Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Research Bullets
Research Bullets
Research
guides nursing practice
to improve care and quality of nursing intervention
Paradigm world view, disciplined inquiry in the field of nursing
2 Types:
1. Positivist Paradigm
- assumes that there is an objective reality and that natural phenomena are
regular and orderly
2. Naturalistic Paradigm
- assumes that reality is not a fixed entity but rather a construction of human mind.
General Types:
1. Descriptive Research
- answers questions who, what, where, when.
- Its purpose is to observe, describe and document aspects of observation
Examples:
Tardiness and absenteeism among high school students
The medicinal components of five kinds of Philippine backyard plants
Smoking habits of health service providers in government and private hospitals
2. Explanatory
-explores the interrelationships among variables of interest without any intervention on the part of
the researcher.
Examples:
Knowledge about Cancer and Compliance with Diet, Exercise and Medical Regimen
among Cancer Patients
Relationship Between Socioeconomic Factors and absenteeism among High School
Students in District X
2.1. Descriptive Correlational Study
- Researcher is interested in describing relationships among variables, without
necessarily seeking to establish a causal connection.
3. Experimental Research
- Investigator controls (manipulates) the independent variable and randomly
assigns subjects on different conditions.
Examples:
The Effect of Verbal Suggestion on Overt Pain Reaction of Selected Post-Operative
Patients
The Effect of Different Levels of Applied Nitrogen on the Growth and Yield of Rice
Other Classifications:
1. Pure or Basic Research
- to accumulate information, extending base of knowledge
- to improve understanding, formulate or refine a theory
Examples:
Attitudes Towards Health and Smoking Habits of Health Service Providers
2. Applied Research
- finding an immediate solution to an existing problem.
Examples:
The Effect of Gender Sensitivity Training on Mens Involvement in Child Care
Remedial Teaching: Its Effect on the Performance of Slow Learners
* Basic research is appropriate for discovering general principles of human behavior and
biophysiologic process, but applied research is designed to indicate how these principles can
be used to solve problems in nursing practice.
3. Exploratory Research
- investigates the full nature of the phenomenon and the other factors with which it
is related.
Examples:
Menopause: Working Womens Perceptions, Experiences and Coping Strategies
Domestic Violence: Ideas, Experiences, and Needs of Married Working Men in the City of
Pampanga
4. Quantitative Research
- The study of the phenomena that lend themselves to precise measurement and
quantification
Example:
Health Seeking Behavior and Health Status of Retired School Teachers in Zamboanga
5. Qualitative Research
- the investigation of phenomena, typically in an in-depth and holistic fashion,
through the collection of rich narrative materials using a flexible research design.
Example:
Underground Economy: A Survival Strategy of Public School Employees
Menopause: Womens Perceptions and Experiences
RESEARCH METHODS:
1. Experimental Method
2. Survey Method
3. Historical Method
4. Content Analysis
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Identify & Define a research problem
2. State a research problem / objectives
3. Theoretical / Conceptual Framework
4. Operational Definition of Variables
5. Hypothesis Formulation
6. Choosing of Appropriate Research Design
7. Identification of Target Population & Sampling
8. Data Collection
- Preparation of Research Instrument
- Reliability Testing and Validation
- Questionnaire administration, Interview, Testing and Observation
- Quality Control
9. Data Processing
- Editing, Coding, Encoding, Creation of Data Files, Tabulation
10. Data Analysis and Interpretation
Statistical Analysis, Interpretation, Generalization
11. Report Preparation, Information Dissemination
12. Recommendation
A. Problem Identification
Example: Does the students use of the internet affect their performance in school?
Characteristics of a Good Research Problem
1. A good problem is relevant
2. A good problem is clear
3. A good problem is feasible
4. A good problem is ethical
4.1. Principle of Beneficence
4.1.1. Freedom from Harm (physical, emotional, psychological)
4.1.2. Freedom from Exploitation
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B. Formulation of Hypothesis
Research Objectives / Aims
- statements of what the researcher intends to do
Example: To determine the extent of High school students participation in school activities
To test the effectiveness of Oresol in the treatment of diarrhea
Types of Objectives:
1. General Objectives
- states clearly what the researcher will do and expects to find out
Example:
Research Title: A Study on the Extent of Participation in School Activities of High School
Students in City A
Objective: A survey will be conducted to determine the extent of participation in school
activities of high school students in City A during School Year 2001-2002.
What will be done? A Survey will be conducted
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4. Non-directional Hypothesis
- does not stipulate the direction of relationship (whether positive or negative)
Examples: There is a difference in the level of anxiety of pre-surgical patients who receive prooperative instruction than those who do not receive such instruction
*Hypothesis are never proved through they are accepted or supported or
rejected.
Theory systematic, abstract explanation of some aspect of reality.
*Lazarus and Folkmans Theory of Stress and Coping
- explains peoples methods of dealing with stress, posits that coping
strategies are learned, deliberate responses to stressors that are used to adapt to or
change the stressors.
*Azjen and Fishbeins Theory of Reasoned Action
- provides framework for understanding the relationships among a persons
attitudes, intentions, and behaviors. Behavioral intentions are the best predictor of a
persons behavior, and behavioral intentions are a function of attitude towards
performing the behavior and subjective norms.
Model symbolic representation of concepts and variables, and interrelationships among them.
* Beckers Health Belief Model
- health-related behavior is influenced by a persons perception of a threat
posed by a health problem as well as the value associated with actions aimed at
reducing the threat
Framework conceptual underpinnings of the study
Variable something that varies (changes)
Examples of Variables:
- Sex
- revenue
- Age
- height
- Income
- weight
Constant fixed, does not change
Ex: Everyone in the group has a height of 54
Continuous Variables presented on continuum
- Ex: Height, Weight, Age
Categorical Variables placed on categories
- civil status, gender
Dichotomous Variable only 2: Ex. Sex
Polychotomous Variable many answers: Ex: Civil Status
Extraneous Variable confounding, uncontrolled variable
Types of Variables:
1. Independent Variable - the PRESSUMED CAUSE of the problem.
2. Dependent Variable the PRESSUMED EFFECT of the problem.
Example: The Relationship Between Exposure to Mass Media and Smoking Habits among
Young Adults
IV Exposure to Mass Media
DV Smoking Habits
3. Intervening Variable (mediating variable)
- mediates or acts like a go-between in a chain linking two other variables
Example: Knowledge of the Dangers of Smoking, Attitudes towards Life, and
Smoking Habits of Young Professionals
IV Knowledge of the Dangers of Smoking
MV Attitudes towards Life
DV Smoking Habits
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4. Antecedent Variable
Example: Extent of Exposure to Print Media and Reading Ability of College Freshmen
Age, Sex, Civil Status
Antecedent Variable
Exposure to Print
Media
Reading Ability
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
RESEARCH DESIGN overall plan for addressing a research question, including specifications
for enhancing the integrity of the study
Qualitative Research Design
- makes ongoing decisions reflecting what has already been learned
Characteristics:
- flexible and elastic
- merges various data collection strategies
- requires researcher to be involved, and as a research instrument
- calls for the researcher to be a bricolage( adept at performing number of diverse
tasks)
- usually non-experimental, rarely controls or manipulates Independent variable.
3 Phases:
1. Orientation and Overview researchers enters not knowing what is not known
2. Focused exploration scrutiny and in-depth exploration
3. Confirmation and closure establishing trustworthy findings
Qualitative Research Traditions:
Ethnography provides framework for studying the meanings, patterns, and experiences of a
defined cultural group in a holistic fashion, aims to learn from members of the
culture.
*Emic perspective the way members of the culture envision the world, insiders view
*Etic perspective outsiders interpretation of the experiences of that culture.
Ethnoscience or known as Cognitive Anthropology, emphasis on semantic rules and shared
meanings
Phenomenology concerned with the lived experiences of humans.
Hermeneutics uses lived experiences of people as a tool for better understanding the social,
cultural, political, and historical context in which those experiences occur.
Quantitative Research Design
Classification:
A. Experimental Design
- researcher is an active agent rather than passive observer
- tests hypothesis of cause-and-effect relationships
3 Properties:
1. Manipulation experimenter does something to participants in the study
2. Control experimenter introduces control over the experimental situation.
* control group is used as a basis for evaluating the performance of experimental group.
3. Randomization participants are given equal chance to be selected.
Types of Experimental Design:
1. Post-test Only Design / After Only Experimental Technique
- random assignments to 2 groups, collection of data after intervention
2. Before and After Experimental Technique / Pretest-Posttest
- baseline measure of dependent variable
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Random assignment
means that subjects
are given the equal
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chance to be
selected.
2 Types:
1.Proportional Quota Sampling you want to represent the major characteristics
of the population by sampling a proportional amount of each. For instance, if you
know the population has 40% women and 60% men, and that you want a total
sample size of 100, you will continue sampling until you get those percentages
and then you will stop. So, if you've already got the 40 women for your sample, but
not the sixty men, you will continue to sample men but even if legitimate women
respondents come along, you will not sample them because you have already
"met your quota." The problem here (as in much purposive sampling) is that you
have to decide the specific characteristics on which you will base the quota. Will it
be by gender, age, education race, religion, etc.?
Example
It is known that 90% of nurses in a region are women. A study with
a sample size of 200 nurses thus selects 180 female nurses and 20
male nurses.
2. Nonproportional quota sampling is a bit less restrictive. In this method, you
specify the minimum number of sampled units you want in each category. here,
you're not concerned with having numbers that match the proportions in the
population. Instead, you simply want to have enough to assure that you will be
able to talk about even small groups in the population. This method is the
nonprobabilistic analogue of stratified random sampling in that it is typically used
to assure that smaller groups are adequately represented in your sample.
Example
A study of the prosperity of ethnic groups across a city, specifies that a
minimum of 50 people in ten named groups must be included in the study. The
distribution of incomes across each ethnic group is then compared against one
another.
Method
Identify what 'typical' means. This could be done by a preliminary study to find the
best variables to use and the most common values for these.
Select people for further study based on these criteria.
Example
A researcher wants to study the typical video game user. They do an initial study of a
wide range of people and find that the majority of people playing video games are
prosperous males between the ages of 18 and 25. They then recruit only people who
fit this criteria to do their study.
Discussion
The mode is the most common item in a population. For example the most common
international male shoe size is 43. The mode can thus be considered as typical of a
population.
In practice, what is modal (or 'typical') is often based more on the views of the
researcher than an extensive pre-study. For example, a TV reporter may seek 'typical
weekday shoppers' and hence pick on conventionally-dressed women who look
between the ages of 25 and 35 and who are pushing a pram (note how these can be
judged from appearance only, making the job easier).
2. Expert Sampling selecting experts for opinion or study
Use
Use when the research requires assessment or opinions of people with a relatively
high level of skill or knowledge.
Method
Identify what 'expert' means, for example using specific qualifications and experience.
This could be done by a separate pre-study.
Select only those experts who pass the identified criteria for further study.
Example
A study of expert research engineers starts with an exploration of who other engineers
look up to and who are most valued by their employers. The result determines that
'expert' can be defined as only those who have been awarded ten or more patents and
who have at least twelve years of experience.
Discussion
Opinions of experts are more easily respected by other people. Studies that report
expert opinion are likely to benefit from a reflected respect and so be more credible at
least with an audience who unquestionably accepts those people as experts.
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A key part of the reported study may be in establishing the expertise of the people in
the study.
It is not uncommon for 'experts' to be selected on relatively simple criteria, for
example where a professor from a local college is assumed to be able to pronounce
authoritatively on their subject. In practice, they may be low down on the national
scale of professorial expertise and other academics may quickly question what they
say.
In this way 'experts' are popular with TV interviewers as they often sound like they
know what they are talking about and are seldom questioned.
Experts are sometimes the subject of study, for example where the differences
between their views is used to highlight uncertainties in their field of expertise.
3. Diversity Sampling seeking variation with a wide net
Use
Use when you are studying diversity and seeking a wide range of views or different
subjects.
Method
Rather than constrain the targeting to limited groups and areas, spread the net as
wide as possible to gain a wide range of subjects and views.
Example
A study may seek to identify all ethnic groups within a city and thus may be made
across a number of different parts of the city and includes questioning of each
Discussion
Some studies are broad rather then narrow and hence need to identify the widest
possible set of subjects. Narrow studies seek to eliminate variation. Diversity studies
seek to discover and understand variation.
The final sample size in such studies may not be determined, although a minimum
size may be identified. More critical is sampling across a wide area of the population in
order to maximize the chance of identifying the
Narrow studies may be preceded by wide, heterogeneous studies that help a secondstage study of
Diversity sampling is also known as Heterogeneity sampling.
Method
Identify your sample size, n. Divide the total number of items in the population, N, by
n. Round the decimal down. This gives you your interval, k.
Thus for a population of 2000 and a sample of 100, k = 2000/100 = 20.
Put the population into a sequential order, ensuring the attribute being studied is
randomly distributed.
Select a random number, x, between 1 and k.
The first sampled item is the x-th. Then select every k-th item.
Thus if k is 20 and x is 12, select the 12th item, then the 32nd, then the 52nd and so
on.
In brief: select every nth item, starting with a random one.
Example
A study of people going to night-clubs first determines that there are about 250-300
people in the club (due to fire regulations). A sample size of 30 is selected, giving an
interval of 300/30 = 10. A random number between 1 and 10 is generated and comes
up with 7. Starting with the 7th person to enter the club, every 10th person is given a
brief interview.
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Other precautions are taken to neutralize any impact on the study of what time of
night people people enter the club.
Discussion
This method only works if you can sort the items being studied into a sequence in
which you can ensure the studied attribute is random.
It gives a handy method when a random number would be difficult to apply or when
counting every nth item is simply easier. In the example above, if sequential random
numbers were used and the first random number was 250, then you would have to
wait for the 250th person for your first item.
Systematic sampling is also called systematic random sampling.
Method
Divide the population up into a set of smaller non-overlapping sub-groups (strata), then
do a simple random sample in each sub-group.
Strata can be natural groupings, such as age ranges or ethnic origins.
Example
A high school student who is studying year-ten attitudes in the school uses
registration tuition classes as strata and studies a random selection of students from
each of these classes.
In a company there are more men than women, but it is required to have each
group equally represented. Two strata are thus created, of men and women, with an
equal number in each.
Discussion
Stratification aims to reduce standard error by providing some control over variance. If
you know that there are groups that must be included, for example men and women,
then you can deliberately sample these in a due proportion.
Proportionate stratified sampling takes the same proportion (sample fraction) from
each stratum.
Disproportionate stratified sampling takes a different proportion from different
strata. This may be done to ensure minorities are adequately covered. If you do this,
and want to make an estimate about the population, you will have to weight withingroup estimates using the sampling fraction.
If the groups are homogeneous (ie. have the same proportions of each attribute), and
hence within-group variation is lower than the population, then stratified random
sampling will give a statistically more accurate result than simple random sampling.
Stratified sampling is sometimes called quota sampling or stratified random sampling.
Method
Divide the population up into a set of different coherent areas.
Randomly select areas to assess.
Access all subjects in the selected areas. If you cannot do this, select a
significant random sample and use the same selection rules in each cluster.
Example
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In a study of the opinions of homeless across a country, rather than study a few
homeless people in all towns, a number of towns are selected and a significant
number of homeless people are interviewed in each one.
Discussion
Sometimes the biggest problem with sampling is being able to reach your
targets, and having them are spread out over a large geographic area is a
common experience.
Even when you have selected a cluster, you are unlikely to be able to access
everyone in that cluster (you are unlikely, for example, to be able to interview
everyone in a selected town). The practical answer is to select a significant and
similar sample in each cluster. For example if you are going to interview people
in clothes shops, you should do this at the same time on the same weekday in
each cluster (you would, after all, likely get different results interviewing 9am
Monday morning from if you did it on Saturday afternoon).
Cluster sampling may be combined with other forms of sampling, for
example proportionate quota sampling, to ensure sub-groups are fully
represented.
A risk with cluster sampling is that some geographic areas can have different
characteristics, for example affluence or political bias.
Cluster sampling is also called area sampling.
Open-ended questions
- permits respondents to respond in their own words
Likert Scale declarative statements that express a viewpoint on a topic.
- Respondents asked to indicate the degree to which they agree or
disagree with the opinion expressed by the statement.
- an ordered, one-dimensional scale from which respondents choose one
option that best aligns with their view.
5-point traditional Likert scale:
Strongly Tend to
agree
agree
I like going to Chinese restaurants
[ ]
Neither
agree
Tend to Strongly
nor
disagree disagree
disagree
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
Neutral
[ ]
[ ]
Bad
[ ]
[ ]
Always
Sematic Differential
- respondents are asked to rate on bipolar adjectives, good/bad, effective/ineffective
Visual Analog Scale (VAS)
- measures subjective experiences such as pain, fatigue, and dyspnea
- a straight line, the end anchors o which are labeled as the extreme limits of the
sensation or feeling being measured.
Vignettes
brief descriptions of events or situations to which respondents are asked to
react, can either be factual or fictitious
Examples:
How would you recommend handling this situation?
On the nine-point scale below, rate how well you believe the nurse handled the
situation?
Q Sorts
- set of cards on which words or statements are written.
2. Observational Methods
Participant Observation researcher observes and participates in the functioning of
the group or institution under study
3. Biophysiologic Measures
- assesses clinical variables
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3 Kinds
1. Content Validity
based on experts judgement.
- sometimes called logical or rational validity, is the estimate of how much a
measure represents every single element of a construct.
For example, an educational test with strong content validity will represent the
subjects actually taught to students, rather than asking unrelated questions. Content
validity is often seen as a prerequisite to criterion validity, because it is a good
indicator of whether the desired trait is measured. If elements of the test are irrelevant
to the main construct, then they are measuring something else completely, creating
potential bias.
In addition, criterion validity derives quantitative correlations from test scores.
Content validity is qualitative in nature, and asks whether a specific element enhances
or detracts from a test or research program.
HOW IS CONTENT VALIDITY MEASURED?
Content validity is related to face validity, but differs wildly in how it is evaluated.
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teacher. This test had a much higher rational validity and fully represented every
element of the construct.
2. Criterion-related validity
- researcher seeks to establish relationship between the scores on an
instrument and some external criterion. The instrument, whatever it is
measuring is said to be valid, if its scores correspond strongly with scores on
criterion.
Ex: A researcher wanted to find out the intelligence of college freshman by
using their College Aptitude test. In order to determine whether it is valid, a
researcher may use an outside criterion such as High School General Average.
Predictive Validity
- instruments ability to differentiate between peoples performances
or behaviors on future direction.
- When a school of nursing correlates students incoming high
school grades with their subsequent grade-point averages, the
predictive validity of high school grades for nursing school
performance is being evaluated.
Concurrent Validity
- instruments ability to distinguish among people who differ in their
present status on some criterion. For example, a psychological test to
differentiate between patients in mental institutions who could and could not
be released could be correlated with current behavioral ratings of health
care personnel.
*the difference between concurrent and predictive validity is the difference
in the timing of obtaining measurements on a criterion.
3. Construct-related validity
- adequacy of an instrument in measuring the construct of interest.
- Construct validity defines how well a test or experiment measures up to its
claims. It refers to whether the operational definition of a variable actually
reflects the true theoretical meaning of a concept.
What is this instrument really measuring?
a. known-groups technique
b. factor analysis
Sensitivity ability of a measure to identify a case correctly, that is, to screen in
or diagnosis a condition correctly. Measured by true positives.
Specificity measures ability to identify noncases correctly, that is, to screen out
those without the condition. Yields true negatives.
Credibility confidence in the truth of the data.
*Prolonged engagement investment of sufficient time in data collection activities to
have an in-depth understanding of the culture, language or
views of the group under study and to test for
misinformation.
*Persistent observation refers to the researchers focus on the aspects of situation
that are relevant to the phenomenon being studied
*Triangulation uses multiple referents to draw conclusion
Example of Triangulation: A researcher studies the experiences of nursing students with
disabilities. The study involved data triangulation(interviews were conducted with students with
physical or auditory impairments and nursing faculty members, patients, and fellow students).
Dependability data stability over time and over conditions
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Nurture your mind with great thoughts, for you will never go
any higher than you think.
mdgolveo
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