Exam seat no:

Project Report
On
HEXAMINE

Prepared By:Roll No:B.E Semester VIII

Chemical.

Guided By:Professor & Head of Department,

Chemical Engineering Department.

Chemical Engineering Department,

Vishwakarma Government Engineering College,
Chandkheda- 382424
2009

Vishwakarma Government Engineering College,

Chandkheda-382424.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. , Roll no. of B.E. Semester VIIIth (Chemical)
has successfully completed his project Report on HEXAMINE, during
the academic year 2009-10.

Date of Submission:

Professor & Head of Department,

Chemical Engineering Department.

Acknowledgement
I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere regards and deep
sense of gratitude to my Head of the department & my guide Prof. M.G. Desai. I am
thankful to my guide Prof. M.G. Desai , for not only guiding me for this project
report, but also encouraging me and finding time for reading and commenting on
manuscript.
His encouragement kept my spirit alive and lifted my moral up to very high
level of interest during the preparation of this project report.
I am highly thankful of library staff and my guide for providing valuable
references throughout the preparation of this project report. I would like to thank my
college authorities who gave me the internet facility to get some data and other
required information.
I would also like to take this opportunity to thank all my friends without whom
support I would not be able to complete this project report in time.
Finally, my grateful acknowledgements are of those who have helped me
directly or indirectly for preparing this project report.

INDEX

SR.
NO
1.

CHP.
NO.
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

2.
2.1
2.2

3.
3.1
3.2
3.3

4.

CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION

Regulatory history
Uses
Health Effects
Product specification

LITERATURE SURVEY

6
7
7
7
10

Properties of raw material

Properties of HEXAMINE

10
11

PROCESS SELECTION AND DETAIL

DESCRIPTIO

13

Process selection
Process description
Schematic representation of manufacturing process

13
13
15
16

MATERIAL BALANCE
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6

5.

Material balance around Reactor -1

Material balance around Reactor -2
Filter press
Material balance around Reactor -3
Spray dryer
Rotary vaccum dryer

ENERGY BALANCE
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5

6.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6

PAGE
NO.

Energy balance around reactor 1

Energy balance around reactor 2
Energy balance around reactor 3
Spray dryer
Rotary vaccum dryer

16
18
20
20
21
22
23

EQUIPMENT DESIGN

23
24
26
27
27
28

Design of shell
Design of head
Design of jacket
Design of agitator
Design of flange
Design of bracket support

28
31
33
34
39
45

7.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6

8.

INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS

CONTROL

50

Process control
Control centre
Instrumentation
Flow control
Ratio control
Alarm and safety trips and interlock

50
51
51
52
53
53
54

COST ESTIMATION
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7

Purchase equipment cost

Installation charge
Total product cost
Manufacturing cost
Profitability analysis
Payout period
Break even point

POLLUTION CONTROL AND

SAFETY ASSPECT
9.1
9.2

10.

UTILITIES

61
63
67

11.

PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT

70

Plant location
Site selection criteria
Plant layout

70
71
73
76

11.1
11.2
11.3

12.

Pollution control
Material safety data sheet

54
55
56
56
59
59
59
61

REFERENCES

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Regulatory history

Hexamine is also known as hexamethylenetetramine, aminoform, crystamine,
methenamine or formin. It was first prepared in 1859 by Butlerov of Russia. It is a
white, crystalline powder with a slight amine odor. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and
chloroform, but it is insoluble in ether. However the aqueous solutions exhibit inverse
solubility, i.e., less hexamine dissolves as the temperature increases. The hydrate,
C6H12N4.6H2O, can be crystallized from the aqueous solution at temperatures below
14C.
In 2000 Mexico accounted for 63% of the US imports. In 2001, 58% of imported
material came from Germany while 31% came from Mexico. In 2001 two producers,
Borden Chemical and Wright Chemical, served the US market. As the above table
shows, capacity is much greater than demand.
No longterm demand growth is expected unless a significant new end use is found.
There has been growth in some smaller volume applications, (such as commercial
explosives and steel pickling solutions). However the growth in these markets will not
be great enough to offset the slow decline in the use of phenolic resins that contain
hexamine
The price of hexamine can generally be expected to track the price of methanol,
which is the raw material for formaldehyde. As a rule of thumb, the realized cost of
hexamine moves 1 cent for every 4 cent move in the methanol price. The price also
moves one quarter of a cent for every $5/ton move in ammonia costs. Between 1995
and 2000, the price of imported hexamine dropped from $0.54/lb to $0.34/lb.
1.2 USES
Hexamine is produced as a granular and free flowing powder as well as a 42.5%
solution. The solution is shipped in tank trucks, railcars and drums. Solid forms are
packed in bags, fiber drums and super sacks. Hexamine is sensitive to moisture.
Therefore it should be stored in an atmosphere with a relative humidity below 60%.
Hexamine is used in the following areas:

Rubber Industry: Vulcanization accelerator and rubber blowing agent

Explosives Industry: Cyclonite (RDX), octogen (HMX), hexamethylene

triperoxide amine (HMTA)

Synthetic Resin Industry: Liquid resin stabilizer, molding powder,

carbohydrate resins, vulcanization of vinyl resins and copolymers, aniline
shellac resins

Pharmaceutical Industry: Disinfectant (formin, urotropin, crystazol, helmitol),

urinary antiseptic

Photographic Industry: Stabilizer for developers

Organic Synthesis Industry: Additives in deodorizing powder, absorption of

phosgene gas, preservation of fresh products

Metal Industry: Inhibitor against acids and hydrogen sulphide

Leather Industry: Conservation of furs and skins

Paper Industry: Surface treatment during manufacture of water repellent

papers and cardboards

Lubricant Industry: Stabilizer for greases and oils

Fertilizer Industry: Anticaking agent for prilled urea

Other: Dyeing and artificial aging of wood, preservative for cosmetics,

treatment of cholera in chickens

An estimate five (5) million pounds per year of hexamine are consumed to make
commercial explosives. Hexamine demand from the phenolic resin segment has
declined due to increased competition from formaldehyde free resins and other resins
that offer performance advantages.
The production of nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) may be the largest application for
hexamine (40 to 60 million pounds per year). However, since hexamine for this use is
manufactured as a captive intermediate (in solution) this segment is usually not
included in the production statistics.
1.3 Health Effects

Acute Health Effects: Irritating to the skin and eyes on contact. Inhalation will
cause irritation to the lungs and mucus membrane. Irritation to the eyes will
cause watering and redness. Reddening, scaling, and itching are characteristics
of skin inflammation. Follow safe industrial hygiene practices and always
wear protective equipment when handling this compound.

Chronic Health Effects: Prolonged skin contact may produce a rash to

affected area(in particular the wrist, ankles, beltline, and collar area of the
neck) similar in appearance to poison ivy. Hexamine may decompose to
formaldehyde in the presence of perspiration (slighly acidic pH 4-6.5). The
formaldehyde is trapped in the sweat pores of the skin and then oxidized to
formic acid, which is believed to be the actual agent responsible for the skin
rash. (WARNING: Formaldehyde may be a potential cancer hazard).

Acute Health Effects: Hexamine could decompose to formaldehyde, which is

a listed potential carcinogen.

1.4 Product specification

Hexamine is a heterocyclic organic compound with the formula (CH2)6N4. This white
crystalline compound is highly soluble in water and polar organic solvents. It has a
cage-like structure similar to adamantane. It is useful in the synthesis of other
chemical compounds, e.g. plastics, pharmaceuticals, rubber additives. It sublimes in a
vacuum at 280 C.

Specification for technical grade Hexamine

Properties

Unit

Standard

Content

99

Moisture

0.5

Ash

0.03

Heavy metals

0.001

Chloride

0.015

Sulphates

0.02

Ammonium

0.001

CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE SURVEY

Physical and Chemical Properties
2.1 PROPERTIES OF RAW MATERIALS:

1. Formaldehyde Solution (37 %)

Physical State at 15 C and 1 atm:

Liquid

Molecular Weight:

18-30

Boiling Point at 1 atm:

Varies with concentration

Freezing Point:

Varies with concentration

Critical Temperature:

Not pertinent

Critical Pressure:

Not pertinent

Specific Gravity:

1.1 at 25C (liquid)

Liquid Surface Tension:

Not pertinent

Liquid Water Interfacial Tension:

Not pertinent

Vapor (Gas) Specific Gravity:

Not pertinent

Ratio of Specific Heats of Vapor (Gas):

Not pertinent

Latent Heat of Vaporization:

Not pertinent

Heat of Combustion:

Not pertinent

Heat of Decomposition:

Not pertinent

Heat of Solution:

Heat of Polymerization:

Not pertinent

Heat of Fusion:

Currently not available

Limiting Value:

Currently not available

Reid Vapor Pressure:

0.09 psia

(est.) 9 Btu/lb = 5 cal/g = 0.2 X 105 J/kg

2. Ammonia

Molecular Weight:

17.03

Boiling Point (C):

33.35 at 760 mm Hg

Freezing Point (C):

77.7

Decomposition Temperature (C / F):

450 to 500 / 842 to 932

Color:

Colorless

Critical Temperature (C):

133.0

Critical Pressure (kPa / psi):

1425 / 1657

Specific Heat (J/kg K)

0 C:
100 C:
200 C:

2097.2
2226.2
2105.6

Solubility in Water (weight %)

0 C :
20 C:
25 C:
40 C:
60 C:

42.8
33.1
31.8
23.4
14.1

Specific Gravity of Anhydrous Ammonia

40.0C
:
33.4C
:
0.00 C
:
40.0 C
:

0.690
0.682
0.639
0.580

Vapor Pressure:

116.6 psig at 21C (70 F)

7500 mm Hg at 25 C

Vapor Density (Air = 1.0):

0.6 at 0 C

Flammable Limits in Air (% by Volume)

Lower Explosion Limit (LEL):
15
Upper Explosion Limit (UEL):
28

Autoignition Temperature (C / F):

651 / 1204

NFPA Ratings for Storage Vessels

Health
:

3 out of 4

Flammability :
Reactivity
:
2.2 PROPERTIES OF HEXAMINE

1 out of 4
0 out of 4

Chemical name

Hexamethylenetetramine

Formula
Molecular Weight

:
:

(CH2)6N4
140.19

Sublimation Temperature

285 295C

Flash Point

250C

Density of solid @ 20C

1.33 g/cm3

Bulk Density

700 to 800 g/L

Particle Size

700 micron Maximum

Specific Heat

36.5 cal/C

Heat of Formation @ 25C

28.8 kcal/mol

Heat of Combustion @ 25C :

1,003 kcal/mol

Solubility in Water
20C
25C
60C

874 g/L
867 g/L
844 g/L

:
:
:

pH of 10% Aqueous Solution :

8 to 9

Vapor Pressure @ 20C

0.0035 mbar

CHAPTER-3
3.1 PROCESS SELECTION AND DETAIL PROCESS DESCRIPTION
PROCESS 1:

Main Process Features

The feed materials for the production of Hexamethylene Tetramine (Hexamine) are
Formaldehyde and Ammonia. Formation and crystallization of Hexamine proceed
simultaneously in the same reactor.
Hexamine in crystalline form is continuously discharged from the reactor. Subsequent
separation from the mother liquor and drying are sufficient for product conditioning
prior to bagging. The Hexamine process delivers a pure white and crystalline product
with best flow characteristics for all applications and down stream uses of Hexamine.

Brief Process Description

Hexamine is produced from compressed Ammonia and Formaldehyde solution (37%).
In the process, gaseous Ammonia from store fed to the compressor and compressed
ammonia is bubbled in the Formaldehyde solution, which is already fed to the reactor.
The reaction of Formaldehyde with Ammonia to Hexamine proceeds according to the
following chemical equation:
6 CH2O +

4 NH3

(CH2)6N4

+ 6 H2O

+ 746 kJ

The formation of Hexamine takes place in the reactor. Due to the large amount of
water, hexamine produced, is remain dissolved in water. Therefore from reactor it will
feed to the Triple Effect Evaporator.
The concentration of hexamine is increased from 26% to 60%. Then the concentrated
feed is charged to the crystallizer, where hexamine crystals are formed.
Hexamine in crystalline form is continuously withdrawn from the crystalliser and
separated from the mother liquor by centrifugation. The mother liquor is purified in a
filtration unit and returned to the Hexamine process. The separated Hexamine is dried
to the desired rest moisture content in a drying unit before being bagged and packed.
The Hexamine produced by this process meets highest requirements for all down
stream uses. The Hexamine crystals are pure white and show best flow characteristics.

PROCESS 2:
In this process, gaseous Ammonia from store and Formaldehyde process gas are
directly introduced into the Hexamine reactor without intermediate condensation. The
Formaldehyde process gas is generated either by a Metal Oxide Catalyst process or by
a Silver Catalyst process for the production of Formaldehyde. The formation and
crystallization of Hexamine take place in the same reactor. The heat of reaction, i.e.
the heat of formation of Hexamine, and the heat of solution of are directly used for the
evaporation of excess water, Methanol and other condensable components
accumulating in the mother liquor within the reactor. Hexamine in crystalline form is
continuously withdrawn from the reactor and separated from the mother liquor by
centrifugation. The mother liquor is purified in a filtration unit and returned to the
Hexamine process. The separated Hexamine is dried to the desired rest moisture
content in a drying unit before being bagged and packed.

CHAPTER-4
MATERIAL BALANCE:
Basis: Plant is to be designed to consume 1000-kg/batch of formaldehyde. Reactants
used:

Formaldehyde solution (37%)

Ammonia (compressed)

DATA:
Components

Molecular Weight
30
17
18
140

Formaldehyde
Ammonia
Water
Hexamine

Reaction:
6CH2O +
Formaldehyde

4NH3
Ammonia

(CH2)6N4 + 6H2O
Hexamine

Water

4.1 Reactor:
Assuming 90% conversion of reactants into hexamine.

CH2O = 1000 Kg
NH3

Reactor
1

= 377.7 Kg

For 1000 kg of formaldehyde, its solution required:

Hexamine = 700 kg

= 1000/0.37
= 2702.7 kg/batch (Aq. Formaldehyde solution)
water added:
= 2702.7 - 1000
= 1702.7 kg/batch

Mole feed of formaldehyde = 1000/30 = 33.33 kmol HCHO

NH3 required :
6
kmol HCHO required 4
kmol NH3
33.33 kmol HCHO required 22.22 kmol NH3
Amount of NH3 is consumed:
= 22.22 * 17
= 377.77 kg/batch
Total feed in reactor : HCHO solution + NH3
2702.7 + 377.77 = 3080.478 kg/batch
Since the conversion is 90%
Therefore,
HCHO reacted = 900 kg/batch
Ammonia reacted = 340 kg/batch
HCHO unreacted = 100 kg/batch
NH3 unreacted = 37.7 kg/batch
Solubility of ammonia is 33.1% weight in water at 20C.
Composition at Reactor outlet
Hexamine produced:
6 kmol HCHO required 1 kmol Hexamine
29.99 kmol HCHO required 4.99 kmol hexamine
Amount of Hexamine produced:
= 4.99 * 140
= 699.76 = 700 kg/batch
Water:
6 kmol of HCHO = 6 kmol of water
2.99 kmol of HCHO = 2.99 kmol of water

Amount of water produced:

= 29.99 * 18
= 540 kg/batch
Water from HCHO solution = 1702.7 kg/batch
Total water = 2242.52 kg/batch
INPUT
HCHO
Water
NH3

KG/BATCH
1000
1702.7
377.7

TOTAL

3080.4

OUTPUT
Hexamine
Water (produced)
Water (as reactant)
HCHO
NH3

KG/BATCH
700
540
1702.7
100
37.7
3080.4

4.2 TRIPPLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR:

In triple effect evaporator hexamine solution is concentrated to 60 %.

Overall material balance:
mf = m1 + mv1 + mv2 + mv3
Material balance of hexamine
26% hexamine entered and 60% hexamine is collected from outlet.
0.26 * 10784 = 0.6 * m1
m1 = 4673 kg
Let us assume the

U1 = 2500 W/m2K

U2 = 2000 W/m2K
U3 = 1000 W/m2K
Ts = 150C = 443 K (Temp of steam to the 1st effect)
Boiling point of solution in last effect = 90C
Overall temperature drop T = 150 90
= 60C
Assuming heat loads equal in all sides
Q1 =
Q2
=
Q3
U1A1T1 = U2A2T2 = U3A3T3
For equal heat transfer surface
U1T1 = U2T2 = U3T3
T1 = U2/U1 T2
T = T1 + T2 + T3
T = T1 [ 1 + U1/U2 + U1/U3 ]
60 = T1 [ 1 + 1.25 + 1.25 ]
T1 = 12C
Similarly,
T2 = 15.8C
T3 = 31.6C
Now,
T1 = Ts - T1
= 150 12 = 138C
T2 = 138 15.8 = 122.2C
T3 = 122.2 31.6 = 90.6C
Now we assume that amount water evaporated in every effect is same
i.e.
mv1 = mv2 = mv3 = mv
mf = m1 + mv1 + mv2 + mv3
mf = m1 + 3mv
10784 = 4673 + 3 mv

mv = 2037 kg

= mv1 = mv2 = mv3

Now, mass balance at 3rd effect

mf = m3 + mv3
10784 = m3 + 2037
m3 = 8747 kg
mass balance at 2nd effect
m3 = m2 + mv2
8747 = m2 + 2037
m2 = 6710 kg
m1 = 4673 kg
m2 = 6710 kg
m3 = 8747 kg
Heat transfer area required, A2 = mv1 * v1/U2 * T2
= 2037 * 2199.46 * 103/ 2000*15.8*3600
= 40 m2
similarly A3 = 40 m2
Evaporator outlet composition: Hexamine solution 60% + Water 40%.

4.3 Crystallizer:
M.L. = 4920 kg

Feed = 1550.57
kg

Hexamine crystals
Crystalliz
er

Solubility of hexamine at 100C = 814 g/l

1866.68 * 0.814 = 1517.3 kg

= 1282.7

Hence 1517.3 kg of hexamine remains dissolved in water.

Crystals form = total hexamine hexamine dissolved
= 2800 1517.3 = 1282.7 kg
M.L. = water + hexamine + HCHO soln + NH3 soln
= 1866.68 + 1517.3 + 1080 + 455.6
= 4920 kg
INPUT
Hexamine
Water

KG/DAY
2800
1866.68

HCHO soln
NH3 soln

1080
455.6

Total

6202.28

4.4 Centrifuge:

PPT = 987.7kg
Feed = 737.552kg

Centrifug
e

M.L.= 1193 kg
Input :
Feed

= 1282.7 kg hexamine + 30% water

= 1667.5 kg

Process water = 1 kg water / kg hexamine

= 1282.7 kg
Total feed = 2950.2 kg
Output :
Water = 10% water / kg hexamine
= 0.1 * 1282.7 = 128.27 kg

OUTPUT
Hexamine crystals
Hexamine
dissolved
Water
HCHO soln
NH3 soln

KG/DAY
1282.7
1517.3
1866.68
1080
455.6
6202.28

Hexamine = 1282.7 kg
Total = 1411 kg
Mother Lye = 1540 kg
INPUT
Hexamine
Water
Process water

KG
1282.7
384.8
1282.7
2950.2

OUTPUT
Hexamine
Water
M.L.

KG
1282.7
128.27
1540
2950.97

4.5 Drier:

Feed = 1411 kg
water)

Drier

Product = 1295.5 kg (1%

Water = 1 % water / kg hexamine

= 0.01 * 1282.7 kg = 12.82 kg
Hexamine = 1282.7 kg
Water evaporated = 115.44 kg
INPUT
Hexamine
Water

KG
1282.7
128.27
1410.97

OUTPUT
Hexamine
Water
Water evap.

KG
1282.7
12.824
115.44
1410.964

CHAPTER-5
ENERGY BALANCE

5.1 REACTOR :
Base temp 0C
In reactor temp is 60C to 70C
Cp for HCHO soln:

3.42 KJ / Kg K

Cp for NH3:

2.226 KJ / Kg K

Cp for Hexamine:

0.153 KJ / Kg K

Cp for water:

4.176 KJ / Kg K

HEAT INPUT = m Cp t
= m Cp t HCHO + m Cp t NH3
= (2702.73.42 35+273) + (377.772.226308)
= 3105220.21 KJ / batch
HEAT OUTPUT = m Cp t
= m Cp t HCHO + m Cp tWater + m Cp tNH3 + m Cp t Hexamine
= (100.3x3.43x353) + (2242.520x4.17353) + (37.8042.226353) +
(700x0.153x353)
= 3384580.27 KJ / Batch
Heat of reaction at 68C = 745 KJ/mol
Therefore, (700/140) 745 = 3725 KJ/batch (heat generated)

Q = HEAT OUTPUT - HEAT INPUT + Hreaction

= 3384580.27 3105220.21 + 3725
= 283085.06 KJ / Batch

Water required for Jacket in reactor

Qtotal = mCp t Water
283085.06 = m(4.176)[(7540)+273]
m = 220.09 Kg/batch

5.2 TRIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR

Q = A U TLMTD
= 10 x 2500 x 144
= 3.6x106 W = 12.96x106 KJ/S
[Note: Detailed calculations of above equipment is calculated in Chapter 4 Material
Balance]

5.3 ROTARY DRYER:

HEAT INPUT = m Cp t
= m Cp t Hexamine + m Cp t Water + m Cp t Hot air
= (1282.7 x 0.153 x 353)+(128.27 x 4.176 x 353)+(1282.7 x 1.014 x 393)
= 769522.25 KJ / Batch
HEAT INPUT = HEAT OUTPUT
769522.25 = m Cp t Hexamine + m Cp t Water + m Cp t water evaporated
+ m Cp t Air
769522.25 = (1282.7 x 0.153 x T2) + (12.824 x 4.176 x T2) + (115.44 x 4.176 x T2)
+ (1282.7 x 1.014 x T2)
769522.25 = 2032.52 T2
T2 = 378.6 K = 105C

CHAPTER-6
PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN
6.1 Triple Effect Evaporator
Design data for the evaporator in the first effect:

Feed inlet

= 6706.5 kg

Product outlet

= 4666.68 kg

Water evaporated

= 2040 kg

Steam inlet

= 2040 kg

Pressure of steam

= 5 kg/cm2

Temperature of steam

= 150 C

Temperature inside evaporator

= 138 C

Pressure inside evaporator

= 3.46 kg/cm2

Heat transfer area, A

= 40 m2

Overall heat transfer coefficient, U

= 2500 W/m2 C

TLMTD = (150 + 138)/2 = 144 C

Q = U A TLMTD
= 2500 40 144 = 14.4106 W
Tube Diameter, Do = 1 inch = 25.4mm
Tube Length, L = 4 Ft = 1219.2 mm
Area, A = 40 = Nt Do L
No. of tubes, Nt = 40 / ( 0.0254 1.219)
= 411.2 = 411 tubes
Cross section area of 1 tube = /4 Do2
= 506.7 mm2
Cross section area of 411 tubes = 411 506.7
= 208253.7 mm

We assume that c.s. area of tubes are 25% of the total c.s. of evaporator.
Cross section area of evaporator = 208253.7/0.25
= 833014.8 mm2
Diameter of evaporator, do : /4 do2 = 833014.8
do = 1.029 m
Downcomer area = 25% of 833014.8
= 208253.7 mm2
Diameter of downcomer = 208253.7 4 /
= 514.9 mm

MECHANICAL DESIGN
The required data are as following:
Internal pressure = 5 kg/cm2
External pressure = 1.033 kg/cm2
Poissons ratio = 0.3
Modulus of Elasticity = 1.9105 N/mm2
Allowable stress, f = 966.5 kg/cm2
Height of the evaporator, H = 2710 mm
Inside Diameter of the evaporator, Di = 1030 mm

6.2 DESIGN OF SHELL:

Internal design Pressure = operating pressure 10% of operating pressure

= (5 - 1.033) 1.1 = 4.3637 kg/cm2

External design pressure = operating pressure 10% of operating pressure

= 1.033 kg/cm2

SHELL THICKNESS:
Thickness of shell required to withstand internal pressure:
ts = P ri / (f j - O.6 P) + C.A
Where, ri = inside radius of shell
P = internal design pressure
f = maximum allowable stress
j = joint efficiency
(If we go for double welded butt joint with 10% radiography) then j = 0.85 & CA =
1.5 mm
= 4.3637 515/ (966.5 0.85-0.6 4.3637) + 1.5
2

(f = 966.5kg/cm )
= 0.42cm
ts = l.06 ts
=1.06 4.2 = 4.452 mm
Let ts = 8 mm
Thickness of shell required to withstand external pressure:
We find thickness by graphically method
Let ts = 8 mm, t = 8 - 1.5 = 6.5 mm
D0 = Di + 2t 1.5 = 1044.5 mm
L/D0= 2.59
D0/t = 160.69
From graph given in illustrated of process equipment design. (Appendix - C)
A=0.00014
B = 3500 Psi = 246.48 Kg/cm2
Pallow = B / (Do/t) = 1.533 Kg/cm2
Pd < Pallow, satisfied
So ts= 8mm

Outside Diameter of reactor D0 = Di + 2 th

= 1030 + 2 (8) = 1046mm
WEIGHT OF SHELL:
= (Di + tas) ts l
= (1030 + 8) 8 2710 8000 10-9
= 565.58 kg

6.3 HEAD DESIGN

Top head (torispherical head is used) :

Internal design pressure = 4.3637 kg/cm2

External design pressure = 1.033 kg/cm2

Internal diameter = 1030 mm

Crown radius =1030 mm

MOC = SA - 285, grade -C (c.s. plate material)

Now Knuckle radius = 0.1 1030 = 103 mm

Concentration factor, W = [3 + (Rc/Rk)1/2]
= 1/4 [3 + (1030/103)1/2]
= 1.54
Thickness of head required to withstand internal pressure:
th = P Rc w/(2fj-O.2P)+C.A
W = 1/4 (3+ (Rc/Rk)0.5)
Rc = crown radius, ID of reactor
Rk = knuckle radius, 10% of reactor
W=l.54
th = 4.3637 1030 1.54 1(2 966.5 0.85 - 0.2 4.3637) + 1.5
= 5.71 mm
th = 1.06 th

= 6.05 mm.

Thickness of head required to withstand external pressure (By analytical

method):
th = Pe Rc W/(2fj-O.2P) + C.A

w = 1/4 (3+ (Rc/Rk)0.5)

Rc = crown radius, i.D of reactor
Rk = knuckle radius, 10% of reactor
Pc =1.67 1.033
= 1.725 kg/cm2
W= 1.54
th = 1.725 1.54 1030 /(2 966.5 0.85 - 0.2 1.725) + 1.5
= 3.16 mm
th = 1.06 th
=3.35 mm
Here we take the thickness for top head is ts = 6mm
Head diameter D0 = 1030 + 2 6 = 1042 mm
SF = 3 th or 1.5 inch which ever is greater.
= 1.5 25.4 = 38.1 mm,

iCr = 10% ID of reactor,

Blank diameter = OD + OD/24 + th + 2SF + 2/3 iCr

= 1042 + 1042/24 + 6 + 2 38.1 + 2/3 103 = 1236.3 mm
Weight of Head = ( /4) (blank diameter) th
= ( /4) (1.23632 0.008 7800)
= 74.9 = 75 Kg
Height of head OA = th + b + SF

b = Re [(Re - Ri)2 (i.D/2 - Ri)2]0.5

= 1030 - [(1030 - 103)2 - (1030/2 - 103)2]0.5
= 199.58 mm = 200mm

6.4 DESIGN OF FLANGE:

Gasket material = asbestos composition
Internal design pressure = 1.133 Kgf/cm2
Gasket factor m = 2.75
Minimum design seating stress y = 251.77 kg/cm2
Flange material = SA 240 Grade S type 304
Maximum allowable stress of flange material at design temp = 1020.7 kgf/cm2
Maximum allowable stress of f1ange material at atm. temp = 1257.9 kgf/cm2
Maximum allowable stress of bolting material at design temp = 816.5 kgf/cm2
Maximum allowable stress of bolting material at atm. temp = 1020.7 kgf/crn2

GASKET WIDTH:
do/di = [y-Pm]/[y-p(m-1)] ___________________(a)
where, do = outside diameter of gasket
di = inside diameter of gasket
Internal diameter of flange = O.D of shell
di= 1.046 meter
Put the value in Eq-(a) then
do/di = 1.023,

do = 1.07m
minimum gasket width = (do-di)/2 = (1.07 1.046) /2 = 0.014 m
Hence minimum gasket width N =14 mm
Basic gasket seating width bo = N/2 =7mm = 0.275 > 0.25
Effective gasket seating width b = (bo)0.5/2
= 1.323 mm
Mean diameter of gasket G = (1.07+1.046) / 2 = 1.058 m
BOLT DESIGN:
Load due to design pressure, (operating pressure)
H= (/4) G2P
= /4 (1058)2 (1.133/100) = 9960.7 kgf
Load to keep joint tight under operation
Hp = G2bmxp
= 1058 2 1.323 2.75 1.133 = 27402.36 kgf
Total operating load,
W1 = H + Hp
= 9960.7+27402.36 = 37363.06 kgf
Load to seat gasket under bolting up condition,
W2= G b y
= 1058 1.323 251.77/100 = 11071.32 kgf
Bolt area required at operating condition
Am1 = W1 / fb
= 37363.06/816.5

= 45.76 cm2
Bolt area required at bolting up condition
Am2 = W2 / fa
= 11071.32/ 1020.7
= 10.846 cm2
Root area of bolt = 0.302 x 2.5422
= 1.9483 cm2
Amax. = 45.76 cm2
So no. of bolts required. = Am / 1 .9483
= 45.76/1.9483 = 23.48
Use 24 nos. of bolts
Bolt circle diameter is, C = B + 2(g1+ R)
B = ID of shell = 1.03 m
g1 = 1.5 thickness of shell = 1.5 x 8 = 12 mm
R = (do-Do)/2 + dbh/2 + th

(dbh=22mm, assume)

(10701046)/2 + 22/2 + 8 = 31 mm
C= 1030 + 2 (12+ 31) = 1116 mm
Bolt spacing = C / n
= 1116/ 24
= 146.084mm = 146 mm
Bs is not in range of 45 to 75 mm so take n = no. of bolts = 50
Bs = 70 mm
Thickness of flange t mm,

Bs = 2db + 6 tmin / (m+0.5)

70 = 222 + 6tmin / (2.75 + 0.5)
tmin = 14.083 mm
Check of gasket width.
Ab actual = 50 1.9483
= 97.415 cm2
Min gasket width = (Abfba) / (2yG)
= (97.415 1020.7) / (2251.77105.8)
= 0.594 cm
criteria for selection of flange
1. t -= 14.08 mm < 15.875 mm
2. B/t = 73.13 mm < 320 mm
3. P = 1.133 kg/cm2
Conditions are satisfied hence loose flange can be used.
Bending moment calculation.
For bolting up condition.
Design bolt load W = (Ab+Am)fa/2
W = (97.415+45.76) 1020.7/2
= 73069.36 kgf
hG = (C-G)
= (1116-1058)
= 29 mm
Bending moment created in flange material at bolting-up condition
Ma = WhG
= 2119 kgfm
Bending moment for operating condition

Mo = MD + MG + MT
Where MD = HD hD
HD = hydrostatic force acting on inside area of flange
HD = /4 B2 P
= /4 (10302) (1.133/100)
= 9440.48 kgf
hD = (C-B)/2
= (1116-1030)/2
= 43 mm
MD = 9440.4843
= 405.94 kgf
M G = H G hG
HG = Wm1- /4 G2P
= 37363.06 993.07
HG = 36369.99 kgf
hG = (C-G)/2
= (1116-1058)/2
= 29 mm
MG = 1054.7 kgfm
M T = H T hT
HT = /4 G2 P - /4 B2 P
HT = 52024.54
hT = (2C B - G )/2
= 72 mm
MT = 3745.76 kgfm
MO = 405.94+1054.7+3745.76
= 5206.4 kgfm

Ma . Ffo/Ffa
= 2119 1020.7/1257.9
= 1719.42 kgfm < MO
Mmax = MO = 5206.4 kgfm
Thickness of flange.
tf = ((YMmaxCF)/fB)^0.5 + C.A.+ M.A.
here, C.A. = corrosion allowance and M.A. = mechanical allowance
Assuming that CF = 1
For SS-304 C.A. = 0
K=

= (O.D. of flange)/(ID of flange)

= 1186/1030
= 1.15
(k2log10K/(k2-1))

Y=
Y = 25.579
tf = 11.56 cm.
tf = 115.6+5

(adding 5mm machining allowance)

actual bolt spacing Bs=

C/n

= 2626/24
= 146 mm
Bolt pitch correction factor = CF = (Bs/(2d+t))0.5
= (146/(219.05+115.6))0.5
= 0.974
(CF)1/2 = 0.987
tf = 0.987 115.6
= 114 mm

CHAPTER:7
INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL
Instrumentation and process control deal with the measurement and control of
physical conditions required for mass production of high iuality products.
Instrumentation and process control ensures high output and uniform quality of
products and to ensure that least amourt of raw material are used. Physical science
have been used to argument over sense of temperature, viscosity, pressure and color,
we arc incapable of sensing within narrow slits, dillerence in temperature, speed,
color or light intensity. It produces mechanical aids that never get tired, seldom get
into trouble but are accurate and sensitive in response for long period of time while
also eliminating the elements of human errors.
The primary objective of the designer when specifying instrumentation and control
schemes are:
A. Safe plant operation:
o To keep the process variable within safe operating limits.
o To dictate dangerous situation as they develop and provide alarm automatic
shut down system.
o To provide interlock and alarms to prevent dangerous operating system.
B. Production Rate: To achieve the desired product output.
C. Product Quality: To maintain the product composition within, the specified quaiity
standards.
D. Cost: To operate at lowest production cost commensurate with the objective but
sometimes it may be better strategy to produce a better quality at a higher cost.
E. In a typical chemical plant, these objectives arc achieved by combination of
automatic
control, manual monitoring and laboratory analysis.

7.1 Process Control:

Automatic process control and instrumentation are considered the mechanical brains,
and never of modern chemical processing. Automation is the must as it reduces labor
and improves feasibility of the product plant operation; the process and other units are
sensitive to temperature, pressure, and flow rate. I lcnce these variables are as follows:

The reaction vessel is the heart of the plant operation. Its performance determines
product quality and its efficiency is a major contributing factor to the total plant
production.
For temperature control cascade loop is used. The controlling variable is jacket
heating oil steam, which is allowed to adjust a jet point of a secondary loop; whose
response to change is rapid. Reaction temperature controller varies set point of jacket
temperature control ioop. The advantage of this loop is that a change in supply is
corrected for in sleeve loop and does not upset master controllers.

7.2 Control centre:

Since all devices are controlled from a control center, it becomes the brain of process
plant; it is designed for comfortable working conditions. It consists of a control board
and data logging system. Instruments are mounted closely together to centralize
working area, and central room is small in size, thus giving a good location. The room
must he air conditioned and free from flammable and toxic gases, green door is used
as it is pleasing and restful comfortable working surface, locate control panels
lhropcrating functionality.

7.3 Instrumentation:
Selection installation maintenance and operations of an instrumentation system are of
great importance to the company. Adequate effective instrumentation provides one
way to increase quality control, while maintaining or reducing prices ir the face of
higher cost of material supplied and labour. We will describe here the instrumentation
system for temperature, pressure, and levels and flow rate measuremems. We have to
select instrument which satisfy both our perfect technical and economy.

7.3.1 Instrumentation for temperature:

In our plant teiupciature is oi the prime importance and it should be strictly
maintained a the required level.
For this purpose, we have &li if erent types of expansion thermometers as
1) Mercury in glass thermometer
2) Bimetallic thermometer
3) Pressure spring thermometer
4) Pneumatic balance thermometer

7.3.2 Instrumentation for pressure Measurement:

Pressure is one of the most important factors in our process industry. For pressure
measurement we ave liquid column manometers such as U tube manometer,
enlarged leg manometers, inclined tube manometer and well manometer. Beside from
this pressure spring gauge bellows pressure elements, melallic and non metallic
diaphragm pressure elements and differential pressure meters. We select pressure
spring thermometer and especially bourdoii pressure gauge. it is simple in
construction and without any Conipi ication in oper it covers wind range of pressure
scale most system-handling vapour or gas ; the method of control will depend on the
process.

7.1.3 For level indication:

It is all-important to maintain the specified level in all storage tank and reaction
vessels. The level to be maintained depends upon quantities to be processed and
design specifications. For generally float end tube liquid level gauge float and shaft
liquid level unit and hydraulic remote transmission units are used. For the level
measurements in open vessels bubble system and diaphragm box system are widely
used. Level measurements in the pressure vessel liquid differential pressure
manometer, liquid scale with manometer and displacement float liquid level gauge are
used. For the measurement of flow, venturei meter, orifice meter, head flow meter,
pitot tube area flow meter such as rotameter and some quantity meters are used most
widely.
In many equipment, where an interface exists between two phases some me of
maintaining the interface the required level must be provided. This may be
incorporated in the design of the equipment as is usually done for the decanter or by
automatic control of the flow to the equipment.

7.4 Flow control:

Flow control is usually assGciated with inventory control in a storage tank or other
equipment; there must be a reservoir to take up the change in flow rates.
To provide flaw control as a compressor pump running at a fixed speed and supplying
near constant volume output by a pass control be used.

7.5 Ratio Control:

Ratio control can be used when it is deckled to maintain two Ilows at a constant ratio.
For e.g. reactor feeds and distillation column reflux.

7.6 Alarm and safety trips and interlock:

Alarms are used to alert operations of serious and potentially hazardous deviations in
process conditions. Key instruments arc fitted with switches and relays to operate
audible and visual alarm on the control panels, lack ol response by the operator is
likely to land on the rapid development of a hazardous situation, the instrument would
be fitted with a tirp system to take action utomatically to prevent the hazard, such as
shutting down pumps, closing valves, operating energy.
The basic components of an automatic trip system are:
A sensor to monitor the control variable and provide an output signal when a present
value is exceeded instrument. A link to transfer the signal to the actuator usually
consisting of a system of pneumatic or electric relays. An actuator to carry out
required action, close or open valve or switch offmonitor.

CHAPTER-8

Cost Estimation
Cost estimation mainly consists of three parts:
1. TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT
2. TOTAL PRODUCTION COST
3. PROFITABILITY
TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT

FIXED

CAPITAL

INVESTMENT

WORKING CAPITAL
(10% OF FCI)

DIRECT COST
INDIRECT COST
1. Purchased equipment

1. Engg. And supervision

2. Purchased equip. installation

2. Construction expanse

3. Instrument & control

3. Contractors fees

4. Piping installation

4. Contingency

5. Electrical installation
6. Building installation
7. Yard improvement
8. Service facilities
9. land

SUMMARY OF PURCHASED EQUIPMENT & ITS COST:

SR. NO

EQUIPMENT

NO. OF
EQUIPMENT

COST IN $

COST IN Rs.

1.

Reactor

32,400

14,90,400

2.

Triple effect
evaporator

494,100

2,27,29,060

3.

Crystallizer

46,800

21,52,800

4.

Centrifuge

12,900

5,93,400

5.

Drier

155,900

71,71,400

6.

Filter bag

19,700

9,06,200

7.

Agitator

4,000

1,84,000

8.

Storage tank

104,400

48,02,400

9.

Pump

22,500

10,35,000

10.

Compressor

69,600

32,01,600

TOTAL

-------

868,340

4,42,66,260

All the equipments cost are taken from the internet

http://www.matche.com/EquipCost/index.htm
Now, 1$ = 46 Indian Rupees
Therefore,
Total Purchased Equipment Cost =Rs. 4, 42, 66, 260 --------------- (A)
8.1 CALCULATION OF FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT (FCI):
For calculating fixed capital investment we have to calculate
(A) Direct Cost
(B) Indirect Cost

A. CALCULATION OF DIRECT COST:

1. PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST:
The cost of purchased equipment is the basis for estimating fixed capital investment.
The most accurate method for determining purchased equipment cost is to obtain
quotation from fabricators or suppliers.
The second best method is to obtain cost values from the file of past purchased record.
From above the total purchased equipment cost is found to be
Rs. 4, 42, 66, 260 ----------------------------------------(A)
The total purchased equipment cost is always 15 to 40% of fixed capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 22% of fixed capital investment.
As we know purchased equipment cost we can calculate estimated fixed capital
investment.
Therefore
Estimated fixed capital investment = 4, 42, 66, 260
0.22
= Rs. 20,12,10,272.70
So,
The estimated fixed capital investment = Rs. 20, 12, 10,272.70.
2. PURCHASED EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION:
The installation of equipment involves cost for labor, foundation, support, platform,
construction expense & other factors directly related to the erection of purchased
equipment.
Purchased equipment installation is always 6-14% of fixed capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 9% of fixed capital investment.
Therefore,
Cost of purchased equipment installation = 0.09*20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 1,81,08,924.55 -------------- (B)

3. INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL:

Instrument costs, installation cost constitute the major portion of capital investment
required for instrumentation. Total instrumentation cost depends on the amount of
controller required.
This cost is always 2-8% of fixed capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 6% of fixed capital investment.
Therefore,
Cost of instrumentation & control = 0.06 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 1,20,72,616.36 ---------------(C)
4. PIPING:
The cost of piping covers labor, valve, fitting, pipe, support & other item involved in
erection of all piping used in the process.
This cost is always 3-20% of fixed capital investment.
But For our convenience we take it as 10% of fixed capital investment.
Therefore,
Cost of piping

= 0.1 * 20,12,10,272.70
=Rs. 2,01,21,027.27 ---------------- (D)

5. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION:
The costs for electrical installation consist primarily of installation, labor & material
for power & lighting. The electrical installation consists mainly of four major
components namely power wiring, lighting, transformation & service & instrument &
control wiring.
This cost is always2-10 % of fixed capital investment.
But For our convenience we take it as 7% of fixed capital investment.
Therefore,
Cost of electrical installation

= 0.07 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 1,40,84,719.09 ---------- (E)

6. BULIDING INSTALLATION:
The cost for building including services consists of expense for labor, material &
supply involved in the erection of all building connected with the plant. In this cost of
plumbing, heating, lighting, ventilation & similar services are included.
This cost is always 3-18 % of fixed capital investment.
But For our convenience we take it as 11% of fixed capital investment.
Therefore,
Cost of building installation

= 0.11 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 2,21,33,130 ----------- (F)

7. YARD IMPROVEMENT:
Cost of fencing, grading, roads, sidewalk, railroad siding, landscaping & similar item
constitute the portion of yard improvement.

This cost is always 2-5 % of fixed capital investment.

For our convenience we take it as 4% of fixed capital investment.
Therefore,
Cost of yard improvement

= 0.04 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 80,48,411 ------------ (G)

8. SERVICE FACILITIES:
Utilities for supplying steam, water, power, compressed air & fuel lies in the service
facilities. Waste disposal, fire protection & miscellaneous service item such as first
aid & cafeteria equipment are included in this.
This cost is always 8-20 % of fixed capital investment.
But For our convenience we take it as 9% of fixed capital investment.
Therefore,
Cost of service facility

= 0.09 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 1,81,08,924.54 ------------- (H)

9. LAND:
The cost of land & the accompanying surveys & fees depends on the location of
property & may vary by cost factor.
This cost is always 1-2 % of fixed capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 2% of fixed capital investment.
Therefore,
Cost of land = 0.02 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 40,24,205 ----------------- (I)
Now,
Direct Cost = (A) + (B) + (C) + (D) + (E) + (F) + (G) + (H) + (I)
= Rs. 16, 09, 68, 218 ------------------------- (A#)
B. CALCULATION OF INDIRECT COST:
1. ENGINEERING &SUPERVISION:
The cost of construction design & engineering, drafting, purchasing, accounting,
construction & cost engineering, travel, reproductions are included in this cost.
This cost is always 4-21 % of fixed capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 12% of fixed capital investment.
Therefore,
Engineering & supervision cost = 0.12 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 2,41,45,232.72 -------- (A)
2. CONSTRUCTION EXPENSE:

This includes temporary construction & operation, construction tool & rental office,
home office at construction site etc.
This cost is always 4-16 % of fixed capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 13% of fixed capital investment.
Therefore,
Construction expense

= 0.13 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 2,61,57,335.45 ----------- (B)

3. CONTRACTORS FEES:
The contractors fee varies for different situation but it is always 2-6 % of fixed
capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 3% of fixed capital investment.
Therefore,
Contractors fees

= 0.03 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 60,36,308.181 ------------ (C)

4. CONTINGENCIES:
A contingency factor is usually included in an estimate of capital investment to
compensate for unpredictable events such as storms, floods, strikes, price change,
small design change etc.
This is always 5-15 % of fixed capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 5% of fixed capital investment.
Therefore,
Contingencies
Now,
Total indirect cost

= 0.05 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 1,00,60,513.64 --------------- (D)
= (A) + (B) +(C) + (D)
= Rs. 6, 63, 99, 390 ------------------ (B#)

Therefore,
Fixed Capital Investment = Direct Cost + Indirect Cost
= (A#) + (B#)
= Rs. 22, 73, 67, 607.8
8.2 CALCULATION OF TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT (TCI):
TCI = FCI + WORKING CAPITAL ---------- (1#)
Working Capital is always 10% of TCI.
Therefore equation (1#) become,
TCI = FCI + 0.1 TCI 0.9 TCI
= 22, 73, 67, 607.8
Therefore,

TCI = Rs. 25, 26, 30, 675.3.

9

CALCULATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST:

RAW MATERIAL COST FOR 1.3 TPD OF Hexamine PRODUCTIONS:

Total working days in a year = 300 days
Raw Material
Formaldehyde (37%
solution)
Ammonia (gas)
Water
Total

Rs/Kg
15

Rs/Annum
1,80,00,000

28
0.06

1,26,93,072
15,840
3,07,08,912

All chemicals price data taken from the internet http://www.sunivo.com.

A. CALCULATION OF DIRECT PRODUCT COST:
1. RAW MATERIAL COST:
The amount of raw material which must be supplied per unit time can be determined
from process material balance & from that we can find raw material cost required per
annum.
The raw material cost for our product is Rs. 3,07,08,912 ---------- (a)
The raw material cost is always 10 -50% of total product cost.
For our convenience we take it as 49% of total product cost.
Therefore,
Estimated total product cost = Raw material cost / 0.49
= 3,07,08,912 / 0.49
= Rs 6,26,71,249
2. OPERATING LABOR COST:
In general, operating labor cost is divided into skilled & unskilled labor.
It is most commonly 10 -50% of total product cost.
For our convenience we take it as 10% of total product cost.
Therefore,
Operating labor cost
3. UTILITIES:

= 0.10 * 6,26,71,249
= Rs. 62,67,124.9--------- (b)

The cost for utilities such as steam, electricity, process & cooling water, compressed
air varies depending on the amount of consumption.
As a rough approximation it is always 10-20% of total product cost.
For our convenience we take it as 10% of total product cost.
Therefore,
Utility cost

= 0.10 * 6,26,71,249
= Rs. 62,67,124.9------------- (c)

4. MAINTENANCE & REPAIRS:

A considerable amount of expense is necessary for maintenance & repair if a plant is
to be kept in efficient operating condition.
As a rough approximation this is always 6% of Fixed Capital Investment
Therefore,
Maintenance & repair cost

= 0.06 * 20,12,10,272.70
= Rs. 1,20,72,616.36 ------- (d)

5. OPERATING SUPPLIES:
In any manufacturing operation, many miscellaneous supplies are needed to keep the
process functioning efficiently & it is not included in the raw material cost.
It is always 15% of maintenance & repair cost.
Therefore,
Operating supplies cost

= 0.15 * 1,20,72,616.36
= Rs. 18,10,892.45 ----------- (e)

6. LABORATORY CHARGES:
The cost of laboratory test for control of operation & for product quality is covered in
this cost.
For quick estimates, this is always 10-20% of operating labor cost.
For our convenience we take it as 10% of operating labor cost.
Therefore,
Laboratory charges

= 0.10 * 62,67,124.9
= Rs. 6,26,712.49-------- (f)

7. PATENTS & ROYALTIES:

Many manufacturing processes are covered by patents & it may be necessary to pay a
set amount for patent right or royalty based on the amount of material produced.
For rough approximation this is 0-6% of total product cost.
For our convenience we take it as 1% of total product cost.
Therefore,

Patent & royalty cost

= 0.01 * 6,26,71,249
= Rs. 6,26,712.5---------- (g)

Therefore,
Direct product cost

= (a) + (b) + (c) + (d) + (e) + (f) + (g)

= Rs. 5,83,80,095.61 ------------------ (C#)

B. CALCULATION OF FIXED CHARGES:

1. DEPRECIATION:
Equipment, building & other material object comprising a manufacturing plant
require an initial investment which must be written off as a manufacturing expense.
This is called as depreciation.
This is always 10% of fixed capital investment.
Therefore, Depreciation

= 0.1 * 22, 73, 67, 607.8

= Rs. 2, 27, 36, 760.78 ---------- (h)

2. LOCAL TAXES:
The magnitude of local property taxes depends on the particular locality of the plant
& regional laws.
This is always 2-4% of fixed capital investment.
For our convenience we take it as 2% of fixed capital investment.
Therefore,
Local taxes

= 0.02 * 22, 73, 67, 607.8

= Rs. 45,47,352.156--------- (i)

3. INSURANCE:
Insurance rate depends on the type of process being carried out in the manufacturing
operation & on the extent of available protection facilities.
It is always 1% of fixed capital investment.
Therefore,
Insurance
Therefore
Fixed charges

= 0.01 * 22, 73, 67, 607.8

= Rs. 22,73,676.078 ----------- (j)
= (h) + (i) + (j)
= Rs. 2,95,57,789.01 ---- (D#)

C. CALCULATION OF PLANT OVERHEAD COST:

The expenditure required for routine plant services are included in plant overhead
cost.

This is always 50- 70% of total expense of operating labor cost.

For our convenience we take it as a 50% of operating labor cost.
Therefore,
Plant overhead cost

Therefore,
Manufacturing cost

= 0.50 * 62,67,124.9
= Rs. 31,33,562.45 -------------- (E#)

= (C#) + (D#) + (E#)

= Rs. 9,10,71,447 -------- (F#)

D. CALCULATION OF GENERAL EXPENSES:

1. ADMINISTRATIVE COST:
The expenses connected with top management or administrative activities are
necessary to include if economic analysis is to be done.
This is always 20-30% of total expense of operating labor cost.
So we take it as 20% of operating labor cost.
Therefore,
Administrative cost

= 0.20 * 62,67,124.9
= Rs 12,53,424.98 ---------- (k)

2. DISTRIBUTION & MARKETING COST:

Distribution & marketing cost vary widely for different types of plant depending on
the type of material being produced, plant location & lay out etc.
For rough approximation this is 2-20% of total product cost.
For our convenience we take it as 2% of total product cost.
Therefore,
Distribution & marketing cost

= 0.02 * 6,26,71,249
= Rs. 12,53,425 ---------- (l)

3. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT:

This includes salaries & wages for all personnel directly connected with this type of
work.
In chemical industry this cost amount is about 1% of total product cost.
Therefore,
Research & development cost

= 0.01 * 6,26,71,249
= Rs. 6,26,712.49 ----- (m)

4. INTEREST:
Interest is considered to be compensation paid for the use of borrowed capital.

For rough approximation this is 0-10% of total product cost.

For our convenience we take it as 1% of total product cost.
Therefore, Interest

Therefore,
General expenses
Therefore,
Total product cost

= 0.01 * 6,26,71,249
= Rs. 6,26,712.49 ----- (n)

= (k) + (l) + (m) + (n)

= Rs. 37,60,275 ------- (G#)
= Manufacturing cost + General expenses
= (F#) + (G#)
= Rs. 9,48,31,722 --------- (H#).

8.4 CALCULATION OF PROFIT:

Hexamine production/ day = 1.3 TPD
Therefore,
Hexamine production/annum
= 1.3 * 300
= 390 TPA
Selling price of 1 kg of Hexamine
= Rs. 300
Therefore,
Sales income from Hexamine

= 390,000 * 300
= Rs. 11,70,00,000 --------- (I#)

Now,
Gross profit

= total sales income total product cost

= (I#) (H#)
= Rs. 2,21,68,278 ---------------- (J#)
Now, total income tax is equal to 35%
Therefore,
Total income tax

Therefore,
Net profit

Now,
Rate of return

= 0.35 * Gross profit

= 0.35 * 2,21,68,278
= Rs. 77,58,897.3-------------- (K#)
= Gross profit Income tax
= (J#) (K#)
= Rs 1,44,09,380.7
= (Net profit/Total capital investment)
= (1,44,09,380.7/25, 26, 30, 675.3) * 100

= 5.70%
Now,
Payback period:

depreciable fixed capital investment

Net profit per year + depreciation per year
= 25, 26, 30, 675.3/(1,44,09,380.7+ 2, 27, 36, 760.78)

Payback period = 6.8 years

Turn over ratio = Gross Annual Sales
F.C.I
= 40, 80, 00,000
22, 73, 67, 607.8
Turn over ratio = 1.8
8.4 BREAK EVEN POINT CALCULATION (n):
F.C. + (DPC/kg) n = sell price* n
Break Even Point n (B.E.P.) = F.C* 100/ (sell price DPC/Kg)
Here,
F.C. (Fixed Cost) = Fixed Charges + Overhead + General Expenses
= 2,95,57,789.01 + 31,33,562.45 + 37,60,275
= Rs. 3,64,51,626.5
D.P.C. /kg = Rs. /kg 150
Sell Price = Rs. /kg 300
n = 243010.8433 kg/year
= 243 ton/year
= 0.81 ton/day
= 62.31 %
Thus, from the above Break Even Point it is required that the plant must produce 0.81
ton/day for no loss and no profit conditions. That is the plant must regularly run at an
efficiency of n = 62.31 %.

Chapter 9
Material Safety Data Sheet
Hexamine MSDS
Section 1: Chemical Product and Company Identification
Product Name:
Methenamine
Catalog Codes:
SLM4459, SLM3688
CAS#:
100-97-0
RTECS:
MN4725000
TSCA:
TSCA 8(b) inventory: Methenamine
CI#:
Not available.
Synonym:
Hexamine; Hexamethylenetetramine
Chemical Name:
Methenamine
Chemical Formula: C6H12N4
Section 2: Composition and Information on Ingredients
Composition:
Name
CAS #
% by Weight
Methenamine
100-97-0
100
Toxicological Data on Ingredients: Methenamine: ORAL (LD50): Acute: 569 mg/kg
[Mouse].
Section 3: Hazards Identification
Potential Acute Health Effects: Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of eye
contact (irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation.
Potential Chronic Health Effects:
CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS:
Not available.
MUTAGENIC EFFECTS:
Mutagenic for bacteria and/or yeast.
TERATOGENIC EFFECTS:
Not available.
DEVELOPMENTAL TOXICITY: Not available.
Repeated or prolonged exposure is not known to aggravate medical condition.
Section 4: First Aid Measures
Eye Contact:
Check for and remove any contact lenses. In case of contact, immediately flush eyes
with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Cold water may be used. Get medical
attention.
Skin Contact:

In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water. Cover the irritated
skin with an emollient. Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Cold water may be
used. Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse. Get medical
attention.
Serious Skin Contact:
Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the contaminated skin with an anti-bacterial
cream. Seek immediate medical attention.
Inhalation:
If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing
is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention.
Serious Inhalation:
Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight clothing such as a
collar, tie, belt or waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. If the victim
is not breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Seek medical attention.
Ingestion:
Do NOT induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never give
anything by mouth to an unconscious person. If large quantities of this material are
swallowed, call a physician immediately. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie,
belt or waistband.
Serious Ingestion: Not available.
Section 5: Fire and Explosion Data
Flammability of the Product:
Auto-Ignition Temperature:
Flash Points:
Flammable Limits:
Products of Combustion:

Flammable.
Not available.
CLOSED CUP: 250C (482F).
Not available.
These products are carbon oxides (CO, CO2),
nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2...).

Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances:

Slightly flammable to flammable in presence of open flames and sparks, of heat. Nonflammable in presence of shocks.
Explosion Hazards in Presence of Various Substances:
Risks of explosion of the product in presence of mechanical impact: Not available.
Risks of explosion of the product in presence of static discharge: Not available.
Fire Fighting Media and Instructions:
Flammable solid.
SMALL FIRE: Use DRY chemical powder.
LARGE FIRE: Use water spray or fog. Cool containing vessels with water jet in order
to prevent pressure build-up, autoignition or explosion.

Special Remarks on Fire Hazards: Not available.

Special Remarks on Explosion Hazards:
Explosive reaction with acetic acid + acetic anhydride + ammonium nitrate + nitric
acid, 1-bromopenta borane(9) above 90 C, iodoform (at 178 C), iodine (at 138 C).
Section 6: Accidental Release Measures
Small Spill: Use appropriate tools to put the spilled solid in a convenient waste
disposal container.
Large Spill:
Flammable solid.
Stop leak if without risk. Do not touch spilled material. Use water spray curtain to
divert vapor drift. Prevent entry into sewers, basements or confined areas; dike if
needed. Eliminate all ignition sources. Call for assistance on disposal.
Section 7: Handling and Storage
Precautions:
Keep locked up. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Ground
all equipment containing material. Do not ingest. Do not breathe dust. Wear suitable
protective clothing. In case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory
equipment. If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show the container or
the label. Avoid contact with skin and eyes. Keep away from incompatibles such as
oxidizing agents.
Storage:
Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area. Keep container tightly closed and
sealed until ready for use. Avoid all possible sources of ignition (spark or flame). Do
not store above 25C (77F).
Section 8: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection
Engineering Controls:
Use process enclosures, local exhaust ventilation, or other engineering controls to
keep airborne levels below recommended exposure limits. If user operations generate
dust, fume or mist, use ventilation to keep exposure to airborne contaminants below
the exposure limit.
Personal Protection:
Splash goggles. Lab coat. Dust respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified
respirator or equivalent. Gloves.
Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill:
Splash goggles. Full suit. Dust respirator. Boots. Gloves. A self contained breathing
apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the product. Suggested protective
clothing might not be sufficient; consult a specialist BEFORE handling this product.
Exposure Limits: Not available.
Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties
Physical state and appearance: Solid. (Crystals solid. crystalline powder.)

Odor:
Odorless.
Taste:
Not available.
Molecular Weight: 140.19 g/mole
Color:
White.
pH (1% soln/water): Not available.
Boiling Point:
Not available.
Melting Point:
Sublimation temperature: 280C (536F) [Lewis, R.T., Hawley's Condensed Chemical
Dictionary]
263 C [Merck Index]
Critical Temperature:
Specific Gravity:
Vapor Pressure:
Vapor Density:
Volatility:
Odor Threshold:
Water/Oil Dist. Coeff.:
Ionicity (in Water):
Dispersion Properties:

Not available.
1.331 @ -5 C (23 F) (Water = 1)
Not applicable.
4.9 (Air = 1)
Not available.
Not available.
Not available.
Not available.
See solubility in water.

Solubility:
Soluble in cold water.
Insoluble in diethyl ether.
Soluble in chloroform.
Soluble in alcohol.
Section 10: Stability and Reactivity Data
Stability: The product is stable.
Instability Temperature: Not available.
Conditions of Instability: Heat, incompatible materials
Incompatibility with various substances: Reactive with oxidizing agents.
Corrosivity: Non-corrosive in presence of glass.
Special Remarks on Reactivity:
Reacts violently with Na2O2.
Decomposes when in prolonged contact with strong acids and concentratred solutions
of organic acids.
Special Remarks on Corrosivity: Not available.
Polymerization: Will not occur.
Section 11: Toxicological Information
Routes of Entry: Inhalation. Ingestion.
Toxicity to Animals: Acute oral toxicity (LD50): 569 mg/kg [Mouse].
Chronic Effects on Humans: MUTAGENIC EFFECTS: Mutagenic for bacteria
and/or yeast.
Other Toxic Effects on Humans: Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of
ingestion, of inhalation.

Special Remarks on Toxicity to Animals: Not available.

Special Remarks on Chronic Effects on Humans:
May cause cancer (tumorigenic) based on animal data.
May affect genetic material (mutagenic).
Special Remarks on other Toxic Effects on Humans:
Acute Potential Health Effects:
Skin: Causes skin irritation.
Eyes: Causes eye irritation.
Inhalation: Causes respiratory tract and mucous membrane irritation. May affect
urinary system, and metabolism.
Ingestion: Causes gastrointestinal tract irritation/distress with nausea, abdominal pain,
vomiting. May affect the urinary system (bladder, kidneys), behavior (excitement,
muscle contraction, spasticity, tremor).
Section 12: Ecological Information
Ecotoxicity: Not available.
BOD5 and COD: Not available.
Products of Biodegradation:
Possibly hazardous short term degradation products are not likely. However, long
term degradation products may arise.
Toxicity of the Products of Biodegradation: The products of degradation are less
toxic than the product itself.
Special Remarks on the Products of Biodegradation: Not available.
Section 13: Disposal Considerations
Waste Disposal:
Waste must be disposed of in accordance with federal, state and local environmental
control regulations.
Section 14: Transport Information
DOT Classification: CLASS 4.1: Flammable solid.
Identification: Hexamethylenetetramine UNNA: 1328 PG: III
Special Provisions for Transport: Not available.

CHAPTER- 10
UTILITIES
(A)

Utility Requirement

(B)

Labour Requirement

1. Utilities
The work utilities is now generally used for the ancillary service needed in operation.
These services will normally be supplied form a central site facility. The utilities requi
ed include.
1. Water
2. Electricity
3. Steam requirement for process heating
4. Storage & movement of raw materials/products
5. Fire protection
6. Maintenance facilities
7. Plant sewer system and waste disposal

Water:
Water is vital for any plant following types of water used for the plant.

Cooling water:
Natural and forced draft cooling towers are generally used to provide the cooling
water required on site. Water cay bt deacon form a river, lake of form wells.
Some treatment is necessary for once through system to prevent scale f small quantity
of surface active agents is added to the water. So it increases the solubility of the salt
in the water by preventing. Prevented by adding corrosion inhibitors such as,
chromate or surfaces acidic phosphates.

Dematerialized Water:
Dematerialized water form which all the minerals have been removed by ionexchange, is used when pure water is needed for process use and as boiler feed water.
Fire water:
Requirement for fire water are intermittent and assumed that other services will be
shunt if necessary to provide sufficient water capacity. The fire water lop system
should be so designed that breakdown at a specific hydrant does nto put the entire
system out of operation. Provision should be made for emergency connection of the
fire water system into the large reservoir of water. Sea water and brackish water is
often used if plant is located at the coastal area.
Sanitary water:
It must be free disease causing bacteria and potable Treated water is chlorinated to
destroy bacteria. Sanitary water systems are operated at 20-30 psi. An elevated water
storage tank is installed to ensure uninterrupted flow of water.
Utility water:
Utility water is used for miscellaneous washing operations such as cleaning an
operating area. It should be free form sediments. Notices should be put to wan
personnel not to drive this.
Electricity:
The power required for motor drivers, righting and general use, may be generated on
site, but usual it is purchased form the local supply company. In our plant main air
blower is the high power consuming equipment. As in our plant large quantity of
excess is available, we produce power in plant itself by using steam turbine. Actually
electricity is one of the by-products of our company.
The voltage at which the supply is taken will depend on the demand. In this case three
phases 415V is used for general industrial purpose and 210V single phase for lighting
and other low l)0 requirments.
Steam:
The steam for process heating is usually generated in waste heat boilers using the
most economic fuel available. In our plant we produce steam in Reboiler-I&II Steam
is used for power generation In power plant.

Storage & Movement of Raw Materials & Product:

The process contains liquid raw material and products for storage area & n a floor.
The CS is highly corrosive storage tank is located away form main plant storage tank
is properly lined to prevent any hazard. For the movement of liquid pipe lined arc
required. Pipelines are provided with flow meters to measure the flow rate.
Maintenance Facilities:
Maintenance facilities are provided to ensure efficient working of equipment. The
expensive units must be maintained by a knowledge mechanic as outlined by the
manufacture. The most efficient filtration system available for breathing air is
employed. .lf laboratory contain chromatography, it should be properly set-up.
One more item deserving mention is to blow down cylinders fI while compressing air
and inspecting annually with an inner scrape for water and rust.
So converter should be checked at frequent time periods, its construction and
performance should match with the standards setup.
Fire Protection:
Acid handling line must be leak proof. If acid is present in atmosphere, hazard may
occur which can become a source of Accordion. Therefore, acid handling line should
be lea proof. Maintenance work is required for keeping it as leak proof.
Plant Sewer System and Waste Disposal:
Preliminary sources of sewage and waste in the plant are;
Sanitary Waste
Process Drain
Surface Drainage
The plant sewer system is designed to conduct these wastes to the disposal system
without becoming clogged with solids.
Plant Roadways:
Plant roadways are designed to permit easy access to all points of plant for mobile
servicing equipment, trucks and fire fighting equipment.

CHAPTER- 11
11.1 PLANT LOCATION
The geographical location of the final plant can have stron influence on the success of
the industrial venture. Considerable care imist he exercised in selecting the plant site,
and many different factors must be considered. Primarily the plant must be located
where. the minimum cost of production and distribution can be obtained but, other
lactors such as room for expansion and safe living conditions for plant operation as
well as the surrounding community are also important. The location of the plant can
also have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project. The choice of the final site
should first be based on a complete survey of the ad and disadvantages of various
geographical areas and ultimately, on the advantages and disadvantages of the
available real estate. The various principal factors that must be considered while
selecting a suitable plant site, are briefly discussed in this section. The factors to be
considered are:
1. Raw material availability.
2. Location (with respect to the marketing area.)
3. Availability of suitable land.
4. Transport facilities.
5. Availability of fabors.
6. Availability of utilities (Water, Electricity).
7. Environmental impact and effluent disposal.
8. Local community considerations.
9. Climate.
10. Political strategic considerations.
11. Taxations and legal restrictions

11.2 SITE SELECTION CRITERIA Location:

The location of markets or intermediate distribution centers affects the cost of pioduct
distribution and time required for shipping. Proximity to the major markets is an
important consideration in the selection of the plant site, because thc buyer usually l
advantageous to purchase from near-by sources. In case of sulfuric acid plant, the
major consumers are fi industries and hence the plant should be erected in close
proximity to those units.
Availability Of Suitable Land:
The characteristics of the land at the proposed plant site should be examined carefully.
The topography of the tract of lami structure must be considered, since either or both
may have a pronounced effect on the construction costs. The cost of the land is
important, as well as local building costs and living conditions. Future changes may
make it desirable or necessary to expand the plant facilities. The land should be
ideally flat, well drained and have load-bearing characteristics. A full site evaluation
should be made to determine the need for piling or other special foundations.
Transport
The transport of materials and products to and from plant will be an overriding
consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected so that it is
close to at least two major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway or a seaport. Road
transport is being increasingly used, and is suitable for local distribution from a
central warehouse. Rail transport will be ch for the long- distance transport. If
possible the plant site should have access to all three types of transportation. There is
usually need for convenient rail and air transportation facilities between the plant and
the main company head quarters, and the effective transportation facilities for the
plant personnel are necessary.
Availabi of Labors:
Labors will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled
construction workers will usually be brought in from outside the site, but there should
be an adequate pool of unskilled labors available locally and labors suitable for
training to operate the plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance.
Local trade union customs and restrictive practices will have to be considered when
assessing the availability and suitability .of the labors for recruitment and training.

Availability of Utilities:
The word utilities is generally used for the ancillary services needed in the
operation of any production process. Ihese services will normally be supplied from a
central facility and includes Water, Fuel and Electricity, which are briefly described as
follows: Water: The water is required for large industrial as well as general purposes, starting with
water for cooling, washing, steam generation and as a raw material in the production
of sulfuric acid. The plant therefore must be located where a dependable water supply
is available namely lakes, rivers, wells, seas. If the water supply shows seasonal
fluctuations, its desirable to construct a reservoir or to drill several standby wells. The
temperattire, mineral content, slit a sand content, bacteriological content, and cost for
supply and purification treatment must also be considered when choosing a water
supply. Demineralized water, from which all the minerals hav been removed is used
where pure water is needed l tIle process use, in boiler feed. Natural and forced draft
cooling towers are generally used to provide the cooling water required on site.
Electricity: Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants and fuel is ordinarily
required to supply these utilities. Power, fuel and steam are required for running the
various equipments like generators, motors, turbines, plant lightings and general use
and thus be considered, as one major factor is choice of olant site.
Environmental impact and Effluent Disposal:
Facalities must be provided for the effective disposal of the effluent without any
public nuisance. In choosing a plant site, the permissible tolerance levels for various
effluents should be considered and attention should be given to potential requireneuts
for additional waste treatment facilities. As all industrial processes produce waste
products, full consideration must be given to the difficulties and coat of their disposal.
The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be covered by local regulations, and
the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey to
determine the standards that must be met.
Local Community Considerations:
The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose
a significant additional risk to the community.
Climate

Adverse climatic conditions at site will increase costs. Extremes of low temperatures
will require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment
and piping. Similarly, excessive humidity and hot temperatures pose serious problems
and must be co:isidered for selecting a site for the plant. Stronger structures will be
needed at locations subject to high wind loads or earthquakes.
Political And Strategic Considerations:
Capital grants, lax conccsstoils, and other inducements are olten given by
governments to direct new investment to preferred locations; such as areas of high
unemployment. The availability of such grants can he the overriding consideration in
site selection.
Taxation And Legal Restrictions:
State and local tax rates on property income, unemployment insurance, and similar
items vary from one location to another. Similarly, local regulations on zoning,
building codes, nuisance aspects and others facilities can have a major influence on
the final choice of the plant site.
Conclusion: Considering the above factors the plant should be

Located near the refinery for getting propylene.

It should have a near the sea because of discharging a lot of brine solution
or should be near the chior/alkali plant.

11.3 PLANT LAYOUT :After the flow process diagrams are completed and before detailed piping, structural
and electrical design can begin, the layout of process units in a plant and the
equipment within these process unit must be planned. This layout can play an
important part in determining construction and manufacturing costs, and thus must be
planned carefully with attention being given to future problems that may arise. Thus
the economic construction and efficient operation of a process nit will depend on how
well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is laid out. The
principal factors that are considered are listed below:
1. Economic considerations: construction and operating costs.
2. Process requirements.
3. Convenience of operation.
4. Convenience of maintenance.

5. Health and Safety considerations.

6. Future plant expansion.
7. Modular construction.
8. Waste disposal requirements

Costs:
Adopting a layout that gives the shortest run of co pipe between equipment, and least
amount of structural steel work can minimize the coat of construction. However, this
will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and maintenance.
Process Requirements:
An example of the need to take into account process consideration is the need to
elevate the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a
pump.
Convenience of Operation:
Equipment that needs to have frequent attention should be located convenient to the
control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient
positions and heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must he provided to
allow easy access to equipment.
Convenience of Maintenance: Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can he easily withdrawn for
cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst
or packing should be located on the out side of buildings. Equipment that requires
(hsmanhling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be places
under cover.
health and Safety Considerations: Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the
effects of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be provided
from each level in process buildings.
Future Plant Expansion:
Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future
expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and
service pipes over-sized to allow for future requirements.

Modular Construction: In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant
manufacturers site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping
and instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or
sea. The advantages of modular construction are:
1. Improved quality control.
2. Reduced construction cost.
3. Less need for skilled labors on site.
The disadvantages of modular construction arc:
1. Higher design costs & more structural stem work.
2.More flanged constructions & possible problems with assembly, on site.