Topic 2

Quality Specification
Lectures
Mr. Mohd Syafarim B. Md Ishak
Introduction
1. `Comprehensive details of product attributes’
e.g.: grade, weight, nutritional values, microbe count,
etc
 
2. Quality specifications is needed in any condition
e.g.: raw materials, process, finished goods, storage,
handling
 
Documented: simple, precise, legible
 
Objective

1. To ensure wholesome, hygienic, sincerely packed and

labeled product.

2.‘Wholesome’: good in ecstatic value (taste), nutritious

and safe to consume
Ishikawa’s Basic Tools of Quality
Kaoru Ishikawa developed seven basic visual tools of
quality so that the average person could analyze and
interpret data.

These tools have been used worldwide by companies,

managers of all levels and employees.
Seven Quality Tools
The Seven Tools
~ Histograms, Pareto Charts, Cause and Effect Diagrams,
Run Charts, Scatter Diagrams, Flow Charts, Control
Charts
Histograms

Histogram Defined
A histogram is a bar graph that shows frequency data.
Histograms provide the easiest way to evaluate the
distribution of data.
Provide a quick representation of the “spread” and
“centering” of a process.
Histograms cont…..
1. Steps to build a Histogram
• Collect data for analysis.
• At least 50 to 100 data points
• Use historical data to find patterns or to use as
a baseline for past performance

• Determine the range of the data set.

• Smallest value subtracted from largest value

• Determine quantity of categories.

• Take the square root of total number of data
points and round to nearest whole number
Step to a build Histograms cont…..

• Determine each category’s data point.

• Mid-point of each category

• Plot data on a vertical bar-graph.

• Frequency on Y-axis

• Categories on X-axis

• For each class interval, draw bar with the height

equal to frequency count

Advantage of a Histograms
• Display large amounts of data that are difficult to interpret
in a tabular form

• Show the relative frequency of occurrences of the various

data values

• Reveal the variation, centering, and distribution shape of

the data

• Very useful when calculating capability of a process

• Helps predict future performance of a process

Example of a Histogram
Class
Category Mid-point Frequency
boundary
1 10.00 - 10.19 10.1 1
2 10.20 - 10.39 10.3 6
3 10.40 - 10.59 10.5 12
4 10.60 - 10.79 10.7 8
5 10.80 - 10.99 10.9 6
6 11.00- 11.19 11.1 3

14

12

10

6 12

4 8
6 6
2
3
1
0
10.00 - 10.20 - 10.40 - 10.60 - 10.80 - 11.00-
10.19 10.39 10.59 10.79 10.99 11.19
Pareto Charts
Pareto Chart Defined
Pareto charts are used to identify and prioritize
problems to be solved.
They are actually histograms aided by the 80/20 rule
adapted by Joseph Juran.
 Remember the 80/20 rule states that approximately

80% of the problems are created by approximately

20% of the causes.
Advantages of a Pareto Charts

• Focuses efforts on problems with greatest

potential for improvement

• Distinguishes the critical causes from the less

significant causes

• Helps prevent “shifting the problem” where the

solution removes some causes but worsens
others
Advantages of a Pareto Charts
• Measure the impact of improvement projects when
comparing charts “before” and “after”

• The chart shows the relative importance of problems

in a simple, quickly interpreted, visual format.

• Progress is measured in a highly visible format that

provides incentive to push on for more improvement.
Step to a build Pareto chart

• Identify problem
• Choose categories that will be monitored
• Choose the most meaningful unit of measurement
• Frequency
• Cost
• Determine time period
• Long enough to represent situation
• Scheduled time to collect data is typical of a workday
Step to a build Pareto chart cont….

• Collect data

• Compare the frequency of each category

• Draw chart:

• List the categories on the horizontal line

• Descending order, from left to right

• Frequencies on the vertical line

Step to a build Pareto chart cont….

• Draw the cumulative percentage line showing

categories contribution
• Optional
• Draw vertical line on the right side of the chart
• Plot cumulative values from left to right
• Interpret results
• Tallest bar represents biggest contributor
• Perform analysis of category that has the “most
impact”
 Cum %
Example of a Pareto Chart 100 %
97%
91%

79%

61%
Frequency

30 50 %

35%
20

24
10 18
12
8
4 2
0
Late Wrong Missing Dam aged Wrong Not received
delivery product parts container address

Delivery complains
Further Analysis Using Pareto Charts
• Majorcause breakdown:
• Tallest bar is broken down into sub-causes

30

20

24
10 18
12
8
4 2
0
Late delive ry Wr ong product Mis sing parts Dam age d Wr ong Not r ece ive d
containe r addre ss

4
8
6 4 4
2
2
0
Missing a ddress Drive r mista ke La te Transporta tion Administra tive
docume ntation proble ms de la ys

Late de live ry
Further Analysis Using Pareto Charts
•Before and after:
• New Pareto bars are drawn side-by-side
with the original Pareto showing effect of change
25

24
20
18
15

12
10
10 10
8 8
5
4 4
3 2 1
0
Late Wrong Miss ing Dam aged Wrong Not
delivery product parts container address received

Be fore After
Further Analysis Using Pareto Charts
•Change measurement scale:
• Same categories are used but measured
differently. Typically cost and frequency.
• This exercise defines the category of “most impact”.
30
$3,000

25 $2,500

20 $2,000

15 $1,500
24 $2 ,50 0
10 18 $1,000 $1,8 50

12 $1,2 0 0
5 8 $500 $8 0 0
4
2 $2 2 0 $2 0 0
0 $0
Late Wrong Missing Damaged Wrong Not received Wrong product Not received Missing parts Wrong Damaged Late delivery
delivery product parts container address address container

Delivery complains Cost/month

Process Flow Chart
1. Flow Charts Defined
A flow chart is a pictorial representation showing all of
the steps of a process.
2. Flow charts are used to identify the actual path
of a product or service.
3. Flow charts show:
• Sequential work activities
• Inputs for each action
• Outputs from each activity
Advantages of a Flow Chart
 Provide common understanding of how a
process works.

 Identifies problem areas, unexpected complexity,

redundancies, and areas of potential improvement

 Serves as a training aid

 Provides basis for documentation.

 Identifies location where additional data can be

collected and investigated
Symbols of a Flow Chart
Shows an activity performed in the process

Shows a point in the process where a Yes/No

question is being asked or a decision is
required

A
Identifies a break in the flow chart and is
continued elsewhere on the same page or
another page

Shows the flow of the process

Shows the beginning and end process

Steps to Build a Flow Chart

 List the basic steps of the process.

 Determine the logical sequence of the steps.

 Identify the inputs of each step.

 Determine the outputs of each step.

 Draw the chart using the symbols to show the

actions and decisions.

Example of a Flow Chart
Team is given task
to write procedure Review
draft

yes Complete Send to

Develop Draft Final Release
outline approved version Dept.

No

Release
Complete Revise Draft
procedure
draft with changes
Run Chart

Run Charts Defined

Run charts are used to analyze processes according to
time or order.
Creating a Run Chart
Creating a Run Chart
Gathering Data
 Some type of process or operation must be available to
take measurements for analysis.
Organizing Data
 Data must be divided into two sets of values X and Y. X
values represent time and values of Y represent the
measurements taken from the manufacturing process or
operation.
Charting Data
 Plot the Y values versus the X values.
Interpreting Data
 Interpret the data and draw any conclusions that will be
beneficial to the process or operation.
Example of a Run Chart
An Example of Using a Run Chart
An organization’s desire is to have their product arrive
to their customers on time, but they have noticed that
it doesn’t take the same amount of time each day of the
week. They decided to monitor the amount of time it
takes to deliver their product over the next few weeks.
Cause and Effect Analysis
Cause and Effect Diagram Defined
The cause and effect diagram is also called the Ishikawa
diagram or the fishbone diagram.
It is a tool for discovering all the possible causes for a
particular effect.
The major purpose of this diagram is to act as a first
step in problem solving by creating a list of possible
causes.
Advantage of a Cause and Effect Diagram

Clearly illustrates the various causes affecting a

process:
• Relationship between these causes
• Where are they occurring

Helps in finding the most basic cause of the

problem

Motivates team members participation

Steps to Build a Cause and Effect Diagram
Place problem statement in a box to the right-hand
side of the paper.
Select the major cause or categories and place them
to the left of the problem statement.
• 4 M’s (Production process):
• Materials
• Manpower
• Machinery/equipment
• Method
• 4 P’s (Service process):
• Policies
• Procedures
• People
• Plant / equipment
Steps to Build a Cause and Effect Diagram
cont……
Draw a box around each category and connect
to a line pointing out towards the problem statement.

Using the brainstorming technique, generate ideas

of causes, on the major categories.

Record these ideas on a line off the applicable

major category line.
Steps to Build a Cause and Effect Diagram
cont……
For each cause listed on the diagram, ask “why
does this happen?”.
For each response, ask the same question.
Each successive answer is another possible cause
Look for causes that repeat across major cause
categories.
Ensure all team members agree on the problem
and causes statements.
Example of a Cause and Effect Diagram
Machinery/equipment Manpower

Drivers don’t
Unreliable trucks Show up
Drivers get lost
Not enough trucks
Wrong address
Not capacity for on shipper
peak periods
Database Input error
Late deliveries

Poor dispatching Run out of

products

Poor handling of Poor planning

large orders
Lack of
Lack of training
training
Method Material
Scatter Diagram
Scatter Diagrams Defined
Scatter Diagrams are used to study and identify the
possible relationship between the changes observed in
two different sets of variables.
Advantages of the Scatter Diagram
Provides visual and statistical means to test the
strength of a potential relationship

Provides a good follow-up to the cause and effect

diagram to find out if there is a connection between
the cause and the effect
Steps to Build a Scatter Diagram
Constructing a Scatter Diagram
First, collect two pieces of data and create a
summary table of the data.
Draw a diagram labeling the horizontal and vertical
axes.
 It is common that the “cause” variable be labeled
on the X axis and the “effect” variable be labeled
on the Y axis.
Plot the data pairs on the diagram.
Interpret the scatter diagram for direction and
strength.
Examples of a Scatter Diagram

An Example of When a Scatter Diagram Can Be

Used
A scatter diagram can be used to identify the
relationship between the production speed of an
operation and the number of defective parts made.
Variable 2

Variable 1
Control Charts
• Control Charts Defined
Control charts are used to determine whether a
process will produce a product or service with
consistent measurable properties.
• Line graph of measurements of a process overtime
that has statistically based control limits placed on it

• Process control charts monitor and display variations

in a process output.

• Control limits are based on process variation

• Define expected variation range due to common causes
• +/- three standard deviations from centerline
Types of a Control Charts
•Two primary types are:
• Control charts for variables:
• Most used: X –R
• X is average values
• R is range
• Others: Run charts, moving range charts (MX –MR
charts)

• Control charts for attributes:

• p chart: fraction defective
• np chart: number of defectives
• c chart: number of defects
Steps to Build a Control Charts
Steps Used in Developing Process Control
Charts
Identify critical operations in the process where
inspection might be needed.
Identify critical product characteristics.
Determine whether the critical product
characteristic is a variable or an attribute.
Select the appropriate process control chart.
Establish the control limits and use the chart to
monitor and improve.
Update the limits.
Advantages of a Control Charts
• Focuses attention on detecting and monitoring
process variation over time

• Distinguishes “special” from “common” causes

• Helps predict performance of a process

• Helps improve a process to perform consistently

• Provides a common language to discuss process

behavior
Examples of a Control Charts

An Example of When to Use a Control Chart

Counting the number of defective products or
services
 Do you count the number of defects in a given product or
service?
 Is the number of units checked or tested constant?
Examples of a Control Charts
Point out-of-control
(out of the control limits boundaries)

Data plot
Upper control limit

3 std.deviations

Centerline

3 std.deviations

Lower control limit

Summary
•The seven tools of quality discussed in this module
are considered to make up the fundamental
continuous improvement toolkit.

• It is the intent of this course to touch basis on these

tools and not to study them in depth.

• Depth analysis of these theories is considered subject

for another course.