SPE-949305-G Van Everdingen A.F. and Hurst W. The Application of The Laplace Transformation To Flow Problems in Reservoirs

T.P.
2732
THE APPLICATION OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION

TO FLOW PROBLEMS IN RESERVOIRS
A. F. VAN EVERDINGEN, SHELL OIL CO., HOUSTON, AND W. HURST, PETROLEUM

CONSULTANT, HOUSTON, MEMBERS AIME
ABSTRACT
For several years the authors have felt the need for a source
from which reservoir engineers could obtain fundamental
theory and data on the flow of fluids through permeable media
in the unsteady state. The data on the unsteady state flow are
composed of solutions of the equation
O'P +
or'
oP
Or
oP
at
Two sets of solutions of this equation are developed, namely,

for "the constant terminal pressure ca;;e" and "the constant
terminal rate case." In the constant terminal pressure case the
pressure at the terminal boundary is lowered by unity at zero
time, kept constant thereafter, and the cumulative amount of
fluid flowing across the boundary is computed, as a function
of the time. In the constant terminal rate case a unit rate
of production is made to flow across the terminal boundary
(from time zero onward) and the ensuing pressure drop is
computed as a function of the time. Considerable effort has
been made to compile complete tables from which curves can
be constructed for the constant terminal pressure and constant
terminal rate cases, both for finite and infinite reservoirs.
These curves can be employed to reproduce the effect of any
pressure or rate history encountered in practice.
Most of the information is obtained by the help of the
Laplace transformations, which proved to be extremely helpful
for analyzing the problems encountered in fluid flow. Tht'
application of this method simplifies the mOTe tedious mathematical analyses employed in the past. With the help of Laplace transformations some original developments were obtained (and presented) which could not have been easily
foreseen by the earlier methods.
INTRODUCTION
This paper represents a compilation of the work done over
the past few years on the flow of fluid in porous media. It
concerns itself primarily with the transient conditions prevailing in oil reservoirs during the time they are produced. The
study is limited to conditions where the flow of fluid obeys the
Manuscript received at office of Petroleum Branch January 12, 1949.
Paper presented at the AIME Annual Meeting in San Francisco, February 13-17. 1949.
1 References are given at end of paper.
December, 1949
diffusivity equation. Multiple-phase fluid flow has not been

considered.
A previous publication by Hurst' shows that when the pressure history of a reservoir is known, this information can be
used to calculate the water influx, an essential term in the
material balance equation. An example is offered in the literature by Old' in the study of the Jones Sand, Schuler Field,
Arkansas. The present paper contains extensive tabulated
data (from which work curves can be constructed), which data
are derived by a more rigorous treatment of the subject matter than available in an earlier publication. ' The applicatIon of
this information will enable those concerned with the analysis
of the behavior of a reservoir to obtain quantitatively correct
expressions for the amount of water that has flowed into the
reservoirs, thereby satisfying all the terms that appear in the
material balance equation. This work is likewise applicable to
the flow of fluid to a well whenever the flow conditions are
such that the diffusivity equation is obeyed.
DIFFUSITY EQUATION
The most commonly encountered flow system is radial flow
toward the well bore or field. The volume of fluid which flows
per unit of time through each unit area of sand is expressed
by Darcy's equation as
v
= K oP
Or
fJ.
oP
where K is the permeability, fJ. the viscosity and

lor the
pressure gradient at the radial distance r. A material balance
on a concentric element AB, expresses the net fluid traversing
the surfaces A and B, which must equal the fluid lost from
within the element. Thus, if the density of the fluid is expressed by p, then the weight of fluid per unit time and per
unit sand thickness, flowing past Surface A, the surface nearest the well bore, is given as
2~rp ~ ~~
2~fJ.K
( pr
~~)
The weight of fluid flowing past Surface B, an infinitesimal

distance or, removed from Surface A, is expressed as
2~K
[pr -
PETROLEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME
g; )
oP
o( pr
+
or
or
or]
305
T.P. 2732
THE APPLICATION OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION TO FLOW PROBLEMS

IN RESERVOIRS
implied by Eq. Ill-I, the partial differential can be transformed to a total differential equation. This is performed by
multiplying each term in Eq. II-4 by e-'" and integrating with
respect to time between zero and infinity, as follows;
The difference between these two terms, namely,
o( pr 'O_~)
27rK
or
- - - - - - - - - - - or,
p
or
is equal to the weight of fluid lo:t by the element AB,
- 27rfr
OP
--
()j'
'L
or
aT
where f is the porosity of the formation.
This relation gives tf:e equat:on of continuity for the radial
system, namely,
a (pr .Q~-)
K
Or
OP
- ---fr --(II-I)
p
or
aT
From the physical characteristics of fluids. it is known
that density is a function of pressure and that the density 01
a fluid decreases with decreasing pressure due to the fact that
the fluid expands. This trend expres~ed in exponential form
is
p
p"e-"(I',,-I')
(II-2)
where P is less than P,,, and c the compressibility of the fluid.
If we substitute Eq. II-2 in Eq_ II-I, the diffusivity equation
can be expressed using density as a function of radius and
time. or
_ ..,
,ie'
1 oP
-,-+--Orr or
(o'P
dt =
o
oP
e-;'t --dt
at
(III-2)
Since P is a function of radius and time, the integration with

respect to time will automatically remove the time function
and leave P a function of radius only. This reduces the left
side to a total differential with respect to r, namely,
Jo
O'l'
e-:"
a')' 1 e- JO ' P dt f
dt
d'P,JO)
= - - - - - ._- = _.-
oar'
or'
etc.
dr'
and Eq. HI-2 hecomes

I
dP""
dP
dr
dt
dr'
dt
P, PRESSURE
2!_)
02p +
~_ = ~_
(I1-3)
or'
r Or
fllc
aT
For liquids which are only slightly compressible, Eq. II-2
simplifies to p ~ Po [1- c (Po - P)] which further modifies
Eq. 1I-3 to give
(
2:..
_1 __OP ) ~
Furthermore, if the
orr or
fpc
aT
radius of the well or field. R h , is referred to as a unit
radius, then the relation simplifies to
o~_ -+
= 1l.!'...
1 oP
-o'P
- + ---
oP
== -----(II-4)
or'
r Or
at
where t = KT /fJlcR,,' and r now expresses the distance as a
multiple of R h , the unit radius. The units appearing in this
paper are always med in connection with Darcy's equation, so
that the permeability K must be expressed in darcys; the
time T in seconds. the porosity f as a fraction, the viscosity f'
in centipoises. the compressibility c as volume per volume
per atmosphere, and the radius Rb in centimeters.
q(t), RATE
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION
In all publications, the treatment of the diffusivity equation
has been essentially the orthodox application of the FourierBessel series. This paper presents a new approach to the
solution of problems encountered in the study of flowing fluids,
namely, the Laplace transformation, since it was recognized
that Laplace transformations offer a useful tool for solving
difficult problems in less time than by the use of FourierBessel series. Also, original developments have been obtained
which are not easily foreseen by the orthodox methods.
If p ( t ) is a pressure at a point in the sand and a function

of time, then its Laplace transformation is expressed by the
infinite integral
(III-l)
where the constant p in this relationship is referred to as the
operator. If we treat the diffusivity equation by the process
306
t,
t2
t3
t, TIME
FIG. lA - SEQUENCE CONSTANT TERMINAL PRESSURES.
1 B - SEQUENCE CONSTANT TERMINAL RATES.
PETROlEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME
December, 1949
A. F. VAN EVERDINGEN AND W. HURST

Furthermore, if we consider that P (l) is a cumulative pressure
drop, and that initially the pressure in the reservoir is every
where constant so that the cumulative pressure drop p(t~O)=O,
the integration of the right hand side of the equation becomes
T.P. 2732
The next step in the development i, to reproduce the boun

dary condition at the wdl bore or field radius, r = 1, as a
Laplace transformation and introduce this in the general solu
tion for Eq. III3 to give an explicit relation
dP
00
As this term is also a Laplace transform, Eq. III2 can be writ

ten as a total differential equation, or
d'P(p)
dr'
1 dP,p)
r
(III.3)
dr
y
8
i! PLANE
c~
________
~----~
--------------________hM__~~(T~O~)--x
Dr-----~~------~
A
FIG. 2 - CONTOUR INTEGRATION IN ESTABLISHING THE CONSTANT
TERMINAL RATE CASE FOR INFINITE EXTENT.
By inverting the term on the right by the Mellin's inversion

formula, or other methods, we obtain the solution for the
cumulative pressure drop as an explicit function of radius
and time.
ENGINEERING CONCEPTS
Before applying the Laplace transformation to develop the
necessary workcurves, there are some fundamental engineer
ing concepts to be considered that will allow the interpreta
tion of these curves. Two cases are of paramount importance
in making reservoir studies, namely, the constant terminal
pressure case and the constant terminal rate case. If we know
the explicit solution for the first case, we can reproduce any
variable pressure history at the terminal boundary to deter
mine the cumulative influx of fluid. Likewise, if the rate of
fluid influx varies, the constant terminal rate case can be used
to calculate the total pressure drop. The constant terminal
pressure and the constant terminal rate calOe are not inde
pendent of one another, as knowing the operational form of
one, the other can be determined, as will be shown later.
Constant Terminal Pressure Case

The constant terminal pre3sure case is defined as follows:
At time zero the pressure at all points in the formation is con
stant and equal to unity, and when the well or reservoir is
opened, the pressure at the well or reservoir boundary, r = 1,
immediately drops to zero and remains zero for the duration
of the production history.
If we treat the constant terminal pressure case symbolically,
the solution of the problem at any radius and time is given
by P = p(,.,t). The rate of fluid influx per unit sand thickness
under these conditions is given by Darcy's equation
If we
absolute
equation
Q('I') =
i!
PLANE
21TK
( OP)
where
Q) =
/
o
-1~~rt-+-1~-+-+~~~4-~~--+---x
(cr
,0)
(r OP) ="
(IV.I)
/L
or r 1
wish to determine the cumulative influx of fluid in
time T, and having expressed time in the diffusivity
as t = KT/f/LcRb" then
T
21TK f,acRo' t
f
q(T) dT = --x-~ J
-dt
o
/L
K 0
or r = 1
2
= 21TfcR h Q(t)
(IV2)
q(T)
(OP )
or
=1
dt
(IV.3)
In brief, knowing the general solution implied by Eq. IV3,

which expresses the integration in dimensionless time, t, of the
pressure gradient at radius unity for a pressure drop of one
atmosphere, the cumulative influx into the well bore or into the
oil.bearing portion of the field can be determined by Eq. IV2.
Furthermore, for any pressure drop, f,P, Eq. IV2 expresses
the cumulative influx as
Q('I')
21TfcR,,' f,P Q",
(IV4)
per unit sand thickness.*
* The set of symbols now introduced and the symbo~s reoorted in

Hurst's1 earlier paper on water-drive are related as follows:
G(o;' O/R') = Q(l)
FIG. 3 - CONTOUR INTEGRATION IN ESTABLISHING THE CONSTANT
TERMINAL RATE CASE FOR LIMITED RESERVOIR.
December, 1949
and G(o;' B/R')

0;'
r Q(t)
dt
where
e/R' = t
307
T.P. 2732
THE APPLICATION OF THE lAPLACE TRANSFORMATION TO FLOW PROBLEMS

IN RESERVOIRS
When an oil reservoir and the adjoining water-bearing formations are contained between two parallel and sealing faulting planes, the flow of fluid is essentially parallel to these
planes and is "linear." The constant terminal pressure case
can also be applied to this case. The basic equation for linear
flow is given by
O'P
oP
Ox'
at
(IV-S)
where now t = KT / fl'c and x is the absolute distance meas

ured from the plane of influx extending out into the waterbearing sand. If we assume the same boundary conditions as
in radial flow, with P = P(x, t) as the solution, then by
Darcy's law, the rate of fluid influx across the original wateroil contact per unit of cross-sectional area is expressed by
qUi
~:-) x=o
(IV-6)
The total fluid influx is given by
Q(T) =
fl'c
I'
j q('l') dT = --. --- j

o
= f
where Q("
equal to
lS
.t (
oP )
--
Ox
x=o
Q(l)
dt
(IV-7)
the generalized ~olution for linear flow and is
J~ ( OF
.- )
Q(l) =
o
OX
dt
(IV-8)
x==o
Therefore, for any over-all pressure drop L.F, Eq. IV-7 gives
Q{'j') = fcL.P Q,,)
where q(T) is the rate of water encroachment per unit area of

cross-ECction, and P tt ) is the cumulative pressure drop at the
sand face per unit rate of production.
Superposition Theorem
With these fundamental relationships available. it remams
to be shown how the constant pressure case can be interpreted
for variable terminal pressures, or in the constant rate case,
for variable rates. The linearity of the diffusivity equation allows the application of the superposition theorem as a sequence of constant terminal pre~sures or constant rates in
such a fashion that it reproduces the pressure or production
hiHory at the boundary, r
1. This is essentially Duhamel's
principle, for which reference can be made to transient electric
circuit theory in texts by Karman and Biot,S and Bush." It has
been applied t olhe flow of fluids by Muskat,' Schilthuis and
Hurst,' in employing the variable rate case in calculating the
pressure drop in the East Texas Field:
The physical significance can best be realized by an application. Fig. I-A shows the pressure decline in the well bore
or a field that has been flowing and for which we wish to obtain the amount of fluid produced. As shown, the pressure
history is reproduced as a series of pressure plateaus which
repre~ent a sequence of constant terminal pressures. Therefore,
hy the application of Eq. IV-4, the cumulative fluid produced
in time t by the pressure drop L.P", operative since zero time,
is expre,'ed hy Q(T)
27rfcR b ' ,0,1'" Q't). If we next consider
(IV-9)
per unit of cross-sectional area.
Constant Terminal Rate Case
r-Q(t)
In the constant terminal rate ca:-;e it is likewise assumed that

initially the pressure everywhere in the formation is constant
but that from the time zero onward the fluid is withdrawn
from the well bore or reservoir boundary at a unit rate. The
pressure drop is given by P = p(,.,t), and at the boundary of
the field, where r = 1, (OP/ O r)..=l = -1. The minus sign
is introduced because the gradient for the pressure drop relative to the radius of the well or reoervoir is negative. If the
cumulative pressure drop is expressed as L.P, then
30~--------~------------~r--------'
.' (IV-IO)
where q(t) is a constant relating the cumulative pressure drop
with the pressure change for a unit rate of production. By
applying Darcy's equation for the rate of fluid flowing into
the well or reservoir per unit sand thickness
q(T!
= -21rK (
I'
QL.P)
=-21rK q(,)
Or" = 1
I'
h sImp
'
lfi
I es to q(t)
wh IC
q('nl'
= --.
21rK
(oP(r,t))
or
=1
101---/
Th ere f ore, for any constant
rate of production the cumulative pressure drop at the field

radius is given by
P _ qcnl' P
,0,
27rK
(t)
(IV-ll)
Similarly, for the constant rate of production m linear flow,

the cumulative pressure drop is expressed by
L.P
308
= qcnl'
p
K
(ti
(IV-I2)
0~1----------~5-------------J10~------~
FIG, 4 - RADIAL FLOW, CONSTANT TERMINAL PRESSURE CASE, INFINITE RESERVOIR, CUMULATIVE PRODUCTION VS. TIME.
December, 1949

the pressure drop ,6P" which occurs in time t" and treat this
as a separate entity, but take cognizance of its time of inception t then the cumulative fluid produced by this increment
"
of pressure drop is Q(t)
2trfcR b ' ,6P, Q(t-tl)' By superimposing all the.'e effects of pressure changes, the total influx
in time t is expressed as
+ ,6P,Q(t-t, ) +
,6P,Q(tt,) + ,6P,Q(t-t +
]
)
at'
,6P = q(o) P tt )
+ [q, (t, ) -
q(O)] p(t-t,)
p(t-t,)
+ [q(t,) -
= q(o)
P(t)
dq(t')
+ oJ -dt'-
(IV-I6)
p(t-t') dt'
If q(o) = 0, Eq. IV-I6 can also be expressed as
(IV-I3)
By considering variable rates of fluid production, such as

shown in Fig. I-B, and reproducing these rates as a series of
constant rate plateaus, then by Eq. IV -11 the pressure drop in
the well bore in time t, for the initial rate q" is ,6P o = qoP(t).
At time t" the comparable increment for constant rate is expressed as .q, - qo, and the effect of this increment rate on
the corresponding increment of pressure drop is ,6P,
(q, - qJ p(t-tl)' Again by superimposing all of these effects,
the determination for the cumulative pressure drop is expressed by
p(t-t .. ) + [q(t3) -q(f,)]
,6P
,6P
when t > I,. To reproduce the smooth curve relationship of

Fig. I-A, these pressure plateaus can be taken as infinitesimally small, which give the summation of Eq. IV-13 by the
integral
, ~ o,6P
QfT) = 27rfcR,,- j - - - - Q(t-t') dt' .
(IV-I4)
o
If the increments are infinitesimal, or the smooth curve relationship applies, Eq. IV-I5 becomes
Q(T) = 27rfcR h ' [,6P o Q(t)
T.P. 2732
= oJ
q(t') p'(t-t') dt'
(IV-I7)
where p'(t) is the derivative of Pit) with respect to t.

Since Eqs. IV-I3 and IV-I5 are of such simple algebraic
forms, they are most practical to use with production history
in making reservoir studies. In applying the pressure or rate
plateaus as shown in Fig. 1, it must be realized that the time
interval for each plateau should be taken as small as possible,
so as to reproduce within engineering accuracy the trend of
the curves. Naturally, if an exact interpretation is desired, Eqs.
IV-I4 and IV-I6 apply.
FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
In applying the Laplace transformation, there are certain
fundamental operations that must be clarified. It has been
stated that if P (t) is a pressure drop, the transformation for
Pit) is given by Eq. III-I, as
q(t , )]
(IV-I5)
rr===-Q-(t)-,------r------,----~~----,_--__.
To visualize more concretely the meaning of this equation, if

the unit pressure drop at the boundary in the constant terminal pressure case is employed in Eq. III-I, its transform is
given by
35~---+---~---~
00
PiP) =
J e- pt
-e -pt
1 dt = --- 1
p
(V-I)
p
o
3.01-----+-----+----,~1__7"-------+_--__+---_____l
2.5f--------+---V;:L--+---------::~---====+===1
The Laplace transformations of many transcendental functions

have been developed and are available in tables, the most complete of which is thc tract by Campbell and Foster.' It is therefore often possible after solving a total differential such as
Eq. 1I1-3 to refer to a ~et of tables and transforms and deter-
2.01----+---I'---T"---t------ir-------f-----__+--------j
mine the invcrse of PCP) or Pit). It is frequently necessary to
1.5r----_ _-----!lr----_ _--=l=~--;I~t_---A~SYrM-T-.:0-T~IC~VA-.:L;..:U-=E-I:.:..5::00".::J.\~

"R =2.0
I. OJ----f--+-----+-----f-------+-----__+--------l
ASYMTOTIC VALUE 0.625
R = 1.5
There are two possible simplifications for PCP) when time

is small or time is large. This is evident from Eq. 111-3, where
p can be interpreted by the operational calculus as the operator d/ dt. Therefore, if we consider this symbolic relation,
then if t is lorge, p must be small, or inversely, if t is small,
p will be large. To understand this, if PiP) is expressed by an
involved Bessel relationship, the substitution for p as a small
o 00;;--------;I-';;.0;-------:2t.0;;------;f3.0;;-----~40;;------;05L,;0:------d6.0
FIG. 5 - RADIAL FLOW, CONSTANT TERMINAL PRESSURE CASE,
CUMULATIVE PRODUCTION VS. TIME FOR LIMITED RESERVOIRS.
December, 1949
simplify PiP) before an inversion can be made. However, Mellin's inversion formula is always applicable, which requires
analytical treatment whenever used.
or large value will simplify Pcp) to give Pit) for the corresponding times.
Mellin's inversion formula is given on page 71 of Carslaw
and Jaeger:'
309
T.P. 2732

IN RESERVOIRS
-r-PRESSURE DROP IN ATMOSPHERES- P(t)
1
p(t=-,
271"i
eAt
(A)
1.80
(A)
'Y-i~
where P
dA
is the transform
Where this report is con-
(p)
corned with pressure drops, the above can be written as

I. 9011----+--\-~11_\\--l__-+_-_+-_1--+_-__I
1
2..
71"1
'Y--i r:JJ
P (t, )-p (t 2 )
At,
(e
Ato
-e -) P
(A)
dA.
(V-2)
The integration is in the complex plane A = x + iy, along a

line parallel to the y-axis, extending from minus to positive
infinity, and a distance I' removed from the origin, so that all
poles are to the left of this line, Fig. 2. The reader who has a
comprehensive understanding of contour integrals will recognize that this integral is equal to the integration a.round a
semi-circle of infinite radius extending to the left of the line
x
1', and includes integration along the "cuts," which joins
the poles to the semi-circle. Since the integration along the
semi-circle in the second and third quadrant is zero for radius
infinity and t>O, this leaves the integration along the "cuts"
and the poles, where the latter, as expressed in Eq. V-2, are
the residuals.
2.0011---+-
Certain fundamental relationship3

formations are found useful:
III
the Laplace trans-
2.101--+_-_+-\-_1--\
2.20~~~~---4~-\~-----+- -~---,
ll)
Theorem A
If P,p, is the transform of p(, then
= p fi,p,
dP(t)
or the transform of - p
dt
p(t=O)
FIG. 6 - RADIAL FLOW, CONSTANT TERMINAL RATE CASE, PRESSURE

DROP VS. TIME, Pit) VS. t
approaches zero as time approaches infinity.

00
Theorem B
The transform of
00
J e-pt J p(t') dt' dt

o
0
r p(t') dt'
o'
_e- Pt
is expressed by
= -J p(t') dt'
p
IX)
+ ~po J e-pt p(t) dt
or the transform of the integration p(t') with respect to t'

_
from zero to
infinity.
is p'P)/p, if e-pt
J p(t')
o
dt' is zero for time
Theorem C ~ The transform for ect p, is equal to

CD
oJ
e-pt ect P(l) dt =
IX)
oJ
e-(P:;:-O)t P,t} dt = P,p:cJ
if p - c is positive.
Theorem D ~ If P,(p) is the transform of P,(t), and P,(p)

is the transform of P" t), then the product of these two transforms is the transform of the integral
t
oJ
310
p,(t') P"t-t') dt'
This integral is comparable to the integrals developed by the

superimposition theorem, and of appreciable use in this
paper.
CONSTANT TERMINAL PRESSURE AND

CONSTANT TERMINAL RATE CASES,
INFINITE MEDIUM
The analytics for the constant terminal pressure and ratc
cases have been developed for limited reservoirs'" when the
exterior boundary is considered closed or the production rate
through this boundary is fixed. In determining the volume of
water encroached into the oil-bearing portion of reservoirs,
few cases have' been encountered which indicated that the
sands in which the oil occurs are of limited extent. For the
most part, the data show that the influx behaves as if the
water-bearing parts of the formations are of infinite extent,
because within the productive life of oil recervoirs, the rate of
water encroachment does not reflect the influence of an exterior boundary. In other words, whether or not the water sand
is of limited extent, the rate of water encroachment is such as
if supplied by an infinite medium.
December, 1949

Computing the water influx for an infinite reservoir with the
help of Fourier-Bessel expansions, an exterior boundary can
be assumed so far removed from the field radius that the production for a considerable time will reflect the infinite caEe.
Unfortunately, the poor convergence of these expansions inval-
( -OP)
Or r=l
T.P. 2732
= -1 at all tImes.
A reference to a text on Bessel functions, such as Karman

and Biot,' pp. 61-63, shows that the general solution for Eq.
111-3 is given by
idates this approach. An alternative method consists of using

increasing values for exterior radius, evaluating the water in-
(VI-I)
flux for each radius separately, and then drawing the envelope
of these curves, which gives the infinite case, Fig. 5. In such
a procedure, each of the branch curves reflects a water reservoir of limited extent. Inasmuch as the drawing of an envelope
does not give a high degree of acuracy, the solutions for the
constant terminal pressure and constant terminal rate cases
for an infinite medium are presented here, with values for
where 10 (rYp) and Ko(rYp) are modified Bessel functions of the first and second kind, respectively, and of zero
order. A and B are two constants which satisfy a second order
differential equation. Since P (r.p) is the transform of the
pressure drop at a point in the formation, and because at a
point not yet affected by production the absolute pressure
The constant terminal pressure case was first developed by
equals the initial pressure, it is required that P (r,p) should

approach zero as r becomes large. As shown in Karman and
Nicholson" by the application of Green's function to an instan-
Biot,' 10 (r Y p ) becomes increasingly large and Ko (r Vp )
Q(t> and Pet) calculated directly.
taneous circular source in an infinite medium. Goldstein" presented this solution by the operational method, and Smith13
employed Carslaw's contour method in its development. Cars-
approaches zero as the argument (r V p ) increases. Therefore, to obey the initial condition, the constant A must equal
zero and (VI-l) becomes
law and Jaeger"'" later gave the explicit treatment of the

constant terminal pressure case by the application of the La-
(VI-2)
place transformation. The derivation of the constant terminal

rate case is not given in the literature, and its development
is presented here.
To fulfill the second boundary condition for unit rate of

production, namely (oPlor).,", = -1, the transform for
unity gives
The Constant Rate Case
(-~~-)r=1=
As already discussed, the boundary conditions for the constant rate case in an infinite medium are that (1) the pressure drop P , t) is zero initially at every point in the formation, and (2) at the radius of the field (r
= l)
we have
(VI-3)
by Eq. V-I. The differentiation of the modified Bessel function of the second kind, Watson's Bessel Functions," W.B.F.,
p. 79, gives Ko'(z) = -K,(z). Therefore, differentiation Eq.
6.8
R-200
3.81--------1~--+--H~-+_r_=----___+
6.6
R-S
3.61------_t_---+
6,4
R-~OO
3 . 4 1 - - - - - - _-T----4-+-il------4-------!-
6.2
3.2~----_#4_-.....,._t_-__=._._+_--
6.0
3.01~---//
5.8
R-300
2.8 s
IXIO
5.6
FIG. 7 - RADIAL FLOW, CONSTANT TERMINAL RATE CASE, CUMULATIVE PRESSURE DROP VS. TIME P(t) VS. t
December, 1949
311
T,P, 2132

IN RESERVOIRS
= 1,
VI-2, with respect to r at r
where 'Y is Euler's constant 0.57722, and the logarithmic term

consists of natural logarithms. When z is small
gives
= -By.p K,\
( OP)
or r=1
'v
p )
and since
1
p
the constant B
lip'!' K, (V p ). Therefore, the transform
for the pressure drop for the constant rate case in an infinite
medium is given by
P,,,p) =
"2 -t-
Ko (z) ~ - [log
K,(z) ~ liz
Therefore, Eq. VI-4 becomes
-log p +
P (',1') = --:)--
(VI-12)
'Y]
(VI-l3)
(Jog 2 - 'Y)
(VI-14)
~p
The inversion for the first term on the right is given by Campbell and Foster, Eq. 892, and the inverse of the second term by
(VI-4)
p'/'K, (V p )
To determine the inver3e of Eq. VI-4 in order to establish

the pressure drop at radius unity, we can resort to the simplification that for small times the operator p is large. Since
Kn(z) =
,/~
2z
(VI-S)
for z large, W.B.F., p. 202, thell

1
P(l,P)
(VI-6l
p"I'
The inversion for thi" transform

Foster, Eq. 516, as
2
JS
given in Campbell and
(VI-7)
'/71"
In brief, Eq. VI-7 states that when t = K T/f/LcRb' is small,

which can he caw,ed by the boundary radius for the iield, R,,,
being large, the pressure drop for the unit rate of production
approximates the condition for linear flow.
To justify this conclusion, the treatment of the linear flow
equation, Eq. IV-S, by the Laplace transformation gives
FIG. 8 - CONSTANT RATE OF PRODUCTION IN THE STOCK TANK,

ADJUSTING FOR THE UNLOADING OF FLUID IN THE ANNULUS, Pit)
VERSUS t where
Z= c/27rfcR,,',
AND c is the VOLUME OF FLUID UN-
LOADED FROM THE ANNULUS, CORRECTED TO RESERVOIR CONDITIONS, PER ATJvlOSPHERE BOTTOM-HOLE PRESSURE DROP, PER UNIT
pp'P)
dx'
for which the general solution is the expression
= Ae-xVP
+ Be+xV---;;(VI-9)
By repeating the reasoning already employed in this development, the transform for the pressure drop at x = 0 gives
p'X,p)
P(OVp) = IIp'/'
which is identical with (VI-6) with p the operator of t
KT/f/Lc.
The second simplification for the transform \ VI-4) is to
consider p small, which is equivalent to considering time, t,
large. The expansions for Ko (z) and K, (z) are given in Carslaw and Jaeger," p. 248.
Ko(~)
1log~ +
= - Io(z)
(1+~)(~-)
+
(2!)'
+--
+-
2
1
+-
312
00
(_1)"
: :;
."
+ (
Z_)'
L
(3!)'
z
110g-+'Y
2
(l
(VI-IO)
Eq. V-I. Therefore, the pressure drop at the boundary of the

field when t i,; large is given by
p,,)
= -2
[log 4t - 'Y ]
1
-- [log t
2
0.80907 ]
(VI-IS)
The solution given bv Eq. VI-IS is the solution of the continuous point source problem for large time 1. The relationship
has been applied to the flow of fluids by Bruce," Elkins," and
others, and is particularly applicable for study of interference
between flowing welk
The point source solution originally developed by Lord Kelvin and discm'~.ed in Carsl aw 18 can be expressed as
1,J - -
P"',I) = 2
:r
It
e-"
n
dn =--) -Ei
2
(1 ) r
--
4t
(VI-16l
often referred to as the logarithmic integral or the Ei-function. Its values are given in Tahle" of Sine, Cosine, and Exponential Integrah Volumes I and II, Federal Works Agency,
W.P.A., City of New York. For large values of the time, t,
_~)n+2'
'J
- - - - - - [ :::; m-' +
r! (n+r)!
m~1
( Z
(n-r-l)!
(-1)'
----,2
r!
~
,,0
n-l
(l+~+:)(;)'
Kn(z) =- (_1)"+1 In(z)

,
'Y
SAND THICKNESS.
(VI-8)
)_n+2'
Eq. VI-16 reduces to P".
(VI-ll)
1)
= -- [log
2
4t - 'Y] which is Eq.
VI-IS, and this relation is accurate for values of t> 100.
December, 1949
T.P. 2732
By this development it is evident that the point source solution does not apply at a boundary for the determination of the
pressure drop when t is small. However, when the radius, R b ,
is small, such as a well radius, even small values of the absolute time, T will give large values of the dimensionless time t,
and the point source solution is applicable. On the other
hand, in considering the presmre drop at the periphery of a
field (in which case Rb can have a large numerical value) the
value of t can be easily less than 100 even for large values of
absolute time, T. Therefore, for intermediate times, the rigorous solution of the constant rate case must be used, which
we will now proceed to oLtain.
To develop the explicit solution for the constant terminal
rate case, it is necessary to invert the Laplace transform, Eq.
V1-4., by the Mellin's inversion formula. The path of integratjon for this transform is described by the "cut" along the
negative real axis, Fig. 2, which give6 a single valued function
on each side of the "cut." That is to say that Path AB required by j<;q. V -2 is equal to the Pat11 AD and CB, both of
which are descnbed by a semi-circle of radius infillity. Since
lts integration is zero JIl the second and third quadrant, this
leaves the mtegratlOn along l'atils Du and UC equal LO AB.
The integration on tlie upper portion of the "cut' can be obe +i~ which yields
At, At,
1 _JC(e -e )Ko(VAr)
--:;-:-J
dA
~'IT"1 0
A"I' K,( V A
tained by making A
J:;
-~
= u'
2
functions of the first and second kind of arguments z e
can be expressed by the regular Bessel functions as complex
values, as follows:
171"
)
i7l"
L(z)
The
(VI-20)
The integration along Paths DO and OC is the sum of the
relations VI-I9 and VI-20, or
Pcr. '1) - Per. t,)
~(e-u'tl_e-u't2)
[Y,(u) .To(ur) -J,(U) Yo(ur)] du
-;;:-)
u'[J,'(u) + Y,'(u)]
Initially, that is at time zero, the cumulative pressure drop at
any point in the formation is zero, Per. t~o)
O. Hence, the
pressure drop since zero time equals:
-u t
CXJ (1- e
(VI-2I)
which is the explicit solution of the constant terminal rate case
for an infinite medium.
To determine the cumulative pressure drop for a unit rate
of production at the well bore or field radius, (where r
1)
then Eq. VI-21 changes to
-u't
2 CXJ(I-e
) [J,(U) Yo(u)-Y,(u) Jo(u)] du
P(l.t)
=--:;;0.1
u' [J,'(u) +Y,'(u)]

(VI-22)
By the recurrence formula given in W.B.F., p. 77

2
J,(u) Yo(u) - L(u) Y,(u) =
(VI-23)
7I"U
Equation VI-22 simplifies to

CXJ
(1- e-u't) du
u" [J, 2(U) + Y,'(u)]
(VI-24)
As already shown, the transform of the pressure drop in
.L(z).
(VI-I8)
an infinite medium is P (r.p) = B Ko ( v'p r). In the constant

terminal pressure case it is assumed that at all times the pressure drop at r
1 will be unity, which is expressed as a
transform by Eq. V-I
71"
-2 [J,(z) +
substitution
of
the
i Y,(z) ]
corresponding
values
for
Ko (u ei7l"/2 r) and K, (u e i7l"/2 ) from Eq. VI-18 in Eq. VI-17

gives the integration along the upper portion of the negative
real "cut" as
-u2 t
-u't,
1 ct:J (e '_e
) [Y,(u) -Jo(ur) -J,(U) Yo(ur)] du
r_~~~
. u' [J,'(u) + Y,'(u) ]

(VI-I9)
where the imaginary term has been dropped.
December, 1949
du
+ Y,'(u)]
Constant Terminal Pressure Case
171"
K,(z e
-----~,'(u)
-;;:-)
71"
I, (z e 2)
and
-i7l"/2
K,(u e
)
Using Eq. VI-18, yields the relationship
-u2t,
-u2t.
1 CXJ(e
-e -)[Y,(u)Jo(ur)-J,(u)YO(ur)]
u e
p(t)=,f
Ko (z e
-i7l"/2
17r
10 (z e
-71" J
) [J,(U) Yo(u r) - Y,(u) Jo(u r)] du

Pe,.t) = -;;:-). ---~-. u'[J,'(u) + Y,'(u)]
u' e
K, ( u e' )
(VI-17)
Carslaw and Jaeger" (page 249) shows that modified Bassel
i7l"
-1 CXJ (e-u't'_e-u2t2) Ko (u e-i 7l"/2 r) du
~~-
lrr
-u't
-u'L
(e ' - e -) Ko (u e' r) du
trIO
Likewise, the integration along the under portion of the

-171"
negative real "Cilt" is expressed by A = u' e
and
At,
At,
1
_~_-=-~l Ko (V A ~_
271" CXJ
A3;" K,(V A
P(1.P) = lip
By solving for the constant B at r = 1 in the above formula,
we fidB
n
= 1I PK(v')
o P ,so t h at the transform for the
pressure at any point in the reservoir is expressed by
p(r.p)
Ko(Vp r)
=---
(VI-2S)
p Ko( v'p)
The comparable solution of VI-25 for a cumulative pressure
drop can be developed as before by considering the paths of
Fig. 2, with a pole at the origin, to give the solution
313

IN RESERVOIRS
T.P. 2732
P(r, (1)-P(r, t,)
~(e-u't'_e-u't')[lo(u)
2
71"
TABLE I - Radial Flow, Constant Terminal Pressure
=
Yo(ur)-Yo(u) Jo(ur)]du
u'[lo'(u)
Yo'(u)]
(VI-26)
If we are interesterl in the cumulative fluid influx at the field

radius, r = 1, then the relationship Eq. IV-3' applies, or
Q(t) =
J~
( -oP- )
Of
(IV-3)
dt
r= 1
The determination of the transform of the gradient of the

pressure drop at the field's edge follows from Eq. VI-25,
(~~(:.~ )r=l= --~~/f~~;vp~)

since K: (z) = - K, (z). Since the pressure drop P (r, t) corresponds to the difference between the initial and actual pres
sure, the transform 0. the gradient of the actual pressure at
r = 1 is given by
( -~)
or
r=1
or
K,( V p )
which corresponds to the integrand of Eq. IV3. Further, from

the definition given by Theorem B, namely, that if
P(p)
is the
transform of P(th then the transform of oJ p(t') dt' is given by

P (p) I p and the La place transform for Q,,) is expressed by
and Constant Terminal Rate Cases for Infinite

Reservoirs
P
1.0(10)-'
5.0 "
1.0(10)-1
1.5 "
2.0 "
2.5 "
3.0
4.0 "
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 "
9.0 "
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
1.0(10)1
1.5 "
2.0 H
2.5 "
3.0 "
4.0 "
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 ((
9.0 "
1.0(10)'
1.5 "
2.0 "
2.5 "
3.0 "
4.0 "
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 "
9.0 "
1.0(10)'
0.112
0.278
0.404
0.520
0.606
0.689
0.758
0.898
1.020
1.140
1.251
1.359
1.469
1.570
2.032
2.442
2.838
3.209
3.897
4.541
5.148
5.749
6.314
6.861
7.417
9.965
1.229(10)1
1. 455 "
1.681 "
2.088 !'
2.482 "
2.860 "
3.228 "
3.599 "
3.942 "
4.301 "
5.980 "
7.586 "
9.120 "
10.58
13.48 "
16.24 "
18.97 "
21. 60 "
24.23 "
26.77 "
29.31 "
(VI-27)
The application of the Mellin's inversion formula to Eq. VI-27
follows the paths shown in Fig. 2, giving
Q(t)
= -
71"' 0
-u t
IX'
(1- e
.\ du
J -,--------u [Jo'(u) + Yo2(U) ]
(VI.28)
With respect to the transform Q(P)' there is the simplification

that for time small, p is large, or Eq. VI-27 reduces to
Q(P) = lip'!'
and the inversion is as before
2
Q(t)
= - - - 1'/'
(VI.29)
(VI-30)
V--:;which is identical to the linear flow case. For all other values
of the time, Eq. VI28 must be solved numerically.
Relation Between Q(p) and Pip)

It is evident from the work that has already gone before,
that the Laplace transformation and the superimposition the
orem offer a basis for interchanging the constant terminal
pressure to the constant terminal rate case, and vice versa. In
any reservoir study the essential interest is the analyses of
the flow either at the well bore or the field boundary. The
purpose of this work is to determine the relationship between
Q(t), the constant terminal pressure case, and P (t), the constant terminal rate case, which explicitly refer to the boundary
r = 1. Therefore, if we conceive of the influx of fluid into a
314
(t)
0.112
0.229
0.315
0.376
0.424
0.469
0.503
0.564
0.616
0.659
0.702
0.735
0.772
0.802
0.927
1.020
1.101
1.169
1.275
1.362
1.436
1.500
1.556
1.604
1.651
1.829
1.960
2.067
2.147
2.282
2.388
2.476
2.550
2.615
2.672
2.723
2.921
3.064
3.173
3.263
3.406
3.516
3.608
3.684
3.750
3.809
3.860
1.5(10)'
2.0 "
2.5 "
3;0 "
4.0 "
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0 H
8.0 "
9.0 "
1.0(10)'
1.5 "
2.0 "
2.5 "
3.0 "
4.0 "
5.0
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 ((
9.0 "
1.0(10)'
1.5 "
2.0 "
2.5 "
3.0 "
4.0 "
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 "
9.0 "
1.0(10)'
1.5 "
2.0 "
2.5 "
3.0 "
4.0 '(
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 "
9.0 "
1.0(10)1
4.136(10)'
5.315 "
6.466 "
7.590 "
9.757
11.88 "
13.95 "
15.99 "
18.00 "
19.99 "
21. 96 "
3.146(10)3
4.079 "
4.994 "
5.891 "
7.634 "
9.342 "
11.03 "
12.69 "
14.33 "
15.95 "
17 .56 "
2.538(10)'
3.308 "
4.066
4.817 "
6.267 "
7.699 "
9.113 "
10.51 "
11.89 "
13.26 "
14.62 "
2126(10)5
2.781 "
3.427 "
14.064 "
5.313 "
6.544 "
7.761 "
8.965 "
10.16 "
11.34 "
12.52 "
TABLE I - Continued
1. 5(10)1
2.0 "
2.5 "
3.0 "
4.0 "
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 "
9.0 "
1.0(10)'
1.5 "
2.0 "
2.5 "
3.0 "
4.0 "
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 H
9.0 "
1.0(10)'
1.5 "
2.0 "
2.5 "
3.0 H
4.0 u
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 "
9.0 "
1.0(10)11
1.5 "
2.0 "
2.5 "
3.0 "
4.0 "
5.0 "
6.0 H
7.0 "
8.0 "
9.0 "
1.0(10)"
1. 828(10)'
2.398 "
2.961 "
3.517 "
4.610 "
5.689 "
6.758 "
7.816 "
8.866 "
9.911 "
10.95 "
1. 604(10)'
2.108 "
2.607 "
3.100 "
4.071 "
5.032 "
5.984 "
1.5(10)"
2.0 "
2.5 "
3.0 "
4.0 "
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0 H
8.0 "
9.0 "
1.0(10)1'
1.5 "
2.0 "
1.17(10)10
1.55 "
1.92 "
2.29 "
3.02 "
3.75 "
4.47 "
5.19 "
5.89 "
6.58 "
7.28 "
1.08(10)"
1.42 "
6.928 "
7.865 "
8.797 "
9.725 "
1.429(10),
1. 880 "
2.328 "
2.771 "
3.645 "
4.510 "
5.368 "
6.220 "
7.066 "
7.909 "
8.747 "
1.288(10)'
1. 697 "
2.103 "
2.505 "
3.299 "
4.087 "
4.868 "
5.643 "
6.414 "
7.183 "
7.948 "
December, 1949
T.P. 2732
T ABLE II - Constant Terminal Pressure Case

Radial Flow, Limited Reservoirs
=
1.5
2.8899
9.3452
", =
", =
-=
", =
a~
==
2.0
1.3606
4.6458
==
=
", =
2.5
1
"._', -_-- 0.8663

,,
3.0875
", =
3.0
0.6256
2.3041
weB or field as a constant rate problem, then the actual cumulative fluid produced as a function of the cumulative pressure
drop is expressed by the superposition relationship in Eq.
IV-14 as
Q(T)
= 27rfCR b '
Q't)
5.0(10)-2
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 "
9.0 "
1.0(10)-1
1.1 "
1.2 H
1.3 "
1.4 "
1.5 "
1.6 "
1. 7 "
I 8 "
1: 9 "
2.0 "
2.1
2.2 "
2.3 "
2.4 "
2.5 "
2.6 "
2.8 "
3.0 "
3.2 "
3.4 "
0.276
0.304
0.330
0.354
0.375
0.395
0.414
0.431
0.446
0.461
0.474
0.486
0.497
0.507
0.517
0.525
0.533
0.541
0.548
0.554
0.559
0.565
0.574
0.582
0.588
0.594
0.599
0.603
0.606
0.613
0.617
0.621
0.623
0.624
gm
5.0(10)-'
7.5 "
10(10)-1
1.25 "
1.50 "
1. 75 "
2.00 "
2.25 "
2.50 "
2.75 "
3.00 "
3.25 "
3.50 "
3.75 "
4.00 "
4.25 "
4.50 "
4.75 "
5.00 "
5.50 "
6.00 "
6.50 "
7.00 "
7.50 "
8.00 "
9.00 "
1.00
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.6
2.0"
2.5"
3.0"
3.5"
4.0"
4.5"
5.0"
5.5"
6.0"
6.5"
7.0"
7.5"
8.0"
8.5"
9.0"
9.5"
1.0
0.755
0.895
1.023
1.143
1.256
1.363
1.465
1.563
1.791
!.D97
2.184
2.353
2.507
2.646
2.772
2.886
2.990
3.084
3.170
3.247
3.317
3.381
3.439
3.491
3.581
3.656
3.717
3.767
3.809
3.843
3.894
3.928
3.951
3.67
3.985
3.993
3.997
3.999
3.999
4.000
U(1,?)-l
5.0"
6.0"
7.0"
8.0"
0.897
9.0"
0.962
1.00
1.024
1.25
1.083
1.50
1.140
1.75
1.1951 2.00
;248
2.25
1.229
2.50
1.348
2.75
1.395
3.00
1.440
3.25
1.484
3.50
1.526
3.75
1.1
I. 605
4.00
1.2
1. 679
4.25
1.3
1. 747
4.50
1.4
1.811
4.75
1.5
1.870
5.00
1.6
1.924
5.50
1.7
1.975
6.00
3.6
1.8
2.022
6.50
3.8 "
2.0
2.106
7.00
4.0 "
2.2
2.178
7.50
4.5 "
2.4
2.241
8.00
5.0 H
2.6
2.294
9.00
6.0 "
2.8
2.340 10.00
3.0
2.380 11.00
7.0 "
1.7
8.0 "
1.8
3.4
2.444 12.00
2.0
3.8
2.491 14.00
2.5
4.2
2.525 16.00
3.0
4.6
2.551 18.00
4.0
5.0
2.570 20.00
5.0
6.0
2.599 22.00
7.0
2.613 24.00
8.0
2.619
9.0
2.622
_~~~~~~~~_ _ _ _..::10,-".0~_~2~.~62_4~. _ _
I(
0.404
0.458
0.507
0.553
0.597
0.638
0.678
0.715
0.751
0.785
0.817
0.848
0.877
0.905
0.932
0.958
0.983
1. 028
1. 070
1.108
1.143
1.174
1.203
1.253
1.295
1.330
1.358
1.382
1.402
1.432
1.444
1.453
1.468
;.487
1.495
1.499
1.500
g:Eg~!
U(1,?)-l
0.599
I 0.681
0.758
0.829
=
", =
", ==
3.5
0.4851
1.8374
=
", =
", =
4.0
0.3935
1.5267
", =
", =
4.5
0.3296
1.3051
=
", =
", =
1.571
1. 761
1. 940
2.111
2.273
2.427
2.574
2.715
2.849
2.976
3.098
3.242
3.379
3.507
3.628
3.742
3.850
3.951
4.047
4.222
4.378
4.516
4.639
4.749
4.846
4.932
5.009
5.078
5.138
5.241
5.321
5.385
5.435
5.476
5.506
5.531
5.551
5.579
5.611
5.621
5.624
5.625
2.00
2.20
2.40
2.60
2.80
3.00
3.25
3.50
3.75
4.00
4.25
4.50
4.75
5.00
550\
6.00
6.50
7.00
7.50
8.00
8.50
9.00
9.50
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
20
22
24
26
30
34
38
42
46
50
Oecember, 1949
2.442
2.598
2.748
2.893
3.034
3.170
3.334
3.493
3.645
3.792
3.932
4.068
4.198
4.323
4.560
4.779
4.982
5.169
5.343
5.504
5.653
5.790
5.917
6.035
6.246
6.425
6.580
6.7'2
6.825
6.922
7.004
7.076
7.189
7.272
7.332
7.377
7.434
7.464
7.481
7.490
7.494
7.497
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
34
38
42
46
50
60
70
80
90
100
2.835
3.196
3.537
3.859
4.165
4.454
4.727
4.986
5.231
5.464
5.684
5.892
6.089
6.276
6.453
6.621
6.930
7.208
7.457
7.680
7.880
8.060
8.365
8.611
8.809
8.968
9.097
9.200
9.283
9.404
9.481
9.532
9565
9.586
9.612
9.621
9.623
9.624
9.625
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
34
38
42
46
50
60
70
80
90
100
120
dt'
Q(t-t')
(IV-14)
dt'
---;w--
Since the rate is constant, Q(T)=q(T) x T, and as t=KT/flLcR,;

this relation becomes
t
dP(t')
t =
f
- Q(tl') dt'
(VI-31)
o
dt'
To express Eq. VI-31 in transformation form, the transform
for t is lip', Campbell and Foster, Eq. 408.1. The transform
for P (t) at r = I is P (p), and it follows from Theorem A that
dP(t)
the transform of ~~~ is pP(V) as the cumulative pressure
dt
drop P, t) for constant rate is zero at time zero. Finally from
Theorem D, the transform for the integration of the form Eq.
VI-31 is equal to the product of the transforms for each of the
two terms in the integrand, or
TABLE II - Continued
5.0
0.2823
1.1392
", =
", =
6.0
0.2182
0.9025
R _
", =
", =
7.0
0.1767
0.7534
R _ 8.0
R _
", =
a,
a,
0.1476
0.6438
1.00
1.20
1. 40
1.60
1.80
2.00
2.20
2.40
2.60
2.80
3.00
3.25
3.50
3.75
4.00
4.25
4.50
4.75
5.00
5.50
6.00
6.50
7.00
7.50
8.00
8.50
9.00
9.50
10.00
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
20
25
30
35
40
d~P
J ---
when ~P is the cumulative pressure drop at the well bore

affected by producing the well at constant rate which is established by
q,'1") IL P(t)
~P = ~~.~(IV-H)
2rrK
The substitution of Eg. 1'/-11 ill IV-14 give;
q(T) flLCR b '
~ d P(t')
Q(T) =
K
)
Q(t'l') dt'
TABLE II - Continued
R
3.195
3.542
3.875
4.193
4.499
4.792
5.074
5.345
5.605
5.854
6.094
6.325
6.547
6.760
6.965
7.350
7.706
8.035
8.339
8.620
8.879
9.338
9.731
10.07
10.35
10.59
10.80
10.98
11.26
11.46
11.61
11. 71
11.79
11.91
11.96
11.98
11.99
12.00
12.0
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
10.5
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
22
24
25
31
35
39
51
60
70
80
PO
100
JlO
120
130
140
150
160
180
200
220
5.148
5.440
5.724
6.002
6.273
6.537
6.795
7.047
7.293
7.533
7.767
8.220
8.651
9.063
9.456
9.829
10.19
10.53
10.85
11.16
11.74
12.26
12.50
13.74
14.40
14.93
16.05
16.56
16.91
17.14
17.27
17.36
17.41
17.45
17.46
17.48
17.49
17.49
17.50
17.50
9.00
9.50
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
22
24
26
28
30
35
40
45
50
60
70
80
90
100
120
140
160
180
200
500
6.851
7. ,27
7.389
7.902
8.397
8.876
9.341
9.791
10.23
10.65
11.05
11.46
11.85
12.58
13.27
13.92
14.53
15.11
16.39
17.49
18.43
19.24
20.51
21.45
22.13
22.63
23.00
23.47
23.71
23.85
23.92
23.96
24.00
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
22
24
26
28
30
34
38
40
45
50
55
60
70
80
90
100
120
140
160
180
200
240
280
320
360
400
500
17.50
~.
a,
9.0
0.1264
0.5740
6.861
7.398
7.920
8.431
8.930
9.418
9.895
10.361
10.82
11.26
11. 70
12.13
12.95
13.74
14.50
15.23
15.92
17.22
18.41
18.97
20.26
21.42
22.46
23.40
24.98
26.26
27.28
28.11
29.31
30.08
30.58
30.91
31.12
31.34
31.43
31.47
31.49
31.50
31.50
10
15
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
H
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
120
140
160
180
200
240
280
320
360
400
440
480
R _10.0
"1
=
", =
0.1104
0.4979
7.41,
9.945
12.26
13.13
13.98
14.79
15.59
16.35
7.10
17.82
18.52
19.19
19.85
20.48
21.09
21.69
22.26
22.82
23.36
23.89
24.39
24.88
25.36
26.48
27.52
28.48
29.36
30.18
30.93
31.63
32.27
34.39
35.92
37.04
37.85
38.44
39.17
39.56
39.77
39.88
39.94
39.97
39.98
15
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
120
140
160
180
200
240
289
320
360
400
440
480
9.965
12.32
13.22
14.09
14.95
15.78
16.59
17.38
18.16
18.91
19.65
20.37
21.07
21. 7(;
22.42
23.07
23.71
24.:13
24.94
25.53
26.11
26.67
23.02
29.29
30.49
31.61
32.67
33.66
H.60
35.48
38.51
40.89
42.75
44.21
45.36
46.95
47.94
48.54
48.91
49.14
49.28
49.36
31!

IN RESERVOIRS
T.P. 2732
1
PIt)
To determine the integration for Q(t) in the region of the

origin, Eq. VI-28 can be expres;;ed as
Qo(t)
.0
=-;;)
= t of
du
-=-:--------=-::-
[0.11593 -log 6J
u [log u - 0.11593],
(VI-34}
The integration for P, t) close to the origin is expressed by
-u't
4
0=0.02
(l-e
) du
(VI-35 )
P (t)
a
... 0 J
u'[J,'(u) + y,'(u)]
=,
For u equal to or less than 0.02, J,(u)

2/ ... u so that Eq. VI-35 reduces to
and Q(O
To plot P ( t ) and Q(t) as work-curves, it is necessary to determine numerically the value for the integrals shown in Eqs.
VI-24 and VI-28. In treating the infinite integrals for PIt) and
Q,t), the only difficult part is in establishing the integrals for
~mall values of u. For larger values of u the integrands converge fairly rapidly, and Simpson's rule for numerical integration has proved sufficiently accurate.
(t)
,1
Evidence of this identity can be confirmed by substituting

Eqs. VI4 and VI-27 in Eq. VI-32. In brief, Eq. VI-32 is the
relationship between constant terminal pressure and constant
terminal rate cases. If the Laplace transformation for one is
known, the transform for the other is established. This interchange can only take place in the transformations and the
final solution must be by inversion.
Computation of
(VI-32)
p'
P a(t) =
= 0,
and Y,(u) =
-u't
)
- - - - - du
a (1- e
(VI-36)
If we let n = u't
(t)
"
= --12
.o't (1 - e
j
-n
dl!
-----
(VI-37)
Further,
-n
.O't (l - e-n) dn
.J
o
/ (1- e
) dn
( VI38)
-u't
(1- e
) du
u'[Jo'(u) +Yo'(u)J
(VI-33)
Since Euler's constant
"Y
is equal to
where the value for 0 is taken such that 1 _ e-u t ,...., u't,
whieh is true fgr u't equal to or less than 0.02, or 0 = \' 0.02/ t
and the simplification for Eq. VI-33 becomes
4t
du
Ii
Qo(t) = ..., ) ' u[Jo'(u) + Yo'(u)J

For n less than 0.02, J 0 (u) = 1, and
2
Yo (u) ,...., ...
log - +
2
"Y ~
= -...
log u - 0.11593 ~
Substitution of this relation in Eq. VI-38 gives

.o't(l-e-n)dn
~e-"
ldn
J - - - ="Y + , j dn - , J o
n
"t
n
o-t
n
and sinee the seeond term on the right is the Eifunetion already discussed in the earlier part of this work, Eq. VI-37
reduces to
As the logarithmic term is most predominant in the denom.

inator for small values of u, this eqnation simplifies to
1
(t)
[ 'Y -
+ log
Ei (- o't)
6't
(VI-39)
TABLE III - Constant Terminal Rate Case Radial Flow - Limited Reservoirs
R , _ 1.5
6.3225
11.924
f3, =
fJ, =
t
f3, =
f3, =
PIt)
2.0
3.1965
6.3118
PIt)
-.-------- ------6.0(10)-'
8.0 "
1.0(10)-1
1.2 "
1.4 "
1.6 "
1.8 "
2.0 H
2.2 "
2.4 "
2.6 u
2.8 u
3.0 "
3.5 "
4.0 "
4.5 "
5.0 "
5.5 "
6.0 "
0.251
0.288
0.322
0.355
0.387
0.420
0.452
0.484
0.516
0.548
0.580
0.612
0.644
0.724
0.804
0.884
0.964
1.044
1.124
22(10)-1
2.4 "
2.6 H
2.8 "
3.0 "
3.2 H
3.4 u
3.6 "
3.8 "
4.0 "
4.2 "
4.4 "
4.6 "
4.8 "
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 u
9.0 "
1.0
2.0
3.0
5.0
0.443
0.459
0.476
0.492
0.507
0.522
0.536
0.551
0.565
0.579
0.593
0.607
0.621
0.634
0.648
0.715
0.782
0.849
0.915
0.982
1.649
2.316
3.649
R _ 2.5
2.1564
4.2230
f3, =
f3, =
t
PIt)
R _
f3, =
fJ, =
t
3.0
1.6358
3.1787
PIt)
R _ 3.5
1.3218
2.5526
f3, =
f3, =
t
4
1.1120
2.1342
P (t)
R =
fJ, =
fJ, =
t
4:5~--
0.9609
1.8356
P(t)
-~-
4.0(10)-1
4.2 "
4.4 "
4.6 "
4.8 "
5.0 If
5.2 H
5.4 ..
5.6 "
5.8 "
6.0 /4
6.5 "
7.0 It
7.5 "
8.0 "
8.5 "
9.0 ..
9.5 "
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
0.565
0.576
0.587
0.598
0.608
0.618
0.628
0.638
0.647
0.657
0.666
0.688
0.710
0.731
0.752
0.772
0.792
0.812
0.832
1.215
1.596
1.977
2.358
5.2(10)
5.4 "
5.6 "
6.0 It
6.5 u
7.0 If
7.5 If
8.0 "
8.5 "
9.0 "
9.5 "
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
0.627
0.636
0.645
0.662
0.683
0.703
0.721
0.740
0.758
0.776
0.791
0.806
0.865
0.920
0.973
1.076
1.328
1.578
1.828
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.25
2.50
2.75
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
I
316
P(t)
R _
f3, =
fJ, =
0.802
0.830
0.857
0.882
0.906
0.929
0.951
0.973
0.994
1.014
1.034
1.083
1.130
1.176
1.221
1.401
1.579
1.757
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
l.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
0.927
0.948
0.968
0.988
1.007
1.025
1.059
1.092
1.123
1.154
1.184
1.255
1.324
1.392
1.460
1.527
1.594
1.660
1.727
1.861
1.994
2.127
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
~.O
3.2
i
3.6
.8
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
.0'0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
1.023
1.040
1.056
1.072
1.087
1.102
1.116
1.130
1.144
1.158
1.171
1.197
1.222
1.246
1.269
1.292
1.349
1.403
1.457
1.510
1.615
1. 719
1.823
1.927
2.031
2.135
2.239
2.343
2.447
December, 1949
T.P. 2732

The values for the integrands for Eqs. VI24 and VI23
have been calculated from Bessel Tables for or greater than
()'o2 as given in W.B.F., pp. 666697. The calculations have
been somewhat simplified by using the square of the modulus
of
IHo(l) (u) l=iJo(u) +i Yo(u) I and iH,<l)(u) i=iJ,(u) +i Y,(u) I
which are the Bessel functions of the third kind or the Hankel
functions.
Table I shows the calculated values for Q(t) and p(t) to
three significant figures, starting at t = 0.01, the point where
linear flow. and radial flow start deviating. P (t) is calculated
only to t = 1,000 since beyond this range the point source
solution of Eq. VI-IS applies. The values for Q,t) are given
lip to t = 10".
The reader may reproduce these data as he sees fit; Fig. 4
is an illustrative plot for Q(t), and Fig. 7 is a semi-logarithmic
relationship for P't1-
there exists a restriction such that no fluid can flow past this
a'OrP_) r=R =
barrier so that at that point (
O.
The general solution of Eq. VI-l still applies, but to fulfill

the boundary conditions it is necessary to re-determine values
for constants A and B. The transformation of the boundary
condition at r = I is expres!'ed as
-
(VII-I)
= AI" (\1 p ) + BKo (\1 p )
and at r = R the condition is

(VII-2)
since it is shown in W.B.F., p. 79, that Ko' (z) = - K, (z), and
10' (z) = I, (z). The solutions for A and B from these two
,imultaneous algebraic expressions are
A=K,(YpR)/p[K,(V-pR) I..(yp)+K.(Yp) I,(YpR)]
and
B=I, (Yp R)/p[K,( Yp R) Io( Vp) +Ko( '/p) 1,( Yp R)]
LIMITED RESERVOIRS
As already mentioned, tIte solutions for limited reservoirs
of radial symmetry have been developed by the Fourier-Bessel
type of expansion.""" Their introduction here is not only to
show how the solutions may be arrived at by the Laplace
transformation, but also to furnish data for P(1l and Q(t)
curves when such cases are encountered in practice.
No Fluid Flow Across Exterior Boundary

The first exam pIe considered is the constant terminal pressure case for radial flow of limited extent. The boundary conditions are such that at the well bore or field's edge, r = 1,
the cumulative pressure drop is unity, and at some distance
removed from this boundary at a point in the reservoir r = R,
By substituting these constants in Eq. VI-I, the general solution for the transform of the pressure drop is expressed by
p[K,(ypR) Io(Y-p) +I,(YpR) Ko(YPlJ

(VII-3)
To find Q(t) the cumulative fluid produced for unit pressure drop, then the transform for the pressure gradient at
r = I is obtained as follows:
-(..Q~)r~
[I,(yp_R)K'(Y~ -Kl(Y~R)I,(Y~)J
p'l' [K, ( Y p R) 10 ( Y p ) + I, ( Y p R) Ko ( Y p ) ]
where the negative sign is introduced in order to make Q (t)
T ABLE III - Continued

R -
fJ,
fJ,
= 0.8472
= 1.6112
t
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.0
4.2
4.4
4.6
4.8
5.0
5.5
B.O
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
~.225
---
December, 1949
It
fJ,
fJ,
PIt)
1.167
1.180
1.192
1.204
1.215
1.227
1.238
1.249
1.259
1.270
1.281
1.301
1.321
1.340
1.360
1.378
1.424
1.469
1.513
1.556
1.598
1.641
1.725
1.808
1.892
1. 975
2.059
2.142
R _ 6.0
fJ,
fJ,
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
= 0.6864
= 1.2963
p(t)
1.275
1.322
1.364
1.404
1.441
1.477
1.511
1.544
1.576
1.607
1.638
1.668
1.698
1. 757
1.815
1.873
1.931
1.988
2.045
2.103
2.160
2.217
2.274
2.560
2.846
7.0
P(t)
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
20.0
22.0
24.0
26.0
28.0
30.0
1.436
1.470
1.501
1.531
1.559
1.586
1.613
1.638
1.663
1.711
1. 757
1.801
1.845
1.888
1. 931
1. 974
2.016
2.058
2.100
2.184
2267
2.351
2.434
2.517
R _ 9.0
R _ 8.0
= 0.5782
= 1.0860
fJ,
fJ,
= 0.4999
= 0.9352
II
fJ, =
fJ, =
0.4406
0.8216
fJ,
fJ,
10
= 0.3940
= 0.7333
I
P (1)
P ,t)
t
t
P(t)
- - - - - - - -I- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.651
12.0
8.0
1.556
10.0
1. 732
1.673
12.5
8.5
1.582
10.5
1. 750
9.0
1.693
13.0
1.607
11.0
1. 768
13.5
1. 713
1. 784
9.5
1.631
11.5
1. 732
14.0
10.0
1. 653
12.0
1.801
1. 750
10.5
1.675
12.5
14.5
1.817
1. 768
15.0
11.0
1.697
13.0
1.832
1. 786
15.5
11.5
13.5
1.847
1. 717
1.803
16.0
12.0
1. 737
14.0
1.862
1.819
17.0
12.5
14.5
1.890
1. 757
1.835
18.0
1.917
13.0
1. 776
15.0
1.851
19.0
13.5
15.5
1.943
1. 795
1.867
20.0
14.0
1.813
16.0
1. 968
14.5
1.831
17.0
1.897
22.0
~.011
1.926
15.0
1.849
18.0
24.0
2.063
17.0
1. 919
1.955
26.0
19.0
2.108
19.0
20.0
1.983
28.0
1.986
2.151
21.0
2.051
2.037
22.0
30.0
2.194
2.090
32.0
23.0
2.1J6
24.0
2.236
25.0
2.180
26.0
2.142
34.0
2.278
2.193
30.0
2.340
28.0
36.0
2.319
2.244
2.499
38.0
35.0
30.0
2.360
2.345
40.0
2.658
34.0
40.0
2.401
45.0
2.817
2.446
38.0
50.0
2.604
2.496
40.0
60.0
2.806
2.621
45.0
70.0
3.008
50.0
2.746
I
317
T.P. 2732

IN RESERVOIRS
pOSJtJve. Theorem B shows that the integration with respect

to time introduC'es an additional operator p in the denomi
nator to give
which indicate the poles. Since the modified Bessel functions

for positive real arguments are either increasing or decreas
ing, the bracketed term in the denominator does not indicate
any poles for positive real values for p. At the origin of the
plane of Fig. 2 a pole exists and this pole we shall have to
investigate first. Thus, the substitution of small and real
values for z (Eqs. VI.12 and VI.13) in Eq. VII4, gives
[I,(Vp R) K,(Vp] -K,(Vp R) 1,(Vp )]

p'I'[K,(V p R) lo(Vp )
+ L(Vp R) K.,(V p
l]
(VII.4)
(R'-l)
Q(,,)=-~
In order to apply Mellin's inversion formula, the first con

,ideration is the roots of the denominator of this equation
p~O
TABLE IV - Constant Terminal Rate Case Radial Flow

Pressure at Exterior Radius Constant
R == 3.0
R == 2.5
I
A, == 1.2426
A, == 0.9596
Ac_._=--,':-3_.2_2_65_ _ _ _ 1_ _ _ _A_._== 2.4372
... ____A_,_==_9---,._52_0_7_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _A_,_==---,-4_._80_2_1_ _ _ I_____
I~ == 2.0
R == 1.5
A, == 3.4029
R == 3.5
A, == 0.7852
A, == 1.9624
A, == 1.7940
t
Pit)
5.0(10)-'
5.5 "
6.0
'I
7.0 1/
8.0 "
9.0 "
1.0(10)-1
1.2 "
1.4 u
1.6 "
1.8 "
2.0 "
2.2 It
2.4 It
2.6 "
2.8 "
3.0 "
3.5 1/
4.0 "
4.5 Ie
5.0 II
6.0 "
7.0 u
8.0 II
I'
0.230
0.240
0.249
0.266
0.282
0.292
0.307
0.328
0.344
0.356
0.367
0.375
0.381
0.386
0.390
0.393
0.396
0.400
0.402
0.404
0.405
0.405
0.405
0.405
2.0(10)-1
2.2 "
2.4 "
2.6 It
2.8 "
3.0 II
3.5 "
4.0 ((
4.5 "
5.0 II
5.5 "
6.0 II
6.5 It
7.0 H
7.5 H
8.0 "
8.5 "
g.o
II
9.5 "
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.424
0.441
0.457
0.472
0.485
0.498
0.527
0.552
0.573
0.591
0.606
0.619
0.630
0.639
0.647
0.654
0.660
0.665
0.669
0.673
0.682
0.688
0.690
0.692
0.692
0.693
0.693
3.0(10)-1
3.5 "
4.0 H
4.5 'f
5.0 "
5.5 "
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 "
9.0 "
1.0
L~
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
0.502
0.535
0.564
0.591
0.616
0.638
0.659
0.696
0.728
0.755
0.778
0.815
0.842
0.861
0.876
0.887
0.895
0.990
0.905
0.908
0.910
0.913
0.915
0.916
0.916
0.916
0.916
-0-.6-17-- 0.640
0.662
0.702
0.738
0.770
0.799
o 850
0.892
0.927
0.955
0.980
1.000
1.016
1.030
1.042
1.051
1.069
1.080
1.087
1.091
1.094
1.096
1.097
1. 097
1.098
1.099
5.0(10)-1
5.5 "
6.0 It
7.0 "
8.0 I'
9.0 H
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
8.0
10.0
50(10)--;- --0-.6-206.0 "

0.665
7.0 "
0.705
8.0 "
0.741
9.0 "
0.774
1.0
0.804
1.2
0.858
1.4
0.904
1.6
0.945
1.8
0.981
2.0
1.013
2.2
1.041
2.4
1.065
2.6
1.087
2.8
1.106
3.0
1.123
3.5
1.158
4.0
1.183
5.0
1.215
6.0
1.282
7.0
1.242
8.0
1.247
9.0
1.250
10.0
1.251
12.0
1.252
14.0
1.253
16.0
1.253
----------------------------~------~--------~---------------------------~------~---------
TABLE IV -- Continued
R == 4.0
A, == 0.6670
A, == 1.6450
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
'J.O
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.4
3.8
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
318
R == 6.0
A, == 0.4205
A, == 1.0059
0.802
0.857
0.905
0.947
0.986
1.020
1.052
1.080
1.106
1.130
1.152
1.190
1.222
1.266
1.290
1.309
1.325
1.347
1.361
1.370
1.376
1.382
1.385
1.386
1.386
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
22.0
24.0
26.0
28.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
50.0
1.275
1.320
1.361
1.398
1.432
1.462
1.490
1.516
1.539
1.561
1.580
1.615
1.667
1.704
1. 730
1.749
1. 762
1.771
1.777
I. 781
1.784
1. 787
1.789
1. 791
1. 792
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
22.0
24.0
26.0
28.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
45.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
R == 8.0
A, == 0.3090
A, == 0.7286
A, == 0.2448
A, == 0.5726
1.499
1.527
1.554
1.580
1.604
1.627
1.648
1. 724
1.786
1.837
1.879
1.914
1.943
1.967
1.986
2.002
2.016
2.040
2.055
2.064
2.070
2.076
2.078
2.079
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
45.0
50.0
55.0
60.0
65.0
70.0
75.0
80.0
90.0
10.0(10)1
11.0 "
12.0 H
13.0 "
14.0 "
16.0
I(
== 10
1.651
1. 730
I. 798
1.856
1.907
1.952
2.043
2.111
2.160
2.197
2.224
2.245
2.260
2.271
2.279
2.285
2.290
2.293
2.297
2.300
2.301
2.302
2.302
2.302
2.303
R == 15
A, = 0.1616
A, == 0.3745
20.0
22.0
24.0
26.0
28.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
45.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
SO.O
90.0
10.0(10)'
12.0 If
14.0 "
16.0 "
18.0 H
20.0 H
22.0 u
24.0 H
26.0 "
28.0 H
30.0 "
1.960
2.003
2.043
2.080
2.114
2.146
2.218
2.279
2.332
2.379
2.455
2.513
2.558
2.592
2.619
2.655
2.677
2.689
2.697
2.701
2.704
2.706
2.707
2.707
2.708
December, 1949

and by the application of Mellin's inversion formula applied
at the origin, then
(R'-l)
R'-l
lished by the Mellin's inven;ion formula by letting A = u'e

then by Eqs. VIIS
-
(VII5)
----dA=--
T.P. 2732
I
27ri
fe
At-
Q(A)d A
A" A" etc.
-u't
[.I,(uR) Y,(u) - Y,(uR) .I,(u)] du
u'[J,(uR) Yo(u) - Y,(uR) .In(U)]

a1 , a'2, etc.
where at, a" and an are the roots of
7ri
An investigation of the integration along the negative real

"cut" both for the upper and lower portions, Fig. 2, reveals
that Eq. VIl-4 is an e\'en function for which the integration
along the paths is zero. However, poles are indicated along
the negative real axis and the~e residuals together with Eq.
VIIS make up the wlution for the constant terminal pre '~ure
("acc for the limited radial sy~tem. The re,iduaI, are e,tab
hr
(VII,6)
(VII.7)
[.L(anR) Yn(a n) - Yt(anR) .In(a.,)] = 0
and the pole, are represented on the negatiye real axis
by An = - an', Fig. 3. The residuals of Eq. VII6 are the series
expansion
TABLE IV - Continued
:= 20
A, =
A, =
R'
A, = 0.0964S
A, = 0.~223
0.1208
0.2788
n =
= 25
(t)
------- ----30.0
2.,48
~gZ
~~~g
45.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
10.0(10)1
10.5 "
11.0 "
11.5 "
12.0 "
12.5 "
13.0 "
13.5 "
14.0 "
14.5 "
15.0 "
16.0 "
18.0 "
20.0 "
24.0 "
28.0 "
30.0 "
40.0 "
50.0 "
2.338
2.388
2.475
2.547
2.609
2.658
2.707
2.728
2.747
2.764
2.781
2.796
2.810
2.823
2.835
2.846
2.857
2.876
2.906
2.929
2.958
2.975
2.980
2.992
2.995
tiP'
(t)
-----~
50.0
~gg
-----'----,-
40
A, = 0.06019
A, = 0.1384
P
'
ttl
'tl
A =
A: -t
50
0.04~13
0.110
P't)
---- -- - - - - - -------- ------- -------- - - - - - --2.389

70.0
2.551
120(10)1
2.813
20.0(10)1
3.064
65.0
70.0
75.0
80.0
85.0
90.0
95.0
10.0(10)1
12.0 "
14.0 "
16.0 "
18.0 "
20.0 "
22.0 "
24.0 "
26.0 "
28.0 "
30.0 "
35.0 "
40.0 "
45.0 "
50.0 "
60.0 "
70.0 "
80.0 "
90.0 "
A =
A: =
30
0.08032
0.1849
~:m
~gg
~m
2.514
2.550
2.583
2.614
2.643
2.671
2.697
2.721
2.807
2.878
2.936
2.984
3.024
3.057
3.085
3.107
3.126
3.142
3.171
3.189
3.200
3.207
3.214
3.217
3.218
3.219
10.0(10)1
12.0 "
14.0 "
16.0 "
&5 "
17.0 "
17.5 "
18.0 "
20.0 "
25.0 "
30.0 "
35.0 "
40.0 "
45.0 "
50.0 "
60.0 "
70.0 "
80.0 "
90.0 "
10.0(10)'
12.0 "
14.0 "
2.723
2.812
2.886
2.950
2.965
2.979
2.992
3.006
3.054
3.150
3.219
3.269
3.306
3.332
3.351
3.375
3.387
3.394
3.397
3.399
3.401
3.401
ltg ::
18.0 "
20.0 "
22.0 "
24.0 "
26.0 "
28.0 "
30.0 "
35.0 "
40.0 "
45.0 "
50.0 "
55.0 "
60.0 "
65.0 "
70.0 "
80.0 "
90.0 "
10.0(10)'
12.0 "
14.0 "
16.0 "
18.0 "
20.0 "
25.0 "
::
~~~~
~U
3.011
3063
26.0 "
28.0 "
30.0 "
35.0 "
40.0 "
45.0 "
50.0 "
55.0 "
60.0 "
65.0 "
70.0 "
75.0 "
80.0 "
85.0 "
90.0 "
95.0 "
10.0(10)'
12.0 "
14.0 "
16.0 "
18.0 "
20.0 "
22.0 "
24.0 "
26.0 "
28.0 "
3.1O~
3.152
3.191
3.226
3.259
3.331
3.391
3.440
3.482
3.516
3.545
3.568
3.588
3.619
3.640
3.655
3.672
3.681
3.685
3.687
3.688
3.689
~lU
3.193
3.229
3.263
3.339
3.405
3.461
3.512
3.55~
3.591>
3.630
3.661
3.688
3.713
3,731>
3.754
3.771
3.787
3.833
3.862
3.881
3.892
3.900
3.904
3.907
3.90!)
3.9W
TABLE IV -Continued
----------'---'-'---"------,-------------;----
It
60
70
"-"-------,----------90
R = 100
-,--
80
P,"
------1------1------------ - - - - - ----.-- --------1------ - - - - - -----,3.0(10)2

4.0 "
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0 /I
8.0 "
9.0 "
10.0 "
12.0 "
14.0 "
16.0 "
18.0 "
20.0 "
25.0 "
30.0 "
35.0 H
40.0 "
45.0 "
50.0 "
55.0 "
December, 1949
3.2m
3.401
3.512
3.602
3.676
3.739
3.792
3.832
3.908
3.959
3.996
4.023
4.043
4.071
4084
4.090
4.092
4.093
4.094
4.094
50(10)'
6.0 "
7.0 .
8.0 "
9.0 "
10.0 "
12.0 "
14.0 "
16.0 "
18.0 "
20.0 "
2.1.0 "
30.0 "
35.0 "
40.0 "
45.0 "
50.0 "
55.0 "
60.0 "
65.0 "
70.0 "
75.0 "
80.0 "
3.512
3.603
3.689
3.746
3.803
3.854
3.937
4.003
4.054
4.095
4.127
4.181
4.211
4.228
4.237
4.242
4.245
4.247
4.247
4.248
4.248
4.248
4.248
60(10)'
7.0 "
8.0 ..
9.0 "
10.0 "
12.0 "
14.0 "
15.0 If
16.0 "
18.0 "
20.0 "
25.0
30.0 "
35.0 "
40.0 ((
45.0 "
50.0 ((
60.0 "
70.0 ((
80.0 "
90.0 H
10.0(10)'
11.0 "
(j
3.603
3.689
3.747
3.805
3.857
3.946
4.019
4.051
4.080
4.130
4.171
4.248
4.297
4.328
4.347
4.360
4.308
4.3i6
4.380
4.381
4.382
4.382
4.382
80(10)'
9.0 "
1.0(1,)'
1.2 "
1.3 "
1.4 "
1.5 "
1.8 "
2.0 "
2.5 "
3.0 "
3.5 "
4.0 H
4.5 "
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 "
9,0
10.0
11.0
12.0
14.0
"
"
"
"
3.747
3.803
3.858
3.949
3.988
4.025
4.058
4.144
4.192
4.285
4.349
4.394
4.426
4.448
4.404
4.482
4.491
4.496
4.498
4.499
4.499
4.500
4.500
1. 0(10)3
1.2 "
1.4 "
1.6 "
1.8 "
2.0 "
2.5 "
3.0 II
3.5 "
4.0 H
4.5 "
5.0 "
5.5 u
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
9.0
10.0
12.5
15.0
"
"
II
"
II
"
"
"
"
3.859
3.949
4.026
4.092
4.150
4.200
4.303
4.379
4.434
4.478
4.510
4.534
4.552
4.565
4.579
4.583
4.588
4.593
4.598
4.601
4.604
4.605
319

IN RESERVOIRS
T.P. 2732
Therefore, the solution for Q (t) is expres>'ed by
e-an 't[l,(a o R) Y,(a n) -Y,(anR) ll(an)]

d
. (VII.8)
-fln't
ll' -. 1
ao'limd)J,(uR) Yo(u) -Y, (uR) Jo(u)]
etc.
Q(I,
u~an
= .---- 2
2
(VII.lO)
fl,,'[lo'(fl n) -],')fl"R)]
The values of Q(,) for the constant terminal pressure case

for a limited reservoir have been calculated from Eq. VIIIO
for R = 1.5 to 10 and are tabulated in Table 2. A reproduction
of a portion of these data is given in Fig. 5. As Eq. VIIIO is
rapidly convergent for t greater than a given value, only two
e-a,,'t J,' (aoR)
:!:
aha,
-----
This is essentially the solution developed in an earlier work:

hut Eq. VIIlO is more rapidly convergent than the solution
previously reT,orted.
J.'(z) =-J,(z)
which are recurrence formulae for both first and ~econd kind
of Bessel functions, W.B.F., p. 45 and p. 66, then by the iden
tities of Eqs. VII7 and VI.23, the relation VII8 reduces to
(jJ
(VII9)
J,'(z) = L(z) -J,(Z)/Z

and
- 2
a,. a,
etc.
since
],'(floll)
(jJ
fl,,'[J..'(a n ) -J,'(a"R)]
etc.
T ABLE IV - Continued
- - - - - - - - _ . _ - _ _------_.
..
400
t R =
200
p(,,_' ___
--------.--- -
1.5(10)'
2.0 "
2.51"
3.0 "
4.061
4.205
4.317
4.40S
4.485
4.552
4.663
4.754
4.829
4.894
4.949
4.996
5.072
5.129
5.171
5203
5.237
5.264
5.282
5.290
5294
a.5~"
4.01"
5.01"
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 "
9.0 "
10.0 "
12.0 "
14 0 "
16.0 "
18.0 .,
20.0 "
2.5.0 "
30.0 "
35.0 "
40.0 "
_
--- -
t R
-
300
Pet)
_ __
- - - - - -- - - - - - -
60(10)'
8.0 "
10.0 "
12.0 "
14.0 "
16.0 "
18.0 "
20.0 "
24.0 "
28.0 "
30.0 "
40.0 "
50.0 "
60.0 "
700 "
80.0 "
90.0 "
10.0(10)'
12.0 "
14.0 "
15.0 "
4.754
4.898
5.010
5.101
5.177
5.242
5.299
.1.348
5.429
5.491
5.517
5.606
5.652
5.676
5.690
.5.696
5.700
5.702
5.703
5.704
5.704
--
t He =
---- -
1.5(10)'
2.0 "
3.0 "
4.0 "
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 "
9.0 "
10.0 "
11.0 "
12.0 "
12.5 "
13.0 "
14.0 "
16.0 "
18.0 "
20.0 "
24.0 "
26.0 "
p(~ __ I____
__ __. _ - - - - - - - - .
R =
600
P._'_=_5_00_ _(t)
I
-
-----
--- 1
5.212
5.356
5.556
5.689
5.781
5.845
5.889
5.920
5.942
5.957
5.967
5.975
5.977
5.980
5.983
5.988
5.990
5.991
5.991
5.991
2.0(10)'
2.5 "
3.0 "
3.5 It
4.0 "
4.5 "
5.356
5.468
5.559
5.636
5.702
5.759
5.810
5.894
5.960
6.013
6.055
6.088
6.135
6.164
6.183
6.195
6.202
6.211
6.213
6.214
6.214
5,0 "
6.0 u
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
"
"
"
"
"
"
16.0 "
18.0 "
20.0 "
25.0 H
30.0 "
35.0 "
40.0 "
40(10)'
4.5 H
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
111.0
18.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
.~~g
5.703
5.762
5.814
5.904
5.979
6.041
6.094
6.139
6.210
6.262
6.299
6.326
6.345
6.374
6.387
6.392
6.395
6.397
6.397
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
::
__. _ - _ . _ - ' - - - -
R
R =
700
800
900
t(
5.814
5.905
5.982
6.048
6.105
6.156
6.239
6.305
6.357
6.398
6.430
6.484
6.514
6.530
6.540
6.545
6.548
6.550
6.551
6.551
7.0(10)'
8.0 "
9.0 "
10.0 "
12.0 "
14.0 "
16.0 "
18.0 "
20.0 "
25.0 "
30.0 "
35.0 H
40.0 "
45.0 "
50.0 "
55.0 "
60.0 "
70.0 "
80.0 "
100.0 "
1200
p(t)
- - - - 1 - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - ---.-.-.---- . - - - -
- - - - - - -------1----5.0(10)'
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 "
9.0 "
10.0 "
12.0 "
14.0 "
16.0 "
18.0 "
20.0 "
25.0 "
30.0 "
35.0 "
40.0 "
45.0 "
50.0 "
60.0 "
70.0
80.0 H
1000
5.983
6.049
6.108
6.160
6.249
6.322
6.382
6.432
6.474
6.551
6.599
6.630
6.650
6.663
6.1171
6.676
6.6i9
6.682
6.684
6.684
8.0(10)'
9.0 "
10.0 "
12.0 "
14.0 "
16.0 "
18.0 "
20.0 "
25.0 "
30.0 "
40.0 "
45.0 "
50.0 "
55.0 "
60.0 "
70.0 H
80.0 "
90.0 "
10.0(10)'
6.049
6.108
6.161
6.251
6.327
6.392
6.447
6.494
6.587
6.652
6.729
6.751
6.766
6.777
6. i85
6.794
6.798
6.800
6.801
1.0(10)'
1.2 "
1.4 "
.1.6 "
1.8
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
6.161
6.252
6.329
6.395
6.452
6.503
6.605
6.681
6.738
6.781
6.813
6.837
6.854
6.868
6.885
6.895
6.901
6.904
6.907
6.907
6.908
2.0(10)'
3.0 "
4.0 "
5.0
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 "
9.0 "
10.0 "
12.0 "
14.0 "
16.0 "
18.0
19.0 "
20.0 "
21.0 "
22.0 "
23.0 "
24.0 "
6.507
6.704
6.833
6.918
6.975
7.013
7.038
7.056
7.067
7.080
7.085
7.088
7.089
7.089
7.090
7.090
7.090
7.090
7.090
-------'--_._._------- - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - ' - - - - -
320
December, 1949
T.P. 2732
Likewise froll'l the foregoing work it can be easily shown

that the transform of the pressure drop at any point in the
formation in a limited reservoir for the constant terminal rate
case, is expressed by
[K,(V p R) Io(Y' p r) +I, (Y p R) Ko(Y p r)]

p'J' [I, (Y p
R) K, ( Y p ) - K, (Y p R) I, \' p )]
(VII.ll )
An examination of the denominator of Eq. VIIll indicate,
that there are no roots for positive values of p. However, a
<Iouble pole exists at p = O. This can be determined by ex
panding K,. (z) and K, (z) to Eecond degree expansions for
small values of z and third degree expansions for I.. (z) and
I, (z). and substituting in Eq. VIIll. It is fonnd for small
values of p. Eq. VIIll reduce, to
It (Il' -. r')
log - - - - - (R'-I)
r
2(lt'-I)
H'
terms of the expansion are necessary to give the accuracy

needed in the calculations.
P(r,P)
==p
p~O
(R'
+ 1)
- 4(R'_I),f
+-;;
It' log It
+---
(R'-I)'
(VII.I2)
(R'-I)
This equation now indicates both a single and double pole at

the origin, and it can be shown from tables or by applying
Cauchy's theorem to the Mellin's formula that the inversion (If
Eq. VIII2 is
[r' +
p,
= __ ~.
,.1)
(R'-l)
(VII.13 \
R'
r3R'-4R' log R-2R'-Il

4(R' _1)'
----loo-r(R'-l) ..,
which holds when the time, t, is large
As in the preceding case, there are poles along the negative

real axis, Fig. 3, and the residuals are determined as before
iTr
by letting A = u' e , and Eqs. VIIS give
- - - - - - - - - - c - - - - - - - - - - - - - ; - - - - - - - - - - ' C . - - - - - - - - - - .........- - - . - - . - - . ---
R:= 1400
R := 1800
R:= 1600
P(t>
P(t>
2.0(10)5
2.5 H
3.0
3.5 "
4.0 "
0.0 "
6.0 H
7.0 H
8.0 "
9.0 H
10.0 "
15.0 "
20.0 "
25.0 u
30.0 "
31.0 "
32.0 H
33.0 "
6.507
6.619
6.709
6.785
6.849
6.950
7.026
7.082
7.123
7.154
7.177
7.229
7.241
7.243
7.244
7.244
7.244
7.244
2.5(10)5
3.0 H
3.5 "
4.0 H
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 "
9.0 H
10.0 "
15.0 "
20.0 H
25.0 H
30.0 "
35.0 H
40.0 "
42.0 "
44.0 "
6.619
6.710
6.787
6.853
6.962
7.046
7.114
7.167
7.210
7.244
7.334
7.364
7.373
7.376
7.377
7.378
7.378
7.378
j(
3.0(10)'
4.0 "
5.0 H
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 "
9.0 "
10.0 "
15.0 H
20.0 "
30.0 H
40.0 "
50.0 "
51.0 "
52.0 "
53.0 "
54.0 "
56.0 "
6.710
6.854
6.965
7.054
7.120
7.188
7.238
7.280
7.407
7.459
7.489
7.495
7.495
7.495
7.495
7.495
7.495
7.495
4.0(10)'
5.0 "
6.0 "
7.0 "
8.0 II
9.0 "
10.0 "
12.0 "
14.0 u
16.0 "
18.0
20.0 "
25.0 "
30.0 "
35.0 "
40.0 H
50.0 "
60.0 "
64.0 "
= 2000
R := 2200
5.0(10)'
5.5 ..
6.0 H
6.5 "
7.0 H
7.5 "
8.0 I'
8.5 "
9.0 H
10.0 "
12.0 "
16.0 "
20.0 "
25.0 "
30.0 "
35.0 "
40.0 "
50.0 "
60.0 "
70.0 H
SO.O ..
6.854
6.966
7.056
7.132
7.196
7.251
7.298
7.374
7.431
7.474
7.506
7.530
7.566
7.584
7.593
7.597
7.600
7.601
7.601
--
6.966
7.013
7.057
7.097
7.133
7.167
7.199
7.229
7.256
7.307
7.390
7.507
7.579
7.631
7.6ft1
7.677
7.686
7.693
7.69&
7.69&
7.696
-----~--------
- - - - - - - - - - - ; - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ . _..- - _._-R := 2400
R := 2690
I
R := 2800
R := 3000
....- .
__
._-----
-c----~ -~__;____-,------,--------.
t
PIt)
t
PIt>
---------[------- -_._---[------- -------[---_.-- -----[------- - - - - - 7.0(10)5
7.134
8.0(10)'
7.201
6.0(10)'
7.057
1.0(10)'
7.312
9.0 H
7.201
7.260
7.134
8.0 "
7.0 "
1.2 "
7.403
9.0
7.259
7.200
7.312
8.0 "
10.0 "
7.4SO
1.4 "
7.259
7.312
10.0 "
12.0 "
7.403
7.545
9.0 "
1.6 "
7.310
12.0 "
7.401
7.542
10.0 "
7.602
16.0 "
1.8 "
2.0
7.398
7.475
14.0 "
7.644
12.0 "
7.651
20.0 "
7.526
7.536
16.0 "
7.719
2.4
16.0 "
7.732
24.0 "
20.0 H
7.611
7.588
18.0 "
7.775
7.794
28.0 "
2.8 "
7.631
20.0 "
7.668
24.0 "
7.797
7.320
30.0 "
3.0 "
7.699
7.706
28.0 "
7.840
7.871
24.0 "
35.0 "
3.5 "
7.746
7.720
28.0 "
7.870
7.908
30.0 "
40.0 "
4.0 "
50.0 H
30.0 "
7.765
7.745
7.905
7.935
35.0 "
4.5 "
40.0 ..
7.799
7.760
7.955
35.0 "
7.922
60.0 "
5.0 "
40.0 "
7.821
7.770
7.979
50.0 "
7.930
70.0 "
6.0 "
7.845
7.7SO
7.992
50.0 "
7.934
60.0 "
80.0 "
7.0 "
60.0 H
8.0
90.0 II
7.856
7.782
7.999
7.936
70.0 "
SO.O H
7.783
70.0 "
7.860
8.002
7.937
10.0(10)'
9.0 "
7.783
7.862
8.004
7.937
90.0 "
SO.O "
10.0 "
12.0 "
7.783
7.863
90.0 "
8.006
7.937
95.0 "
13.0 "
12.0 "
10.0(10)'
15.0 ..
7.863
8.006
.-.
----
jl
jl
December, 1949
321
T.P. 2732

IN RESERVOIRS
When developing the solution by means of the Laplace

transformation, it is assumed that the exterior boundary r = R,
I> (R,p)
A" A" etc.
= ~feU2t [J~R)
Yo(ur) - Y, (uR) lo(ur)] du (VII-l4)

u'[J,(uR) Y, (u) -J,(U) Y, (uR)]
lI"i
f3" f3" etc.
where f3" f3" etc., are roots of
[J,(f3"R) Y, (f3n) -J,(f3n) Y,(f3nR)] = 0 . (VII-lS)
with An = -f3,,'. The residuals at the poles in Eq. VII-I4 give
the series
e -f3o t [J, (f3nR) Yo (f3nr) - Y, (f3nR) Jo (f3n) ]
00
fll,f3" etc.
d
I1n' lim.- [JI(uR) Y, (u) -J , (u) YI(uR)]
du
u~f3n
(VII-16)
By the recurrence formulae Eqs. VII-9, the identity VII-IS,

and Eq. VI-23, this series simplifies to
e-f3n 't JI(f3"R) [J,(f3n) Y,,(f3nr) - Y, ([3,.) J o (f3nr )]
00
11"
---------------::--,--::------
f31' f3" etc.
f3,,[Jt'([3,R) -Jt'(fln)]
(VII-17)
Therefore. the sum of all residuals, Eqs. VII-I3 and VII-17 is
the solution for the cumulative pressure drop at any point in
the formation for the constant terminal rate case in a limited
reservoir. or
2 (r'
)
R'
(3R<-4R' log R-2R'-I)
P
- - - - -+t - ---logr - -'--------,--,--( r , t ) - (R'-I)
4
(R'-I)
4(R'-I)'
-f3:t
e
II(f3"R) [J,(fln) Yo (f3nr) - Y, (f3n) Io(fln r )]
fln [I,' (flnR) -1,' (f3n) ]
(VII-IS)
which is essentially the solution given by Muskat; now de
veloped by the Laplace Transformation. Finally, for the cumu
lative pressure drop for a unit rate of production at the well
hore, r = 1, this relation simplifies to
P
(t)
= __2____ (~-1- t ) __(3R'-4R'logR-2R'-1)

(R' _ I)
4
4(R' _ I)'
00
c -(:I:t J,' (f3nR)
(VII.19
f3,. f3,
f3"'[J,'(f3,,R) - J,'(f3n)]
The calculations for the constant terminal rate case for a
reservoir of limited radial extent have been determined from
Eq. VII-19. The summary data for R = 1.5 to 10 are given in
Table .3. An illustrative graph is shown in Fig. 6. The effect
of the limited reservoir is quite pronounced as it is shown
that producing the reservoir at a unit rate increases the pressure drop at the well bore much faster than if the reservoir
were infinite, as the constant withdrawal of fluid is reflected
very soon in the productive life by the constant rate of drop
in pressure with time.
+2
Pressure Fixed at Exterior Boundary
= 0, which fixes the pressure at the exterior boundary

as constant. Since the above-quoted references contain com
plete details, the final solutions are only quoted here for
completeness' sakc.
Cylindrical source:
e -An't Jo'(A"R)
00
1\" =10gR-2n~1
J,(An) Yn(AnR) - YI(A n) J..(AnR) = 0

Point source:
2
r.r.;
322
(VII-21)
e-I'n't .J0 (J.l-IJ )
= 10gR-~ -----R' n=l I'n' J ' (I'nR)
(VII-22)
I
0, W.B.F.,
where the root 1'" is determined from lo(l' u R)
p. 74S. Table 4 is the summary of the calculated P (t) em
ploying Eq. VII-20 for R
1.5 to 50, the cylinder source
solution, which applies for small as well as large times. The
data given for R = 60 to 3,000 are calculated from the point
source sohtion Eq. VII-22. Plots of these data are given in
Fig. 7.
p(t)
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
The work that has gone before shows the facility of the
Laplace transformation in deriving analytical solutions. Not
yet shown is the versatility of the Laplace transformation in
arriving at solutions which are not easily foreseen by the ortho
dox methods. One such solution derived here has shown to be
of value in the analysis of flow tests.
When making flow tests on a well, it is often noticed that
the production rates, as measured by the fluid accumulating
in the stock tanks, are practically constant. Since it is
desired to obtain the relation between flowing bottom hole
pressure and the rate of production from the formation, it is
necessary to correct the rate of production as measured in the
flow tanks for the amount of oil obtained from the annulus
between casing and tubing. To arrive at the solution for this
problem, we use the basic equation for the constant terminal
rate case given by Eq. IVIl, where q(T) is the constant rate of
fluid produced at the stock tank corrected to reservoir condi.
ditions, but p(t) is a pseudo pressure drop which is adjusted
mathematically for the unloading of the fluid from the annulus
to give the pressure drop occurring in the formation.
It is assumed that the unloading of the annulus is directly

reflected by the change in bottom hole pressure as exerted by
a hydrostatic head of oil column in the casing. Therefore, the
rate of unloading of the annulus qA(T), expressed in cc. per
second corrected to reservoir conditions, is equal to
d.6.P
As a variation on the condition that ( dP = 0 )

we
dr
r=R
may assume that the pressure at r
R is constant. In effect,
this assumption helps to explain approximately the pressure
history of flowing a well at a constant rate when, upon open
ing, the bottom hole pressure drops very rapidly and then
levels out to be ('orne constant with time. The case has been
developed by Hurst' using a cylinder source and by Muskat'
using a point source solution.
(VII-20)
An'[JI'(A,,) - Jo'(AnR)]
where An is the root established from
C-dT
(VIII.I)
where C is the volume of fluid unloaded from the annulus

per atmosphere bottom hole pressure drop per unit sand thick
ness. The rate of fluid produced from the formation is then
given by q(T) - qA(T)' As the bottom hole pressure is continuo
ously changing, the problem becomes one of a variable rate.
The substitution of the form of Eq. IV1l in the superposition
theorem, Eq. IV16, gives
December, 1949
T.P. 2732
and it will be recognized from CUl1lpoell and Foster, Eq. 920.1,

and from Eq. VIII. 1
= ~;. [q C dLo.P
] P' (t.
dt'
(VIII.2)
2"X
dT'
Since T = fiLcR tjK, and the unit rate of production at the
Lo.P
t',
(1", -
0'
that the integrand is the transform for Ko( yp). Further,

the integration with respect to time follows from Theorem B,
Chapter V, so that the transform of Eq. VIII7 is the relation
K,(Yp)
p'P) = - - - - -
q(T,iL
surface corrected to reservoir conditions is q(t, =

VIII2 becomes
Lo.P
where C
= o J[ q(t', - C dLo.P
dt'
= C/21T'fcR
] p'(t.t" dt'
-=--,
2"X
The same reoult can be gleaned from Eq. VIII6 since for t
Eq.
(VIII.3)
large, p is small and K, (Yp)

1/ yp. Substitution of
this approximation in Eq. VIII6 yields Eq. VIII-S. Therefore,
introducing the expression for p(p, in Eq. VIIIS gives
q Ko(Yp)
Lo.P = - - - - - - - - -
b '.
Eq. VIII3 presents a unique situation and we are con

fronted with determination of Lo.P, the act~lal pressure drop,
appearing both in the integrand and to the left side of the
equation. The Laplace transformation offers a means of solv
ing for Lo.P which, by orthodox methods. would be difficult
to accomplish.
It will he recognized that Theorem D, from Chapter V, is

applicable. Therefore, if Eq. VIII3 can he changed to a La
place transformation, Lo.P can bc solved explicitly. If we
express the transform of the constant rate q(t) as q/p, the
transform of p'(t) as pp(p, and the transform of Lo.P as Lo.P,
so that the transform for dLo.P / dt is PLo.P, then it follows
that
-
(VIII.S)
b'
.-
Lo.P= [--C pLo.P]p Pu"
(VIII.4)
and on solution gives
Ko(Yp)
[1
Lo.P
(VIII.10)
+Cp
Ko(Yp)]
to obtain values for P(t), the cumulative pressure drop for unit
rate of production in the stock tank which automatically takes
cognizance of the unloading of the annulus.
p
The inverse of the form of VIIII0 by the Mellin's inversion

formula can be determined by the path described in Fig. 2.
The analytical determination is identical with the constant
terminal rate case given in Section VI. Therefore, the cumu
lative pres.,ure drop in the well bore, for a unit rate of production at the surface, corrected for the unloading of the fluid
in the casing, is the relation
-u't
(l-e
) Jo(u) du
-7r
(VIII.S)
(VIII9)
p [1 + C p Ko(Yp)]
for which it is necessary only to find the inverse of
u[ (1
-1r
+ u'C"2 Yo(u))' + (u'C"2 Jo(u))']
(VIII.ll)
Fig. S presents a plot of the computed values for P (t) corSince q = qcniL/21T'K, then the term - - - - - - in Eq.
[1
+ C p'p(P)]
VIIIS can be interpreted as the transform of the pseudo pres

sure drop for the unit rate of production at the stock tank.
No mention has been made as to what value can be substi
tuted for PIP)' If we wish to apply the cylinder source, Eq.
VI4 applies, namely,
Ko(Yp)
PIP' = - - - - p'l' K,(Yp)
(VIII.6)
However, from the previous discussion it has been shown

that for wells, t is usually large since the well radius is small,
and the point source solution of Lord Kelvin's applies, namely,
PIt)
e-"
CI:!
=f
2 1/4 t
-u
du
(VI.16)
the Eifunction. Therefore, to apply this expression in Eq.

VIIIS, it is necessary to obtain the Laplace transform of the
point source solution of Eq. VI16. By an interchange of
variables, this equation becomes
1 t e-l/4t
(VIII.7)
PIt) =- f - - dt
December, 1949
responding to C from 1,000 to 75,000. It can be observed that

the greater the unloading from the casing, the smaller the
actual pressure drop is in a formation due to the reduced rate
of fluid produced from the sand. For large times, however, all
curves become identified with the point source solution which
is the envelope of these curves. After a sufficient length of
time, the change in bottom hole pressure is so slow that the
rate of production from the formation is essentially' that pro
duced by the well, and the point source solution applies.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the Management of the Shell Oil
Co., for permission to prepare and present this paper for
publication. It is hoped that this information, once available
to the industry, will further the analysis and understanding
of the behavior of oil reservoirs.
The authors acknowledge the help of H. Rainbow of the
Shell Oil Co., whose suggestions on analytic development
were most helpful, and of Miss L. Patterson, who contributed
the greatest amount of these calculations with untiring effort.
REFERENCES
1. "Water Influx into a Reservoir and Its Application to the
Equation of Volumetric Balance," William Hurst, Trans.,
AIME,1943.
323
T.P. 2732

IN RESERVOIRS
2. "Analysis of Reservoir Performance," R. E. Old, Trans.,

AIi\IE, 1943.
:l. "Unsteady Flow of Fluids in Oil Reservoirs," William
Hurst, Physics, January, 1934.
1-. "The Flow of Compressible Fluids Through Porous Media and Some Problems in Heat Conduction," M. Muskat,
Physics, March, 1934.
.s.
Mathematical Methods in Engineering, Karman and Biot,

p. 403, McGraw-Hill, 1940.
6. Operational Circuit Analysis, Vallnevar Bush, Chapter V,

John Wiley and Sons, 1929.
7. "Variations in Reservoir Pressure in the East Texas Field,"

R. 1. Schilthuis and W. Hurst, Trans., AIME, 1935.
R. "Fourier Integrals for Practical Applications," G. A.

Campbell and R. M. Foster, American Telephone and
Telegraph Company.
9. Operational Methods in Applied Mathematics, H. S. Carslaw and' 1. C. Jaeger, Oxford Univ. Press, 1941. (Chap-
ter IV).
10. I bidllln. p. 5 to 7.
11. "A Problem in the Theory of Heat Conduction," J. W.
Nicholsen, p. 226, Proc. Roy!. Soc., 1921.
12. "Some TwoDimensional Diffusion Problems with Circular Symmetry," S. Goldstein, p. 51, Proc. London Math.
Soc. (2), Vol. XXXIV, 1932.
13. "Heat Flow in an Infinite Solid Bounded Internally by a
Cylinder," L. P. Smith, p. 4(~1, J. App. Physics, 8, 1937.
11. "Some Two-Dimensional Problems in Conduction of Heat
with Circular Symmetry," H. S. Carslaw and J. C. Jaeger,

p. 361, Proc. London Math. Soc. (2), Vo!' XlVI.
15. "Heat Flow in the Region Bounded Internally by a Circular Cylinder," 1. C. Jaeger, p. 223, Proc. Royal Soc.,
Edinb. A, 61, 1942.
16. A Treatise on the Theor)' oj Bessel Functions, C. W.
Watson, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1944.

17. Modern Analysis, E. T. Whitt<lkcr and C. \Y. \'i,'atson,
Cambridge Univ. Pre.,s, 1944.
la. The Conduction of Heat, H. S. Carslaw, pp. H91S3.

MacMillan and Company, 1921.
19. "Pressure Prediction for Oil Reservoirs," W. A. Bruce,
Trans., AIME, 1943.
20. "Rc.,ervoir Performance and Well Spacing," Lincoln F.
Elkins, Oil and Cas Journal, Nov. 16, 194(), API. 1946.
21. Condllction of IIeat in Solids, H. S. Carslaw nnd .I. C.

Jaeger, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1947.
lYote: This book came to our notice only after the text of
this paper was prepared and for that reason references to its contents arc incomplete. The careful
reader will ohserve that, for instance, equation VI-21
in this paper is similar to equation (16), p. 283
when k and a 'are given unit values; abo that
"Limited Reservoirs" contains equations quite similar to those appearing in Section 126, "The Hollow
Cylinder," of Carslaw and Jaeger's book.
***
324
DISCUSSION
Comments on "The Relation Betlcecn Electrical Resistivity

and Brine Satltration in Reservoir Rocks," by H. F. Dunlap.
H. L. Bilhartz, Ellis Shuler, and C. R. Bailey. Published ill
the October, 1949 issue of the JOliR'I\L OF PETHOLElTM TECH
NOLOGY.
By C. E. Archie, Shell 0:'1 Co., HOllston, Tex(ls
I wish to compliment thc authors on their experimental work

of measuring the resistivities of cores. Meamrements of this
nature are difficult, particularly on small core samples.
The conclusion that the saturation exponent, n, w'ed when
interpreting eIer:trical logs. varies appreciably from 2.0 does
!lot follow from the data. It is true that individual samples
indicated an n vdue considerably different, for instance, the
St rawn sandstone given in Tnble I where n = 1.J 8. Hocks arc
heterogeneous. however. and Illore than one sample must be
measured. Onc sample is of little value in predicting any
property of thc formation as a whole; therefore, only data
where several pieces of the formation have been analyzed can
he considered conclusive to be used to predict a value for n.
Of the data presentcd in thi~ paper. the measurements made on
the Cotton Valley sandstone ,eern to mect this requirement,
see Table I, where six samples were measured. The average
value of n equab 1.8. This value cannot be said to vary appreciahly from 2.0. (It is true that n varied from 1.5 to 2.0, but
experimental error variations on the same ~ample were 1.7
to 2.0, see sample No.6, Table I.) In vicw of the experimental
error involved and the limited number of analyses run, the
more logical conclusion would be that the data on the Cotton
Valley sandstone give weight to the assumption that n may
be expected to he of the order of 2.0 for sandstones.
This later data, together with the data given on a chart
presented with my comments on the paper, "Estimation of
Interstitial Water from the Electricai Log," by Milton Williams. also presented at the San Antonio meeting, indicates
that the average value of n for consolidated sandstone "in
situ" may be closer to ].9 than 2.0 which has formerly been
m'ed.
Allthor's Reply to C. E. Archie--
* * *
The average of all of our own measurements on saturation

exponents for various consolidated sandstone and limestone
cores is about 1.75, and, as Archie properly points out, the
scatter in the determinations on cores taken from a single
formation is considerable. However, we have never measured a
saturation exponent for a consolidated core which was significantly greater than two, and the great majority are some
what less, the lowest value measured being that of 1.17 for
the Strawn sandstone sample reported in the paper. For un
consolidated material, the values have usually been two or
above. Exactly what the most nearly correct average value to
w'e of consolidated sand"tones would be is difficult to e,;timate
in vicw of the limited data available, but we would estimate
a value of 1.7 to 1.8 rather than 1.9 to 2.0. However, more
data might wcll change this average value. For formations
of particular interc'it, it is helieved desirable to determine an
aH~ragc exponent from meadJrcrncnts on a numher of core
,amples rather than to lL'e any assumed universal average
",:Le. Thc fact that variation could occur, rather than the
!l.-e of any particular average number for the exponent, was
the thesis of the paper.
* * *
December, 1949
DISCUSSION
Comments on. "The Relation Between Electrical Resistivity

and Brine Saturation in Reserroir Rocks" by H. F. Dunlap,
H. L. Bilhartz, Ellis Shuler and C. R. Bailey. Published in
the October, W49 isslle of .!ourlIrtl of Prtrolcum Technology.
By M. R.
J. Wyllie and If'alter D. Rose, Gulf Research and
DeFelopment Compal1Y. Pittsburgh, Pel1nsylvania
This paper and the re,ults it give, concerning the llumerical

value of the exponent n in the re.,istivity index-saturation relationship, I
S.,-n, is a most valuable and timely contribution
to the rather sparse literature on a subject vital to electric
log interpretation. Inamlllch as the results obtained provide
some opportunity for checking certain theoretical conclusions
we reached in a recent paper,' it is of particular interest to us.
The results obtained by the authors clearly show that the

exponent n is not a constant with a value of about 2.0 as is
generally assumed, but varies from core to core and may thus
be considered some function of rock texture. On the basis
of our theoretical development, we forecast that the exponent
n would vary with rock texture (as measured in terms of
irreducible wetting phase saturation, Sw;) and with saturation
of tl~e wetting pha;'e itself. It is the latter prediction which
is denied hy Dunlap et al when they explicitly state that the
available evidence indicates that the saturation exponent, n,
does not vary with saturation. While we would like to believe
thio; to be true (since an exponent n which was always independent of satnration, if albeit dependent upon rock texture,
would introduce one welcome simplification in a complex
problem) we do not believe that this is the only interpretation
of all the results extant. including those of Dunlap et a1. The
results of ,Vyckoff and Botse!''' Leverett' and other workers on
e,;sentially unconsolillated sands do indeed show a relatively
constant exponent n, but those of Morse, Terwilliger and
Yuster" and tbo'e of the Hussian workers quoted by Guyod'
show a marked dependence of n on saturation in certain
instances. The variation of the exponent n with saturation
shown in Fig. 5 of the paper of Dunlap et al is apparently
attributed by these workers to non-equilibrium conditions.
Elsewhere, however, it is stated that when, at high desaturating pressures and apparent equilibrium, widely varying values
of the saturation exponent were found in different parts of
the core, the results were considered unreliable and not
reported.
We have shown' that an analytical expression for the exponent n can he fonnd of the form:
11=
\Vhere.
Sw = the lIetting pila,,' -atm'1tioll as a fra(,tion of the jlore

volume.
= the
tortuosity of t he porous medium at 100 per cent

welting phace sat Ination, and is defined ae; the Hluan~
of the ratio of mean actual pore length to bed length,
'L = the effective tortuosit", similarly defined. for the sat

uration, Swo
December, 1949
\Ve would thus like to ask Dunlap and his co,workers

whether upon further consideration they are convinced that
there is never a genuine variation of the exponent n with
saturation, In addition, we would he interested to learn whether
any of the results discarded became of their apparent unreliability showed apparent values of n between 3 and 4.5, i.e ..
in a range covering certain observations made by Williams and
by the Russian workers quoted by Guyod and considered
possible by us on theoretical grounds. In general, however, it
would appear that to a first approximation and in the absence
of more specific knowledge a value for n of about 2.0 - 2.5 is
still the best average value to assume for log interpretation.
In the light of the results reported by Williams we would
particularly query the conclusion that n is gener<\lly less than
2 for consolidated media.
REFERENCES
]. "Some Theoretical Considerations Related to the Quantitative Evaluation of the Physical Characteristics of Reservoir Rock from Electrical Log Data." M. R. J. Wyllie and
Walter D. Rose. (Submitted for publication in the Jour.
0/
Petro Tech.)
2. "Estimation of Interstitial Water from the Electric Log."

lVI. Williams. AJME, San Antonio, Oct. 7. 1949.
:~L "The Flow of Gas-Liquid Mixture.; through Unconsolidated
Sands," R. D. Wyckoff amI H. C. Bot,et. PhYsics, 7. (9).

.)2:>, (1936).
InS/TIT,
From the above expression if n is to he a com,tant independent

of saturation. it follows that TIT" = S~x-', where x is a constant having the value 2n. The ratio TIT" is itself a measure
of fluid distribution and may be expected to vary somewhat
with the manner in which a particular saturation has been
obtained. Thus, the fact that the exponent II for a Strawn
sandstone sample was found by Dunlap et al to vary when
the mode of saturation was changed from floolling to capillary
pre'Sllre desaturation is quite explicable in terms of a variation in the T/T" ratio at a particular saturation. That the
ratio T /T" for any particular mode of saturating or desaturating a POroll- medium should be uniquely related to the degree
of "aturation bv an expression of the form T ITe
Sw x-' ap,
pears to u" to be possible in certain cases. hut we see no rea
son to believe that this relationship is universally true of all
porous media. In particular we would expect to find pore size
distribution as a big factor in determining TIT .. , since the
tendency for the wetting phase to he displaced first from the
larger pores by an entering nonwetting phase must necessarily ailect T/Te in " manner which is not always expressible
in terms of S" x_, with x a constant.
1. "Flow of Oil-Water Mixtures through Uneon."olidated

Sanlh," M. C. Leverett. Trans, AIME, 1:32, 149, (1939).
;). "itelative Permeability Measurements on Small Core

Sample"." R. A. Morse, P. L. Terwilliger and S. T. Yuster.
Oil and Gas JOllr" 46, (16).109, (1947).
G. "Electrical Logging Developments in the U.S.S.H.": Part 6,
H. Guyod, World Oil, 123 (4). 110, (191.3).
PETROlEUM TRANSACTIONS, AI ME
* * *
324-A
Allthor's Reply to M. R. J. Wyllie and Walter D. Rose

In reply to the specific questions posed by Wyllie and Roce,
we would like to make the following comments:
First, we are of course not convinced on the basis of our
rather limited experimental evidence that there is never a
genuine variation of the saturation exponent, n, with saturation.
Our own data on several consolidated sandstone cores do not
,,11Ow any evidence of this variation, even in the region close
to irreducible water, where the theory of Wyllie and Rose
would indicate that n should approach a value of minus
infinity. (See Fig. 4 in Wyllie and Rose's forthcoming paper,
which the authors have kindly furnished us.) This figure is
of interest. also, in that it indicates that for cores having
irreducible waters of leo.;s than 30%, n is approximately constant with saturation until the water saturation reaches a value
not greatly different from irreducible water. :Wost of the
material which we worked with had irreducible waters of less
than 30<;{. This variation dose to the irreducible water sat-
324-B
uration, which is postulated by Wyllie and Rose, could not be

expected to be detected by om experiments.
In answer to the second question, some of the results which
we discarded indicated saturation exponents as high as six.
However, as was stated in our paper, the criterion used for the
reliability of the data was not the value of the saturation exponent, but the constancy of this value as obtained on different
sections of the same core. If large and systematic variations
in n were obtained for various sections of the core from top
to bottom, this was taken to mean that the average brine saturation ohtained for the entire core was not the same as the
saturation in the individual sections. If this is so.. a plot of
re,i,tance vs. an incorrect saturation would 'of course hI"
meaningless.
Regarding the average value of the saturation exponent for
consolidated and unconsolidated media, we can only reiterate
that in our limited experience we have never observed a saturation exponent which was significantly greater than two for
con,olidated material, whereas for unconsolidated material the
values have nearly always heen two or above.
PEH:OLEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME
***
December, 1949

SPE-949305-G Van Everdingen A.F. and Hurst W. The Application of The Laplace Transformation To Flow Problems in Reservoirs

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SPE-949305-G Van Everdingen A.F. and Hurst W. The Application of The Laplace Transformation To Flow Problems in Reservoirs

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T.P.

THE APPLICATION OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION

A. F. VAN EVERDINGEN, SHELL OIL CO., HOUSTON, AND W. HURST, PETROLEUM

Two sets of solutions of this equation are developed, namely,

diffusivity equation. Multiple-phase fluid flow has not been

where K is the permeability, fJ. the viscosity and

The weight of fluid flowing past Surface B, an infinitesimal

PETROLEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME

THE APPLICATION OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION TO FLOW PROBLEMS

The difference between these two terms, namely,

Since P is a function of radius and time, the integration with

and Eq. HI-2 hecomes

If p ( t ) is a pressure at a point in the sand and a function

PETROlEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME

A. F. VAN EVERDINGEN AND W. HURST

The next step in the development i, to reproduce the boun

As this term is also a Laplace transform, Eq. III2 can be writ

By inverting the term on the right by the Mellin's inversion

Constant Terminal Pressure Case

In brief, knowing the general solution implied by Eq. IV3,

* The set of symbols now introduced and the symbo~s reoorted in

PETROlEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME

and G(o;' B/R')

THE APPLICATION OF THE lAPLACE TRANSFORMATION TO FLOW PROBLEMS

where now t = KT / fl'c and x is the absolute distance meas

The total fluid influx is given by

j q('l') dT = --. --- j

the generalized ~olution for linear flow and is

Q{'j') = fcL.P Q,,)

where q(T) is the rate of water encroachment per unit area of

per unit of cross-sectional area.

Constant Terminal Rate Case

In the constant terminal rate ca:-;e it is likewise assumed that

Th ere f ore, for any constant

rate of production the cumulative pressure drop at the field

Similarly, for the constant rate of production m linear flow,

PETROlEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME

A. F. VAN EVERDINGEN AND W. HURST

If q(o) = 0, Eq. IV-I6 can also be expressed as

By considering variable rates of fluid production, such as

when t > I,. To reproduce the smooth curve relationship of

Q(T) = 27rfcR h ' [,6P o Q(t)

q(t') p'(t-t') dt'

where p'(t) is the derivative of Pit) with respect to t.

To visualize more concretely the meaning of this equation, if

The Laplace transformations of many transcendental functions

mine the invcrse of PCP) or Pit). It is frequently necessary to

1.5r----_ _-----!lr----_ _--=l=~--;I~t_---A~SYrM-T-.:0-T~IC~VA-.:L;..:U-=E-I:.:..5::00".::J.\~

ASYMTOTIC VALUE 0.625

There are two possible simplifications for PCP) when time

PETROlEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME

THE APPLICATION OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION TO FLOW PROBLEMS

Where this report is con-

corned with pressure drops, the above can be written as

The integration is in the complex plane A = x + iy, along a

Certain fundamental relationship3

the Laplace trans-

If P,p, is the transform of p(, then

FIG. 6 - RADIAL FLOW, CONSTANT TERMINAL RATE CASE, PRESSURE

approaches zero as time approaches infinity.

J e-pt J p(t') dt' dt

+ ~po J e-pt p(t) dt

or the transform of the integration p(t') with respect to t'

(~~(:.~ )r=l= --/f;vp~)