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Form 4 - Biology Notes
Form 4 - Biology Notes
TOPIC 1: NUTRITION
The 7 Basic Food Substances
All the food we eat is made up of the following 7 basic substances:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Fats
3. Proteins
4. Vitamins
5. Minerals
6. Fibre
7. Water
Carbohydrates, fats, proteins and vitamins are organic substances because they
contain carbon in their molecular structure. Water and minerals are inorganic
substances since they don’t contain carbon.
Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are needed in bulk in our diet, while vitamins and
minerals are needed in smaller amounts.
A person whose diet lacks any of these nutrients suffers from malnutrition, and this
may give rise to a deficiency disease.
Food gives us energy. The amount of energy needed by our body isn’t the same for
everyone. The amount of energy needed to live depends on the person’s sex, job,
attitude, age and other factors like if the person is a pregnant woman.
1. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic substances made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
They are very important because they provide energy for the body. There are 3 types
of carbohydrates: sugars, starch, and cellulose.
A. Sugars
• Glucose (C6H12O6)
• Fructose (sugars in fruit)
• Sucrose (table sugar)
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B. Strach
• Found in bread, potatoes, rice, cereals etc. Plants store food as starch.
C. Cellulose
• Found in all unrefined plant food. An important source of fibre.
Carbohydrates are all made up of molecules of glucose bonded (joined) together. The
simplest form of carbohydrate is glucose. Two molecules of glucose joined together
with a bond, form maltose, lactose and sucrose sugars. Starch, cellulose and
glycogen are formed when 3 or more glucose molecules are joined together with
bonds.
Glucose’s molecule is represented by a hexagon:
A single sugar molecule is called a monosaccharide. Examples of monosaccharides
are glucose and fructose.
Glucose
Molecule
Sucrose, maltose and lactose are all disaccharides because they have 2 sugar
molecules bonded together.
Starch, cellulose and glycogen are all polysaccharides because they are made up of
3 or more sugar molecules bonded together.
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Carbohydrates are found in cereals, pasta, bread, fruit, potatoes sugary food such as
ice cream etc.
Plants store food as starch, while animals store food as glycogen. Both glycogen
and starch are polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are NOT sweet but ARE insoluble.
2. Fats
• Fats are organic substances. Lipids are fats in a liquid state. Fats are useful
for our body, because they:
• provide energy,
• can be stored for later use,
• build up cell membranes,
• layers serve as an insulating layers under mammal’s skins and
• and oils on the surface of the skin makes the skin waterproof.
Fat is found in vegetable oil, milk, fried foods, eggs, beef etc.
The simplest fat molecule is made up of 1 molecule of glycerol and 3 fatty acids
bonded together.
Fatty Acids
Glycerol
Fatty Acids
Fatty Acids
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3. Proteins
Proteins are organic substances made up of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen,
nitrogen and sometimes they contain sulphur. Proteins are needed by the body to
grow and repair tissues (a cellular structure), they are components of cell
membranes, are used to produce enzymes (biological catalysts) and hormones.
The simplest possible protein is an amino acid, thus proteins are made up of amino
acids, which can be represented as any form of shape (circle, rectangle, square).
Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds. When 2 amino acids connected
together with a peptide bond, a dipeptide forms. When 3 or more amino acids are
joined together, a polypeptide is formed.
When proteins are heated, they are denatured; they change shape, its properties and
functions are destroyed. Food rich in proteins are milk, meat, eggs, nuts, fish etc.
4. Water
Water is vital for animals and almost all living organisms. It makes up to one third of
the human body mass. Water is an inorganic substance with the chemical formula
H2O.
Water is important for animals because it gives support to aquatic animals, gametes
(sex cells like sperms and eggs) travel in a watery medium, sweating has a cooling
effect on the body, and urine and tears are mostly made up from water. There is water
even in the joints, so that reduces friction when bones move. Even blood is partially
made up of water.
Water is also needed by plants, to make leaves turgid, guard cells move by osmosis
and water takes part in the chemical reaction in which plants make there food (by
photosynthesis). Some seeds germinate with the help of water.
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5. Minerals
Many minerals are important for our body. There are other trace elements not listed in
the table which are useful for other bodily functions.
Mineral Found in Use in the body Deficiency disease
Milk, cheese, Developing bones Rickets
fish, mineral and maintaining their
water rigidity. Forms
intracellular cement
Calcium and the cell
membranes, and in
regulating nervous
excitability and
muscular contraction.
Tomatoes, liver, Part of haemoglobin in Anaemia headaches,
Iron kidneys red blood cells. tiredness, and
lethargy
Many foods, Important for bones Osteomalacia
Phosphorous
e.g. milk and teeth. (rickets)
Salt, many Present in extra cellular Cramps
Sodium
foods. fluid, and regulates it.
Sea food, Needed to synthesize Goitre
Iodine drinking water hormones of the thyroid
gland.
Water, Builds a layer above Can lead to tooth decay
Fluorine
toothpaste enamel.
Most foods Important for Tremors and
Magnesium
metabolism. convulsions
6. Vitamins
Vitamins are very, very important for the body, but only in small quantities.
Vitamin Found in Use Deficiency disease
Liver, carrot Important for eyes. Night Blindness
A
Exophthalmia.
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7. Fibre
Fibre is mainly cellulose from plant cell walls. Humans cannot digest fibre, but it is
important because it helps food to pass from the gut, and prevents constipation.
Food rich in fibre are whole meal bread, bran, cereals, fresh fruit and vegetables.
Food Tests
Test for Starch: with Iodine solution. If result is positive, a blue-black
precipitate forms.
Test for Glucose: with Benedict’s Solution and the mixture is heated. If the
result is positive, an orange brown solution forms.
Test for Proteins: with Copper Sulphate and Sodium hydroxide. A purple
colour forms if the tested food contains proteins.
Test for Fats: with Ethanol (alcohol) A m
miillkkyy w
whhiittee solution forms in
presence of fat.
Test for Vitamin C: with DCPIP. A blue to a ccoolloouurrlleessss liquid forms in
presence of vitamin C.
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TOPIC 2 ENZYMES
Enzymes are biological catalysts. A catalyst enhances the speed of a chemical
reaction. Thus, enzymes are catalysts, which enhance the speed of the chemical
reactions taking place in the body.
Properties of Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins, therefore, they become denatured by heat, which means that
when heated above 40oC, they change shape and do not work anymore. When the
temperature is lower than normal, enzymes become inactive. Enzymes are specific,
which means that every enzyme catalysis only one type of food substance, for
example, the enzyme amylase catalysis only starch, and does not take part in any
other chemical reaction involving another food substance.
Enzymes do not take part in the proper chemical reactions (they do not react), they
just enhance the speed, and this property makes them used over and over again.
An enzyme catalysis a reaction involving a substrate; the particular nutrient the
enzyme acts on. When the reaction is complete, a product is produced. An example is
amylase acting on starch. Amylase, which is an enzyme, acts on its substrate
(starch), to produce a product (maltose), which is a simpler type of carbohydrate.
The rate of productivity by enzymes is very affected by temperature and by pH. The
graph shows the rate of the activity by the enzymes in relation to temperature. The
rate increases slowly when the temperature rises between 10oC to 40oC, but when the
temperature rises further, activity decrease drastically, because enzymes are being
denatured.
5
mg of product per min.
4
mg of products per
3
minute
2
0
10 20 30 40 50
Temerature in degrees celcius
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The graph here below shows the sensitivity of enzymes to pH. It is a bell-shaped
graph, showing that the enzymes work best that at their optimum pH, which in this
case is pH 2.
Effectof
Effect of Temp.
pH on onEnzymes
Enzymes Optimum pH
12
10
activity of enzymes
6 activity of enzyme
0
0 0.5 1 2 3 3.5 4
pH
An example:
Enzyme
Products leave
active site
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Enzyme Inhibitors
There are some poisons, such as cyanide and arsenic that block the enzymes’ active
site, therefore the substrate cannot enter the active site and the reaction doesn’t take
place. Certain pesticides block the active site of pests’ enzymes so that its respiratory
system stops working and the pest dies.
Dentition
The teeth are made of hardest substance found in the body. Humans have 4 types of
teeth:
Incisors: Adapted for cutting food.
Canines: for holing and tearing.
Premolars: For chewing and grinding food.
Molars: For chewing and grinding food.
Humans aged 6 months begin to grow 20 milk teeth (baby) teeth. Once he or she is
an adult, 32 permanent teeth will be developed.
The tooth is made up of 2 sections, an exposed Crown and the Root which is
embedded in the gum. The enamel (calcium phosphate: CaPO3) is the upper part of
the crown. It is very hard. Then beneath it there is the dentin. The tooth is primary
made of dentin, which is a substance, similar to bone but harder. The central region of
the tooth is the pulp cavity. It contains the pulp, which is composed of connective
tissue with blood vessels, nerves etc. the pulp is connected to the blood capillaries,
which give nutrients and oxygen to the dental cells.
Tooth decay (dental caries) is caused by bacteria in the mouth which produce acids
to digest food stuck in and between the teeth.
To prevent tooth decay, varies activities must be regularly done:
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Herbivores have different a dental system since they eat only vegetable matter. In
herbivores, there is a gap called diastema between the incisors and the molars.
Instead of the upper incisors, herbivores have a hard pad to pull leaves and grass out
of the branches or soil. They have no canines and molars have a flat surface. Their
teeth have an open root, which means that they grow continuously. Carnivores’
molars have cusps, to ensure that food is better chewed. They have canines, and
upper incisors, while teeth have a closed root unlike herbivores. The following
article shows more clearly the difference between carnivores and herbivore dentition.
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Diastema
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Microsoft ® Encarta ® Premium Suite 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
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TOPIC 3: FEEDING
Feeding can be divided into 4 types:
1. Saprophytic: Saprophytic organisms such as fungi and some bacteria (called
decomposers) that feed on dead decaying matter. Saprophytes are useful to
the environment because they recycle nutrients.
2. Parasitic: When parasitic organisms feed on or in another organism harming
it.
3. Holozoic (heterotrophic): Animals feed heterotrophically, because they must
search for their food. Herbivores eat vegetable matter and have special
bodily structures to help them digest cellulose. Carnivores eat meat and are
usually predators. Omnivores, such as humans eat both meat and vegetable
matter.
4. Holophytic (autotrophic): Plants feed with this type of feeding. They are able
to make their own food by photosynthesis.
Holozoic Nutrition
The digestive system can be divided into various stages, but it is basically divided
into 5 main stages:
1. Ingestion: food is ate, chewed and mixed with saliva.
2. Digestion: Begins from the mouth by salivary amylase (starch-breaking
enzyme) and continues till the duodenum (first part of the small intestine),
were enzymes break down food into simpler soluble products (Glucose,
amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol), stage by stage, and prepares nutrients
for absorption.
3. Absorption: the blood absorbs soluble products in the ileum (second part of
the small intestine).
4. Assimilation: the nutrients are then assimilated (taken to) various organs
around the body.
5. Defecation (Egestion): Undigested matter such as fibre is egested (moved
out) of the body. [Do not mix excretion with egesting or defecation! Excretion
is the removal of waste products made by chemicals reaction within the cells;
e.g. excreting urine].
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Digestion
The second stage, digestion begins from the mouth. It is divided into 2 other parts:
1. Physical digestion: teeth crush food to increase surface area for enzyme
action to break down food.
2. Chemical digestion: food is mixed with enzymes and digestive juices to
breaks down food into the 3 soluble products of digestion. The chemical
digestion continues till the duodenum. Chemical digestion also begins in the
mouth. When food is mixed with saliva, the enzyme salivary amylase starts
breaking down starch into maltose
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Hydrochloric acid (chemical formula HCl) kills bacteria and provides and
acidic, optimum pH for pepsin to work.
After 3 to 4 hours of digestion, food becomes chyme. At intervals it is passed into the
small intestine. The first part of the small intestine is called the duodenum. The
duodenum receives digestive juices for 3 different places: intestinal wall, pancreas
and the liver.
From the intestinal wall, mainly 5 enzymes are produced:
1. Trypsin: breaks down polypeptides into dipeptides.
2. Maltase: breaks down maltose into glucose.
3. Lipase: breaks down fats (lipids are liquid fats) into fatty acids and glycerol.
4. Peptidases: breaks down dipeptides into amino acids
5. Sucrase: breaks down sucrose into glucose
These enzymes are summarised below in the following table:
Enzymes from the
Substrate Product
Intestinal Wall
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From the liver, the duodenum receives no enzymes, but gets bile. Bile is a green
chemical, which helps to break down large fat molecules for lipase to act on it: this
process is called emulsification. It has a detergent effect, and it is stored in the gall
bladder and it is secreted from the gall bladder to the duodenum through the bile
duct. Digestion ends here.
Food has been all broken down into their soluble products, glucose, amino acids,
fatty acids and glycerol. They can be now absorbed into the blood stream from the
ileum.
The liver
The liver is the largest internal organ in vertebrates. It does the following functions:
synthesis of proteins, immune and clotting factors, and oxygen and fat-carrying
substances. Its chief digestive function is the secretion of bile, a solution critical to fat
emulsion (emulsification) and absorption. The liver also removes excess glucose from
circulation and stores it until it is needed. It converts excess amino acids into useful
forms and filters drugs and poisons (alcohol, pills etc) from the bloodstream,
neutralizing them and excreting them in bile. The liver has two main lobes located
just under the diaphragm on the right side of the body.
The Ileum
The ileum is a very long part of the gut so that absorption takes places efficiently.
Here, soluble products: glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and enter glycerol enter the
blood stream through millions of small finger-like structures called villi. The villi are
tiny, to increase surface area for absorption. Each villus is covered with tiny ‘hairs’
called microvilli, that are actual villi but smaller, like root hairs on a root in plants.
Villi have a thin lining and a good blood supply to allow blood to absorb the soluble
nutrients. Food passes through the intestine with the help of muscular contraction
(peristalsis) of the intestinal wall, which is also moist to allow food to pass well and to
enhance the speed of absorption.
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Thin Epithelium
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Digestion in Herbivores
Herbivores such as cows, sheep and horses are called ruminants because they contain
a special digestive system. They have a special type of dentition, different from
carnivorous dentition, to allow them to extract grass from soil easily. Their small
intestine is about 40 meters long, to allow them to digest cellulose completely, before
it reaches the end of the gut.
Their gut contains cellulose-digesting bacteria. These bacteria produce the enzyme
cellulase that catalysis the reaction that breaks down cellulose into soluble sugar
(glucose). The bacteria gain shelter and protection as well as food from the ruminants
so their relation is a mutualistic one (both benefiting from one another).
These bacterial are housed in the caecum and appendix, so in the ruminants, they are
not vestigial organs as in humans.
Ruminants have a special type of stomach called rumen. The rumen is a large
stomach that contains 3 other chambers. While the ruminant is grazing, grass is
swallowed and enters the rumen. When the animals stops eating, it regurgitates the
grass (brings the already swallowed food back to its mouth), little by little to allow it
to be chew and swallowed properly and then the food enters into the other 3 chambers
to further digest the food before it goes into the small intestine.
The following article helps you understand how the ruminant’s digestive system
works.
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Liver
Hepatic Vein
Hepatic Artery
Gut
The liver receives blood mixed with the soluble products of digestion from the
hepatic portal vein. The liver receives blood rich in oxygen from the heart through
the hepatic artery. Then the blood leaves the liver through the hepatic vein which
also carries a lot of heat since inside the liver, a lot of chemical reactions occur.
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TOPIC 4: RESPIRATION
Gas exchange
Differences between respiration and breathing:
Respiration is carried out in all cells to obtain energy.
Breathing is the exchange of gases, in case of humans and other organisms, the
removal of carbon dioxide and obtaining oxygen.
In large organisms such as mammals, respiratory surfaces are required for gas
exchange (breathing, not respiration) to take place efficiently. In humans, like all
mammals, lungs are used for this purpose.
There are two types of respiration: Aerobic (oxygen involved) and anaerobic
(no oxygen involved).
Anaerobic Respiration
Anaerobic means without oxygen, and thus this type of chemical reaction involves
only sugars (obtained from digestion of food). Energy is released by the chemical
breaking of bonds in organic molecules (containing carbon) present in sugars and
other carbohydrates, obtained from digestion. There is more than one type of
anaerobic respiration; it depends on the organism.
One very common type of anaerobic respiration is alcohol fermentation
represented in this equation below:
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anaerobic bacteria produce lactic acid, which is used to make butter, yoghurt
cheese and other dairy products. Some other types of bacteria produce methane
gas (CH4), a flammable gas used for cooking and fuelling machinery, lighting, and
used in the production of hydrogen, hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, ethyne, and
formaldehyde.
Anaerobic respiration takes place in humans as well. During strenuous exercise,
blood vessels cannot provide enough oxygen for muscle cells to do proper aerobic
respiration; in this case, anaerobic respiration takes place in the muscles. In these
reactions, lactic acid (slightly poisonous) is produced and can cause cramps. After
the exercise, the lactic acid is converted into carbon dioxide and water by oxygen.
This whole process is known as oxygen debt.
Making Bread
This is a simple method to make bread.
• Some yeast and sugar and mixed with a little warm water.
• After some time, the mixture froths and this indicates that yeast cells are
becoming active.
• The yeast liquid is mixed with flour, salt and warm water to make the
dough.
• The dough is then kneaded for a few minutes to ensure that all the yeast
and the rest of the ingredients and evenly distributed.
• The dough is left in a warm place for fermentation is take place. Yeast
produces alcohol and carbon dioxide and this gas causes the dough to rise.
After an hour, the dough should have doubled its size.
• The dough is baked in a hot oven and yeast cells die. Alcohol, with a low
boiling point evaporates almost immediately and the carbon dioxide leaves
the bread with small holes inside it.
Aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration is the respiration, which involves oxygen. An example of
aerobic respiration is shown here in this equation:
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The enzymes catalyze the oxidation of glucose to form carbon dioxide and
water. 2830kJ of energy are released by oxidizing 180 grams of glucose. Energy
is stored in the body as ATP (adenosine triphosphate), because glucose alone
does not provide energy.
As enzymes catalyse this reaction, it is controlled also by temperature, so when
the body temperature rises above 40oC, respiration slows down because heat
denatures enzymes.
The lungs
The lungs are the respiratory surface of mammals, birds, reptiles and some
amphibians.
Voice box
(larynx)
Rings of Cartilage
Pleural membrane Trachea
Pleural fluid Bronchus
Alveoli
Bronchioles, terminal
bronchioles
Intercostals
muscles
Ribs
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bronchioles and finally to the air sacks, or alveoli. These alveoli are shown here
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchange in the alveoli by diffusion. Numerous
alveoli create a large surface area for gas exchange. Oxygen is carried in the red
blood cells (rbc) while carbon dioxide is carried in the plasma as Hydrogen
Carbonate (HCO3-) ions.
The alveoli are adapted for gas exchange by a number of factors:
1. They have a thin film of water to ensure good and fast gas exchange by
diffusion surrounds the alveoli. In fact, some of this water evaporates and
there is always some water vapour in our exhaled breath.
2. Alveoli are surrounded by a lot of blood capillaries
3. Blood capillaries are very thin to allow diffusion.
4. There are many air sacks for a large surface area.
Breathing
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While breathing in, the rib cage moves upwards and outwards, the diaphragm
flattens and the volume in the chest increases. Since the volume increases the
pressure decreases and the air is drawn into the lungs.
While you exhale, the rib cage moves inwards and downwards, the diaphragm
relaxes (dome shaped) and the volume in the chest decreases. Since the volume
decreases pressure increases and the air is expelled out of the lungs.
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Certain electrical machinery and photocopiers produce ozone (O3) gas. Although
ozone is useful in the ozone layer, which is 20-50 km above sea level, it is highly
poisonous and can contribute to acid rain.
Glossary For Half Yearly Terms To Study
Nutrition: the study of food.
Basic Nutrients: The 7 basic food substances that are: Carbohydrates, Fats,
Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals, Fibre and Water.
Carbohydrates: 1 of the bulk material of which food is made of. An organic
substance from which the body gets energy.
Fats: Made up of fatty acids and glycerol; another bulk material found in food.
Proteins: Substances made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
sometimes sulphur. Used for growth and repair or tissue.
Vitamins: Organic substances needed in small amounts by the body. Some are co-
enzymes and other help to prevent illnesses.
Minerals: Important substances needed in small quantities to prevent illnesses.
Fibre: An insoluble, non-digested substance used to sweep out undigested food
out of the body; roughage
Water: Very important chemical; the most abundant compound in the Universe
and in the body.
Sugars: Carbohydrates used to get energy.
Glucose: C6H12O6 Final product of digestion of carbohydrates.
Fructose: A sugar found in fruit.
Sucrose: Table sugar.
Lactose: Found in milk.
Maltose: Found in barley grains.
Starch: Found in bread, potatoes, rice and cereals. A chemical used by plants to
store food; an insoluble polysaccharide.
Monosaccharides: Sugar with one glucose molecule. Fructose is also a
monosaccharides.
Disaccharides: Sugars with more than one glucose molecule attached together by
bonds.
Polysaccharide: three or more sugar molecules are bonded together; insoluble.
Glycogen: The chemical used by animals to store food.
Glycerol: Part of the fat molecule.
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excreting urine.
Physical digestion: teeth to increase surface area for enzyme action to break
down food.
Chemical digestion: food is mixed with saliva and salivary amylase breaks down
some starch from the food (if there is) into maltose. The chemical digestion
continues till the duodenum.
Lysozyme: Chemical found in the saliva used to kill bacteria.
Oesophagus: Gullet.
Pepsinogen: an inactive form of pepsin that is then activated by the hydrochloric
acid.
Pepsin: digestive enzyme, which breaks down proteins into smaller polypeptides.
Mucus: Protects the stomach from being digested by the enzymes.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl acid): kills bacteria and provides and acidic pH for
pepsin to work.
Liver: The largest and very important internal organ found in the body. Among its
functions, it produces bile, breaks down drugs and alcohol, and converts the final
products of digestion into glycerol for storage. The liver cells help the blood to
assimilate food substances and to excrete waste materials and toxins, as well as
products such as steroids, oestrogen, and other hormones. The liver also stores
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mainly vegetable matter probably used these organs. Then, by evolution, these
organs ceased from being used. They were home to cellulose-digesting bacteria.
Large Intestine: Part of the alimentary canal. It is dividing into the colon and
rectum.
Colon: The first part of the large intestine where water and fluid are absorbed. It
ends in the rectum.
Herbivores: Vegetable eating animals.
Ruminants: Herbivores with a special type of stomach called a rumen.
Cellulose: A cellulose-digesting enzyme produced by certain bacteria found in
herbivores.
Mutualistic Relationship: A type of relationship between organisms where both
animals are benefiting from each other. An example of such relationships is the
relationship between the cellulose-digesting bacteria in the caesium and appendix
of ruminants.
Rumen: A large stomach with 3 compartments found in ruminants.
Regurgitation: Ruminants bring the food they have already eaten and swallowed
back to their mouth to continue chewing it.
Respiration: A chemical reaction catalysed by enzymes where (in case of aerobic
respiration) oxygen combines with glucose to form carbon dioxide, water and
energy.
Aerobic: A type of respiration where oxygen is involved.
Anaerobic: A type of respiration that does not involve oxygen and doesn’t
produce as much energy as aerobic respiration.
Mitochondria/Mitochondrion: An organelle found in all cells that do respiration.
Gas exchange: The process where oxygen is absorbed by the blood and carbon
dioxide is exhaled out of the body. Don’t mix gas exchange with respiration.
Respiration is a chemical reaction while gas exchange is just the exchange of
gases.
Organic Molecules: Molecule containing carbon.
Alcoholic Fermentation: A type of anaerobic respiration where alcohol is a
product of the chemical reaction.
Lactic Acid: An acid produced in muscle tissues during strenuous exercise when
there is lack of oxygen.
Oxygen Dept: When lactic acid is produce, a state called oxygen debt occurs,
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when after exercise the body continues breathing heavily so re gain all the oxygen
needed by the muscle cells to break down lactic acid in carbon dioxide and water.
Aerobic respiration: A type of respiration where oxygen is involved. An example
of this type of respiration is alcoholic fermentation.
Lungs: Major organs in some animals needed for gas exchange.
Trachea: Otherwise called windpipe. The second pipe from where air passes and
is filtered by cilia and mucus secreting cells. Rings of cartilage to make it stiff
surround this structure and so that it doesn’t get bent.
Bronchus: One of the pipes from which air passes before going inside the lungs.
There are two bronchi and they are attached to the trachea. Rings of cartilage to
make it stiff surround these structures.
Alveoli: Also called air sacks. The place where the actual gas-exchange takes
place. Tiny structures surrounded by many blood vessels to ensure that gas
exchange takes place rapidly and efficiently.
Pleural Membrane: A thin membrane that covers the inside of the ribs and the
outside of the lungs. A film of moisture between the two layers lets them slide
easily over each other as the lungs move.
Intercostals: Muscles between they ribs that contract and relax during inhalation
and exhalation.
Inhalation: Breathing in.
Exhalation: Breathing out.
Breathing: A series of movements made by intercostals, the rib cage and
pectorals to enable the air to get into the lungs. These movements are shown here
in this diagram.
Ribs: Bones surrounding the lungs.
Bronchioles: Small pipes from which air passes. These are found inside the lungs.
Pulmonary Vein/Artery: Blood vessels from which blood passes from and into
the heart. They are connected to the lungs and the heart.
Diaphragm: A muscle present only in mammals to ease inhalation and
exhalation. This muscle is found under the lungs.
Plasma: Part of the fluid in blood.
Hydrogen carbonate ions: Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood by this ion.
HCO3-.
Blood capillaries: Very, very small blood vessels that surround alveoli. They are
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very thin and tender and are found in many other places in the body.
Tar: A chemical found in cigarettes.
Carbon monoxide: A poisonous gas released by lightened cigarettes.
Nicotine: Colourless, oily, liquid alkaloid, C10H14N2 that constitutes the principal
active chemical constituent of tobacco.
Epithelium: A layer of cells that serves as a protective covering over a surface,
such as the outside of an organ or the lining of a cavity wall in the body.
Goblet Cells: Mucus secreting cells.
Diseases caused by smoking: Bronchitis, Emphysema and Lung Cancer
Other lung Diseases: Pneumonia, TB (Tuberculosis) and Dust Diseases.
Poisonous gases in the air: Carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,
ozone.
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TOPIC 5: HOMEOSTASIS
KEEPING A CONSTANT BODY ENVIRONMENT
Introduction
There are mainly 4 organs that help the body to keep a constant body
environment: the lungs, the liver, the skin and the kidneys.
Lungs
The lungs are responsible to exchange of gases in the body. They exchange
carbon dioxide with oxygen from the air. Also, the lungs must provide the oxygen
with a temperature of around 37 degress Celsius so that chemical reactions
involving oxygen can take place.
The Liver
The liver is a major organ in the human body that makes a large amount of
chemical reactions that produce heat (chemical reactions that produce heat are
called exothermic).
Therefore, the liver produces all the necessary heat for the body to keep its
internal temperature around 37oC.
Skin
The skin is responsible for transferring excess heat from inside the body to the
outside environment. For that reason it is one of the organs that does homeostasis.
It also protects the body from germs.
Kidneys
The kidneys are responsible for osmoregulation, i.e. to control the amount of
water in the body, by filtering blood from salts, water and waste products (urea).
Blood is involved and so the kidneys are also part of homeostasis, because blood
transports heat and helps to keep the body at a constant temperature.
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The Kindey
The diagram below shows the kidneys, the bladder and blood vessels connected to
it.
Pyramid Medulla
Kidney Wall
Pelvis
Renal Vein
Renal Artery
Cortex
Urither
Renal Vein: The vein that transports blood OUT OF the kidneys. Blood in the
renal vein is deoxidized or reduced (without oxygen) and filtered by kidneys, thus
it is clean.
Renal Artery: The artery that transports blood INTO the kidneys. Blood in the
renal artery is full of oxygen but also full of waste (urea and salts) thus it has to
be filtered.
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Ureters: Carry urine (urea, excess water, excess salts) into the bladder.
Bladder: The structure, which stores urine before it is excreted out of the body.
Ring of Muscle: A ring of muscle that is kept closed before one goes to the toilet
to excrete the urine. They control the passage of urine out of the body.
Urethra: The last structure from which urine passes before going out of the body.
Renal Vein
Renal Artery
Right Kidney
Ureters
Bladder
Ring of Muscles
Urethra
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Biology Form 4 Notes (2003-2004)2005 Jordan Mifsud (4.8) 5.8
The Nephron
The nephron is the structure, half inside a pyramid and the other half inside the
cortex, where blood is filtered (ultra-filtered) from urea, excess water and salts.
The structure of the nephron is shown above.
Blood in the renal artery is oxygenated and with urea.
Glomerulus: A network of blood capillaries.
Selective re-absorption: Not everything is re-absorbed at once, but every tubule
re-absorbs a particular nutrient.
The renal artery is wider than the blood vessel through which it moves out. This
increases pressure in the glomerulus. The pressure causes some constituents of
blood to leak out of the capillary tube.
The filtrate contains glucose, urea, water and salts. Proteins and Erythrocytes
(red blood cells) are too large and they don’t pass through the capillary walls.
This filtration takes place on a microscopic scale. It is known as
ULTRAFILTRATION. This takes place in the Bowman’s capsule.
The First Coiled Tubule: Here, all the glucose that passed from the capillary
walls to the nephron is re-absorbed. In a diabetic person, not all glucose is re-
absorbed and it is found in Urine. Since each part of the nephron re-absorbs the
useful nutrients one at a time, it is called a selective re-absorption.
Loop of Henle: Here some water is re-absorbed. The amount of water re-absorbed
depends on the concentration of blood. If it is concentrated (has little water), a lot
of water will be re-absorbed. If it is not that concentrated it will re-absorb less
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water. The amount of water re-absorbed also depends on a chemical called ADH
(Anti-diuretic hormone). ADH is produce by the pituitary gland in the brain
and causes thirst; hence, more water will be re-absorbed by the loop of henle.
When there is a lot of ADH, urine is full of waste and with relatively few water.
When ADH is not found in the blood, urine is in large amounts, very dilute (full of
water) and with few waste.
Second Coiled Tubule: Here some salts (Na+, Cl-) are re-absorbed.
Collecting Duct: Here, urea, water and salts pass down the ureter into the
bladder which stores urine. Urine is a mixture of urea, water and salts.
Glucose 0.1% 0%
Salts 0.4% 0.6%
Urea 0.03% 2%
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The Skin
The skin is the organ responsible for: Protection, Sensitivity, and Temperature
Control (Homeostasis).
As a Protective Organ
The skin acts as a barrier against foreign bodies (germs). In some animals, it has the
same colour as its surroundings (camouflage), other animals are covered in spines or
produce an oil to make it water proof.
As a Sense Organ
The skin contains many receptors or sense organs (heat receptors, cold receptors,
pressure receptors, pain receptors, touch receptors) and these make the skin
sensitive.
As the Organ which Controls Temperature
Warm blooded animals are called Endothermic or homoeothermic (warm-
blooded). This means that they have a constant body temperature. Some animals have
blubber (thick fat layer) under their skin to keep warm in very cold weather; e.g.
Penguins, polar bears)
Ectothermic or poikilothermic (cold-blooded) animals have their internal
temperature controlled by their surroundings. In fact, some reptiles (cold-blooded
animals) stay long hours in the sun to heat up their bodies.
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Hair erector
Oil
Temperature Control
When it is Hot When it is Cold
Skin loses heat Skin doesn’t lose heat
Sweating (oil glands produce sweat that Shivering takes Place (uncontrolled
passes through the sweat duct and constriction of muscles)
evaporates through the sweat pore)
Hair erector muscle relaxes and hair is Hair erector muscle contracts and hair
loosened and touches with skin so that no erects so that air and heat is trapped
heat and air is trapped. between the hair and the skin.
Blood vessels travel at the surface of the Blood vessels travel deep down the
skin. skin.
Vaso-dilation takes place (Blood vessels Vaso-constriction (blood vessels get
widen thus more heat is lost) narrower so that less heat is lost to the
environment.
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Right atrium
Left atrium
Bicuspid valves
Tricuspid valves
Semi-lunar
Left ventricle valves
Right ventricle
Deoxygenated Blood
Aorta: The largest artery found in the body. It receives oxygenated blood from the
heart and then divides into many arteries all around the body.
Vena Cava: The largest vein found in the body. It transports de-oxygenated blood to
the heart from the rest of the body. De-oxygenated blood is then transported to the
lungs to be oxygenated.
Atrium: One of the upper chambers of the heart.
Tricuspid valve: A valve that lets blood to pass from the right atrium to the right
ventricle.
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A Double circulation
This diagram shows the double circulation of the blood. The arteries are on the right
hand side of the diagram while the veins are on the left hand side.
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Biology Form 4 Notes (2003-2004)2005 Jordan Mifsud (4.8) 5.8
The following table shows the various blood vessels of the body, their route and
function. It is important to view the blood vessels shown here in the different organs
studied this year.
Blood Vessels
Blood Vessel Route Function
Hepatic Artery Heart Liver Carries oxygenated
blood from the heart to
the liver
Hepatic Vein Liver Heart Carries deoxygenated
blood from the liver to
the heart
Hepatic Portal Vein Ileum Liver Carries blood filled with
amino acids, glucose,
water, fatty acids and
glycerol and salts from
the small intestine
(Ileum) to the liver to be
stored
Renal Artery Heart Kidney Carries oxygenated
blood full of waste from
the heart to the lungs.
Renal Vein Kidney Heart Carries filtered blood
from the kidneys to the
heart.
Pulmonary Vein Lungs Heart Carries oxygenated
blood from the lungs to
the left atrium of the
heart.
Pulmonart Artery Heart Lungs Carries deoxygenated
blood from the heart to
the lungs
Aorta Heart Body Carries oxygenated
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Thin Lumen
Wide Lumen
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Blood
Blood is the main fluid found in the body. The functions of blood are the following:
• The fluid that carries all the nutrients and oxygen around the body to all
cells
• Transports heat around the body
• Transports hormones
• Transports antibodies
• Important for excretion of urea, excess water and salts
• Blood clotting
• Controls the amount of water and chemicals in the body tissues
The body has about 6 litres of blood (9% body mass). There are 4 blood groups in
humans, namely A, B, O and AB (rarest) Blood is made up of Erythrocytes (Red
Blood Cells), Leucocytes (white blood cells), and Plasma.
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Cross section
Front view
These two diagrams above show erythrocytes, viewed from the front and a cross
section.
Leucocytes
Leucocytes are lager than Erythrocytes. They‘re colourless, and are made in the red
bone marrow and the lymph glands. There are various types of leucocytes:
Phagocytes and Lymphocytes are two of these types.
Phagocytes engulf the germs, which leaves remains of dead germs and leucocytes
called pus. The process by which phagocytes engulf germs is similar to the way
amoebas feed and is known as phagocytosis.
Lymphocytes produce antibodies, detect the germ’s antigen and it can either make
the germ burst, or clump together, or make them harmless.
Platelets are Fragments of cells also found in the blood.
Lobed Nucleus
Large Nucleus
Lymphocyte
Phagocyte
Plasma
Plasma is a sticky fluid, containing water, salts, food substances, urea, hormones,
platelets, prothrombin, blood proteins, fibrinogen (for blood clotting), globulin
(helps to destroy germs), albumin (makes blood thick and viscous).
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Blood Clotting
When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets enter the wound. Platelets activate
prothrombin into thrombin. Then thrombin activates fibrinogen into fibrin, which
is insoluble and forms solid threads that forms the cloth.
Platelets
Hemophilia is a genetic disease where blood fails to clot.
Tissue Fluid
Tissue fluid is a liquid found around cells. This watery liquid keeps the cells in the
right condition, providing them with oxygen and all the necessary nutrients. Tissue
fluid is drained from blood capillaries. It is a yellowish in colour because it contains
urea when it is full of waste.
Useful substances pass from the tissue fluid to the cells and urea, excess water and
waste substances pass from the cells to the tissue fluid.
Tissue fluid drains in the lymph vessels. Lymph vessels transport the fluid called
lymph. Lymph vessels also have valves like veins do.
Along these lymph vessels, there are lymph nodes. Lymph nodes are structures that
produce cells similar to white blood cells that fight germs. When there is an infection,
these lymph nodes become swollen and painful. Inside them, bacteria and germs are
being trapped and killed by these cells.
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Biology Form 4 Notes (2003-2004)2005 Jordan Mifsud (4.8) 5.8
TOPIC 6 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
What is Photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction in which carbon dioxide and water is changed to
glucose by the action of chlorophyll and with sunlight energy.
light
6C 2 +6 2 → C6 12 6 +6 2
chlorophyl l
Raw Materials
Products
Water is
absorbed by
the roots by
osmosis
Photosynthesis is performed by plants, green algae, and plant-like protists such as the
Euglena. To photosynthesize, a plant, or other heterotrophic organism, needs Carbon
dioxide, water, light and chlorophyll.
Plants store food as starch. Thus, after producing glucose, the plant transforms
glucose into starch, which is an insoluble polysaccharide, to be stored. Glucose goes
down the stem towards the roots in the Phloem vessels in the vascular bundles,
while water goes upwards the stem from the roots through the xylem vessels in the
vascular bundles.
To find out if the plant has performed photosynthesis, you must do a starch test on a
leaf. If the leaf has starch, then it must have photosynthesized but if the leaf has no
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Biology Form 4 Notes (2003-2004)2005 Jordan Mifsud (4.8) 5.8
starch, that means the plant has not photosynthesized and it used up all the starch it
had in the leaf to stay alive.
De-starching
De-starching occurs when the plant doesn’t make any photosynthesis (e.g. because it
is in the dark) and so the plant uses its stored starch stored for energy. It turns starch
into glucose and uses it up.
Inside a Leaf
Photosynthesis happens in plants, exactly in the chloroplasts that are found in leaves.
The green part of the plant is usually the leaf, and this is because chloroplasts have a
special green chemical called chlorophyll that converts sunlight into chemical
energy.
The following picture shows a cross section of a typical leaf.
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Waxy cuticle
Upper Epidermis
Palisade layer
Air spaces
Spongy layer
Lower epidermis
Stomata
Vascular bundle
(vein)
The waxy cuticle is the uppermost part of the leaf. It makes the leaf waterproof and
protects the leaf from losing water. It is transparent.
The upper epidermis is the second layer of the leaf, but the first layer that is made up
of living cells. The cells in this layer don’t have chloroplasts, so that light passes
directly into next layer;
The palisade layer is a thick layer of elongated cells packed with chloroplasts. It is
here that most photosynthesis takes place.
The spongy layer is characterized by air spaces between the cells, so diffusion of
gases takes place efficiently, as photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and produces
oxygen. The cells in the spongy layer also have chloroplasts.
The palisade and the spongy layer are made up of cells called mesophyll cells.
The lower epidermis is similar to the upper epidermis, with the cells making it up
that don’t have chloroplasts, but this layer has stomata; tiny holes from which
exchange of gases takes place. Stomata are surrounded by two guard cells, which are
the only cells in the lower epidermis that have chloroplasts. These cells have thin cell
walls on the outer side but wide cell walls on the inner side.
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Stomata
In the leave there are also vascular bundles (plant veins) that are made up of xylem
and phloem vessels. Water and soluble minerals pass from the xylem vessels while
sugars pass from the phloem vessels.
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There are air spaces around the spongy mesophyll cells to allow gas
circulation.
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If the soil is deficient in some of these important nutrients, one must add fertilizers in
order to replenish the soil with vital minerals. Fertilisers can be either artificial, such
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Limiting Factors
Limiting factors stop the rate of photosynthesis from increasing further. The rate of
photosynthesis is affected by water, temperature, level of carbon dioxide, and
light. The relationship between each and every one of these factors and
photosynthesis are described below:
If light increases, photosynthesis increases.
If water is plenty, photosynthesis increases.
If carbon dioxide is plenty, photosynthesis increases.
When temperature increases photosynthesis increases, up to a certain point, or
else, above 35oC, photosynthesis halts completely in most plants.
Despite this, when one factor is increasing, the other factors cause the rate of
photosynthesis to stay constant anyway. This is shown in the graphs below:
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Limiting Factors
16
14
12
10
Photosynthesis
Rate of photosynthesis at
8 0.01%carbon dioxide
Rate of photosynthesis at 0.1%carbon
dioxide
6
0
0 250 500 750 1000 1500 2500 4000 5000
Light
Rate of Photosynthesis
4.5
Carbon Dioxide limiting
3.5
Rate of Photosynthesis
1.5
0.5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
light Intensity
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Rate of Photosynthesis
4.5
Light Limiting
3.5
Rate of Photosynthesis
1.5
0.5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Concentration of Carbon Dioxide
Rate of Photosynthesis
Rate of Photosynthesis
Rate of Photosynthesis
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Temperature
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The first organism in a food chain is always a producer. Producers make their own
food from the sun by photosynthesis. Plants are an example of a producer. The other
organisms in the chain are called consumers because they consume (eat) the
organism before them. The first consumer is called the primary consumer, then there
is the secondary consumer and so on. The last organism in a food chain is always
called the top carnivore.
The primary consumer is always a herbivore because it eats plants or another
producer. The secondary consumer is a carnivore because it eats other animals. If an
organism eats both plants and animals, then it is called an omnivore.
The arrows in the food chain represents the flow of energy or the phrase is eaten by.
The ultimate source of energy is always the sun, but it is usually not included in a
food chain.
More often than not, an organism doesn’t eat only one type of food, i.e. any animal
eats more than one species of organism. In order to represent this situation, a food
web is produced. A food web is a collection of food chains mixed together to get a
clearer picture of what animals eat what. An example of a food web is given here
below. Fox
Mole
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A food web gives us more information about the feeding of animals than food chains.
Despite this though, it doesn’t give us the number of organisms involved. To show the
number of organisms involved in a food chain, a Pyramid of Numbers.
The first (bottom) layer in the pyramid is always the producer. Then following it are
the primary consumer, then the secondary and so on. Two examples of a pyramids of
numbers are shown here below.
Bird Ladybird
Caterpillar Aphids
Grass Rose
In order to show the dry mass of the organisms in a food chain, a Pyramid of
biomass is produced.
Fox
Rabbit
Grass
When energy flows from one organism to the other, some energy is always lost; That
is the pyramid of biomass is always the shape of normal upright pyramid instead as
shown in the above diagram.
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Companion Cells
Phloem Vessels
Xylem Vessels
Lignin
Sieve plates
Vascular Bundles
Sieve tubes
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