ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

The Cardiovascular System

The heart and circulatory system make up the cardiovascular system.
The heart works as a pump that pushes blood to the organs, tissues, and
cells of the body. Blood delivers oxygen and nutrients to every cell and
removes the carbon dioxide and waste products made by those cells. Blood
is carried from the heart to the rest of the body through a complex network
of arteries, arterioles, and capillaries. Blood is returned to the heart through
venules and veins.

The one-way circulatory system carries blood to all parts of the body.
This process of blood flow within the body is called circulation. Arteries carry
oxygen-rich blood away from the heart, and veins carry oxygen-poor blood
back to the heart. In pulmonary circulation, though, the roles are switched. It
is the pulmonary artery that brings oxygen-poor blood into the lungs and the
pulmonary vein that brings oxygen-rich blood back to the heart. (Rod R.
Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th edition, McGraw-Hill
Int. NY 10020 2005)

Twenty major arteries make a path through the tissues, where they
branch into smaller vessels called arterioles. Arterioles further branch into
capillaries, the true deliverers of oxygen and nutrients to the cells. Most
capillaries are thinner than a hair. In fact, many are so tiny, only one blood
cell can move through them at a time. Once the capillaries deliver oxygen
and nutrients and pick up carbon dioxide and other waste, they move the
blood back through wider vessels called venules. Venules eventually join to
form veins, which deliver the blood back to the heart to pick up oxygen.
Vasoconstriction or the spasm of smooth muscles around the blood vessels
causes and decrease in blood flow but an increase in pressure. In
vasodilation, the lumen of the blood vessel increase in diameter thereby
allowing increase in blood flow. There is no tension on the walls of the
vessels therefore, there is lower pressure. (Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of
Anatomy and Physiology 5th edition, McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020 2005)

Various external factors also cause changes in blood pressure and

pulse rate. An elevation or decline may be detrimental to health. Changes
may also be caused or aggravated by other disease conditions existing in
other parts of the body. The blood is part of the circulatory system. Whole
blood contains three types of blood cells, including: red blood cells, white
blood cells and platelets.

These three types of blood cells are mostly manufactured in the bone
marrow of the vertebrae, ribs, pelvis, skull, and sternum. These cells travel
through the circulatory system suspended in a yellowish fluid called plasma.
Plasma is 90% water and contains nutrients, proteins, hormones, and waste
products. Whole blood is a mixture of blood cells and plasma.

Red blood cells (also called erythrocytes) are shaped like slightly
indented, flattened disks. Red blood cells contain an iron-rich protein called
hemoglobin. Blood gets its bright red color when hemoglobin in red blood
cells picks up oxygen in the lungs. As the blood travels through the body, the
hemoglobin releases oxygen to the tissues. The body contains more red
blood cells than any other type of cell, and each red blood cell has a life span
of about 4 months. Each day, the body produces new red blood cells to
replace those that die or are lost from the body.

White blood cells (also called leukocytes) are a key part of the body's
system for defending itself against infection. They can move in and out of
the bloodstream to reach affected tissues. The blood contains far fewer white
blood cells than red cells, although the body can increase production of white
blood cells to fight infection. There are several types of white blood cells, and
their life spans vary from a few days to months. New cells are constantly
being formed in the bone marrow.

Several different parts of blood are involved in fighting infection. White

blood cells called granulocytes and lymphocytes travel along the walls of
blood vessels. They fight bacteria and viruses and may also attempt to
destroy cells that have become infected or have changed into cancer cells.
(Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th edition,
McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020 2005)

Certain types of white blood cells produce antibodies, special proteins

that recognize foreign materials and help the body destroy or neutralize
them. When a person has an infection, his or her white cell count often is
higher than when he or she is well because more white blood cells are being
produced or are entering the bloodstream to battle the infection. After the
body has been challenged by some infections, lymphocytes remember how
to make the specific antibodies that will quickly attack the same germ if it
enters the body again.

Platelets (also called thrombocytes) are tiny oval-shaped cells made in

the bone marrow. They help in the clotting process. When a blood vessel
breaks, platelets gather in the area and help seal off the leak. Platelets
survive only about 9 days in the bloodstream and are constantly being
replaced by new cells.

Blood also contains important proteins called clotting factors, which

are critical to the clotting process. Although platelets alone can plug small
blood vessel leaks and temporarily stop or slow bleeding, the action of
clotting factors is needed to produce a strong, stable clot.

Platelets and clotting factors work together to form solid lumps to seal
leaks, wounds, cuts, and scratches and to prevent bleeding inside and on the
surfaces of our bodies. The process of clotting is like a puzzle with
interlocking parts. When the last part is in place, the clot is formed.

When large blood vessels are cut the body may not be able to repair
itself through clotting alone. In these cases, dressings or stitches are used to
help control bleeding.

In addition to the cells and clotting factors, blood contains other

important substances, such as nutrients from the food that has been
processed by the digestive system. Blood also carries hormones released by
the endocrine glands and carries them to the body parts that need them.
(Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th edition,
McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020 2005)

Blood is essential for good health because the body depends on a

steady supply of fuel and oxygen to reach its billions of cells. Even the heart
couldn't survive without blood flowing through the vessels that bring
nourishment to its muscular walls. Blood also carries carbon dioxide and
other waste materials to the lungs, kidneys, and digestive system, from
where they are removed from the body. (Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of
Anatomy and Physiology 5th edition, McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020 2005)

The Nervous System

The Nervous system is a network of specialized cells that communicate

information about an animals surroundings and its self, it processes this
information and causes reactions in other parts of the body. It is composed
of neurons and other specialized cells called glia, that aid in the function of
the neurons.

The nervous system is divided broadly into two categories; the

peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system. Neurons
generate and conduct impulses between and within the two systems. The
peripheral nervous system is composed of sensory neurons and the neurons
that connect them to the nerve cord, spinal cord and brain, which make up
the central nervous system. In response to stimuli, sensory neurons generate
and propagate signals to the central nervous system which then process and
conduct back signals to the muscles and glands. (Rod R. Seeley et. al,
Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th edition, McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020
2005)

The neurons of the nervous systems of animals are interconnected in

complex arrangements and use electrochemical signals and
neurotransmitters to transmit impulses from one neuron to the next. The
interaction of the different neurons form neural circuits that regulate an
organism’s perception of the world and what is going on with its body, thus
regulating its behavior. Nervous systems are found in many multicellular
animals but differ greatly in complexity between species.

The central nervous system (CNS) is the largest part of the nervous
system, and includes the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cavity holds and
protects the spinal cord, while the head contains and protects the brain. The
CNS is covered by the meninges, a three layered protective coat. The brain is
also protected by the skull, and the spinal cord is also protected by the
vertebrae. (Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th
edition, McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020 2005)

Brain is a part of the Central Nervous System, it plays a central role in

the control of most bodily functions, including awareness, movements,
sensations, thoughts, speech, and memory. Some reflex movements can
occur via spinal cord pathways without the participation of brain structures.
(Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th edition,
McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020 2005)

The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and controls voluntary
actions, speech, senses, thought, and memory. The surface of the cerebral
cortex has grooves or infoldings (called sulci), the largest of which are
termed fissures. Some fissures separate lobes. The convolutions of the
cortex give it a wormy appearance. Each convolution is delimited by two
sulci and is also called a gyrus (gyri in plural). The cerebrum is divided into
two halves, known as the right and left hemispheres. A mass of fibers called
the corpus callosum links the hemispheres. The right hemisphere controls
voluntary limb movements on the left side of the body, and the left
hemisphere controls voluntary limb movements on the right side of the body.
Almost every person has one dominant hemisphere. Each hemisphere is
divided into four lobes, or areas, which are interconnected.

• The frontal lobes are located in the

front of the brain and are
responsible for voluntary movement
and, via their connections with other
lobes, participate in the execution of
sequential tasks; speech output;
organizational skills; and certain
aspects of behavior, mood, and
memory.

• The parietal lobes are located behind the frontal lobes and in front of the
occipital lobes. They process sensory information such as temperature, pain,
taste, and touch. In addition, the processing includes information about
numbers, attentiveness to the position of one’s body parts, the space around
one’s body, and one's relationship to this space.

• The temporal lobes are located on each side of the brain. They process
memory
and auditory (hearing) information and speech and language functions.

• The occipital lobes are located at the back of the brain. They receive and
process visual information (Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and
Physiology 5th edition, McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020 2005)

Cranial nerve I: Olfactory nerve

The olfactory nerve is composed of axons from the
olfactory receptors in the nasal sensory epithelium. It
carries olfactory information (sense of smell) to the olfactory bulb of the
brain. This is a pure sensory nerve fiber.

Cranial nerve II: Optic nerve

The optic nerve is composed of axons of the ganglion
cells in the eye. It carries visual information to the
brain. This is a pure sensory nerve fiber. This nerve
travels posteromedially from the eye, exiting the orbit
at the optic canal in the lesser wing of the sphenoid
bone. The optic nerves join each other in the middle
cranial fossa to form the optic chiasm.
Cranial nerve III: Oculomotor nerve
The oculomotor nerve is composed of motor axons
coming from the oculomotor nucleus and the edinger-
westphal nucleus in the rostral midbrain located at the
superior colliculus level. This is a pure motor nerve. It
provides somatic motor innervation to four of the
extrinsic eye muscles: the superior rectus, inferior
rectus, medial rectus, and the inferior oblique
muscles. It also innervates the muscles of the upper
eyelid and the intrinsic eye muscles (the pupillary eye muscle.) Together, CN
III, CN IV and CN VI control the six muscles of the eye.

Cranial nerve IV: Trochlear nerve

The trochlear nerve provides somatic motor innervation to the superior
oblique eye muscle. This cranial nerve originates at the trochlear nucleus
located in the tegmentum of the midbrain at the inferior colliculus level and
exits the posterior side of the brainstem. It is also a pure motor nerve fiber.

Cranial nerve V: Trigeminal nerve

The trigeminal is the largest cranial nerve . It
provides sensory information from the face, forehead,
nasal cavity, tongue, gums and teeth (touch, and
temperature) and provides somatic motor innervation
to the muscles of mastication or “chewing”.
This cranial nerve has 3 branches: the ophthalmic,
maxillary and mandibular branches.
It is composed of both sensory and motor axons. The
sensory fibers are located in the trigeminal ganglion and the motor fibers
project from nuclei in the pons.
Cranial nerve VI: Abducens nerve
The abducens nerve carries somatic motor
innervation to one of the extrinsic eye muscles, the lateral
rectus muscle. It is another pure motor nerve fiber and
originates from the abducens nucleus located in the caudal
pons at the facial colliculus level.
Cranial nerve VII: Facial nerve
The facial nerve carries somatic motor innervation to
the many muscles for facial expression. It carries
sensory information form the face (deep pressure sensation) and taste
information from the anterior two thirds of the tongue. It arises at the pons in
the brainstem and it emerges through openings in the temporal bone and
stylomastoid foramen and has many branches. It is composed of both
sensory and motor axons.

Cranial nerve VIII: Vestibulocochlear nerve

The vestibulocochlear nerve innervates the hair cell
receptors of the inner ear. It carries vestibular
information to the brain from the semicircular canals,
utricle, and saccule providing the sense of balance. It
also carries information from the cochlea providing the
sense of hearing. This cranial nerve branches into the
Vestibular branch (balance) and the cochlear branch
(hearing). The cochlear fibers originate from the spiral
ganglion. It is pure sensory nerve fiber.

Cranial nerve IX: Glossopharyngeal nerve

The glossopharyngeal nerve innervates the pharynx
(upper part of the throat), the soft palate and the
posterior one-third of the tongue. It carries sensory
information (touch, temperature, and pressure) from
the pharynx and soft palate. It carries taste sensation
from the taste buds on the posterior one third of the
tongue. It provides somatic motor innervation to the
throat muscles involved in swallowing. It provides
visceral motor innervation to the salivary glands. This
cranial nerve also supplies the carotid sinus and reflex
control to the heart . It is composed of both sensory
and motor axons and originates from the nucleus ambiguous in the reticular
formation of the medulla.

Cranial nerve X: Vagus nerve

The vagus nerve consists of many rootlets that come
off of the brainstem just behind the glossopharyngeal
nerve. The branchial motor component originates from
the nucleus ambiguous in the reticular formation of the
medulla. The visceral component originates from the
dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus located in the floor
of the fourth ventricle in the rostral medulla and in the
central grey matt er of the caudal medulla. It is the
longest cranial nerve innervating many structures in
the throat, including the muscles of the vocal cords, thorax and abdominal
cavity. It provides sensory information (touch, temperature and pressure)
from the external auditory meatus (ear canal) and a portion of the external
ear. It carries taste sensation from taste buds in the pharynx. It also provides
sensory information from the esophagus, respiratory tract, and abdominal
viscera (stomach, intestines, liver, etc.). It provides visceral motor
innervation to the heart, stomach, intestines, and gallbladder. It is part of the
ANS, the parasympathetic branch. It is composed of both sensory and motor
axons. Other parasympathetic ganglia include CN III , CN VII and CN IX .
 Cranial nerve XI: Spinal Accessory nerve
The spinal accessory nerve has two branches. The
cranial branch provides somatic motor innervation to
some of the muscles in the throat involved in
swallowing. This cranial branch is accessory to CN X,
originating in the caudal nucleus ambiguous, with the
fibers of the cranial root traveling the same
extracranial path as the branchial motor component of
the vagus nerve. The spinal branch provides somatic
motor innervation to the trapezius muscles, providing
muscle movement for the upper shoulders head and neck. It is pure motor
nerve fiber.

Cranial nerve XII: Hypoglossal nerve

The hypoglossal nerve provides somatic motor innervation to the muscles of
the tongue. This pure motor nerve originates from the hypoglossal nucleus
located in the tegmentum of the medulla.
Circle of Willis
The Circle of Willis (also called Willis' Circle, cerebral arterial circle,
arterial Circle of Willis, and Willis Polygon) is a circle of arteries that supply
blood to the brain.
Components
The Circle of Willis comprises the following
arteries
• Anterior cerebral artery (left and right)
• Anterior communicating artery
• Internal carotid artery (left and right)
• Posterior cerebral artery (left and right)
• Posterior communicating artery (left and
right)

The left and right internal carotid arteries arise from the
right and left common carotid arteries.
The posterior communicating artery is given off as a branch of the internal carotid
artery just before it divides into its terminal branches - the anterior and middle
cerebral arteries. The anterior cerebral artery forms the anterolateral portion of the
Circle of Willis, while the middle cerebral artery does not contribute to the circle.
The right and left posterior cerebral arteries arise from the basilar artery, which is
formed by the left and right vertebral arteries. The vertebral arteries arise from the
subclavian arteries.
The anterior communicating artery connects the two anterior cerebral arteries and
could be said to arise from either the left or right side.
All arteries involved give off cortical and central branches. The central branches
supply the interior of the Circle of Willis, more specifically, the Interpeduncular
fossa. The cortical branches are named for the area they supply. Since they do not
directly affect the Circle of Willis, they are not dealt with here.
The Urinary System

The urinary system is

system of organs that produces
and excretes urine from the body.
Urine is a transparent yellow fluid
containing unwanted wastes,
mostly excess water, salts, and
nitrogen compounds. The major
organs of the urinary system are
the kidneys, a pair of bean-
shaped organs that continuously filter substances from the blood and
produce urine. Urine flows from the kidneys through two long, thin tubes
called ureters. With the aid of gravity and wavelike contractions, the ureters
transport the urine to the bladder, a muscular vessel. The normal adult
bladder can store up to about 0.5 liter (1 pt) of urine, which it excretes
through the tubelike urethra.

An average adult produces about 1.5 liters of urine each day, and the
body needs, at a minimum, to excrete about 0.5 liter of urine daily to get rid
of its waste products. Excessive or inadequate production of urine may
indicate illness and doctors often use urinalysis (examination of a patient’s
urine) as part of diagnosing disease. For instance, the presence of glucose,
or blood sugar, in the urine is a sign of diabetes mellitus; bacteria in the
urine signal an infection of the urinary system; and red blood cells in the
urine may indicate cancer of the urinary tract. (Rod R. Seeley et. al,
Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th edition, McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020
2005)

Kidneys are paired organs whose functions include removing waste

products from the blood and regulating the amount of fluid in the body. The basic
units of the kidneys are microscopically thin structures called nephrons, which filter
the blood and cause wastes to be removed in the form of urine. Together with the
bladder, two ureters, and the single urethra, the kidneys make up the body’s
urinary system. Human beings, as well as members of all other vertebrate species,
typically have two kidneys. (Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and
Physiology 5th edition, McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020 2005)
 Like kidney beans, the body’s kidneys are dark red in color and have a
shape in which one side is convex, or rounded, and the other is concave, or
indented. The kidneys of adult humans are about 10 to 13 cm (4 to 5 in) long
and about 5 to 7.5 cm (2 to 3 in) wide—about the size of a computer mouse.

The kidneys lie against the rear wall of the abdomen, on either side of
the spine. They are situated below the middle of the back, beneath the liver
on the right and the spleen on the left. Each kidney is encased in a
transparent, fibrous membrane called a renal capsule, which helps protect it
against trauma and infection. The concave part of the kidney attaches to two
of the body’s crucial blood vessels—the renal artery and the renal vein—and
the ureter, a tubelike structure that carries urine to the bladder. (Rod R.
Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th edition, McGraw-Hill
Int. NY 10020 2005)

A primary function of kidneys is the removal of poisonous wastes from

the blood. Chief among these wastes are the nitrogen-containing compounds
urea and uric acid, which result from the breakdown of proteins and nucleic
acids. Life-threatening illnesses occur when too many of these waste
products accumulate in the bloodstream. Fortunately, a healthy kidney can
easily rid the body of these substances.

In addition to cleaning the blood, the kidneys perform several other

essential functions. One such activity is regulation of the amount of water
contained in the blood. This process is influenced by antidiuretic hormone
(ADH), also called vasopressin, which is produced in the hypothalamus (a
part of the brain that regulates many internal functions) and stored in the
nearby pituitary gland. Receptors in the brain monitor the blood’s water
concentration. When the amount of salt and other substances in the blood
becomes too high, the pituitary gland releases ADH into the bloodstream.
When it enters the kidney, ADH makes the walls of the renal tubules and
collecting ducts more permeable to water, so that more water is reabsorbed
into the bloodstream. (Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and
Physiology 5th edition, McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020 2005)

The hormone aldosterone, produced by the adrenal glands, interacts

with the kidneys to regulate the blood’s sodium and potassium content. High
amounts of aldosterone cause the nephrons to reabsorb more sodium ions,
more water, and fewer potassium ions; low levels of aldosterone have the
reverse effect. The kidney’s responses to aldosterone help keep the blood’s
salt levels within the narrow range that is best for crucial physiological
activities. (Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th
edition, McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020 2005)

Aldosterone also helps regulate blood pressure. When blood pressure

starts to fall, the kidney releases an enzyme (a specialized protein) called
renin, which converts a blood protein into the hormone angiotensin. This
hormone causes blood vessels to constrict, resulting in a rise in blood
pressure. Angiotensin then induces the adrenal glands to release
aldosterone, which promotes sodium and water to be reabsorbed, further
increasing blood volume and blood pressure.

The kidney also adjusts the body's acid-base balance to prevent such
blood disorders as acidosis and alkalosis, both of which impair the
functioning of the central nervous system. If the blood is too acidic, meaning
that there is an excess of hydrogen ions, the kidney moves these ions to the
urine through the process of tubular secretion. An additional function of the
kidney is the processing of vitamin D; the kidney converts this vitamin to an
active form that stimulates bone development. (Rod R. Seeley et. al,
Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th edition, McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020
2005)

Several hormones are produced in the kidney. One of these,

erythropoietin, influences the production of red blood cells in the bone
marrow. When the kidney detects that the number of red blood cells in the
body is declining, it secretes erythropoietin. This hormone travels in the
bloodstream to the bone marrow, stimulating the production and release of
more red cells. (Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology
5th edition, McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020 2005)

The Respiratory System

The respiratory system generally includes tubes,

such as the bronchi, used to carry air to the lungs,
where gas exchange takes place. A diaphragm pulls
air in and pushes it out. Respiratory systems of
various types are found in a wide variety of
organisms. Even trees have respiratory systems.
In humans, the respiratory system consists of
the airways, the lungs, and the respiratory muscles
that mediate the movement of air into and out of
the body. Within the alveolar system of the lungs,
molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by
diffusion, between the gaseous environment and the blood. Thus, the
respiratory system facilitates oxygenation of the blood with a concomitant
removal of carbon dioxide and other gaseous metabolic wastes from the
circulation. The system also helps to maintain the acid-base balance of the
body through the efficient removal of carbon dioxide from the blood. (Rod R.
Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th edition, McGraw-Hill
Int. NY 10020 2005)

Mechanics of Breathing

To take a breath in, the external intercostal muscles contract, moving

the ribcage up and out. Thediaphragm moves down at the same time,
creating negative pressure within the thorax. The lungs are held to the
thoracic wall by the pleural membranes, and so expand outwards as well.
This creates negative pressure within the lungs, and so air rushes in through
the upper and lower airways.

Expiration is mainly due to the natural elasticity of the lungs, which

tend to collapse if they are not held against the thoracic wall. This is the
mechanism behind lung collapse if there is air in the pleural space
(pneumothorax). (Rod R. Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology
5th edition, McGraw-Hill Int. NY 10020 2005)

Physiology of Gas Exchange

Each branch of the bronchial tree eventually sub-divides to form very

narrow terminal bronchioles, which terminate in the alveoli. There are many
millions of alveoli in each lung, and these are the areas responsible for
gaseous exchange, presenting a massive surface area for exchange to occur
over.

Each alveolus is very closely associated with a network of capillaries

containing deoxygenated blood from the pulmonary artery. The capillary and
alveolar walls are very thin, allowing

rapid exchange of gases by passive diffusion along concentration gradients.

CO2 movesinto the alveolus as the concentration is much lower in the
alveolus than in the blood, and O2 moves out of the alveolus as the
continuous flow of blood through the capillaries prevents saturation of the
blood with O2 and allows maximal transfer across the membrane. (Rod R.
Seeley et. al, Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th edition, McGraw-Hill
Int. NY 10020 2005)