ISNS3359EarthquakesandVolcanoes

(akashakeandbake)
Lecture6:LocatingEQs,EQMagnitude
andIntensity

Fall2005

DevelopmentofSeismology

Seismology:studyofearthquakes
Earliestearthquakedevice:China,132B.C.
Instrumentstodetectearthquakewaves:seismometers
Instrumentstorecordearthquakewaves:seismographs
CapturemovementofEarthinthreecomponents:northsouth,eastwestandvertical
OnepartstaysasstationaryaspossiblewhileEarthvibrates:heavymassfixedbyinertiain
framethatmoveswiththeEarth,anddifferencesbetweenpositionoftheframeandthe
massarerecordeddigitally

Waves

Amplitude:displacement
Wavelength:distancebetweensuccessivewaves
Period:timebetweenwaves
Frequency:numberofwavesinonesecond
(1/period)

SeismicWaves
b
Seismicwavescomeintwofamilies:thosethatcan

passthroughtheentireEarth(bodywaves)and
bodywaves
thosethatmovenearthesurfaceonly(surface
waves)
waves
Bodywaves:fasterthansurfacewaves,haveshort
periods(highfrequency0.5to20Hz),most
energeticnearthehypocenter
Twotypesofbodywaves:
PwavesandSwaves

BodyWaves
P(primary)waves
Fastestofallwaves
Alwaysfirsttoreacharecordingstation(henceprimary)
Moveaspushpullalternatingpulsesofcompressionand
extension,likewavethroughSlinkytoy
Travelthroughsolid,liquidorgas
Velocitydependsondensityandcompressibilityof
substancetheyaretravelingthrough
Velocityofabout4.8km/secforPwavethroughgranite
Cantravelthroughairandsomaybeaudiblenearthe
epicenter

BodyWaves

BodyWaves
S(secondary)waves
Secondtoreacharecordingstation(afterprimary)
Exhibittransversemotionshearingorshakingparticlesatright
anglestothewavespath(likeshakingoneendofarope)
Travelonlythroughsolids
Swaveisreflectedbackorconvertedifreachesliquid
Velocitydependsondensityandresistancetoshearingof
substance
Velocityofabout3.0km/secforSwavethroughgranite
Upanddownandsidetosideshakingdoesseveredamageto
buildings

SeismicWaves

SeismicWavesandtheEarthsInterior
WavesfromlargeearthquakescanpassthroughtheentireEarthand
berecordedallaroundtheworld
WavesdonotfollowstraightpathsthroughtheEarthbutchange
velocityanddirectionastheyencounterdifferentlayers
FromtheEarthssurfacedown:
Wavesinitiallyspeedupthenslowattheasthenosphere
Wavespeedsincreasethroughmantleuntilreachingoutercore
(liquid),whereSwavesdisappearandPwavessuddenlyslow
Pwavespeedsincreasegraduallythroughoutercoreuntil
increasingdramaticallyatinnercore(solid)

SeismicWavesandtheEarthsInterior

SurfaceWaves
Surfacewaves
TravelneartheEarthssurface,createdbybodywaves
disturbingthesurface
Longerperiodthanbodywaves(carryenergyfarther)
Lovewaves
SimilarmotiontoSwaves,butsidetosideinhorizontalplane
TravelfasterthanRayleighwaves
Donotmovethroughairorwater

Rayleighwaves
Backwardrotating,ellipticalmotionproduceshorizontaland
verticalshaking,whichfeelslikerolling,boatatsea
MoreenergyisreleasedasRayleighwaveswhenthehypocenter
isclosetothesurface
Travelgreatdistances

SoundWavesandSeismicWaves
Seismologistsrecordandanalyzewavestodetermine
whereanearthquakeoccurredandhowlargeitwas
Wavesarefundamentaltomusicandseismology
Similarities:
Morehighfrequencywavesifshortpathistraveled
Tromboneisretracted,shortfaultrupturelength(small
earthquake)

Morelowfrequencywavesiflongpathistraveled
Tromboneisextended,longfaultrupturelength(largeearthquake)

Seismic Velocity

Seismic velocity is a material property (like density).

There are two kinds of waves Body and Surface waves.
There are two kinds of body wave velocity P and S wave velocities.
P waves always travel faster than S waves.
Seismic velocities depend on quantities like chemical composition,
pressure, temperature, etc.

Faster Velocities

Slower Velocities

Lower temperatures

Higher temperatures

Higher pressures

Lower pressures

Solid phases

Liquid phases

LocatingtheSourceofanEarthquake
Pwavestravelabout1.7timesfasterthanSwaves
Fartherfromhypocenter,greatertimelagofSwave
behindPwave(SP)
(SP)timeindicateshowfarawayearthquakewas
fromstationbutinwhatdirection?

LocatingtheSourceofanEarthquake
Needdistanceofearthquakefromthreestationsto
pinpointlocationofearthquake:
Computercalculation
Visualizecirclesdrawnaroundeachstationforappropriate
distancefromstation,andintersectionofcirclesat
earthquakeslocation
Methodismostreliablewhenearthquakeisnearsurface

Fig.4.23

Solutiontoepicenterandhyopcenter

Mathematically,theproblemissolvedbysettingupasystemoflinear
equations,oneforeachstation.
Theequationsexpressthedifferencebetweentheobservedarrivaltimesand
thosecalculatedfromtheprevious(orinitial)hypocenter,intermsofsmall
stepsinthe3hypocentralcoordinatesandtheorigintime.
Wemustalsohaveamathematicalmodelofthecrustalvelocities(in
kilometerspersecond)undertheseismicnetworktocalculatethetraveltimes
ofwavesfromanearthquakeatagivendepthtoastationatagivendistance.
Thesystemoflinearequationsissolvedbythemethodofleastsquareswhich
minimizesthesumofthesquaresofthedifferencesbetweentheobservedand
calculatedarrivaltimes.
Theprocessbeginswithaninitialguessedhypocenter,performsseveral
hypocentraladjustmentseachfoundbyaleastsquaressolutiontothe
equations,anditeratestoahypocenterthatbestfitstheobservedsetofwave
arrivaltimesatthestationsoftheseismicnetwork.

MagnitudeofEarthquakes
Richterscale
Devisedin1935todescribemagnitudeof
shallow,moderatelysizedearthquakes
locatednearCaltechseismometersin
southernCalifornia
Biggerearthquakegreatershaking
greateramplitudeoflinesonseismogram
Definedmagnitudeaslogarithmof
maximumseismicwaveamplituderecorded
onstandardseismogramat100kmfrom
earthquake,withcorrectionsmadefor
distance
Forevery10foldincreaseinrecorded
amplitude,Richtermagnitudeincreasesone
number

MagnitudeofEarthquakes
Richterscale
WitheveryoneincreaseinRichtermagnitude,theenergy
releaseincreasesbyabout45times,butenergyisalso
spreadoutovermuchlargerareaandoverlongertime
Biggerearthquakemeansmorepeoplewillexperience
shakingandforlongertime(increasesdamageto
buildings)
Manymoresmallearthquakeseachyearthanlargeones,
butmorethan90%ofenergyreleaseisfromfewlarge
earthquakes
Richterscalemagnitudeiseasyandquicktocalculate,so
popularwithmedia

MagnitudeofEarthquakes

MagnitudeofEarthquakes

MagnitudeofEarthquakes
21,688earthquakesrecordedbyNEICin1998

http://www.iris.iris.edu/volume2000no1/RevFigure2.big.gif

MagnitudeofEarthquakes
21,688earthquakesrecordedbyNEICin1998

http://www.iris.iris.edu/volume2000no1/RevFigure2.big.gif

OtherMeasuresofEarthquakeSize
Richterscaleisusefulformagnitudeofshallow,
smallmoderatenearbyearthquakes
Doesnotworkwellfordistantorlargeearthquakes
Shortperiodwavesdonotincreaseamplitudeforbigger
earthquakes
Richterscale:
1906SanFranciscoearthquakewasmagnitude8.3
1964Alaskaearthquakewasmagnitude8.3

Othermagnitudescale:
1906SanFranciscoearthquakewasmagnitude7.8
1964Alaskaearthquakewasmagnitude9.2(100timesmore
energy)

OtherMeasuresofEarthquakeSize
Twoothermagnitudescales:
Bodywavescale(mb):
UsesamplitudesofPwaveswith1to10secondperiods

Surfacewavescale(ms):
UsesRayleighwaveswith18to22secondperiods

Allmagnitudescalesarenotequivalent
Largerearthquakesradiatemoreenergyatlongerperiods
notmeasuredbyRichterscaleorbodywavescale
Richterscaleandbodywavescalesignificantly
underestimatemagnitudesofearthquakesfarawayor
large

MomentMagnitudeScale
Seismicmoment(M
Seismicmoment o)
Measuresamountofstrainenergyreleasedbymovement
alongwholerupturesurface;moreaccurateforbig
earthquakes
Calculatedusingrocksshearstrengthtimesrupturearea
offaulttimesdisplacement(slip)onthefault

Momentmagnitudescaleusesseismicmoment:
Momentmagnitudescale
Mw=2/3log10(Mo)6
ScaledevelopedbyHirooKanamori

Foreshocks,MainShockandAftershocks
Largeearthquakesarenotjustsingleeventsbutpart
ofseriesofearthquakesoveryears
Largesteventinseriesismainshock
Smallereventsprecedingmainshockareforeshocks
Smallereventsfollowingmainshockareaftershocks

Largeeventmaybeconsideredmainshock,then
followedbyevenlargerearthquake,sothenre
classifiedasforeshock

Magnitude,FaultRuptureLengthand
SeismicWaveFrequencies
Faultrupturelengthgreatlyinfluencesmagnitude:

100mlongfaultrupturemagnitude4earthquake
1kmlongfaultrupturemagnitude5earthquake
10kmlongfaultrupturemagnitude6earthquake
100kmlongfaultrupturemagnitude7earthquake

Magnitude,FaultRuptureLengthand
SeismicWaveFrequencies
Faultrupturelengthanddurationinfluenceseismic
wavefrequency:
Shortrupture,durationhighfrequencyseismicwaves
Longrupture,durationlowfrequencyseismicwaves

Seismicwavefrequencyinfluencesdamage:
Highfrequencywavescausemuchdamageatepicenter
butdieoutquicklywithdistancefromepicenter
Lowfrequencywavestravelgreatdistancefrom
epicentersodomostdamagefartheraway

GroundMotionDuringEarthquakes
Buildingsaredesignedtohandleverticalforces
(weightofbuildingandcontents)sothatvertical
shakinginearthquakesistypicallysafe
Horizontalshakingduringearthquakescando
massivedamagetobuildings
Acceleration
Measureintermsofaccelerationduetogravity(g=9.8
m/s2)
Weakbuildingssufferdamagefromhorizontal
accelerationsofmorethan0.1g
Insomelocations,horizontalaccelerationcanbeasmuch
as1.8g(TarzanaHillsin1994Northridge,California
earthquake)

PeriodsofBuildingsand
ResponsesofFoundations
Justaswaveshavenaturalfrequenciesandperiods,so
dobuildings
Periodsofswayingareabout0.1secondperstory
1storyhouseshakesatabout0.1secondpercycle
30storybuildingswaysatabout3secondspercycle

Buildingmaterialsaffectbuildingperiods
Flexiblematerials(wood,steel)longerperiodof
shaking
Stiffmaterials(brick,concrete)shorterperiodof
shaking

PeriodsofBuildingsand
ResponsesofFoundations
Velocityofseismicwavedependsonmaterialitis
movingthrough
Fasterthroughhardrocks
Slowerthroughsoftrocks
Whenwavespassfromhardertosofterrocks,they
slowdown
Mustthereforeincreasetheiramplitudeinorderto
carrysameamountofenergygreatershaking
Shakingtendstobestrongeratsiteswithsofter
groundfoundations(basins,valleys,reclaimed
wetlands,etc.)

PeriodsofBuildingsand
ResponsesofFoundations
Iftheperiodofthewavematchestheperiodofthe
building,shakingisamplifiedandresonanceresults
Commoncauseofcatastrophicfailureofbuildings

EarthquakeIntensity
WhatWeFeelDuringanEarthquake
Mercalliintensityscalewasdevelopedtoquantify
Mercalliintensityscale
whatpeoplefeelduringanearthquake
Usedforearthquakesbeforeinstrumentationor
currentearthquakesinareaswithoutinstrumentation
Assesseseffectsonpeopleandbuildings
MapsofMercalliintensitiescanbegenerated
quicklyafteranearthquakeusingpeoplesinputto
thewebpagehttp://pasadena.wr.usgs.gov/shake

EarthquakeIntensity
WhatWeFeelDuringanEarthquake

WhatToDoBeforeand
DuringanEarthquake
Beforeanearthquake:
Insideandoutsideyourhome,visualizewhatmightfall
duringstrongshaking,andanchorthoseobjectsby
nailing,bracing,tying,etc.
Insideandoutsideyourhome,locatesafespotswith
protectionunderheavytable,strongdesk,bed,etc.

Duringanearthquake:

Duck,coverandhold
Staycalm
Ifinside,stayinside
Ifoutside,stayoutside

MercalliScaleVariables
Mercalliintensitydependson:
Mercalliintensity
Earthquakemagnitude
Biggerearthquake,morelikelydeathanddamage
Distancefromhypocenter
Usually(butnotalways),closerearthquakemoredamage
Typeofrockorsedimentmakingupgroundsurface
Hardrockfoundationsvibratefromnearbyearthquakebody
waves
Softsedimentsamplifiedbydistantearthquakesurfacewaves
Steepslopescangeneratelandslideswhenshaken

MercalliScaleVariables

MercalliScaleVariables
Mercalliintensitydependson:
Buildingstyle
Bodywavesneartheepicenterwillbeamplifiedbyrigid
orshortbuildings
Lowfrequencysurfacewavesareamplifiedbytall
buildings,especiallyifonsoftfoundations
Durationofshaking
Longershakinglasts,morebuildingscanbedamaged

DesignofBuildingsin
EarthquakeProneAreas
Eliminateresonance:

Changeheightofbuilding
Moveweighttolowerfloors
Changeshapeofbuilding
Changebuildingmaterials
Changeattachmentofbuildingtofoundation
Hardfoundation(highfrequencyvibrations)build
tall,flexiblebuilding
Softfoundation(lowfrequencyvibrations)build
short,stiffbuilding

DesignofBuildingsin
EarthquakeProneAreas
Floors,RoofsandTrusses
Givehorizontalresistancebytransferringforcetovertical
resistanceelements

ShearWalls
Designedtoreceivehorizontalforcesfromfloors,roofsand
trussesandtransmittoground
Lackofshearwallstypicallycausestructureslikeparking
garagestofailinearthquakes

DesignofBuildingsin
EarthquakeProneAreas
Bracing
Bracingwithductilematerialsoffersresistance

Momentresistingframes
Devicesongroundorwithinstructuretoabsorbpartof
earthquakeenergy
Usewheels,ballbearings,shockabsorbers,rubber
doughnuts,etc.toisolatebuildingfromworstshaking

ACaseHistoryofMercalliVariables:TheSan
FernandoValley,California,Earthquakeof1971

Earthquakemagnitude
M6.6,with35aftershocksofmagnitude4.0or
higher
Distancefromepicenter
Bullseyedamagepattern
Foundationmaterials
Notamajorfactor
Buildingstyle
Softfirststorybuildingsweremajorproblem
HollowcorebricksatV.A.Hospitalcaused
collapse
Collapseoffreewaybridges

Fig.4.32

ACaseHistoryofMercalliVariables:TheSan
FernandoValley,California,Earthquakeof1971

Durationofshaking

Lasted12seconds(atthatmagnitude,canlastfrom10to30
seconds),relativelyshorttime
LowerVanNormanReservoir
11,000acrefeetofwaterbehindearthendam,abovehomesof80,000
Whenshakingstopped,onlyfourfeet(oforiginal30)ofdamwasstill
standingabovewaterlevel
Anotherfewsecondsofshakingmighthavecausedcatastrophicflood

Fig.4.29

Fig.4.30

Fig.4.33a

Fig.4.33b

Fig.4.34

ProblemSet1,Journals,TermPaper
Problemset1andtermpaperformatwillbeavailableonWebCT
bytomorrowmorning.
Problemset1willnowbedueonSept20,ratherthanSept15.
SubmitatopicforapprovalfortermpaperbySept22,ifyouhave
notalreadydoneso
Journalstoreiteratetrack1event(EQorV)perweekforfour
weeksandsubmitajournalonwhatyoufind.Lengthandformat
isuptoyou,butallwork(otherthanfigures)shouldbeoriginal
andallsourcescited