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SFSFFSF ABulk Carrier
SFSFFSF ABulk Carrier
I S S I O N
The mission of the American Bureau of
Shipping is to serve the public interest
as well as the needs of our clients by
promoting the security of life, property
and the natural environment primarily
through the development and verification
of standards for the design, construction
and operational maintenance of marinerelated facilities.
quality
&
environmental
P O L I C Y
It is the policy of the American Bureau
of Shipping to be responsive to the
individual and collective needs of our
clients as well as those of the public at
large, to provide quality services in
support of our mission, and to provide
our services consistent with international
standards developed to avoid, reduce or
control pollution to the environment.
All of our client commitments, supporting
actions, and services delivered must be
recognized as expressions of Quality.
We pledge to monitor our performance
as an on-going activity and to strive for
continuous improvement.
We commit to operate consistent with
applicable environmental legislation
and regulations and to provide a framework for establishing and reviewing
environmental objectives and targets.
Executive Summary
Bulk carrier safety initiatives have received a new sense of urgency, accompanied with a greater
sense of liability in the marine industry. The relationship of bulk carrier age to total loss of a
vessel cannot be ignored, but other operational considerations also play an important role in
maintaining the structural integrity.
Statistically, for conventional bulk carriers, those vessels with more than 20 years of operation
have a greater total loss probability, in addition to a greater loss of life probability. Capesize
(more than 80k dwt) and handysize (10 to 40k dwt) vessels account for the majority of losses
at sea. This is a concern as 51 percent of the handysize fleet is 20 years old or greater. There are
many operational considerations contributing to the loss of a vessel that must be addressed for
the next generation of bulk carriers.
ABS SafeHull is the starting point for an ABS approved design. Application of the principles
found in ABS SafeHull provide the cornerstone to a structurally sound vessel. Additionally, the
ABS SafeShip program follows a vessel from inception through its service life. This information
management system allows owners the best method for maintaining their vessels. For further
design verification, several analytical tools exist to address unique considerations for the larger
bulk carrier designs.
Design alternatives to the conventional single sided vessels have been proven in the market to
bring added strength, including the double hull or double side skin design. Bulk carriers with
double sides are more durable ships bringing added benefits for safety and operations.
ABS is a classification society of choice for bulk carriers. With practical experience and
unmatched technical capability, ABS offers shipowners and shipbuilders of these vessels
the most comprehensive classification services available.
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................3
ABS STRONG POSITION .......................................................................................................4
MARKET SHARE ..............................................................................................................................................4
RECENT ACTIVITY - DOUBLE SIDE SKIN BULK CARRIERS ...................................................................................4
BULK CARRIER LOSSES.........................................................................................................5
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................................................8
HOLD SIDE FRAME PROBLEMS .........................................................................................................................8
Fatigue ..........................................................................................................................................................8
Corrosion ......................................................................................................................................................9
Damage.......................................................................................................................................................10
GREEN WATER .............................................................................................................................................11
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION .........................................................................................................................11
IMPROVING BULK CARRIER SAFETY..................................................................................12
APPLICATION OF ABS SAFESHIP ....................................................................................................................12
APPLICATION OF ABS SAFEHULL ...................................................................................................................12
Bulk Carrier Designs ..................................................................................................................................13
Side Frames ................................................................................................................................................13
Cross Deck Structures .................................................................................................................................14
Corrugated Transverse Bulkheads...............................................................................................................14
TAIL SHAFT BEARING PERFORMANCE .............................................................................................................15
PERMANENT ACCESS FOR SURVEY ..................................................................................................................15
DESIGN ALTERNATIVES ......................................................................................................16
DOUBLE SIDE SKIN BULK CARRIERS ...............................................................................................................16
PARAMETRIC STUDY: DOUBLE SIDE SKIN BULK CARRIERS.................................................................................17
Longitudinal Framing .................................................................................................................................18
Transverse Framing ....................................................................................................................................18
Double Side Space.......................................................................................................................................18
Ship Configurations ....................................................................................................................................18
Operating Costs ..........................................................................................................................................20
HYCON BULK CARRIERS ................................................................................................................................21
APPENDIX 1
DOUBLE SIDE SKIN BULK CARRIERS TO ABS CLASS.........................................................................................22
APPENDIX 2
WEIGHING THE OPTIONS ..............................................................................................................................24
Introduction
In selecting the most appropriate classification society for a new construction project, the client
should consider the following:
ABS strong position in bulk carrier classification comes from years of experience, backed by
advanced technical programs that address the needs of the industry, including shipowners and
shipbuilders. ABS stands out as a technology leader committed to continual research and the
development of appropriate Rules and Regulations governing the design parameters and vessel
life.
ABS surveyors experience is further enhanced by a commitment to technology and the analytical
programs offered by the engineering department. By responding to clients needs through a
worldwide network of offices, clients receive the necessary attention to ensure project success.
ABS has programs already in place and personnel with the needed experience to aid in the design
and construction of the next generation of bulk carriers. ABS currently has projects for both the
latest Dunkerque-max bulk carriers and double side skin (DSS) bulk carriers. ABS has the technology and practical experience necessary to meet the design challenges posed by these vessels.
Based on extensive and varied experience, ABS provides comprehensive classification services
fulfilling client needs for any bulk carrier project, whether single or double sided.
____________________________
1 Source: LLP Seaway, gt based
2 Source: LLP Seaway, Jan 2002
These charts depict that side shell failures are the most likely reason for loss and are more likely
to occur to the panamax and capesize bulk carriers that are more than 20 years old.
Age is a contributing
factor in the loss of
bulk carriers.
Statistically, bulk
carriers 20 years and
older exhibit a greater
chance of total loss
than their younger
counterparts. Intercargo
notes that the actual
number of ships and
lives lost has fluctuated
each year, while the
average age profile of
lost bulk carriers has
remained at around
20 years.3
Many operational factors contribute to the structural soundness of a vessel. These issues
must be addressed to ensure that
safe operation is maintained and
casualties are reduced.
____________________________
3 Bulk Carrier Casualty Report, 2001 and the Previous Ten Years (1992-2001), Intercargo
Operational Considerations
For the safe operation of a bulk carrier there are many facets that must be identified and
considered. The majority of structural problems associated with bulk carriers arise with the side
shell. Other issues to address include the effects of green water on deck.
Fatigue
Bulk carriers are susceptible to many modes of cyclic forces that combine with other forces
acting upon the vessels structure. Over time these cyclic stresses, can seriously weaken the
vessels structural capacity. Three areas on a bulk carrier that are especially prone to fatigue
are the hold side frames, the side longitudinals in the upper and lower wing tanks, and the
toes of the hatch coaming termination brackets.
Cyclic wave pressure acts upon the side frames
of the vessel in a constant cycle of loading and
unloading forces. For bulk carriers carrying
high density cargo, such as iron ore, the side
frames do not have an internal pressure to counteract the external forces and the side
shell is forced inward by the unbalanced forces.
This can result in a weakening of the side frame.
Conversely, internal pressures created by lower
density cargo impose loads in the opposite
direction when a wave trough is encountered.
This occurs when the cargo fills the cargo holds
and pushes out on the side frame structure.
This pressure can also fluctuate and react with
the motions of the vessel.
Additional fatigue loads on the side frames arise from hull girder shear forces. Bulk carriers with
cargo loaded in an alternate hold pattern experience high levels of still water shear forces as the
weight of the holds loaded with the cargo are pushing down and the buoyant forces are pushing
up the empty holds. These upward and downward acting still water forces combine with the
shear forces that fluctuate with the wave motions to impose fluctuating stresses on the side
frames.
Similarly, the longitudinal framing of the upper and lower wing tanks is subjected to fluctuating
stresses due to the external wave action as well as the internal pressure from the ballast tanks.
These longitudinals are also
subjected to the fluctuating
longitudinal hull girder
stresses imposed by the
passing wave along the
length of the vessel. The
toes of the hatch coaming
termination brackets are
subjected to the fluctuating
longitudinal hull girder
stresses as well as the
torsional wave induced
stresses imposed by waves
encountered at oblique
wave headings.
Corrosion
Certain products, including coal, phosphates and raw sulfur,
transported by bulk carriers can rapidly corrode the hold side
frames and promote fractures. For a capesize bulk carrier carrying
coal and iron ore it has been recorded that a hull web frame, with
an original thickness of 10 mm can corrode to only 3 to 5 mm
along the bottom portion of the hold in a short period. Additionally,
the hold frame does not corrode evenly along the vertical length of
the frame.
POSITION
WEB THICKNESS
Upper
Few
10 mm
Upper
>50 percent
7 9 mm
Middle
>100 percent
5 8 mm
Bottom
100 percent
3 5 mm
Damage
Side shell problems are prevalent in all sizes of bulk carriers, although there is a higher occurrence for the larger panamax and capesize bulk carriers.
For high-density cargoes the speed of loading may cause damage to the ships structure. Any time
the vessel is loaded in an asymmetrical manner, in relation to the central axis, the ship will twist.
This will create other stresses within the hull structure.
These stresses can have a damaging effect on the hull,
even in still water conditions.
It is known that the dense nature of iron ore, about 3 tons
per cubic meter, generates large stresses on a ships structure. Loading this cargo must be carefully controlled to
not exceed allowable stresses. The risk associated with
improper cargo loading can be greatly magnified once the
vessel encounters the dynamic forces due to wave action.
Additionally, careless maneuvering of equipment used by
terminals can cause accidental damage to bulk carriers
transporting grains, ore and coal. Loading and unloading
practices have a very real effect upon the vessels operational life span that can ultimately lead to damage or loss
of the side shell plating. The practice of dislodging cargo
from side shell frames with jackhammers, removing ore
with multi-ton claws, or loading minerals at high rates
without considering the physical effect on the ship are
common occurrences. Certain types of bulk cargoes
require bulldozers to move cargo during unloading,
with inevitable damage to frames, bulkheads and plating.
Additionally, the concentrated weight distribution of
Photo credit: International Dry Bulk Terminals Contact Group (DBTG)
lower profile cargoes require special attention. Scrap
metal, for example, must be handled carefully to prevent
damage to the bottom plating of the hold. Steel coils, if not properly secured, with their large
weight concentration may shift during voyage and damage the hull.
Green Water
The flooding of spaces below the main deck due to
hatch cover or securing device failure, or failure of
other deck fittings, has been linked to green water
loads. Failures have been attributed both to direct
impact loads of an impinging wave, and to impact by
loose gear, deck equipment or fittings that have broken
away from their foundations and then been carried by
green water.
Design options to provide increased reserve buoyancy
above the main deck and added bow protection against
green sea loads are currently being analyzed to reduce
the occurrence and effects of green water on deck.
Based on the formal investigation report on the loss
of the Derbyshire, new model tests and extreme value
predictions for severe wave conditions have been
carried out and are being used to reassess strength
requirements for hatch covers and foredeck fittings.
Preliminary assessment of these model test results indicate that current IACS unified strength
requirements for hatch covers are adequate for ships in the intact condition, but that further
assessment and refinement may be in order to account for greater forward green water loads if
the foremost cargo hold or forepeak spaces were to flood. Work is also proceeding within IACS
to evaluate the capacity of foredeck fittings and equipment attachments at the deck to resist the
lateral loads of boarding green seas.
Spontaneous Combustion
Additional problems arise in the transportation of coal, which may emit combustible methane
gas. Spontaneous combustion may also occur in certain types of coal that are self-heating. Even
with the transportation of fishmeal there is a need for special consideration as it too can spontaneously combust.
Side Frames
Side frames are one of the weakest links in a bulk carrier structure. These vertical frames on the
side shell connect two highly rigid structures, the double bottom/lower wing tank and upper
wing tank. Side frames in dry cargo holds experience maximum stresses when alternate holds are
loaded with high-density cargo and the ship is fully loaded. The low cargo profile causes side
frames in these holds to experience greater flexure due to the large external pressures that are not
counteracted by internal cargo pressures. The flexing is further magnified by the rotation of the
rigid lower wing tank caused by the large downward force of the high-density cargo acting on
the double bottom. All these effects contribute to reducing the fatigue life of the connecting brackets of the side
frames, sometimes causing their detachment from the
side shell.
Design Alternatives
Tragic losses from bulk carrier casualties led many in the marine industry, including ABS, to
investigate what design modifications could be made to reduce the risk of further losses. Double
side skin bulk carriers, and modifications thereon, are being built to counteract some of the
problems associated with single side bulk carriers.
Side
Shell
Side
Frames
Double
Hull
Because of the
smooth hold sides,
the damage per ton
of cargo discharged
can be six times
lower than the average in conventional
bulk carriers. DSS
smooth holds also
save time and costs
in hold cleaning and
protect the cargo
against external temperature variations.
Significant savings
and economic advantages can be realized
through an increase
in structural strength.
The DSS design not
only eliminates
exposed damageprone side frames,
but also reduces the
risk of hold flooding
and possible sinking;
especially for smaller
size bulk carriers
with fewer compartments. On the other
hand, if the double
side space were used
as a ballast tank it
would require closer
attention.
The construction cost
differential for a DSS
bulk carrier is nominal, and higher resale
values may be realized. Additionally, the
operational advantages translate into
economic advantages as the speed of cargo discharge has been improved, time and cost is saved
in hold cleaning, and less down time is required for repairs.
Longitudinal Framing
Longitudinal framing in bulk carriers poses additional design concerns that result in increased
fatigue. In the longitudinal framing in the double side space system, the horizontal stringer has
no impact on longitudinal framing scantlings. The web framing in the double side space could
be every third or sixth frame spacing, and fatigue would be a factor in wider frame spacing. In
a longitudinal framing system, side pressure is transmitted to the vertical web or the transverse
bulkhead. Additionally side pressure loads can cause high shear forces in the webs. Careful
consideration needs to be made for this high shear force.
Transverse Framing
Transverse framing is preferred for a variety of reasons. One advantage is that the web frame location is flexible. Additionally, greater buckling strength is found in the side shell plating as it is
subject to large vertical direction compressive loads. The web frames support the local scantling
requirement, and the side pressure loads go directly to the upper and lower hopper tanks eliminating the high shear problem encountered by the longitudinal system. The ABS study considers
a transverse framing system.
Ship Configurations
The ABS study compares DSS and SSS for three typical sizes of bulk carriers: capesize, panamax
and handymax. These ships were selected to establish a baseline reference in each of these
respective size ranges against which DSS bulk carriers of identical deadweight, cubic capacity and
speed would be compared with SSS bulk carriers.
SIZE (DWT)
L.B.P. (M)
BREADTH (M)
DEPTH (M)
Capesize
150,000
264.00
45.00
23.20
16.90
Panamax
60,000
212.00
32.24
17.80
12.40
Handymax
45,000
180.00
32.00
15.80
10.50
To provide the DSS ships with a cubic capacity equal to that of the single side equivalent, the
depth of the DSS ships were increased to compensate for the loss of cargo capacity due to the
double sides. The depths of the capesize, panamax and handymax double sided ships were
increased by 0.6m, 0.7m and 1.11, respectively. The length and breadth remained the same.
Although larger vessels are now the norm in bulk carrier new construction, the steel weight
increase and economic findings can be used as indicators in understanding the difference
between single sided and double sided bulk carriers.
Comparing a typical SSS and DSS capesize vessel, there is a weight increase in the cargo block
of 419 tons for the DSS bulk carrier. This can be broken down into the various sections in the
table below.
REGION
DIFFERENCE TONS
Longitudinal Members
8,834
8,585
249
Web Frames
1,831
1,640
191
590
634
-44
W. T. BHD
1,416
1,452
-36
D. T. BHD
588
550
38
Hatch Coamings
170
170
Cross Deck
360
360
Bilge Keel
10
10
Phase B Increase
283
262
21
14,082
13,663
419
TOTAL
*For a capesize vessel of 150,000 dwt
By adding the steel necessary beyond the cargo block region, the total structural weight difference of a typical DSS capesize bulk carrier would be 484 tons.
TOTAL STRUCTURAL WEIGHT OF EACH
SHIP (TONS)
DIFFERENCE (TONS)
Double Hull
Single Side
14,082
13,663
+ 419
Total Weight
17,377
16,893
+ 484
DIFFERENCE
(tons)
CONSTRUCTION
COST DIFFERENCE
SSS capesize
TOTAL STEEL
WEIGHT
16,893
DSS capesize
17,377
484
$484,000
*Note: the construction cost is based on $1000 per ton steel (average between Japan and Korea)
Operating Costs
In the study, it was determined that the operating cost difference is small. Although there will be
some revenue loss due to port draft restrictions requiring the carriage of less cargo.
Panamax
Handymax
$10,000
$13,200
$11,800
Canal Tolls
$1,300
$8,600
$11,500
Fuel Cost
$6,700
$4,700
$5,100
(9)
(13)
(11)
days at sea
(297)
(264)
(301)
days at port
(35)
(72)
(48)
-$22,300
-$10,400
-$5,600
-$22,500
-$18,000
-$12,000
$11,400
$8,900
$5,800
$5,700
$3,700
$4,900
-$9,700
$10,700
$21,500
Port Charges
# of total voyages
The operating cost savings for a capesize DSS bulk carrier adds up to a total of $194,000 (USD)
over a 20-year period.
Capesize Cost Differential
Initial Cost Differential
= $484,000
Operating Difference
= -$194,000
= $290,000
COST DIFFERENTIAL
Net Present Value (@ 6 %)
= $373,000
Overall, a DSS bulk carrier offers added structural strength and operational advantages over the
conventional SSS bulk carrier, which may eventually translate into economic benefits. The offhire risk of DSS bulk carriers is reduced with better maintenance and efficient operation, resulting in better availability. Repair and maintenance costs can be reduced due to the smooth-side
inner hull and protected structural members located in the double side compartment spaces.
Owners of DSS bulk carriers can also expect a better resale value for vessels that have had the
appropriate repairs and fewer damages.
Appendix 1
Double Side Skin Bulk Carriers to ABS Class
ABS Classification Activity sample of DSS Bulk Carriers built 1995 to 2002.
Pacific Dolphin
Top Progress
Top Leader
Appendix 2
Weighing the Options
There are pros and cons to be considered for an informed decision to be made regarding DSS and
SSS bulk carriers.
Pros:
Safer in structure
Flexible in operation
Pros:
Commercially competitive
Cons:
Loss of grain capacity
(for handymax vessels)
Cons:
Vulnerable to side structure
failure
Effect of regulations yet to be
evaluated
Pros:
High corrosion resistance, only
when double hull is left void
Pros:
Easy blasting, re-coating and
renewing of side structure if
necessary
Cons:
Extensive corrosion is envisioned
if the hull space were used for
ballast
Cons:
Hold frames are exposed to
cargoes with high
corrosion rates
Pros:
Improved resistance against low
energy collision resulting in holds
flooding
Pros:
Hold structure and hull girder are
strengthened against one hold
flooding, and easily maintained
Perception
Corrosion
Flooding
resulting from
damage to
side structure
Mechanical
Damage
Cons:
If side shell integrity were
breached, one hold flooding may
lead to a progressive flooding and
loss of the ship
Pros:
Hold side structure is protected
from possible mechanical
damage
Pros:
Hold frames are easily accessible
for repairs
Cons:
Repair work of DSS structure
may require hot work in confined
space both outer/inner hull
Cons:
Hold frames are vulnerable to
mechanical damage during
unloading
Inspection
and
Maintenance
Steel Weight
Pros:
Access to DSS spaces will be
facilitated using the hull
structure in the absence of
ballast
Pros:
Hold structure and hull girder
are strengthened against one
hold flooding and easily
maintained
Cons:
Maintenance work could be
more challenging due to DSS
spaces being confined
Cons:
Special means of access is
necessary (permanent means
of access is not feasible)
Pros:
Small difference as long as the
strengthening for hold flooding
is exempted in SOLAS XII
Pros:
Lighter than the same size for
DSS BCs
Cons:
Heavier than the same size of
SSS BCs such effect may
become larger of smaller BC
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