Introduction to Stress and Strain

The need for Stress and Strain

From statics, one can only determine the internal member forces and/or moments
in structural members subject to some loading. However the behaviour of a
material under any given loading will depend on the internal forces/moments as
well as the geometric property of the member and other physical properties of the
material. For example let us investigate the effect of a gradually increasing axial
tensile force on three members that are made of the same material, but having
different cross sectional areas and lengths as shown below:
Bar a has length L and cross sectional area A; Bar b has length L and cross
sectional area 2A; Bar c has length 3L and cross sectional area 2A
Bar (a)

(b)

(c)

Force
(a)

Bar (b)

(a), (b)

Bar (c)

(c)

Stress

Plotting the variation of axial force

against the elongation results in the
diagram in Figure 2.1 where there
are three curves corresponding to
the three bars. We do not get a
unique plot. If we were to plot the
variation of the average intensity
of the force defined by force per
unit area (similar to pressure in
fluid mechanics) and referred to as

Elongation
Stress
(a), (b),
(c)

Strain

the stress (), against elongation, the plots of bars (a) and (b) would merge but
that of (c) will remain distinct. However, plotting the stress against elongation of
a unit length segment of the bar would result in a unique diagram for all three
cases. The elongation per unit length is referred to as the strain and usually
denoted by . Complete definitions of stress and strain are presented later.
Stress
The intensity of force at a point is called the stress. Its units are the same as that
of pressure (N/m2 = Pa, kPa, MPa, GPa).
Types of Stress:
Normal stress,
Shearing stress,
Bearing stress.
Normal Stress (Direct Stress): The intensity of normal force on a plane at a point
(acting perpendicular to that plane). The Greek letter sigma is used to denote
the normal stress.
Examples: Axial loading, transverse loading (bending), pressure loading (in
shells) all cause normal stress.
Sign Convention: Tensile stress positive, and compressive stress negative.
If the normal force acting at a point in an
infinitesimal area A is F, then from the
definition, the stress is given by: = F/ A
Taking the limits, as A 0, = dF/dA
For equilibrium of the free-body shown
above,

P
F

P = dF = .dA
A

If the stress is uniform, then P = A or = P/A

Otherwise, we can only say that the average stress = P/A
When referring to normal stresses in more than one direction, a subscript may be
used to indicate the direction on which the stress is acting. For example, x
denotes the normal stress in x-direction.

Note that the normal stress distribution in an axially loaded member may be taken
as being uniform, except in the immediate vicinity of the points of application of
loads, provided the loading is centric (applied through the centroid of the cross
section of the member). If the loading were eccentric, the resulting stress
distribution would be non-uniform and would cause bending. In the immediate
vicinity of concentrated loads, and near points where the cross section of the
member changes abruptly, there will develop some stress concentration, which
may be taken into account using stress concentration factors.
Shearing Stress (Shear Stress):
Shear stress is defined as the intensity of shearing force acting on a plane at a
point. The Greek letter tau () is used to denote shear stress.
Examples: Shear stress may occur as a result of torsional loading, transverse
loading and is also induced in connections (rivets, bolts etc.). Axial loading also
causes shearing stress in oblique planes.
Sign Convention & Notation:
It is common practice to indicate the
yx
direction of the shear stress using two
subscripts. For example, xy indicates the xy
shear
xy
stress acting in the y direction on (x-plane) a
plane
perpendicular to the x-axis.
The sign
convention that is used in most texts is
yx
shown in the diagram. Here the stresses are
shown to act in the positive co-ordinate directions on positive faces, and negative
co-ordinate directions on negative faces.

Complementary Nature of Shearing Stress

We can show that the shear stresses acting on the x
Fyx
and y planes are equal in magnitude by
considering the rotational equilibrium of an
infinitesimal element. If we denote the shear
Fxy y
forces on the x-faces as Fxy and the corresponding Fxy
ones on the y-faces as Fyx, for rotational
equilibrium,
z
Fxy .x Fyx.y = 0
Fyx
Since the element is infinitesimal, the forces on
x
the faces could be obtained by multiplying the
stress by the area.
Fxy = xy.(y. z)
and Fyx = yx.(x. z)
yz
Substituting this into the rotational equation of
yx
xy
equilibrium yields:
yx.(x. z).x yx.(x. z).y = 0
zy

xy
Cancelling x.z.y gives yx yx = 0
zx
xz
Thus yx = yx
yx
The shear stresses in the orthogonal directions are
complementary.
Therefore the order of the subscripts x and y does not make any difference. The
diagram on the right shows the positive shearing stresses in a 3-D element.

Shear Stress Examples:

For a T-shaped body
subject to two loads as
shown in the diagram,
average shear stress
may be obtained by
dividing the shear force
by the area of shearing.
av =P/(bd)

P
P

Rivets/Bolts:
P

P
P

d
P

For Bolts/Rivets in Single Shear

4P
=
av =
d 2 d 2

P
P/2
P/2
P/2

For, Bolts/Rivets in Double Shear

Note: The forces underlined

are bearing forces (see next
section) while those not
underlined are shearing forces.

av =

P
d
2
4

2P
d 2

P/2
P/2
P/2

Bearing Stress:
The stresses that are induced between two bodies in contact depend on the area of
contact and the contact force. An indicator of this is the average bearing stress
which is defined as the intensity of bearing force which is obtained by dividing the
contact force by the projected area of contact measured normal to the contact
force. For example, the bearing stress at a rivet connection shown in the diagram
is given by
b = P/Ap = P/(t.d)
The projected area is the rectangle representing the projection of the cylindrical
contact surface on a plane perpendicular to P. In the diagram, the bearing forces
are underlined (P).

Tensile Force in
the Plate P
Bearing
Force P
d
t

Shearing
Force P
Bearing
Force P

Stress-Strain Diagram
An important characteristic of a material is the relationship between stress and
strain. This is usually obtained by conducting a tensile test. In this test, a
specimen having a uniform cross-section between two gauge marks is subject to a
varying tensile force (F). The elongation (e) of the specimen between the gauge
marks is measured at various loads. The initial values of the cross sectional area
A0 and the distance between the gauge marks (L0) are also measured.
The engineering stress (or nominal stress) is given by = F/A0 and the
engineering strain is given by = e/L0.
Note that during loading the cross sectional area (A) and the gauge length (L) also
change. The true stress and the true strain are given by:
true = F/A and true = e/L respectively .
For small strains, the changes in A and L are small and their initial values may be
used to calculate and . It can be shown that true = (1+ ) and true =ln (1+ ).
Stress-strain diagram is obtained by plotting stress against strain. They differ
stress
()
yield stress
(y )

plastic zone
deformation)

(permanent

linear, elastic range:

= E

for < y

strain ()
Stress-strain diagram for a typical ductile material

considerably for different materials, but for a given material at a given

temperature the stress-strain relationship is unique.
7

Engineering materials may be categorised into two groups: ductile materials and
brittle materials. Ductile materials undergo very large deformation prior to failure
making the process somewhat gradual. Brittle materials fail suddenly. Ductile
materials can also fail in a brittle manner when they are subject to fatigue loadings
(cyclic or repeated fluctuating type of loads), particularly in the presence of any
abrupt discontinuities in the geometry.
Hooke's Law
An important feature of the stress-strain diagram which is applicable to many
common engineering materials is a linear relationship between the stress and
strain until the limit of proportionality is reached.

stress
()

ultimate
stress (u)
yield stress
(y )

strain
hardening

necking

rupture
fracture
stress

yielding

linear, elastic range:

= E

for < y

strain ()
Stress-strain diagram for mild steel

=E
The constant of proportionality E is referred to as the elastic modulus, or Young's
modulus.
The limit of proportionality is close to the point where the behaviour of the
material ceases to be elastic (i.e. elastic limit). In the elastic range any
displacement caused by the loading will be fully reversed on the removal of the
load. Beyond the elastic range, the deformation caused will be permanent and this
8

behaviour is termed plastic. In some ductile materials such as low carbon steel, the
plastic zone begins with the yielding of the material where the strain remains
almost constant. If one looks closely at the stress-strain diagram for mild steel it is
possible to identify two important points, upper-yield point where the yielding
begins and the lower yield point (similar to the difference between the dynamic
and static coefficients of friction) which is slightly below the upper-yield point
where the strain remains constant. These stresses corresponding to the elastic and
proportional limits are very close to each other and in this course only one term,
namely the term yield stress, will be used to refer to these limits.
Hence = E

for < y

Yielding is followed by strain hardening when once again the material exhibits
increased resistance against straining until the ultimate stress is reached. Beyond
the ultimate stress, a rapid decrease in the cross section of the material takes place
and the nominal stress continues to drop until it fractures. The displacement that
takes place within the elastic range is very small and it is necessary (in most
mechanical engineering applications), to ensure that the stress and strain remain
within the elastic range. For this reason often the allowable design stress is
obtained by applying a factor of safety to the yield stress.
design < allowable =y /(FOS)
where FOS is a factor of safety.

Factor of safety
Engineers calculate the stress, either to design a new machine or structure or to
analyse an existing one in order to predict its behaviour under specified loading
conditions. In design, if the ultimate strength (the maximum stress which the
material can sustain before failure) of the material used is known the calculated
stresses should be limited to an allowable limit (allowable stress or permissible
stress) which is smaller than the ultimate strength by a factor, called the factor of
safety (F.O.S.). However in most mechanical engineering applications, it is also
important to limit the displacements/deformations. It is a common practice to
apply a safety factor to the yield stress.
Factor of safety must be greater than one, and its magnitude is determined by
considering factors such as:
variation in material properties
quality of production, tolerance, geometric imperfections etc.
inaccuracy in assessing the loading (in many situations the loading has to be
estimated)
types of failure:
ductile materials ..gradual failure, brittle material abrupt failure
cyclic loading (may result in sudden failure of ductile materials (fatigue)
possibilities of other sudden failures, instability (buckling) etc.
consequences of failure: if there is any potential danger to people must use a
high F.O.S.

10

Stress Concentration Factors

Any discontinuity in structural/machine components may give rise to high
localised stresses. The maximum stress may be obtained by using stress
concentration factors.
i.e. max = K.average
where K is a stress concentration factor which is tabulated or graphed in design
handbooks for many common cases. average should be calculated using the net
area (i.e. after allowing for any reduction due to the presence of holes etc)
Examples:
P

P
P
P
P

max

average

If the local stresses reach a limit cracks (flaws, inherent defects) may propagate of
cracks. Stress concentration factors must be included in the analysis.
Fatigue Loading
With cyclic loading, failure can occur at nominal stresses far below the yield stress
and the allowable stress should be based on the fatigue strength of the material.
Some Useful References.
R.E. Peterson, Stress concentration design factors, J. Wiley (1953)
M.M. Frotch, Photoelastic studies in stress concentration, Mechanical
Engineering, August 1936, pp 485-9.
A.M. Wahl and R. Beeuwkes Jr, Stress concentration produced by holes and
notches, Transactions of the American society of Mechanical Engineers,
Vol. 56, 1934, paper APM-56-11, pp617-25.

11

Stresses due to axial loading on oblique planes

Axial forces may cause both normal and shearing stresses on planes which are not
perpendicular to the axis of the member.

P
A0

Consider the equilibrium of the segmental free-body shown below.

A' P =
n
P

Pt =

Angle
Cross sectional area A' =
Average normal stress ' = Pn/A'
Average shearing stress ' = Pt /A'

A0/cos

Note: ', ' are used instead of , to indicate that the stresses are acting on an
oblique plane.

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Tutorial 2
10 mm

1. Calculate the average shearing stress in a

10 mm diameter pin transferring a torque
of 150 Nm from a lever to a 40 mm
diameter shaft as shown in Figure 1. It
may be assumed that the torque is
transmitted entirely by the shearing of
the pin.

150 Nm

Figure 1
40 mm

2. Calculate the average shearing stress in a 10 mm wide key transferring a torque of 350
Nm from a tube to a 40 mm diameter shaft as shown in Figure 2. The length of the key
(along the shaft) is 50 mm. It may be assumed that the torque is transmitted entirely by
the shearing of key. State any other assumptions made.

10 mm

350 Nm
40 mm

Figure 2

13

3. Calculate the average shearing stress in the bolts connecting two flanges of a shaft
coupling, as shown in Figure 3. It may be assumed that the torque is transmitted entirely
by the shearing of bolts, and that the friction between the flanges is negligible. The
figure is only schematic, and only contain the information relevant to this question.
If the thickness of the flanges is t, what is the average bearing stress between the bolts
and the flange?
diameter of bolts = d

Flanges
of

Figure 3
4. A vertical load P is applied on a plate, which is supported on two angle brackets as
shown in Figure 4. Obtain expressions for:
(a) The average shear stress in the bolt at A (Is it under single or double shear?)
(b) The average bearing stress between the bolt and the plate which has a thickness t.
Hint: First determine the reaction at A, by considering the equilibrium of the triangular
plate, neglecting the friction between the bolt at B and the slot in the support bracket.
Also neglect the friction between the angle brackets and the plate.
L
=d

A
H
B
Angle brackets
Figure 4.
t

14

Angle bracket

5. The lifting mechanism in Figure 5a is subject to a vertical point load at the right end of the
beam AB. The lifting arm is controlled by a hydraulic ram (H) that is connected to a rod
CD.
a) If the shear force and axial force in the beam at A are 34 kN and -17 kN respectively,
determine the average shearing stress in the 16 mm diameter pin at A. The pin is
supported by two plates, as shown in Figure 5b. Note that only a part of the beam is
shown in Figure .
b) If the breadth of the beam is 50 mm, what is the bearing stress between the beam and
the pin at A?
B
Load
C
A

Figure 5a

A segment of
the beam AB
16 mm
pin
A

50 mm

Figure 5b

15

6. A vertical load 3 kN is applied on a plate, which is supported on two angle brackets as

shown in Figure 6. Obtain expressions for the average shear stress in the 10 mm diameter
bolt at A.
Hint: First determine the reaction at A, by considering the equilibrium of the triangular
plate, neglecting the friction between the bolt at B and the slot in the support bracket. Also
neglect the friction between the angle brackets and the plate. There are two reaction
components, a vertical force and a horizontal force. Consider the question whether the bolt
is under single or double shear.
L
3 kN

= 10 mm

3 kN

A
L
B

Bolt at A

Angle
bracket

Angle brackets
Figure 6.

7. Calculate the average shearing stress in the 25 mm diameter pin at B in the crank
mechanism shown in Figure 7.

200 mm

50 kN A
100 mm

C
45

Pin

Figure 7

16

8. Calculate the average shearing stress in the 25 mm diameter pin at B in the structure
shown in Figure 8. Note the pin at C is free to slide horizontally along the slot in the
support.
200 mm

60 kN A
150 mm

Pin
Figure 8

17