: The number of vibrations done by a particle in unit time is called frequency. It is denoted by
' '.
Units: cycles per second = Hertzs = sec-1.
Velocity: Velocity is defined as the distance covered by the wave in unit time. It is denoted by 'c'.
Velocity of light = c = 3.0 x 108 m.sec-1 = 3.0 x 1010 cm.sec-1
Note: For all types of electromagnetic radiations, velocity is a constant value.
The relation between velocity, wavelength and frequency can be given by following equation.
velocity = frequency x wavelength
c
Wave number: The number of waves spread in a length of one centimeter is called wave number. It is
denoted by
1
-1
units: cm , m-1
Amplitude: The distance from the midline to the peak or the trough is called amplitude of the wave. It is
usually denoted by 'A' (a variable).
Amplitude is a measure of the intensity or brightness of light radiation.
Problems
1) The wave length of a radiation emitted by a sodium lamp is 300 nm. Find its frequency.
2) The frequency of an electromagnetic radiation is 300 Hz. Calculate its wave length.
3) The wave number of a radiation is 9000 cm-1. Calculate its frequency.
4) Calculate the wave number of the yellow light of wave length 600 m emitted from sodium lamp.
Atomic structure
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classical theory
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intensity
7000 K
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5000 K
wavelength
Atomic structure
4. The total energy of radiation is quantized i.e., the total energy is an integral multiple of h . It can only
have the values of 1 h or 2 h or 3 h . It cannot be the fractional multiple of h .
5. Energy is emitted and absorbed in the form of quanta but propagated in the form of waves.
EINSTEIN'S GENERALIZATION OF QUANTUM THEORY
Einstein generalized the quantum theory by applying it to all types of electromagnetic radiations. He
explained photoelectric effect using this theory.
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Photoelectric Effect:- The ejection of electrons from the surface of a metal, when the metal is exposed to
light of certain minimum frequency, is called photoelectric effect.
The frequency of light should be equal or greater than a certain minimum value characteristic of the
metal. This is called threshold frequency.
Photoelectric effect cannot be explained by considering the light as wave.
Einstein explained photoelectric effect by applying quantum theory as follows,
1. All electromagnetic radiations consists of small discrete energy packets called photons. These photons
are associated with definite amount of energy given by the equation E=h .
2. Energy is emitted, absorbed as well as propagated in the form of photons only.
3. The electron is ejected from the metal, when a photon of sufficient energy strikes the electron.
When a photon strikes the electron, some part of the energy of photon is used to free the electron
from the attractive forces in the metal and the remaining part is converted into kinetic energy.
h = W + K.E
where
W = energy required to overcome the attractions
K.E = kinetic energy of the electron
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Problems
1) Calculate the energy of one photon of radiation whose frequency is 3x1012 Hz.
2) The energy of a electro magnetic radiation is 6.625x10-19 J Calculate The Wavelength of radiation.
SPECTRA
When electromagnetic radiation is passed through a prism or grating it is splitted and forms a collection of lines representing different wavelengths. This is called spectrum.
Spectra can be divided into two types viz., emission and absorption spectra as given below.
Emission Spectra
Absorption Spectra
1) These are obtained due to emission of radiation
These are obtained when substance absorb the
from the substances.
radiation.
2) White lines are formed on the black back ground. Black lines are formed on the white back ground.
3)These are formed when atoms or molecules are de-These are formed when atoms or molecules are
excited from higher energy level to lower energy
excited from lower energy level to higher energy
level.
levels.
Spectra can also be divided into line and band spectra as given below.
Line Spectra
Band Spectra
1) It consists of sharp and well defined It consists of closely spaced lines
lines.
called bands.
2) Characteristic of atoms
Characteristic of molecules.
3) Formed due to the excitation and de- Formed due to the vibrations and
excitation of electrons in the atoms.
rotations of atoms in molecules.
4) It is also known as atomic spectra
Atomic structure
n1
n2
1. Lyman series
Ultra-violet
2,3,4,5,6,7,_ _ _ _
2. Balmer series
Visible
3,4,5,6,7,_ _ _ _
3. Paschen series
near infra-red
4,5,6,7,_ _ _ _
4. Brackett series
infra-red
5,6,7,_ _ _ _
5. Pfund series
far infra-red
6,7,_ _ _ _
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Spectral series
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The wave numbers of spectral lines in each series can be calculated using Rydberg's equation as follows.
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1 1
RH Z 2 2 - 2
n1 n2
n=7
n=6
n=5
n=4
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where
n1and n2 are the principal quantum numbers of orbits corresponding to electronic transition.
RH = Rydberg's constant = 1,09,677 cm-1
Z = atomic number
n=3
Pfund
Brackette
Paschen
n=2
Balmer
n=1
Lyman
Note: Every element has its own characteristic line spectrum. There is regularity in the line spectrum of each
element. Hydrogen has the simplest line spectrum among all the elements. The line spectra become com-
Atomic structure
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Nucleus
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n=3
n=2
n=1
Where
nh
2
m = mass of an electron
v = velocity of an electron
r = radius of orbit
h = Planck's constant
= 6.625 X 10-34 J.sec
= 6.625 X 10-27 erg.sec
n = principal quantum number which can have only positive integer values(1,2,3,4 _ _ _).
The electron revolves only in those orbitals where the angular momentum of it is the integral multiple
h
h
h
h
i.e, 1
or 2
or 3
___
2
2
2
2
5. Each orbit is associated with definite amount of energy and radius. The energy of the orbit (and of
electron in it) increases with increase in the radius of the orbit. Thus farther the orbit from nucleus greater is
the energy.
6. The energy of an electron changes when it moves from one energy level to another.
Energy is absorbed when the electron jumps from lower orbit to higher orbit. Whereas energy is
emitted when the electron jumps from higher orbit to lower orbit.
The energy absorbed or emitted during electronic transitions between two orbits is equal to the
of
Atomic structure
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Centrifugal force
-e
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+e
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The attraction between the nucleus and electron acts centripetally towards the nucleus. As per
Coulomb's law,
e 2
r2
There is also centrifugal force acting away from the nucleus due to the revolving of electron in the
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force of attraction =
orbit.
centrifugal force =
where
mv 2
r
m = mass of electron,
v = velocity of electron
During the orbiting of electron in a stationary orbit, these two forces must be equal.
e 2
mv 2
i.e., 2 =
r
r
e2
mv 2 --------- 1
r
According to Bohr's theory, Angular momentum of electron in an orbit is given by
or
mvr
or
nh
2
nh
2 mr
n2h2
4 2 m 2 r 2
By substituting the value of v2 in equation-1
or
v2
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Atomic structure
e2
mn 2 h 2
2 2 2
r 4 m r
n2h2
------------- 2
4 2 me 2
By substituting the values of
planck's constant = h = 6.625 x 10-27erg.sec
mass of electron = m = 9.1 x 10-28 g
charge on electron = e = 4.802 x 10-10 e.s.u
radius of nth orbit = r = 0.529 x 10-8 x n2 cm
r
or
where
1
1 e2
K.E = mv 2
2
2 r
and
P.E =
Hence
T .E
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Energy of Electron
The total energy of electron is equal to the sum of Kinetic and Potential energies.
i.e., Total Energy (T.E) = Kinetic Energy (K.E) + Potential Energy (P.E)
e2
mv 2 from equation 1)
(since
r
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e2 e2
2r r
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e2
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e2
2r
Upon substituting the value of 'r' from equation-2
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T .E
2 2 me 4
T .E 2 2
nh
By substituting the values of constants, the energy of electron (En) in the nth orbit can be written as
En
21.7 x10-12
erg per atom
n2
21.7 x10-19
kJ per atom
n2
EXPLANATION OF HYDROGEN ATOMIC SPECTRUM
Bohr could successfully explain the hydrogen atomic spectrum using his postulates as given below.
The energy of an electron in hydrogen atom is given by
Therefore
En
2 2 me 4 1
. 2 (1)
h2
n
E1
2 2 me 4 1
. 2
h2
n1
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Atomic structure
E2
2 2 me 4 1
. 2
h2
n2
And
2 2 me 4 1 2 2 me 4 1
E2 E1
. 2
. 2
h2
n2
h2
n1
Therefore
E2 E1
2 2 me 4
h2
1
1
2 2 (2)
n2
n1
c
E2 E1 hc
2 2 me4 1
1
2 2 hc
2
h
n2
n1
1 2 2 me 4
ch3
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But
1
1
2 2
n2
n1
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1
RH
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1
1
2 2 (3)
n2
n1
This equation is similar to Rydbergs equation
or
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2 2 me 4
Where RH is equal to
and its value can be determined by substituting the following values.
ch 3
m=9.1 x 10-28 g, e = 4.8 x 10-10 e.s.u.
2 2me4
1,09,681cm 1
3
ch
Above value is almost equal to Rydbergs constant (RH = 1,09,677 cm-1). The frequencies of spectral
lines in hydrogen atomic spectrum can also be determined by using Bohrs theory.
RH =
12
Atomic structure
4. Splitting of spectral lines when the atoms are placed in strong magnetic field is called Zeeman effect.
Splitting of spectral lines when the atoms are placed in strong electric field is called Stark effect.
Bohr could not account for these effects.
5. According to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, it is not possible to calculate the velocity and position of
an electron accurately and simultaneously. But Bohr calculated them. This is a contradiction.
6. According to De Broglie's wave concept, electron has wave nature. But Bohr's theory considered
electron as a particle.
QUANTUM NUMBERS
Quantum numbers are the numbers used to describe the position and energy of an electron in an
atom. There are four types of quantum numbers.
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1. Azimuthal quantum number was proposed by Sommerfield in order to explain the fine hydrogen atomic
spectrum.
2. It denotes the sub-levels (or sub-shells) in the atom. It is denoted by 'l'
3. The number of sub-levels in a given main energy level is equal to the principal quantum number 'n'. These
sub-levels are indicated by azimuthal quantum number 'l' which can have values from 0 to n-1.
For ex: In an orbit of principal quantum number n=3, there are three sublevels denoted by l =0,1 and 2.
4. Azimuthal quantum number also describes the angular momentum of electron and shape of orbitals
present in that sublevel.
For ex:
l = 0 (s)--- spherical
l = 1 (p)--- dumbbell
l = 2 (d)--- double dumbbell
Magnetic quantum number (m)
1. Magnetic quantum number was proposed by Lande in order to explain the Zeeman and Stark effects.
The splitting of spectral lines in strong magnetic field is called Zeeman effect and splitting in strong
electric field is called Stark effect.
2. It is denoted by 'm'. It describes the orientation of orbitals.
3. The number of orientations possible for orbitals in a given sublevel 'l' is equal to the (2l+1) and can have
values from -l_ _ _ 0 _ _ _+l.
For ex: The number of orientations (m values) possible for a sublevel l=2 is (2X2)+1 = 5 and the values of
m = -2,-1,0,+1 and +2.
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Atomic structure
0 to n-1
-l _ _ _0_ _ _+l
+1/2 or -1/2
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Significance
Denotes the size and energy
of orbit.
Denotes the sub-level and
shapes of orbitals in that sublevel. It indicates the angular
momentum of electron.
Indicates the spatial
orientation of orbital.
Denotes the spin of electron.
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Quantum number
1. Prinicipal quantum number (n)
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Problems
1) What is the shape of orbital if the quantum numbers for the electron in it are n = 3, l = 2, m = -1, and
s = +1/2
2) Which of the following set of quantum numbers is not possible?
a) n = 3, l = 2, m = -2, s = +1/2
b) n = 2, l = 2, m = -1, s = +1/2
c) n = 4, l = 3, m = 0, s = +1/2
d) n = 3, l = 1, m = -2, s = +1/2
3) How many electrons in an atom may have the quantum numbers, n = 3 and ms= -1/2 ?
4) How many sub-shells, orbitals and electrons are present in n = 3 main shell?
h
h
(or)
p
mv
where
h = Planck's constant
m = mass of the particle
v = velocity of the particle
p = mv = momentum of the particle
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Atomic structure
Derivation
According to Einstein, mass and energy equivalence can be expressed as
E = mc2
According to Planck's quantum theory,
E h
Hence
mc 2 h ------------ 1
But
c
or
c
mc 2
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hc
h
h
(or)
p
mc
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or
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where
p = momentum of a photon
de Broglie proposed that above equation is applicable to every particle in motion and above equation
can be written as
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h
h
mv p
The wavelengths of macro bodies like cricket ball or stones are very small as their masses are large
and hence can be ignored. But for micro particles like electrons, the wavelengths are considerable.
To satisfy this condition, the circumference(2 r) of the orbit must be equal to the integral multiple of
the wavelength( ) of the electron wave.
i.e.,
n 2 r
15
Atomic structure
2 r
where 'n' is an integer
n
But according to de Broglie's theory
or
h
mv
Hence
2 r h
n
mv
nh
2
This is Bohr's equation. According to Bohr's theory, the angular momentum (mvr) of electron revolv-
or
mvr
h
i.e., angular momentum is quantized.
2
But when the 'n' is not an integer, there is destructive interference and the wave will go out of phase.
This results in loss of energy by the electron wave.
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Problems
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8) What will be the wavelength of a ball of mass 0.1 Kg moving with a velocity of 10 m/sec.
9) The mass of an electron is 9x10-31 kg and its velocity is 930 m/sec.Calculate its wave length.
10) Calculate the momentum of particle whose de Broglie wavelength is 2A0.
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h
n
where
x = uncertainty in position
p = mv = uncertainty in momentum
m = mass of the particle
v = uncertainty in velocity
h = planck's constant
n = 1,2,3,4,......
For an electron n 4
Hence we can write
x.p
or
x.v
h
4 m
h
4
for an electron
( p = mv )
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Atomic structure
Explanation
Case-1
When the position is calculated accurately, x = 0
then p becomes infinity
i.e., it is not possible to calculate the momentum accurately
Case-2
When the momentum is calculated accurately, p = 0
then x becomes infinity
i.e., it is not possible to calculate the position accurately.
Problems
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11) Calculate the uncertainty in the position if the uncertainty in its velocity is 5x105 m/sec for an electron.
12) Calculate the uncertainty in the velocity if the uncertainties in its position is 1A0 for an electron.
13) The uncertainties in the position and velocity of a particle are respectively 1x10-12m and 3x10-24 m/sec.
Calculate the mass of the particle.
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2 2 2 8 2 m
2 E V 0
x 2 y 2 z 2
h
In the above equation,
m = mass of electron
E = total energy of electron
V = potential energy of electron
= wave function
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Atomic structure
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Radial Probability Function (D-function):- The function which denotes the probability of finding an
electron in small volume at a radial distance from the nucleus, without any reference to its direction, is
known as radial probability function or D-function.
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D 4 r 2 dr. 2
Orbital
s
p
d
f
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Nodal Plane:- The plane where the probability of finding the electron is zero ( 2 = 0) is known as nodal
plane.
The nodal plane passes through the nucleus and hence is also known as angular node.
The number of nodal planes for a given orbital = l (azimuthal quantum number)
The number of nodal planes for different orbitals are as follows,
'l'
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
3
Nodal region:- The region around the nucleus where the probability of finding the electron is zero
( 2 = 0) is known as nodal region.
The nodal region does not pass through the nucleus and hence known as radial node.
The number of nodal regions for a given orbital = n - l - 1
For example, the number of nodal regions
for 1s orbital = 1-0-1 = 0
for 2s orbital = 2-0-1 = 1
for 2p orbital = 2-1-1 = 0
Note:-The total of no. of nodal planes and regions for a given orbital = n - l
Radial Probability Distribution curves:- The graphs plotted between the D-function and the radial
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Atomic structure
distance from the nucleus are known as radial probability distribution curves. These curves give an idea
about the variation of electron density with radial distance around the nucleus for a given orbital.
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radial distance
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s-orbital
s-orbitals are spherical in shape with spherical symmetry.
There are no nodal planes for s-orbitals.
The nodal regions for s-orbitals are given as follows
orbital
no. of nodal regions
1s
0
2s
1
3s
2
The radial probability curves and shapes of 1s and 2s orbitals are given as follows.
YA
Pr
ep
ar
ed
V.
AD
VA
I
AG T
radial node
radial distance
Radial probability distribution curve and shape of 2s orbital
p-orbitals
The p-orbitals are double dumbbell in shape.
Each p-orbital contains a nodal plane.
The shapes and orientations of p-orbitals in a given sub level along with the nodal planes are shown as
follows.
radial distance
z-axis
z-axis
z-axis
y-axis
px
x-axis
x-axis
x-axis
y-axis
py
y-axis
pz
19
Atomic structure
d-orbitals
The d-orbitals are double dumbbell in shape.
There are two nodal planes for every d-orbital
In a given sub level, there are five degenerate d-orbitals. These are divided into two groups based on
their orientation i.e., t2g group and eg group.
The lobes of d-orbitals in t2g group are oriented in between the axes by making 450 of angle with
them. There are three t2g orbitals i.e., dxy, dxzand dyz.
Where as the lobes of d-orbitals in eg group are oriented along the axes. There are two such eg
orbitals i.e., d x 2 y2 and d z 2 .
y-axis
YA
d x2 y2
z-axis
d z2
V.
AD
VA
I
AG T
dxy
DE
by
VI
J
W U
AR N
AN IOR
G C
AL O
LL
EG
E
y-axis
x-axis
Pr
ep
ar
ed
x-axis
VA
RD
HA
N
In case of d z 2 orbital, there are only two lobes oriented along the z axis and there is a concentric ring
called torus along the xy axes.
1s2
Principles and rules: The following principles and rules are used in writing the electronic configurations.
20
Atomic structure
Pauli's Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom can have same set of quantum numbers.
For example, the electronic configuration of 'He' is 1s2
The set of quantum numbers of two electrons in 'He' atom are
For first electron, n = 1, l = 0, m = 0, s = +1/2
For second electron, n = 1, l = 0, m = 0, s = -1/2
Pr
ep
ar
ed
DE
by
VI
J
W U
AR N
AN IOR
G C
AL O
LL
EG
E
VA
RD
HA
N
Aufbau Rules
The electrons in an atom are arranged according to aufbau rules. According to these rules, the differentiating electron in an atom enters into the orbital with lowest energy. The relative energy of an orbital can
be decided from following rules.
1. The orbital with least (n + l) value possesses lowest energy.
For example, the (n + l) values of 1s and 2s orbitals are
for 1s, n + l = 1 + 0 = 1
for 2s, n + l = 2 + 0 = 2
Hence 1s orbital has lower energy than 2s, as it has low n + l value, and the electron will first enter into
1s orbital.
2. If two are more orbitals possess same (n + l) value, the orbital with lower 'n' value has low energy.
For example, the (n + l) values of 2p and 3s orbitals are same
for 2p, n + l = 2 + 1 = 3
for 3s, n + l = 3 + 0 = 3
But 2p orbital with lower 'n' value (=2) possesses lower energy and hence the electron enters first into
this orbital.
V.
AD
VA
I
AG T
YA
Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity: No pairing of electrons occur until all the degenerate orbitals in
an atom are filled with one electron each.
For example, the electronic configuration of carbon is 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1
1s2
2s2
2px12py1
In above case, the differentiating electron is entering into the 2py orbital instead of 2px because both 2px and
2py orbitals are degenerate orbitals. Hence no pairing occured.
Anomalous electronic configuration
Chromium and copper exhibit anomalous electronic configurations as the atoms with half filled or fullfilled d-orbitals are more stable.
Cr (Z =24) has [Ar] 3d5 4s1 configuration instead of [Ar] 3d4 4s2 as the half filled d-sub level is more
stable.
Cu (Z =29) has [Ar] 3d10 4s1 configuration instead of [Ar] 3d9 4s2 as the full filled d-sub level is more
stable.
Problems
1) Arrange the electrons, for which the quantum numbers are given below, in their increasing order of
energy.
a) n = 3, l = 1, m = -1, s = +1/2
b) n = 4, l = 0, m = 0, s = -1/2
c) n = 3, l = 2, m = -2, s = -1/2
d) n = 5, l = 3, m = +2, s = +1/2