Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CHALLENGES IN
INDIAN EDUCATION
UNIT: 1 – V
1
2
CHALLENGES IN INDIAN EDUCATION
Course Introduction
In unit 4 the main focus is on the areas like health and nutrition, population
education and physical education.
Course Writer
A. SURYALATHA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR IN EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
3
4
BACHELOR OF EDUCATION (B.Ed.)
CHALLENGES IN INDIAN EDUCATION
CONTENTS
Unit / Lesson No. Title Page No.
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UNIT – I
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8
HISTORY OF INDIAN EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
India has one of the oldest and longest traditions of philosophical thinking in
the world. This tradition covers the vedic thought Buddhism, Jainism and their
educational implication. During the later ages Indian thought also assimilated the
creative influence of the west.
Lesson1 deals with the salient features of Gurukula system of education, and
Jain system of education. Due emphasis has been laid on the recommend of various
commissions and committee during British Era.
In, Lesson 2, we have discussed the progress of education in Free India. The
appointment of various committees and commissions and their major
recommendations on various aspects of education have also been described
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LESSON 1.1
EDUCATION IN ANCIENT AND BRITISH PERIOD
STRUCTURE
1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 Objectives
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1.1.6.6 Zakir Hussain Committee Report (1937)
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION
The search for a proper system of education has been a subject for serious
thought in all the civilized societies since ancient times to present day. India, being
one of the most ancient democratic in the world, Education in India, has a long past
history starting in vedic education. The history of education passed through Buddhist,
Muslim and British periods, while vedic education was the ancient Indian model,
British system of education presented the modern western model. And even after
half a century since the departure of British rulers from India, the Indian system of
education is creating what Macaulay wanted to create, “a class of persons, Indian in
blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinion, in morals and in the intellect”.
1.1.2 OBJECTIVES
Since time immemorial, education has ever been looked at Indian culture as a
holistic effort. Our culture is in the core attributes of education beginning from
Gurukula type of education, where the disciples lived in the house of the Master who
taught what all things he knew for years together.
1. Ai m o f Edu cati on
Self Realizat io n. T he u lt imat e a im o f education in ancient India was
not knowledge as preparation for life, but for complete realisation of self for
liberation of the soul from fetters of life, both present and future. That
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knowledge was real, which led to emaciation led from unreality to
realit y, from darkness, to light, from eternal to immorality
2. Free and Accessible. Education was free and accessible to all who sought
it.
3. No State Control on Education. Education was a private affair of the
people, managed entirely by Brahmans. Rulers of the country could subsidies
it, if they thought fit to do so, with grants of land or money. They could
impose no conditions or control on teachers affecting their freedom of
work.
4. High Status of Teachers. Teachers were a highly honoured class—honoured
even by kings. Kings rose from their thrones to receive great teachers such as
Narada, Vashishtha and Vishwamitra.
5. Teacher as Parents. Teachers behaved as parents to their pupils and pupils
behaved as members of the teacher’s family. The attitude of the pupil was to
be one of the complete submissions.
6. Residential Schools. Teachers and pupils lived together and so identified
themselves with one another
7. Immediate Aim Vocational. The immediate aim of education, however, was
to prepare the different classes of people for their actual needs of life.
8. Curriculum. The subjects of instruction varied according to the vocational
needs of the different classes from the Vedas and Vedandas in the case of
Brahmans, to the art of warfare in the case of Kshatriyas, and to
agriculture and trade, arts and crafts in the case of Vaishyas.
9. Method of Instruction. The method of instruction generally consisted of
recitation by the teacher and repetition by the pupil, followed by explanation
by the teacher, questioning by the pupil, and discussion between the
teacher and the pupil.
10. Individual Teaching. Pupils were taught, individually, not en masse by the
class method. Where pupils were many, the monitorial plan was
followed, the more advanced pupils being appointed to teach the less
advanced.
11. Method of Study. The method of study consisted of listening to the teacher,
reflection on what has been listened to and its constant revision.
12. Role of Travel in Education. Travel was regarded as necessary to give a
finishing touch of education.
13. Education of Moral, Religious and Spiritual. Education was not for a public
examination or for paid public or private service, as it is generally considered
to be at present. It was not merely intellectual. It was also moral, religious
and spiritual.
14. Forests as Centres of Education. The place of education was generally the
forest “far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife “
15. Sanskrit as the Medium of Instruction. The medium of instruction in
institutions conducted by Brahmans was Sanskrit.
16. Self-Control and Self-Discipline. There was, generally, corporal
punishment Self-control or self discipline was considered to be the best
discipline.
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17. Wide-Spread Education in Women. In the earlier Vedic and Upanishad
times, girls were free to go through the Upanayana ceremony, lived a life of
celebacy, studied Vedas, Vedangas and other subjects among with their
brother pupils.
1. What was the immediate aim of Education in the Gurukula system of Education?
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1.4 BUDDHIST SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
Buddhist education came into existence in the 5th century B.C. Brahmans
deprived the common people of their right to education, and hence the emergence of
Buddhism granted the people the freedom to obtain education and to practice their
religion themselves. Lord Buddha imparted to life a perfectly practicable form.
Consequently, a practicable religion and a practical educational system became a variable
to the common people.
Buddhist education had many notable features, the most significant of which were the
following
1. Abilities of the student: In the Buddhist period, every class in society, except
the Chandals, had the right to receive education. It was denied only to the ill, the
handicapped, the dishonoured and those punished for crimes. Education began at the age of
8 till the age of 12, the student remained in a state of Shramana. After attaining the age
of 20, he was qualified to become a monk. Education was imparted through the, medium
of Pali.
2. Pababja Ritual (First Ordination Ceremony) : Before a student could enter
a monastery for receiving education, he had to perform the Pababja ritual, in which,
the student had his head shaved of all hair, dressed himself in yellow clothes, placed
his forehead at the feet of the monks living in the monastery and sat cross-legged on the
floor to repeat the following words thrice
I take Refuge to Buddha.
I take Refuge to Dharma.
I take Refuge to Sangh.
He was then ordained to obey ten rules, which included abstaining from theft,
killing of any living being, impure conduct, partaking of food at prohibited times, use
of intoxicating things, use of cosmetics, taking things without being offered, accepting
objects of gold and silver in alms, watching dances or listening to music, etc. After the
performing of this ritual the student was called ‘shramana’ or ‘samner’.
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3. Upsampada Ritual (Final Ordination Ceremony) : After attaining the age
of twenty years, the student had to adopt ‘Upsampada’. On this occasion, the presence
of the monks was essential. After this ritual, the male monks were called Bhikshu and
the female monks Bhikshuni. Even at this stage, monks were required to eat in their
begging bowls, wearing clothes begged from others and drinking the urine of a cow as
a medicine, etc.
4. System of Education: The total period of education was 22 years, composed
of 12 years as Pababja and 10 years as Upsampada.
5. Student-teacher relationship: Students were required to serve their teachers,
beg for alms, eat food thrice a day, wear three items. of clothes, bathe themselves with
pure water and live in discipline.
6. Status of Women: In the Buddhist period, women occupied a position inferior
to men. Initially; they were prohibited from joining a Sangha or congregation. Later on,
they were granted admission to such congregations and it was then that feminine
education progressed.
7. Vocational Education: The syllabus of education during this period was
comprehensive. It comprehended education in writing, agriculture, commerce,
cottage industries, animal husbandry, elephant lore, archery, magic, knowledge of
reviving the dead, knowledge of animal cries and sounds, control over sensuous activities,
bodily gestures, medicine, etc.
8. Syllabus: During the Buddhist period, education was impart in art, handicrafts,
military science, the science of taming and training animals, archery, geology, etc.,
along with education in script writing, arithmetic and religious discussion. The
education syllabus was divided into the religious and the material or worldly.
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new and peculiar situations. Education must, therefore, prepare a child to understand
and deal with such fast moving situations and changes with alacrity and success.
Validity is effective and consequences, whatever works are true and good.
The special features of Jainism are found in its practical teaching. Its chief feature,
however, is extreme severity which is applicable even to a householder. Jainism insists
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neither on enlightenment alone or on conduct alone, but on both. As such, it has a foot in
both the words.
1. Tri-ratna or three gems of its teaching are as under three precious principles of
life
a) Right faith.
b) Right knowledge.
c) Right conduct.
2. Five vows (vrata) of an ascetic would indicate the general character. They are:
a) Not to injure.
b) Not utter falsehood.
c) Not to steal.
d) To lead a celibate life.
e) To renounce the world.
f) For a layman these are replaced by chastity and contentment.
3. Ahimsa (Non-violence) is the foremost virtue in Ind ian t ho ught but in
Jainism, it acquires dist inct meaning and depth: it is non-violence in
word, thought and deed.
4. Emphasizing the individualistic aspect, Jainism emphasizes on the
development of personality as the final aim. Jaina teachings are social and
tolerant, and believe in happiness to all.
5. There are two levels of discipline depending on the severity of the vows which
are different for the monks and of lay life, and considers those of the monk as
superior to the other kind.
6. The aim of life is to get oneself disentangled from karma. Jainism believes in
the transmigration of soul. Soul united with karma is called a soul in bondage,
and is to be redeemed and liberated.
7. Moksha means dissolution of partnership between soul and matter, restoring the
ideal character of the jiva.
8. Jainism rejects God as the creator of this world, as a need to create the world
would be inconsistent with his necessary perfection. Jainism looks upon man
himself as God when his inherent powers are fully in bloom.
9. Jaina views are both relativistic and pluralistic as it recognises jivas and the
material objects.
10. The primary aim of Jainism is the perfection of the soul, rather than the
interpretation of the universe, hence it fails to find ultimate solutions of the
metaphysical problem.
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4. Teaching should give necessary jnana and penance to help jiva disentangle from
Karma.
5. Belief in transmigration of soul, hence education may partly be the preparation for
the next world.
1.5.3 CURRICULUM IN JAIN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
1. ‘Punya’ and ‘paap’ are the two principles of the nine categories. Hence, education
should develop sense of discrimination.
2. Education should include provision for attainment of Tri-ratnas, the precious
principles of life that bring happiness, success and love, here and now.
3. Education should inculcate non-violence as a virtue, practised and not only aspired
for, that would be socially desirable.
4. Teaching of nine principles called as Nine-categories of Jainism to dissolve the
partnership between soul and matter.
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1.1.6 EDUCATION DURING BRITISH ERA
Evolution of the modern system of education proceeds in a zigzag fashion, with rally
and rout. The circumstances shape its course and when a foreign ruler governs its progress,
much of the system evolves through the fancy of the ruler. The indigenous education came
to a nought when the British rule fashioned the system of education modelled after their
own. We shall attempt to trace the progress of education through the reports available at
different periods.
The Charter Act of 1813 stated, “A sum of not less than one lakh of rupees in
each year shall be set apart and applied to the improvement of literature and the
encouragement of the learned natives of India for the introduction and promotion of
knowledge of the sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories in India”.
Macaulay in 1833 published a report, which prophesied that the government is going
to train a bunch of Bengalis in such a way that they will serve their British masters in
their administrative work, “they would be able to fill up the subordinate posts” in the
administrative machinery (Government of India, 1953).
In 1854, a review of the existing system showed that much of the system was
inadequate. Through a report known as Wood’s Despatch (1854), they proceeded to
provide useful and practical knowledge to the people of India, which they were
incapable of obtaining from the schools of that time.
In the report some specific recommendations were made as follows:
1. To cause diffusion of knowledge of improved arts, science, philosophy and
literature of Europe.
2. To set up separate departments of, public instruction in the five provinces of
Bengal, Madras, Bombay, North West Province and Punjab.
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education was neglected. In 1882, the Government of India appointed an education
commission to enquire into the existing education system, and make suitable
recommendations (Hunter Commission). Following were the recommendations:
The Hunter Commission (1882) suggested two avenues of education, namely, general
education leading to the entry to the university and technical education which was of practical
and vocational nature. This was for the first time that a diversified system of education
was suggested. It also formulated definite policies on various aspects of education. The
decade following 1921 was a period of rapid expansion of education especially, at the
primary level.
At that time M.K. Gandhi gave his call for non-violent and non-cooperation movement.
Gandhi felt that the prevalent British education lent support to the exploitation and
oppression of the poor and helpless people of India. Then the prevalent education was
anti-national, godless (atheistic) and taught people to worship wealth and material success.
This education produced clerks by thousands and did not make men. He thought of
replacing this English education by a truly national system of education which must be
cheap enough to be available to crores of poor people and must make students self-reliant,
self-respecting and competent.
In 1937, the Congress approached Gandhi for a well-thought out plan of primary and
secondary education. His ideas were discussed by Zakir Hussain Committee (1937).
• Universal free primary education,
• Secondary education, according to the ability and aptitude of the learners,
• Diversification from the age of 14 years in various streams.
In 1944, Postwar Report of Sir John Sargent was published. The broad
outlines of the report are as follows:
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At the primary stage (6-11 years), all children are to have a common
curriculum. After this stage, children (11-14 years) should have a secondary course of
5-6 years duration which should be adequately planned for entry into industrial,
commercial and technical occupations as well as to universities. The report
suggested that there may be a third group of schools which would recruit pupils
aged 13 years from the other two types of schools and provide them with a general
education with a strong vocational bias to fit them for direct entry into commerce or
industry. The report suggested development of adult education scheme, Indian
University Grants Commission and All India Council for Technical Education.
Indian Education system has covered a long distance from vedic period of
British Empire. During this period it has fuced so many problems and it has tried to
save their own traditious and system for the new generation as we are feeling now and
observing their qualities to develop our country as we want.
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education of European literature, science and English language, so that the
Indians can help the British rulers in their administration.
1. The immediate aim of education, was to prepare the different classes of people
for their actual needs of life.
4. Right knowledge, Right thought, Right speech, Right activity, Right means of
livelihood, Right endeavour, Right memory, Right contemplation.
6. During the Buddhist period, education was impart in art, handicrafts, military
science, the science of taming and training animals, archery, geology, etc., along
with education in script writing, arithmetic and religious discussion.
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7. a. Right faith.
b. Right knowledge.
c. Right conduct.
10. 1882.
12. 1937
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LESSON 1.2
STRUCTURE
1.2.1 Introduction
1.2.2 Objectives
1.2.1 INTRODUCTION
In free India that education has made rapid progress in beyond doubt.
There had been quantitative expansion of education in an unprecendented
manner. Efforts for the qualitative improvement were also made in great
measure by the Government of India and the State Government in well designed
and desired manner through proper planning of educational development. The
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welfare services of students and teachers have been laudably provided. There
had been vast institutional expansion, explosion of enrolment, diversification of
courses of studies, expansion of vocational, technical, technological
engineering, medical and legal education, girls and women education besides
primary, secondary and higher education.
1.2.2 OBJECTIVES
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teaching, research et.
Since the adoption of the policy on education in 1986 there had been
considerable expansion in educational facilities all over the country at all levels.
However, the general formulations incorporated in the 1968 policy were not
translated into a detailed study of implementation. Problems of access, quality,
quantity, utility and financial outlay, accumulated over the years, assumed such
massive proportions that they must be talked with the utmost urgency.
Therefore, in January 1985, the Government of India announced that a New
Education Policy would be formulated in the country. A status Paper Challenge
of Education – A Policy perspective was issued by the Ministry of Education,
Government of India. This document included a comprehensive appraisal of the
existing system of education. There was a country – wide debate on educational
reforms in the country. Finally, the New National Policy on Education, 1986,
was approved by the Parliament in May 1986.
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of disparities and to equalize educational opportunity by attending to the
specific needs of the women, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, the
minorities and the handicapped.
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but no guarantee can be given for providing jobs to millions. As such, it will conduce
self- employment and promote economic independence of the youth.
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ot her. It would be a t erminal st age for a major it y o f vocational higher
secondary students.
The Central Advisory Board of Education, the, highest body concerned with
educational policy in the country in 1974 pleaded for augmentation of funds for
introduction of vocational courses at the higher secondary stage and in 1975 adopted
the educational pattern of 10+2+3 at the national level with a greater emphasis on
Vocational education. The conference of Ministers of Education of the States and
Union Territories in 1977 recommended the adoption of the new p a t t e r n o f
E d u c a t i o n w i t h s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s o n vocationalisation by adequate
restructures.
With a view to relating education to the life, needs and aspirat ions o f the
societ y as suggested by the Kothari Commission, the NCERT (1975) in “The
Curriculum for the Ten-Year School—A Framework” has enunciated,. “For
harmonious development of the child’s personality, it is necessary not only to
expose him to scholastic areas for intellectual development but also to put him in
situations where he may get opportunities to work with his hands and develop proper
attitude towards manual labour. In addition, there is an urgent need to bridge the
gap between the work of school and world of work.”
As per the decision of the Central Advisory Board of Education, the NCERT
published a document on “Higher Secondary Education and its Vocationalisation”
resulted from wide-r ang ing discuss io n, cu lminat ing in a Nat io nal
Conference in 1976. This document contained many important and forward-looking
features such as flexibility in the choice of vocations, determining vocations
with reference to a district or a group of districts, need for district-wise survey of
eco nomic act ivit ies and potent ialit ies and consequent opportunities of work,
micro-planning at the district level and assessment of manpower needs, raising the
special facilities, for quality of life in the rural areas, etc. Its proposals also
raised questions on such matters as the nature and scope of vocationalisation, the rigid
streaming of courses, the semester and credit system, admission requirements to
vocational courses, lack of adequate vertical mobility in the Vocational Courses.
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defined S UP W as “purposive, meaningful, manual work resulting in either
goods or services which are useful to the community”. Such productive work
related to the needs of the child and community will prove mechanically
sound and its process must be educational in essence. In short, its social usefulness
was emphasized as in the Basic Education philosophy was propounded by Gandhiji.
There is obvious gulf between the world of education- and the world of work.
It is because of this that students of today are not able to adjust to the world
outside amicably after they leave their educational institutions. Many educational
commissions appointed in India and many educationists have felt it a dire need to
bridge the gulf. For this many suggestions and recommendations have been
offered in the past.
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The aim of SUPW according to the committee, is to provide children with
opportunities of participating in social and economic activities inside and outside the
classroom, enabling them to understand scientific principles and process involved in
different types of work and in the setting in which they are found in the physical and
social environment.
Three phases : The review committee has stated the three phases of the SUPW
1. Study of the world of work through observation and enquiry
2. Experimentation with materials, tools and techniques and
3. Work practice.
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5. The programme need not be confined to the four walls of the classroom or the
school.
6. It is not the sole responsibility of the teacher alone to teach the subject, the
local community should be actively associated.
The importance of community service also has been recognized in the recent
past. To make education more realistic, functional life oriented and to bring the
school and community more closer to one another, the concept of Community Service
has been visualised. It also enables bridging the gulf between the school life and the
community life by actively associating the school children with the community
services according to the abilities and the needs of the latter.
Community Service
The Eswar Bhai Patel Review Committee (1977) has added a new dimen-
sion by changing the concept of work experience introduced by the Kothari
Education Commission by redesignating it as the Socially useful. Productive Work
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and adding the Sixth Area : “Community Work and Social Service”.
6. Define SUPW
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1.2.7 LET US SUM UP
In this lesson you have learnt the rapid progress of education in Independent
India in all directions speaks well of the efforts made by the government of India in
order to expand education and to make it more diversified and multi-dimensional to
meet the needs of a developing nation.
1. Dr. Radhakrishnan
2. 1952
3. 1955
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1.2.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
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LESSON 3
EDUCATION IN INDIAN CONSTITUTION
STRUCTURE
1.3.1 Introduction
1.3.2 Objectives
1.3.1 INTRODUCTION
The constitution of India is the supreme law of India. It lays down the
framework defining the fundamental political principles, establishing the structure,
procedures, powers and duties of the government and spells out the fundamental
rights, directive principles and duties of citizens. Passed by the Constituent Assembly
on November 26, 1949, it came into effect on January 26, 1950. It declares The Union
of India to be a sovereign, democratic republic, assuring its citizens of justice,
equality, and liberty; the words “socialist” and “secular” were added to the definition
in 1976 by constitutional amendment India celebrates the adoption of the constitution
on January 26 of each year as Republic Day. It is the longest written constitution of
any independent nation in the world, containing 395 articles, 12 schedules and 83
amendments, for a total of 117,369 words in the English language version. Besides
the English version, there is an official Hindi translation. Being the supreme law of the
country, every law enacted by the government must conform to the constitution.
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In the August 14, 1947 meeting of the Assembly, a proposal for forming
various committees-was presented. Such committees include Committee on
Fundamental Rights, the Union Powers Committee and Union Constitution Committee.
On August 29, 1947, the Drafting Committee was appointed, with Dr. Ambedkar as the
Chairman along with six other members. A Draft Constitution was prepared by the
committee and submitted to the Assembly on November 4, 1947.
The Assembly met, in sessions open to public, for 166 days, spread over a
period of 2 years, 11 months and 18 days before adopting the Constitution. After
many deliberations and some modifications, the 308 members of the Assembly signed
two hand-written copies of the document (one each in Hindi and English) on the
January 24, 1950. Two days later, the Constitution of India became the law of all the
Indian lands. Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar as chairman of the Constitution Drafting
Committee, was o n of Const it ut io n's chief archit ects.
1.3.2 OBJECTIVES
“The purpose of the Directive Principles is to fix certain social and economic
goals for immediate attainment by bringing about a non-violent social revolution.
Through such a revolution the Constitution seeks to fulfill the basic needs of the
common man and to change the structure of our society. It aims at making the Indian
masses free in the positive sense”.
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The following points bring out the importance of the directive Principles of State
Policy:
Achievement of the objectives of economic democracy. The Directive
Principles guide the Central and State Government in the following dimensions of the
welfare programmes:
Equal pay for both sex. That there is equal pay for equal work for both men
and women;
No abuse of children. That the health and strength of workers, men and
women, and the tender age of children are not abused and that citizens are not forced
by economic necessity to enter avocations unsuited to their age or strength;
Condition for dignity of children. That children are given opportunities and
facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity and
that childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and against moral and
material abandonment.
Article 39A. Equal justice and free legal aid. The State shall secure that the
operation of the legal system promotes justice, on the basis of equal opportunity, and shall,
in particular, provide free legal aid, by suitable legislation or schemes or in any other
way, to ensure that opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any citizen by
reason of economic or other disabilities.
Article 40. Organisation of village panchayat. The State shall take steps to
organise village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as
may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self- government.
Article 42. Provision for just and humane conditions of work and maternity
relief. The State shall make provision for securing just and humane conditions of work
and for maternity relief.
Article 43. Liking wage etc. for workers. The State shall endeavour to secure,
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by suitable legislation or economic organisation or in any other way, to all workers,
agricultural, industrial or otherwise, work, a living wage, conditions of work ensuring
a decent standard of life and full enjoyment of leisure and social and cultural
opportunities and, in particular, the State shall endeavour to promote cottage
industries on an individual or cooperative basis in rural areas.
Article 47. Duty of the State to raise the level ofnutrition and the standard
of living and to improve public health. The State shall regard the raising of the
level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the improvement
of public health as among its primary duties and, in particular, the State shall
endeavour to bring about prohibition of the consumption except for medicinal
purposes of intoxicating drinks and of drugs which are injurious to health.
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Parliament] to be of national importance, from spoliation, disfigurement,
destruction, removal, disposal or export, as the case may be.
Article 50. Separation of judiciary from executive. The State shall take
steps to separate the judiciary from the executive in the public services of the State.
Article 51. Promotion of international peace and security. The State shall
endeavour to promote international peace and security; maintain just and honourable
relations between nations; foster respect for international law and treaty
obligations in the dealings of organised people with one another; and encourage
settlement of international disputes by arbitration.
2. Article 45 - Provision for Early Childhood Care and Education for the
children below 6 years – The State shall endeavour to provide Early Childhood
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Care And Education for all children under the age of six years”. (Substituted by
the Constitution (Eighty – sixth Amendment) Act, 2002.
6. Article 30 (ii) lays down “The state shall not, in granting aid to educational
institutions discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that it is
under the management of a minority whether based on religion or language”,
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9. Article 351 Directive for Development of Hindi Language, “It shall be the
duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it
so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the
composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment-by assimilating without
interfering with its genuis, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani
and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by
drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily in
Sanskrit and secondarily in other languages”.
1. Planning
Educational planning is a part and parcel of the total planning of the country.
The central government determines targets and promotes education. The
MHRD prepares educational plans for me whole country. It also formulates
broad based policy regarding education.
2. Educational Reforms
From time to time, the government of India has set up commissions which had
gone into various aspects of education at different levels and have provided
valuable recommendations and suggestions. These recommendations have
further been considered by the experts and the states are requested to
implement the recommendations of the expert bodies.
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3. Organisation
For carrying out educational plans, government of India has set up institutions
like All India Council of Technical Education, and the National Council of
Educational Research and Training. All India Council of Medical Science,
etc., which provide guidance to the status in the field of education.
4. Direction
To give direction to the State Government is another important function of the
Ministry. The Central Government directs and guides the State Government,
Local bodies and private enterprise. So as to encourage education on right
lines, standards of education are fixed up by it which are to be followed by the
different states. This is being done by the Ministry through the Central
Advisory Board of Education.
5. Control
The central government provides finances to the different central educational
organizations the universities, the state governments, private agencies etc. It
gives grant of different types to the static (recurring as well as non-recurring).
So that they may work well, to achieve the desired ends.
6. Equalisation of Educational opportunities
Government of India is wedded to the establishment of an egalitariau society
and therefore has taken many steps to provide equal educational opportunities
to the weaker sections of the society. It has initiated a larger number of
programme in this direction.
7. Pilot Project
The MHRD has undertaken a larger number of pilot projects like rural
universities, regional institute curriculum reform and text-books etc. By
starting these projects, the MHRD aims at providing enlightened leadership all
over the country.
The following pilot projects, were started in the field of education by the Ministry of
Education
a. Intensive educational development in some selected areas
b. Merit scholarships in the public schools
c. Promoting research projects in the secondary schools
d. Training some experts in the field of AV Education
e. Production of suitable for children and adults
f. Promoting Inter-state understanding
g. Promoting Hindi in non-Hindi speaking areas etc.
44
Centre is directly responsible for education in various Union Territories and
other centrally administered areas.
9. Clearing House
The MHRD serve as a depository of information and ideas of education,
research, training and statistics. From time to time it brings out useful
information on various aspects of education. The MHRD also publishes a few
educational journals which provided to be very helpful in disseminating
information in the country. Material concerning nation-wide interests, books,
reports etc. are published by it.
10. Liason with UNESCO
The MHRD carries some programmes in co-operation with UNESCO.
The Indian National Commission for co-operation with UNESCO is the essay
through which these programmes are organized.
11. Promotion of Cultural contact
The MHRD also takes efforts for the promotion of and preparation of
cultural contacts not only within the country but also outside. It makes efforts
for the revival of old culture of the country. Indian council for cultural
relations has been set up for this purpose. Cultural programmes are organized
and cultural terms and sent to the other countries. It helps in the rerival of old
culture and at the same time transmit culture to the other nations of the world.
12. Opening Central Institutes
The MHRD is directly responsible for the running of a few universities.
Art gallaries and Central schools and Navodaya schools.
Thus we find out that although education is not a central subject yet it is
expected to play a major role in the field of education for its promotion and reforms.
1. Finance : The most important function of State Government is to find out all the
resources needed for elementary and secondary education
2. Legislation : To pass laws for different types of education is the second major
function of the state. To pass laws for compulsory attendance for elementary
education, education for women, handicapped, etc. is the state responsibility.
3. Supervision and Inspection : Since the State provides the vast bulk of the funds
required for education and is responsible to account for it to the state legislature,
it has to maintain an agency to supervise schools in all cases.
4. Recruitment of teachers : The states are responsible for recruitment of teachers,
for prescribing the remuneration and other service conditions of teachers. The
45
recruitment of teachers is sometimes done by the Public Service Commission and
sometimes by authorities appointed by the state.
5. Prescription of Curricula : State prescribes the text-books for the entire state or
for different zones or regions in line with the curricular framed. The product on
and easy supply of text-books is one of the major responsibilities of the state.
In this lesson you have learnt the Directive Principles, articles in the Directive
principles, important articles related to education especially Article 21A and Article
45, and Educational responsibilities of State and Central Government.
46
5. Describe the educational role of State Government.
1. Dr. Ambedkar
b. Article 45 - Provision for Early Childhood Care and Education for the
children below 6 years – The State shall endeavour to provide Early
Childhood Care And Education for all children under the age of six years”.
(Substituted by the Constitution (Eighty – sixth Amendment) Act, 2002.
4. Article 46
6. Article 29 and 30
47
1.3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
Publications.
Bhatia, K. K and
Narang C. L. (2004). Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education.
Ludhiana : Parkash Brothers.
48
LESSON 4
STRUCTURE
1.4.1 Introduction
1.4.2 Objectives
1.4.1 INTRODUCTION
In a secular country like India, religious education should be broad based. The
textbooks on religious education should contain materials from all the great religions of
the world—Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Jainism, Buddhism etc. Students should be
49
encouraged to develop good conduct from the teaching of all great religions. The
teacher of high learning and prestige should be asked to impart religious instructions. As
result of which, India' can produce men of character, integrity, duty-consciousness.,and
dedication. In the words of the Education Commission (1964-66), "In A multi-
religious society like ours, it is necessary to define the attitude of the state to religion,
religious education and the concept of secularism.
1.4.2 OBJECTIVES
Religion inculcates those moral qualities which mould the educational system
on democratic lines. The democratic and secular policy which aims at providing equal
opportunities for all the citizens of our country is rightly based on true religion. It is
why we inculcate in our children a spirit of self-discipline, sense of duty and
responsibility so that they are able to rise above their selfish motives and work for the
welfare of others with a spirit of devotion and dedication.
50
he leads a peaceful life and ultimately, realizes God in himself. The philosophy of
idealism serves as a sound basis for noble ideals and value which an educational
system should incorporate. Thus, idealism is an integral part of religion and as
such idealistic values are the real religious values.
Hence, they separated religious education of any sort from the national pattern
and propagate the ideal of secular liberal education. Viewing the defects of religious
education, our Indian Constitution also emphasizes the secular ideal. According to
Article 19, all citizens are free to follow any creed. No religious tax can be imposed
on them.
From the above, it is clear that the State has no religion. It is committed to
democratic ideals and beliefs. As a matter of fact, religion and democracy are same.
Both strive to develop the innate tendencies and capacities of the child to the full.
This is true of the religion and democracy all-over the world. Both are committed to
foster individual good and the good of the society.
51
teachings. They learn certain moral principles and moral behavior from the religious
organizations and instructions. All the religions have a well defined code of moral and
spiritual values—what is good, and what is evil; what is done and what is not done etc.
Children show unquestionable loyalty to the values and follow them in practice.
Through the knowledge of these value they try to pursue higher and higher ideals-in life
and enjoy eternal peace and happiness in their time
Training of Character
“Religious education” provides the child with certain models from the history
of religion, which help him for the development of his character. He also learns about
social, moral and spiritual values. “Re lig io u s st rengt h o f char act er inc lud es
humility, which recognizes one’s inventive fallibility and submits to the correct
process of group thinking and co-operative action.” Thus religious education helps for
the development of character of the child.
Because of their social implications sexual, aggressive, and other impulses are
often denied direct expression. If unreleased, the energy associate with these repressed
impulses may produce tension and personal maladjustment. Sublimation is the device
for draining of these thwarted energy into socially approved channels. It is religious
education, which can mould, purify and sublimate the instincts of an individual in a
socially desirable way. It helps to modify habits attitudes, temperament etc., for the
development of the individual and the society.
52
about the concept of the world as a movement of “Samsara”. Life soul and action
(Karma) are indestructible. Immortality of the soul is connected not only with the final
end but also with a new beginning. Hence the relation of man to God and relation of
man to the world and other human beings is eternal. It further preaches the idea of
fatherhood of god and brotherhood of man, which is the basic need of a democratic
life. Thus religious education can help for teaching people about the values of a
democratic way of life.
The greatest malady affecting the modern world is the crisis of character. The
present day youth is loosing his idealism and is living in a spiritual vacuum. If we open
the pages of history, we will find that religion alone set up high ideals and tried to plant
seeds of nobility and virtue in the hearts of the people. Sometimes the sentimental and
emotional appeal provided by religion gave a new direction to the entire course of the
life of an individual. Therefore, religion as an agency of education can help to set up
high ideals in the life of the educand.
53
5. Life of teacher should be so ideal that children are inspired to imbibe the
ideals of good conduct and character in natural way:
6. Religious education should not receive so much emphasis that schools become
temples, Gurudwara as, churches and mosques
7. Religious education should be imparted only to those children who wish to opt
it after receiving the permission of their parents or guardians
8. Life histories of great persons of the world, stories of moral greatness, examples of
patriotism, fellow-feeling, service and sacrifice should find place in the educational
system as the same naturally and imperceptibly inculcate religious and moral values.
9. Critical outlook of adolescents should be developed so that they themselves avoid
blind beliefs and rationalize their faith and action.
10. The ideals and values of true religion should be imbibed by children in a natural way. For
this, the activities of the school should reflect all the higher moral ideals and values.
11. Unity of all religions should be emphasised in the education of the school. Since all
religions have virtues, therefore, they should be discussed in the right earnest.
1. Write Article 22
Moral education is ingrained in the very tradition of Indian culture. Yet it is a matter
of great regret that gradually we are losing our moral values with the result that we tend to
become corrupt and hypocrite. This trend must be checked urgently if we are to restructure
our society on solid foundations. Perhaps a major responsibility lies on our leaders
indifferent walks of life and whom we usually emulate. Nevertheless educational
institutions can also play a significant role in the promotion of moral values in our, students.
It is the students of to-day who are to be in charge of various departments of life
tomorrow. It they learn what morality is in their early years, they are likely to grow into
individuals who are conscious keepers of the society. They will play their role
effectively. Without moral values, an individual will be no more than a “Rakhshash”.
Education is considered to be an important instrument of moulding the innate tendencies and
instincts of the children according to moral standards accepted by the society. The content
of the curriculum, the methods of teaching, the school activities and above all the
teachers can play a prominent role in developing a ‘moral person’.
The ultimate goal of human society is the good of all. Very beautifully expressed
in one of our ancient prayers.
“Let all be happy and free from disease, let men see well of one another, let
there be no unhappiness”
55
9. Sparsha Bhavana (Abolition of untouchability),
10. Sharivashram (Physical work),
11. Asatyam (Non-thieving).
The Committee on Religious and Moral Instruction (1959) made special mention of:
Dignity of labour, Good manners, Love for humanity and Self-discipline.
Sri Prakasa Committee, 1959 constituted for this purpose and gave the following
suggestions:
Elementary Stage
1 . The School Assembly should be held for a few, minutes in the morning for
group singing.
2. Simple and interesting stories about the lives and teachings of prophets, saints
and religious leaders should be included in the syllabus for language teaching.
3. Audio-visual material connected with the main living religions of the world
should be included especially in the teaching of Geography.
4. In the school programme, two periods a week should be set aside for moral
instruction. Dogmas and rituals should be excluded from moral instruction.
Kothari Education Commission has also made similar recommendations
5. Physical education and all forms of play in the school should contribute to the
building of character and the inculcation of the spirit of true sportsmanship.
Secondary Stage
56
4. Organised social service during holidays and outside class hours should be an
essential part of school programme. This is very helpful in teaching the dignity
of manual labour, love of humanity, patriotism and self-discipline.
Participation in games and sports should be compulsory and physical
education including sex education, should form a normal part of school
programme.
5. Qualities of character and behaviour of students should form an essential part
of the overall assessment of a student's performance at school.
University Stage
4. The committee on religious and Moral instruction was appointed in the year
.
5. Who was the chairman of the committee on Religious and Moral Instruction?
6. List any two recommendation made by Sri Prakasa Committee on Religious and
Moral Instruction at the elementary stage.
57
1.4.8 LET US SUM UP
From the above discussion, it becomes clear that both religious and moral education
aim at the wholesome and fullest development of human personality which includes
mental as well as spiritual development. To achieve this aim religion and education are
closely related from ancient times. We see that in ancient times religious persons were
teachers also. They taught children to discharge their duties to self and society
both and thus developed their personalities to the full so that they were able to
lead their lives happily and peacefully. In short, the, aim of religion and education
being the same both are very intimately related to each other.
4. 1959
5. Sri Prakasa
6 . a. The School Assembly should be held for a few, minutes in the morning
for group singing.
b. Simple and interesting stories about the lives and teachings of prophets,
saints and religious leaders should be included in the syllabus for
language teaching.
58
1.4.11 SUGGESTED READINGS
Aggarwal. J.C. (2008). Education in the Emerging Indian Society. New Delhi :
Shipra Publications.
Bhatia, K. K and
Narang C. L. (2004). Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of
Education. Ludhiana : Parkash Brothers.
59
LESSON 5
STRUCTURE
1.5.1 Introduction
1.5.2 Objectives
1.5.1 INTRODUCTION
60
1.5.2 OBJECTIVES
61
Measures for Removing Disparities
The Government of India has taken the following measures for the removal of
disparities:
1. The Planning Commission assesses the needs of various regions and allocates
funds accordingly.
2. The Planning Commission has identified industrially-backward regions and focus
has been on the dispersal of industry among different regions.
3. The Finance Commission takes into consideration the needs of various regions
while recommending funds.
4. The Prime Minister and the Chief Ministers of States make all possible efforts to
give due place to the leaders of different regions in their Cabinets.
Secularism, Gender Equality and Social Cohesion
Therefore, some States became educationally far advanced; some average, while
others remained educationally backward.
62
After the Planning Process has originated, efforts for the removal of regional
disparities in educational development- came to be undertaken in a planned and
phased manner. Kerala and some other States have highest rate of literacy, while
some States like Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, etc., remained under developed. Even
in each State, certain areas are found to be under-developed in the matter of
education e.g. in Andhra Pradesh --Mahboobnagar District and Adilabad District.
One of the main thrust in educational planning has been “ensuring equal
educational opportunities, as a part of the overall plan of ensuring social justice.”
The NE Region comprising eight States has a high literacy level and is rich in
ethnic cultural heritage with linguistic diversity. However, the region lacks
infrastructure and facilities in educational institutions across sectors and there is a
need to improve the quality of education imparted. The NE States have been provided
grants under the Non Lapsable Central Pool of Resources (NLCPR) to improve their
infrastructure facilities. The Empowered Committee administering NLCPR has, since
its inception in 1998-99, approved proposals worth Rs.480.68 crore for the
development of educational infrastructure in the NER. Funds amounting to Rs.392.81
crore have also been released as on 30 November 2005. Out of this, Rs.14.84 crore
was released in 2005-06.
63
In addition to the funds released under NLCPR, the Department of Secondary
and Higher Education also released Rs.40.42 crore during 2003-04 from its own
budget for meeting the committed liability under NLCPR for infrastructure projects of
Assam University, Tezpur University, NEHU and JNU (for NER students' hostel).
A provision of Rs.261.05 crore and Rs.1053 crore has been kept for NER under BE
2005-06 for the Department of Secondary and Higher Education and Elementary
Education and Literacy respectively. Out of this an amount of Rs.187.57 crore and
Rs.501.60 crore has been certified for expenditure on various schemes of the
Department of Secondary and Higher Education and Elementary Education and
Literacy till 31 January 2006.
The Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti is trying to achieve their goal of opening one
JNV in each of the 78 districts of the North Eastern States. Presently 76 JNVs have
been sanctioned for the NE Region.
During 2003-04, the Department of Secondary and Higher Education was able
to spend over 10 per cent of its RE in the North Eastern States.
Source: National Portal Content Management Team, Reviewed on: 07-04-2010
The Northern region also lags the western and southern regions of the country
significantly in education and skill development. With an overall literacy rate of 60
per cent as against 69 per cent and 71 per cent in the South and the West, it is clear
that the education and skill infrastructure in the Northern region needs to address
certain critical issues – both on the supply side and the demand side.
Government expenditure on education, too, is declining in North Indian states
as compared to southern states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The study notes that over
the five-year period 2001-06, Punjab has spent less of its GDP (2.40 per cent in FY
05) on education compared to the India average (3.8 per cent in 05).
Moreover, there are fewer engineering and technical institutes in the northern
region. Although the number of engineering institutions in India is more than 1,500,
the region-wise distribution of institutions and sanctioned intake of students shows
significant regional disparity. Around 50 per cent of the engineering institutions are in
the southern region (including South-west), while the northern region has only 20
per cent.
64
A similar trend is seen for medical institutions. A large number of medical
colleges are concentrated in six states (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Gujarat. These states account for about 63 per cent of the
total number of medical colleges and 67 per cent of the number of seats. Medical
education, notes the study, is a crucial knowledge infrastructure necessary to ensure
human development, health services and welfare of the citizen population. North
India has to enhance its medical education infrastructure to match that of the Western
and Southern states.
The number of teachers in most of the Northern states, too, is not adequate to
meet the needs of the bourgeoning student population in the states. The pupil–teacher
ratio in states like UP (54) and Delhi (52) is very high compared to the Southern states
of Kerala (18), Karnataka (16) and Tamil Nadu (21). Teachers’ enrollment in the
training programmes in the Northern region, too, is very low compared to Southern
and western parts.
Listing the positives, the study notes that some steps have been taken in this
direction. The Chandigarh Administration, for instance, is setting up a multi-
institutional Education City at Sarangpur, for which 16 sites, measuring 6 acres each
on long lease have been set aside. And the once agrarian state of Haryana is also
transforming itself into an education hub.
65
people living under different environments or it should be varied according to the
environmental needs. Providing uniform education for all people living under
different environmental condit ions enough justice may not be done to uplift
them.
The living conditions, the needs, the interests, the vocations, the socio-physical
conditions, the economic situations and the cultural backgrounds of these people
living in different environments vary widely.
Hence modern education takes rightly into cognizance all these factors.
Hence it is called as need-based; life-oriented and environment slanted. Uniformity
of educational programmes may be ignore the realities of life.
66
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
In this lesson you have learnt the regional imbalances in the matter of
educational development in India. Our plans are being conceived and implemented to
remove them. There is also need to plan our educational programmes to suit different
environments of the country.
1. How can you say that there are regional imbalances in educational
development in India.
2. How can educational programmes be planned to remove the regional
imbalances, to suit education to different environments?
67
2. a. during the British rule, some States have become more developed than
others
b. some of areas which were under the native rulers, remained undeveloped
3. 60%
68
UNIT – II
69
70
ROLE OF TEACHERS AND SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Of all the human factors in the school system, the teachers occupy the key
position because it is only through them that the ultimate process of education takes
place. Without the man-power of teachers no educational system can be conceived.
The roles and statuses of school teachers are taking new dimensions with the growing
complexity of the school life and societal life.
Lesson 2 will tell you about the teacher’s role towards pupil’s development,
community development, National Integration, International understanding and
elimination of social tensions and conflicts.
Lesson 3 deals with educational role of home, school community and mass
media.
Lesson 4 will familiarize you with and concept, characteristics and difference
between formal and non formal education.
Lesson 5 deals with the continuing education for various categories like
working people, semi literate and illiterates. You will also learn about the concept
and characteristics of open university.
71
LESSON 2.1
STRUCTURE
2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Objectives
2.1.3 Democracy
2.1.5 Socialism
72
2.1.1 INTRODUCTION
2.1.2 OBJECTIVES
2.1.3 DEMOCRACY
The word democracy is derived from the Greek word Demos meaning people and.
‘kratos’ meaning ‘power’. Democracy thus means power of the people.
Abraham Lincoln, the American President defined it as “Democracy is the
government of the people, for the people by the people”. This is the political aspect
of democracy.
73
6) Democratic Methods of Teaching. ‘Learning’ by ‘Doing’ rather than by ‘rote
learning’ should be aimed at.
7) Promotion of Self-Expression. With a view to promoting self-expression among
the students, debates, declamation contest etc., may be planned.
8) Opportunities for Social Service. Social work will bring the students into
direct contact with the community and enable them to understand its
problems.
9) Work Experience and Socially Useful Productive Work. These activities
should form an integral part of curriculum.
10) Hostel Life Wherever possible, hostel opportunities should be provided to the
students in the art of living together.
11) Student Parliament. Students’ Unions may be constituted in schools to
provide experience in the working of institutions.
12) Visits to Legislatures. Such visits provide the students first hand
experiences to observe the working of democratic institutions.
1. Democracy means
2.1.5 SOCIALISM
74
Gandhiji like Marx aimed at the establishment of classless society, but on
the path of non-violence, service and cooperation. In an editorial in 1947
under the caption ‘Who is a socialist?’ Gandhiji wrote, “Under socialism all
the members of society are equal -none low, none high”. Under it, the prince
and the peasant, the wealthy and the poor, the employer and the employee are all
on the same level.
75
9) Special assistance to backwards areas and States.
10) Meeting the special needs of slow learners and the gifted children.
11) State schools.
12) Involvement of students in running various activities in the schools.
2.1.6 SECULARISM
Ever since India got freedom in 1947 the word ‘secular’ has been used
very often by the national leaders. Everyone says, “India is a secular-country.” In
every political and educational corner, secularism is being propagated. Let us now
acquaint ourselves with the word ‘secular’. The word ‘secular’ has been derived
from the Latin word “Seculum” which means ‘this present age’ or ‘generation’.
The term 'secularism' was first used by George Jacob Holydake in the
nineteenth century He used this word in the context of social and ethical values.
According to Holydake, the concept of socialism may be defined as a system, "which
seeks the development of physical, moral and intellectual nature of man to the highest
possible point as the immediate duty of life which inculcates the practical sufficiency
of natural morality apart from Atheism, Theism or Bible which selects as its
methods of procedure of promotion of human improvement by material means”
As per Oxford Dictionary, the word secular means sceptical of religious truth,
76
opposed to religious education. It does not mean irreligion or anti-religion or
irreligiousness In fact, the word secularism shows our broad mindedness.
According to Chambers Dictionary “secularism is, the belief that the state
morals, education etc. should be independent of religion.”
Webster’s Dictionary states that secularism is, “the belief that religion and
ecclesiastical affairs should not enter into the functions of the state. “Webster
further says, “A system of doctrines and practices that rejects any form of religious
faith and worship”
There is need of making the people open minded. Only a broad minded person
is able to make adjustment in any and every type of situation. Equality, liberty,
fraternity, national outlook and international understanding need be propagated. Moral
values have to be imbibed. Scientific attitude in order to have rationality and
objectivity need be developed in the fast growing and developing generations.
77
Corruption and disbelief are rampant. How can all this be improved? Who can be
entrusted with the job of shouldering the whole responsibility? The only suitable
weapon for this is Education.
In the schools, the teachers and the headmasters can play significant roles. No
doubt, the higher authorities can prescribe certain things but it is the teachers
community that can actually put those things in practical shape. Without their whole
hearted co-operation nothing in this regard can be achieved. Now let us see how
the schools can help in imparting secular based, education.
78
personalities
7) The institutions should lay greater emphasis upon teaching religious studies
through informal type of instructions. The students can be encouraged to think
of points common in different religions. Those thoughts/ideas may be
highlighted in the morning assembly or at some other occasion when there is a
gathering.
No doubt, our country is secular and we are expected to believe in secularism For,
this we shall have to make efforts in different ways Only then people will become
fully conscious of it and the goals behind would be achieved.
8. Define Secularism
10. Write any two role of educational institutions in promoting secularism among
students.
79
In this lesson we have discussed the concept and role educations institutional
in promoting democratic, secularist and socialistic attitude among students. In a vital
sense the ends of socialism and secularism are complementary. The two can move
only in the consonance with each other. Since socialism stands for equality, it takes
help of secularism to create an attitude among the people to accept all religions.
1. How can a secondary school teacher prepare his students for democratic
living?
2. Explain the concept of Democracy in education.
3. Give an outline of an educational programme for developing in the children a
feeling of secularism.
4. Discuss the importance of secular education in the context of present Indian
society.
5. What are the implications of socialism on education
80
8. According to Chambers Dictionary “secularism is, the belief that the state
morals, education etc. should be independent of religion.”
Aggarwal. J.C. (2008). Education in the Emerging Indian Society. New Delhi :
Shipra Publications.
Mohanty, J, (2005). Modern Trends in Indian Education. New Delhi :
Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Dash, B. N. (2007). Theories of education and Education in the emerging
Indian society. New Delhi : Dominant Publishers and
Distributors.
81
LESSON 2.2
STRUCTURE
2.2.1 Introduction
2.2.2 Objectives
2.2.1 INTRODUCTION
The teacher in the emerging Indian society has a very pirotal role in the social
reconstruction and in the transmission of wisdom, knowledge and experience of one
82
generation to another. Children are the potential wealth of a nation. They are always
exposed to the influence of the teacher it is, therefore, necessary to realize that the
emerging Indian society can achieve all round development by the help of the teacher
who acts as powerful agency in transmitting its cherished values. A teacher is not
only a custodian of national values but is also an architect par excellence of new
values. A teacher can help our county in the process of reconstruction. But so far we
have not been able to harness this extremely useful manpower.
2.2.2 OBJECTIVES
83
All education should lead to better behavioural development. Hence teachers
should help their children to develop physically, mentally, emotionally, socially,
morally, and aesthetically to become, physically fit for socially efficient, culturally
confident, intellectually; inquisitive, economically effective, morally, motivated,
vocationally virtuous and aesthetically appreciative.
The roles of teachers “in the communit y should not be under estimated
as any teacher is a, member of his community at the outset. The interdependence
of the teacher and the community is quite obvious in a democratic world where
democratization of education and democratic decentralization of educational
administration are the progressive concepts of education. Community maintains
the educational institutions and the teacher with the specific purpose of creating
future adult citizens. Hence the teachers have many social obligations to be fulfilled
with respect to the community to which they belong. There are different roles
they have to play in relation to community. The following are some of such
roles described in brief.
1. Teacher as a Parent
Teacher has to play the role of a parent in the society. He has certain
functions to perform as the head of his family. He has to strive to see that his
familial Status is raised to the required level commensurate with this position and
status in the society. As a parent he has to look after the welfare of his children
and provide them with all the amenities and requirements to satisfy their basic
needs. He has to shoulder the parental responsibility of bringing up his children
through approval and disapproval as conforming individuals with the social,
experiences and acceptance. He has to look after their physical, mental, social
and emotional health.
2. Teacher as a Citizen
Teacher has to act as a liason official between the parents and teachers.
He is to become an active member, of the Parent-Teacher Association and try to
solve their common problems in an amicable and' cooperative manner. Now-a-days
the parent-teacher associations are coming into prominence, as they are
becoming the instrument that bridges the increasing gulf between the teaching
profession and parental communit y. The students live, a part of their day in
84
the school being under the custody of teachers, and most of hours. They will be
spending with their parents. Hence the responsibility of helping the students to
grow and develop in the varied facets of development vests in both partly. Unless,
there is a common forum for them to meet together and talk out all their problems
in a common endeavour to, solve them, it is likely that the isolation of parents
and schools become widened. Hence the teacher has act as a coordinating agency
between the community of parents and the school, helping them to solve their
problems and breaking the growing isolation between them.
In addition to the above cited roles in the community, the teacher has to
play varied roles such as a member of the social clubs, photographic clubs,
science club, fine art associations, games clubs and the like in order to be a social
being and to share with the social and cultural, activities of the society into which he
is born.
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is, therefore, very important that the people of India think in terms of wider
loyalties to the nation. Nehruji has explained this as, ‘We should not become
parochial, narrow-minded provincial, communal and caste-minded because we
have a great mission to perform. Let us, the citizens of the Republic of India,
stand up straight, with straight backs and look up at the skies, keeping our feet
firmly planted on the ground and bring about this synthesis, this integration of
the Indian people. Political integration has already taken place to some extent,
but what 1 am after is something much deeper than that - emotional integration of
the Indian people so that we might be welded into one, and make into one
strong national unit, maintaining at the same time all our wonderful
diversity.”
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different social sciences, languages and literature, culture and art
and also the exchange of teachers and students.
9. Special Talks on the Unity and Oneness of the Country. Special meetings
of the school assembly should be held from time to time and the
speakers speak to the children on topics dealing with the unity and oneness
of the country.
10. Taking Pledge. Students may be asked to repeat a pledge t w ice a year
ded icat ing t he mse lv e s t o t he ser vice t o t he ir countrymen.
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11. Open-Air Dramas. Open-air dramas may be staged four times a year
by every school. At least one play should be based upon themes derived
from the classics or from the history of ancient India. In predominant
Hindu areas there should be some plays dealing with non-Hindu lives
and vice versa.
12. Students Exchange and Tours. Such tours should be conducted from one
State to another. The inter-state visits if properly organised should do
much to acquaint both teachers and children with different parts of
the country. A network of youth hostels should be set up by all the States
in selected places.
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vi. All possible efforts should be made to inculcate an attitude of rational thinking
in the students.
vii. Community dinners, camps, educational excursions and tours may be organised
so that students get opportunities to appreciate the concept of unity and
diversity.
viii. Deeds of patriotism of great persons belonging to all communities should be
suitably explained.
ix. Students should be involved in organising various school programmes.
5. Write any two way and means to develop national integration among students?
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as important as that of a national citizenship. In a very real sense, therefore,
patriotism is not enough, and it must be supplemented by a lively realisation of
the fact that we are all members of one world and must be prepared mentally
and emotionally to discharge the respo nsibilit ies which such membership
implies.” Nat io nalism should not degenerate into nationalistic jingoism.
Dr. Radhakrishnan states, “We need today an adjustment of the human
consciousness of the nuclear age in which we live. It is now conceivable that
the human race may put an end to itself by nuclear warfare or preparations for
it. This, if it happens, will be the result of the failure of man's consciousness to
adjust itself to the technological revolution and culture in a world that i.e., either
plunged in or overshadowed by war.”
Students should organise the following types of activities in the school for developing
an international outlook in the students-
Regarding the role of the teacher, C.F. Strong has observed, “He and the
curriculum represent two vital formative factors for translating the aims and ideas
of education into practice”.
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should have faith and enthusiasm for the value of international understanding and co-
operation and should possess the competeney to infuse this spirit in the minds of their
students.
They should impress upon the students that ‘man’ remains ‘man’ first
and then he can be called a Jew, an Englishman, a German, Russian, Indian
and American.
They should impress upon the student that “there is no special merit or value is
being born in one part or other.”
Well Informed About World Situations. They should be well informed about
the contemporary world scene and its historical background, and concerned about
improving the conditions of people everywhere and try to make students well
informed.
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2.2.7 ELIMINATION OF SOCIAL TENSIONS AND CONFLICTS
It is the duty of the teachers to resolve the tensions and conflicts that arise
among teachers on one band, and help the students to over - come them adopting
rational thinking and reasonable solutions. If this is done, the education function
can be carried, out smoothly in peaceful and calm atmosphere so that the pre-
determined educational objectives might be achieved fully.
The following factors cause conflicts and tensions in the society and in the schools
as well, leading to, understand and indiscipline:
2. Chronic Poverty - Even though more than three decades have lapsed since
the attainment of freedom, majority of people are, living in the depressing
conditions of chronic poverty.
5. Defects of the educational System - Another major, factor for the growing
indiscipline and unrest in schools its in schools themselves. A major
criticism has been leveled the system of education itself. The following
are some of the is defects of the existing system of education as mentioned
by educationists and experts
It does not reflect the national goals and ideals;
It lays overwhelming emphasis on academic and literary studies;
It does not prepare students for life; students are tending to be certificate
conscious rather than knowledgeous;
It is reflecting more of authoritarian character rather than
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democratic nature;
It lays on stress on memorization rather than application knowledge and
information
Its is on final examination; etc.
Since the modern shrinking world is often threatened with catastrophic events all
efforts are to be made for promoting mutual trust, co-operation, fellow feeling, love,
sympathy and good will among the nations.
Man is a social being. He has to contribute to his society in his own way and
has to enjoy the benefits of the society that are conferred on him. Schools have been
created by the society for carrying out the transmission of cultural and social heritage
and help for the continuation of the society in a desirable manner. In this unit
different roles of the teachers role towards pupils development, community
development, National integration and International understanding and elimination of
social tension and conflicts have been discussed in their different roles.
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2.2.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
4. Dr. Sampurnanand
5. Special Talks on the Unity and Oneness of the Country and Celebrations of
National Days
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LESSON 2.3
STRUCTURE
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Objectives
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2.3.1 INTRODUCTION
2.3.2 OBJECTIVES
It is simply the home more than the school that determines the quality and direction of any
child’s life, and that the teacher’s work is fulfilled or destroyed by the operation, for good or ill, of
this major factor in the education of any child. In the home, the child is provided with security or
denied it; here his emotional needs are satisfied or starved, his waywardness corrected or
neglected; here he is cherished with the creative discipline or spoiled as a parent’s plaything; here
are standards learned and values slowly appreciated. The teacher soon knows what has happened
in the home; the attitudes of the parents are as quickly divulged by the child as the politics of his
father's breakfast table. And do what he may, the teacher will seldom win the battle between
bad home influence and good living unless as by divine providence often happens, the innate
goodness of the child eventually overcomes shortcomings of its home”.
In spite of the limitations of the role of the family, it can still play a prominent role in
providing proper care, guidance and learning experiences to the child. There is no doubt that
home can do a lot in 'making the man'. As the popular saying goes, “A wise father is more
than a hundred school masters. The mother's face is the child’s first lesson-book”.
School has been in existence as formal institution of education since the time
immemorial, not only in our country but also, all over the world. The word ‘school’
is derived from a Greek word meaning ‘Leisure’. It plays an important role in
imparting knowledge and ideas, developing skills and interests, mould attitudes and
inculcating values of children. It is a social organization for catering to the need of
the society and for serving the ends of the people. The school trains the citizens of
tomorrow and prepares them for the future life.
P.C. Nunn describes the role of the school in these words, “A nation’s school
are an organ of its life, whose special function is to consolidate its spiritual strength,
to maintain its historical continuity, to secure its past achievements, to guarantee its
future. Through its schools a nation should become conscious of the abiding
sources from which the best movements in its life have always taken their
aspiration, should come to share the dreams of its nobler sons, should constantly
submit itself to self-criticism, should purge its ideals, should reform and redirect
impulses”.
The school is expected to perform the following functions and roles as the:
1. Transmitter of cultural heritage of the society.
2. Conserver of cultural heritage of the society.
3. Promoter of cultural heritage of the society.
4. Connecting link between home and the community.
5. Provider of special environment for the all-round development of the child.
6. Provider of a planned scheme of things for the child.
7. Promoter of cultural pluralism, i.e., tolerance of all cultures.
8. Promoter of ideals of the State.
9. Promoter of social development of the child.
10. Promoter of democratic values in the child.
11. Promoter of secular values in the child.
12. Promoter of ethical, moral and spiritual values of the child.
13. Promoter of professional and vocational skills and values in the child.
14. Promoter of egalitarian values in the child.
15. Promoter of innate abilities of the child.
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16. Promoter of values of international understanding and peace.
17. Centre of community.
18. Trainer in the art of living together.
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2.3.5 COMMUNITY AS AN AGENCY OF EDUCATION
Control of Education
Indian leaders are agreed that Indian schools should reflect democratic ideals
in their objectives and practice. It is therefore, necessary that the community,
which finances its schools should direct that kind of education that shall be
provided by the administrators and teachers of that schools. Hence, it is the
responsibilit y of communit y leaders to determine what shall constitute the
basic curriculum and the general organization of the school system.
Control of Schools
The influence of administrators and teachers upon the life and progress of
a community is tremendous. Over a quarter of a century ago, it was stated by
Howerth that, “the school is an instrument for modifying the character of society.
Whether this modification is in the direction of social improvement depends upon the
ideas and ideals of those who handle the instrument.”
On the basis of Howerth’s view we can say that it is not enough that
community should finance education and maintain high standards of education
philosophy. It also must select as its school personnel those men and women who are
well qualified to administer the practical details of school keeping in such a way
that the ideals and the behaviour standards of the community may rise, through
education; to progressively greater heights.
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Co-operation between Citizens and School Leaders
Financing education and controlling schools alone will not do. To make them
achieve their aim, citizens and school leaders must co-operate. Emphasising this
thing, Crow and Crow write, “All the citizens of the community, whether or not
they are parents of school children should co-operate intelligently with the school
leaders whom they have delegated specific educational responsibilities.”
3. Define community.
In early times, the teacher was the only medium of communication for
children. He taught his students orally. During the course of time, the invention of the
printing press, led to the printing of books. Then came newspapers. NOW for quite
sometime new mass media like radio and T.V. are increasingly used in education. They
reach large numbers and also help in improving the quality of education. Now internet
is being used.
Sometimes it is felt that the mass media tend to diminish the importance of the
teacher. It is also claimed in certain circles that they are likely to replace the
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classroom teachers. A close look at the use of these media of education indicates that
they are supplementary media. A lot of work by way of pre- telecast, during telecast
and post-telecast remains to be done by the teachers. Many gaps are to be filled up by
them. In spite of the explosion of technological media in the developed countries, the
teacher still occupies, the place of importance. Fears about the replacement of
teachers are unfounded.
Radio is used mainly to broadcast events to far and wide places of the world.
Radio acts as the medium of mass-communication. It is also an important source of
entertainment. Students listen various talks, discussions and debates from radio which
are extremely important and useful for them.
Many programmes are broadcast over the radio especially for t he purpose o f
teaching. Thus, radio acts as a great recreational and educational force. It
broadcasts scientific and cultural facts. It enlightens public opinion. It stimulates
curiosity and interests.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of using radio as mass-media education:
1. “Listening participation” in current history. In the emphasis is on sound,
rather than on picture. There many programmes are broadcast over the radio
especially the purpose of teaching. Special events and occurrences ii world are
immediately brought from the source into classroom.
An educational programme may be preceded b introduction by the class teacher
and followed by long discussion among students on the subject-matter under the
guidance of the teacher. Thus, the teacher requires having pre-broad and post-
broadcast discussion. Through radio a talented teacher may teach the students.
Important happening inventions, political developments in other countries and
current topics may be heard and discussed in the classroom.
2. Effective means of presenting music, dram appreciation. Various talks,
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debates and discussions heic the radio are extremely informative and useful for the
children. Different items of the school subjects can be pre in the form of dramatised
programmes. Educational radio excels through dramatisation, dia musical features
and other creative programmes not p in day-to-day classroom teaching. School
concerts, fol classical music, drama and discussion programmes of s local or from
other states are broadcast for listening in schools in India.
3. Team-teaching demonstrations. The radio opportunity for student
participation in various programme such as quiz compet it ions, travel talks,
plays, development of lessons, projects and work programmes form of team
teaching demonstrations arranged by the cor efforts of the best resources in
consultation with the special and some other subject experts. While accomplishing
the programmes subject c curriculum validity, suitability for age groups and the
methods are kept in mind.
4. Participation of local teachers and pupils. Well-planned radio broadcasts are
presented to engage the active participation of the local teachers and pupils. Before
broadcast time there should be preliminary study and discussion on the topic.
Through broadcast suggestions the class may be encouraged to carry on follow-up
discussion, projects or creative activities. Before presenting the programme, the
teachers and the pupils should prepare material thoroughly. They should utilise all
possible resources make a very high quality programme from the point of view of
content, speech, style, audibility and presentability.
5. Making learning an open system. Educational radio can offer corrective
programmes for self-learning by the individuals. Breaking all boundaries and
constraints of formal education it can reach the participants while at work, at play,
at drawing room, at recreational centers. It has reached villages and is now
available in every corner of the society.
There is more emphasis on learning through various mass media, since learning
directly from the teacher is minimal and there is increasing stress on a system of open
learning to overcome the rigidities of formal education. Educational radio broadcasts
play an important role towards a system of open learning.
The non-formal approaches of educational radio supplement the movement for de-
schooling society. Its programmes lead to a learning society where everybody can
learn at any time, at any place.
At present, radio is not only one of the popular mass-media, but also a potential
instructional tool in the formal, informal and non-formal education. It is laying more
emphasis on the planning and production of science programmes in both the formal
and non-formal spheres of educational broadcasts.
In most of the stations there are special programmes for teacher and teacher
educators intended to familiarise methods of teaching on account of large changes in
school curriculum and methodology particularly in subjects like science,
mathematics. These services have been more necessitated in recent years in Social
studies and English.
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Secondary School Broadcasts help students and teachers by giving up-to-date
content knowledge and providing new approaches and methods of teaching. However,
a few no syllabus programmes are broadcast in order to break away far the stereotyped
formal education, for doing away with monotony in the curricular topics and to stimulate
awareness and curiosity in order to reduce wastage and stagnation-at the primary school
stage.
Primary school programmes have recently assumed great importance by making the
school situation more attractive and interesting. With its vast resources, the radio can
organise series of programmes to bring universalization of prima education and
promote adult literacy. These programmes are related to education, health, hygiene,
nutrition etc. bringing the audience into, the mainstream national life. As an effective
medium radio has occupied a significance place in communication. It is also playing
an important r in education. It informs, as well as inspires. It inculcates values and
virtues and creates attitudes, interests and appreciation
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Types of Programmes
The broadcasts should have a wider horizon of application in day-to- day life.
The school broadcasts should also be designed according to the needs of the
syllabus.
Teachers should be actively involved in various dimensions of broadcasts meant
for the students.
For a country like India which has vast and inaccessible areas, different climatic
conditions, large and ever growing population, T.V. can be an important central media in
providing functional, formal and non-formal education to the masses. It can also help in
bringing about social and cultural changes bearing on art, music, drama and literature. It is
through television that stimulating and thought - provoking views of renowned
statesmen, scientists, educationists, artists and teachers can be shared by all. Television
helps in enforcing the public understanding of social, political and scientific advancement
of a country.
For a country like India which has vast and inaccessible areas, T.V. can serve as
one of the important media of educating the masses. It can be used as formal, non-formal
and informal agency of education. It attracts attention which is essential for learning.
Following are the important merits of T.V.:
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8. It allows relationship between two illustrations or time lapse between two stages of a
process by dissolving one picture into another.
9. T.V. comes to the assistance of those persons who are unable to acquire education through
the traditional system.
10. It directs the attention of the student to the exact details of an object.
11. It permits inclusion of up-to-the-moment information, modifications, new equipment or
techniques into classroom instruction.
12. It permits the use of the services of the best available teachers to teach a subject to a
large member of viewer students.
13. It permits to preserve the expert teaching skills on video tape or film for later use.
14. It provides a uniform experience to all students when they see the basic ideas or
techniques on television.
15. It provides classroom teachers the opportunity to observe the teaching process of the best
teachers and to increase their skills of teaching.
The press is an informal but very influential agency of education. The press
includes newspapers and magazines. They provide a variety of information. They
cover almost all areas of -knowledge. They keep us well- informed. They are very useful in the
teaching of various subjects. Instruction through newspapers introduces variety and an element
of ‘play-way’. The newspapers are very useful for the study of languages. Pupils learn many
new words and many new expressions. They learn how to express themselves and how to
follow the expression of others. As regards social studies they learn how the society is
developing day-by-day. They learn a lot about the society. There is much geographical and
scientific information also in daily papers and magazines.
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For international understanding the study of newspapers is essential. Children come
to know how the world is progressing, how we are woven internationally, how the events
occurring in one country affect all the other countries of the world and how we shall have to
suffer if the Third World War breaks out. For educated people reading a newspaper is an
essential morning routine. Even in villages the craze for news of the illiterate populace is
satisfied by somebody reading the newspaper to them.
During the freedom struggle of India, the newspapers played a very important role in
spreading national consciousness. Many freedom fighters started printing and distributing
newspapers of their own for boosting the courage and spirit of their countrymen by reporting
the truth about their conditions under the British rule and preparing and exhorting them to
make the freedom struggle a success. Many were arrested and deported and their newspapers
were banned.
Newspapers have certain advantages over the radio and TV as they cover more news
and in much greater details than the other media. News stories cover the latest developments
in such fields as government, politics, sports, science, business and the arts. The editorials offer
critical comments on national problems, political events and the performance of the government.
Sometimes, the government respecting the public opinion makes changes in its policy.
Sometimes, the newspapers become the first to point out to the government about undesirable
or corrupt practices being carried out under their very nose in their own departments before
any action is initiated.
Motion pictures exercise great influence on human mind. They create lasting
values in the pupils. Educational films meet the challenge of commercial pictures,
supplement them and explore new avenues of educating children and adults. They
provide reality, influence attitudes, show cause effect relation and motivate the
students. Thus, they exercise -great instructional force to be used intelligently in the
class-room.
Many areas of learning can be wisely dealt with the help of films. One can
use these motion-pictures in teaching of geography or science. Topic such as rivers of
India, climate of India etc. can be taught effectively with the help of the motion
pictures.
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Advantages of Motion Pictures
1. They make a concept more clear, durable and realistic.
2. They arouse interest in pupils and satisfy their emotions.
3. They present abstract, and abstruse problems of life and nature in concrete
reality, illuminate the hidden meanings of events and mysteries of nature,
reconstruct history in a short, mirror of life.
4. They bring the past, the distant to the class room. They bring the whole world
to the classroom.
5. Events occurring over-days appear in seconds.
6. Through them they can be replayed many number of times when and where
required.
7. They can be used for demonstration of skills and experiments.
8. They can serve the purpose better, if they are made for specific age and ability
groups.
9. They can be fitted into the school syllabus, if the commentary is simple and
straight forward.
They can be of great service in teaching the backward children, because they act on
their imagination.
.
7. List any two advantages of using motion pictures?
Education has been a social function throughout the ages. Society organizes a
number of specialized institutions to carry out the function of education. We call
these institutions as agencies of education. People receive education throughout their
life, both formally and informally by the help of these agencies. The different
agencies of education discussed in this unit, however, do not influence the child in a
separate and distinct manner, but rather supplement each other to go on and reinforce
his knowledge, skills, understanding or attitudes in a holistic integrated form.
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2.3.8 UNIT END EXERCISES
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LESSON 2.4
STRUCTURE
2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2 Objectives
109
2.4.1 INTRODUCTION
It has been generally recognized that education is concerned itself with the
development of the ‘whole man’ – his physical fitness, his mental alertness, his moral
excellence and his social adjustment. To realize this objective of education, society
has developed a number of specialized institutions like the school, the community, the
family, the temple, open university, open school, the mass media et.
2.4.2 OBJECTIVES
There are some institutions and organizations which are set up by the
community more or less deliberately with the explicit object of imparting education to
the individuals according to a consciously prepared plan. Such institution and
organization are described as ‘formal agencies of education’. Formal education is
imparted in an educational institution a school or college. In ancient time in India,, it
was mostly, imparted at the residence of the teacher. It is consciously and deliberately
planned to bring about specific changes in the educand or the learner. As such it is
synonymous with educational institutions. School is, the most important agency of
formal education.
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2.4.3.2 LEVELS OF FORMAL EDUCATION SYSTEM
Higher Education: Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post
secondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the
completion of a school providing .a secondary education, such as a high school or
secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and
postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and
universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education. Higher education
generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.
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which will help for nation's development.
Formal education incurs high cost for infrastructure facilities and man power
facilities.
It is a controlled environment whereby some children get frustrated by the
method of teaching and atmosphere.
Formal education is unreachable for the poor and needy people, and remote
dwellers.
Some formal education institutions are poorly equipped.
Formal education is unreachable to some kinds of children such as illegitimate
children, children with disabilities, late beginners etc.
The present formal system of education is not in a position to meet the growing
needs.
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learning client take some learning objectives. Non-formal education includes adult
education, continuing education and on the job oriented education, etc. This is an
arrangement wherein flexibility is the key word. The system is an open one with
regards to various aspects of education, i.e., admissions, curriculum, place of
instruction, mode of instruction and the time and duration of instruction. Open
university, open learning, the correspondence courses and distant education are the
various examples of such a system.
Philip Coombs talked about it in 1968. However, until 1970 it had not been
defined. Non-formal education is a new concept for an ancient phenomenon. Some of
its definitions are as follows:
Coombs and Ahmed (1974): “Any organized, systematic, educational activity carried
on outside the framework of the formal system to provide selected types of learning to
particular sub-groups in the population, adults as well as children.”
La Bella (1975): Non-formal education refers to organized out-of-school educational
programmes designed to provide specific target population.
Illich and Freire: “Non-formal education is anti-formal education is anti- formal
education.”
Moti Lal Sharma: “In brief, one could say that non-formal education is an active,
critical dialectical educational programme which aims at helping people to learn, to help
themselves, to place them in consciously critical confrontation with their problems. To
develop integrated authentic human beings who can contribute to the development of
the society is the aim of Non-formal education. In this not only the individuals but also
the total social system learns, adding up to a true learning society.”
Bremwork: “Non-formal education differs from formal education from the point of
proximity to immediate action, work and the opportunity to put learning to use.”
Harbison: “Non-formal education is the only means of filling the gap between the
‘Schooled’ and ‘Unschooled population’.”
Henderson: “Non-formal education is far wider and more inclusive than schooling
which imparts wider experience out of school.”
Mc-Call: “Non-formal education is the entire range of learning experience outside the
regular graded school system.”
Paulson: “Non-formal education includes any structured, systematic, non school
educational and training activities of relatively short duration in which sponsoring
agencies seek concrete behavioural changes in fairly distinct target population.”
Thus, it is a more effective tool for rural development. It unlocks the doors of
development plans. According to Malcolm A. Adiseshiah, “Non-formal education should
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be marketable and vocationalised. It should lay emphasis on the self- learning pattern.”
According to H.S.S. Lawrence, "Non-formal education system was not rival to the
formal educational system but it was complementary to the latter. The common
ingredients in both should be identified and an integrated system to be evolved.”
The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) has
mentioned the following as aims of non-formal education.
• To develop an understanding that only through education it is possible
for an individual as well as for a State to progress in this world.
• To create equal opportunities to all citizens in the matter of education and
through that to create equal opportunities of employment and also equality in all
other fields.
• To satisfy the human resource needs required for the development of the nation.
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• To develop in the individuals self-confidence and to make them partners in
preparing national plans and take part in implementing the said plans.
• To extend the benefit of new scientific and technological knowledge to the
backward in the society.
• To help to identify the available national resources and help to make use of them.
• To mould the educational system to meet the needs of the countries getting
rapidly industrialized.
• To develop non-formal education programmes keeping in view the
productivity and considerable profit aspects.
The aims could also be classified under different kinds of objectives.
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2.4.4.5 AGENCIES OF NON-FORMAL EDUCATION
The various agencies for organizing programmes for non-formal education are
as follow:
1. Institutions for formal education.
2. Special agencies for non-formal education such as Nehru Yuvak
Kendras, training centres in factories,, public libraries, centres of
correspondence education, etc.
3. Voluntary non-governmental organizations like club and societies.
4. Radio and television.
Non-formal education is one of the modes of education, others are formal and
informal. Therefore, non-formal education ought to be perceived and designed in
coordination with formal and informal systems. It will prove an insufficient and an
ineffective mechanism for solving the complex problems or for achieving concrete
goals, if organised in isolation. Again, it must not be limited to the imparting of basic
skills only. It must not be limited to the imparting of basic skills only. It must be
designed as an integrated systems in the context of the total socio-economic
environment. To make if, effective in modern societal context, a more integrated
community based programme of innovation and change is needed to which various
forms of education may contribute. This requires filling the gaps between the learning
systems and the community needs.
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6 Curriculum Rigid and fixed Curriculum not fixed
7 Textbooks Prescribed textbooks Usually no prescribed
textbooks
8 Examination Examination at regular Normally no examination
intervals. Written tests. Essay Assignments
and short answer questions.
9 Teachers Several teachers on full time Usually part time teachers
basis
10 Methods of Direct teaching methods, Face Contact programmes, radio,
Teaching to face teaching, Lecturing T.V. Correspondence lesson,
very little face to face teaching
11 Status Usually high status Usually not considered at par
with formal education
12 Period It is limited to a period of It is lifelong with learning
‘being taught’ as against a integrated with life and work.
period of ‘life’ and ‘work’ It is Life is upgraded and enriched
imparted in educational by learning.
institution.
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2.4.6 LET US SUM UP
Education both formal and non formal, is used by societies for preserving the
values of the past and for proceeding on the path of progress. The formal agencies of
education are pre-conceived and preplanned. They are developed as a result of some
of the needs of the society. The school, the college and the university come under this
category. The non formal agencies are simply out of-school-institution.
2. School
4. Pre-school level, Primary level, Secondary level, Higher Secondary level and
University level.
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2.4.9 SUGGESTED READINGS
Aggarwal. J.C. (2008). Education in the Emerging Indian Society. New Delhi :
Shipra Publications.
Mohanty, J, (2005). Modern Trends in Indian Education. New Delhi :
Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Dash, B. N. (2007). Theories of education and Education in the emerging
Indian Society. New Delhi : Dominant Publishers and
Distributors.
Pahuja, N. P. (2003). Theory and Principles of Education. New Delhi :
Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Bhatia, K. K and
Narang C. L. (2004). Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of
Education. Ludhiana : Parkash Brothers.
Gupta, S. (2008). Education in Emerging India. New Delhi : Shipra
Publications.
119
LESSON 2.5
STRUCTURE
2.5.1 Introduction
2.5.2 Objectives
120
2.5.1 INTRODUCTION
2.5.2 OBJECTIVES
In India, people are generally not so keen to obtain knowledge as people are in
developed nations. Many people in our country take admissions in Schools, Colleges
and Universities but drop-out in the middle of the session without completing the
prescribed course of studies. Some do so due to their adverse circumstances arid
some due to their bad companies. Thus, there is a large number of persons who are
not able to complete their formal education. However, their desire to acquire further
knowledge is not killed after some times they may like to continue their education. For
them, continuing education is a boon. Under these circumstances, it is the duty of the
government and social leaders to provide facilities of continuing education to drop-
outs, farmers, labourers and half educated individuals.
Persons engage in agriculture, industries, sciences and different services are all
contributing in the national development in one form or the other. All the people
employed in service or business have the great importance in the field of development
of the nation. All these persons on the basis of their varying experiences learn many
things automatically. But in addition to their particular skills and experiences they
need to acquire some such knowledge which may enable them to become
enlightened. This knowledge may be in political field, economic field or such other
fields. It is only through the continuing education that this knowledge may be
imparted to them.
Any person, engaged in any job may have many such interests which are not
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directly related to his job. These interest gradually fade away when he does not get
opportunity to develop them further. On the other hand, if he gets opportunity to
develop them, he may sharpen his interest to such an extent that he may be able to
produce some striking things in the area of his interest. If a person is provided with
the facility to use his leisure in workshop of his interest he may contribute a lot to the
society. It is only through continuing education one may utilize his leisure in a
creative manner. On the other hand, if he has nothing to do during his leisure time he
will waste it in reading some cheap literature, deteriorating to his character and
personality. Thus, continuing education is helpful in checking his deterioration and to
put him on right path of further progress.
Persons engaged in one or the other industries drift away from the latest
developments taking place in the world in other areas than their own due to their
environment in their jobs. For them too continuing education is essential. Persons
engaged in health services, family welfare enterprises and other types of social
services can also be benefited by continuing education. They can be imparted
knowledge about the latest development with the help of books or public lectures.
Provisions should be made for continuing education for Gram Sewaks, Block
Development Officers, Doctors, Lawyers and Engineers and others busy in their
specialized areas. For these persons libraries and study centres should be opened
where they may get the opportunity to increase their knowledge. Cinema,
Radio, T.V. and other audio-visual aids also play the vital role in the field of
continuing education. Continuing education should be planned for literate and
illiterate farmers and labourers of rural areas and urban areas. Through the
continuing education we can make our citizens engaged in services and business more
enlightened, cultured and progressive.
As we have already said that continuing education is not only helpful for those
who are engaged in some jobs or business but it also helps the illiterates and semi-
literates to achieve knowledge and contribute their might in the development of
the nation. After the achievement of independence, our government have started
many schemes for spreading literacy among to illiterate persons. Throughout the
country, thousands of centres for adult and social education have been opened and
crores of rupees have been spent for the purpose in different Five Year Plans. A large
number of libraries have been opened for the semi- literate person. Radio and T.V. are
also contributing their might for the purpose. A large number of programmes are
relayed for the education of these persons. Many primary schools run the classes of
adult and social education in the evening.
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are to impart functional literacy to 15-36 age group. Voluntary agencies have
been playing an important role in the Adult Education Programme.
Inspite of the great efforts, we have not been able to achieve our targets.
Investigations have revealed that illiterates and semi-literate adults have special
interests in such subjects as, (1) ancient history, (2) basic religious matters, (3)
the diseases which generally attack animals and destroy agriculture and gardening,
(4) the fundamentals of economics, (5) short but healthy novels and interesting
stories, (6) folk stories, (7) folk songs, (8) psychology of adults, (9)
fundamentals of philosophy, (10) first aid, (11) prevention of ordinary diseases,
(12) matters regarding health and sanitation. (13) psychology of child behaviour,
(14) information about bringing up young children. (15) music, (16) liking,
habits of people of other lands, (17) modern international and national events, (18) the
modem history of the country and (19) modern scientific achievements. This list of
subjects reveal that an adult wants to understand many things about life. It is through
continuing adult education we may be able to satisfy his lust for knowledge.
In our country' hectic endeavours have been made for adult education but
very little work has been done for those adults who had to leave primary school
studies prematurely. In a report of UNESCO about 60% children of Asian countries
happen to abandon their primary education before successfully competing it. In our
country no adequate facilities are available to retain literacy. Of course, there are
some books for their continuing education but they too are not made available to all
the persons. These books are not very useful. The result is that there is quite a
large number of persons, especially women, who are keen for their education but
they have no opportunities. It is the duty of the government and social workers to
come forward for their continuing education. The government and the educational
agencies should not only publish the good books for their continuing education
but also made them available to needy persons.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
3. List out any four interested subjects of study of Semi literate and illiterate?
2.5.4 O PE N U N I V E R S IT Y S Y S TE M
124
unobserved, the higher the degree of openness.”
Some of t he common charact erist ics are t hat t hey have an open
system of education which implies:
1. Education is not a once for-all process. No one is too old or too late to
learn. Inabilit y to be in full t ime residence at the campus is no bar to
learning. The open university has been built on the principle that
education should keep people abreast with the latest to be able to cape with
the changing world.
2. It helps democrat izat io n o f educat io n which sho uld help in making
education relevant to national needs.
3. The society has a responsibilit y to provide educational opportunit ies to
those who for some reason or other cannot go to the conventional system.
4. It is t he r espo nsib il it y o f t he so ciet y t o pro vide educat io n fo r
t housands of peop1e who were fu lly capable of higher education, but
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who did not get it, or who realised too late that they need it.
5. It is the moral obligation of the society to provide
a) Systematic reading of correspondence texts and text books.
b) regular viewing and listening of Television and Radio programmes.
c) Contact with teachers and counsellors by writing or at local centres and
during contact programmes
d) Wr it t en assignment s, annu al wr it t en examinat io n, assessment
t est s and o t her fo r ms o f pract ical and project work
e) get a chance to continue their studies.
6. Open universit y is not simp ly an educat ional rescue miss io n; it a ims
at wider and hig her. Mo re o ver, t h e r e i s a f u r t h e r n e e d f o r
h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n , supplementing the existing provision.
1. D u e t o v a s t e x p l o s i o n o f p o p u l a t i o n t h e h o p e o f providing
public educat ion to all through the Formal education agencies is
reduced. The government cannot h e lp t o co p e u p w it h t he
s it u at io n b y e xp a nd i ng educational institutions to meet the
increasing demand fo r ed u cat io n. T he o nly so lu t io n t o t his
pr o ble m is opening more open universities.
2. In a democrat ic societ y educat io n is being recognised a s t he r ig ht
o f ind iv idua l. T he e xist ing s yst e m is unable to provide education to
all.
3. 1n modern technological society higher education is a necessar y
co nd it io n. It is “e sse nt ia l fo r secur in g n a t i o n a l e c o n o m i c
v i a b i l i t y t h r o u g h i n c r e a s e d productivity and efficient management”.
4. He a lt h o f p eo p le t o a gr e at e xt e nt is d ep e nd ing o n ed ucat io n.
Open Univer sit y is an e ffect ive mea ns t o spread t his idea to t he
people scattered t hrougho ut the country.
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2.5.4.5 METHODS OF TEACHING IN OPEN UNIVERSITY SYSTEM
B o t h t he ha v e s a nd t he ha ve - no t s o f h i g he r educat io n welcome
t he idea of o pen Universit y. They are hap py o ver t his new v ist a whic h
will, cha ng e t heir life compet ence. The need y groups will sat isfy t heir
hu nger for learning at a lower cost. Success o f open u niversit y w i l l
d e p e n d u p o n s e l f m o t i v a t i o n , s e l f s t u d y a n d independent thinking.
In this lesson, you have learnt the concept, beneficiaries and agencies of
continuing education and characteristics need and methods of teaching of Open
University. Continuing education is an integral part of the scheme of development of
an individual, a society, a state or nation. Every day, new avenues surrounding and
pervading this world are getting explored. Therefore, learning about anything at a
particular time needs to be continuously up – dated. In the present day world, a
systematic and purposeful learning throughout individual’s life has become a
necessity for effective living. The cherished aim of continuing education can be
achieved if alternative avenues to formal system of education are explored and
opportunities provided to millions of illiterates, semi – literates, school drop outs,
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ambitious learners, aspirants for continuing education, which may include house
wives, youth, agricultural and industrial workers, unskilled workers and other
professionals.
1. 1988.
3. (1) ancient history, (2) basic religious matters, (3) the diseases which
generally attack animals and destroy agriculture and gardening, (4) the
fundamentals of economics.
5. 1985.
8. a. P r int med ia
b. Broad casting lectures
c. Television Lessons.
d. Teaching in Personal contact Programmes.
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2.5.8 SUGGESTED READINGS
129
130
UNIT – III
131
132
CURRENT PROBLEMS IN INDIAN EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
It is quite conceivable that with the advancement of education in India some
problems should have arisen, which may claim the attention of those concerned. In
fact some of the problems are as old as the modern system of education itself. The
problems pertaining to the aim of education, examination, wastage and stagnation, the
education of women, and teacher education.
Lesson 1 deals with the problems of primary education with special reference
to wastage and stagnation, its causes and remedial measures. We have discussed the
strategies to achieve Education For, All which is the need of the hour.
Lesson 3 deals with Higher Secondary education its curricular and vocational
needs of rural India.
Lesson 4 of this block will give you an idea about Women’s education
especially the status of women in Higher education.
Lesson 5 deals with the problems of teacher education, Training teachers for
all levels of education, pre service and in service facilities and code of conduct for
teacher.
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134
LESSON 3.1
PRIMARY EDUCATION
STRUCTURE
3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Objectives
3.1.1 INTRODUCTION
135
3.1.2 OBJECTIVES
In recent years, the Concept of Education For All originated out of the
combined meeting of the Tenth Regional Consultative meeting of Asia Pacific
Programme of Educational Innovation for Development (APEID) and the Regional
Experts Meeting on Universalization and Renewal of Primary Education and
Education of Illiteracy in Asia and the Pacific held in Bangkok from 20th to 27th May
1986. “This programme indicated new direction of APEID for the fourth programming
cycle (1987-1991) and is to be known as ASIA PACIFIC PROGRAMME of
Education for All (APPEAL).” This new programme “Education For All” is related
to the following three broad areas:
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endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the
commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education
for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.” Since then
constant efforts have been made for the realization of this goal set before our
country by the Constitution.
The ultimate goal of Education for All is to establish a full learning environment by the help
of the above three areas. As a result of this India will emerge into a learning society.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Education is a human need. Therefore, all the human resource utilised for the
progress of the country through education. UNESCO Bulletin states, “Education has the
dual function of transmitting the new generation the heritage of the past with its
accumulated wisdom in the history of mankind, and preparing it for the present and
future that the emergent needs of society and individuals hold before us. While
recognising that the enhancement of the happiness and well being of all individuals with
due regard to their environment, inclusive of both the material world and all forms of
life should be our goal. It is safe to assure, that we should increasingly expect the
unexpected in every facet of existence, educational enterprise, present and future, for
successful function from the point of view of both the individual and the society.”
Now it is realized that the number of children outside the school is increasing
as also the number of children inside the schools. “Disparities between the education of
the well-to-do and that of the children of the downtrodden are increasing. So also the
gender disparities are widening the developing countries are grouping in dark about
finding ways and means of coping with the situation so to India. We made a
Constitutional Commitment to achieve the goal of Universalization of Elementary
Education by 1960. This target had to be revised to 1970, then to 1976, later to 1988,
1990, 1995 (for upper primary stage), we are not ashamed to continuously shift this
target. We have accorded high priority to UEE in programmes of educational
development. We are fighting even now on more than one front to provide good primary
education to the children in the country.
138
The programme of Education for All includes categories of human being-
children, adolescent and adult. By the scheme of Universalization of Primary Education
children irrespective of their caste, creed, sex, colour and status must be enrolled to
become literate. Apart from primary education, we have to develop the programme of
Adult education. The Social Education, FELF, Polyvalent Adult Education Centre,
NAEP, etc. were the fore-runners of Adult Education Programme in our country. This
programme also includes Early Childhood Education, Education of Girls, Education of
the Impaired, Disabled, Handicapped Children and Other Exceptional Children. The
programme of Education for All covers primary schools age children, girls who have
remained out of the reach of all efforts to literate them, their enrolment and retention.
So far we discussed the concept and purposes of Education For All. Now we
shall discuss how this program can be implemented
1. The programme of education for all should be introduced in the hilly areas, rural
areas, slum areas, where the rate of drop out among girls is high
2. A survey program should be undertaken to collect information about the drop
outs and non school attending children, their social economic status and
occupations, problem of literacy, educational facilities available in the area
and their cultural patterns.
3. The teachers should remain in charge of undertaking the survey in
consultation with the members of the community
4. By undertaking survey, we can identify human as well as material resources and
can utilize them for implementing programme of education for all.
5. Attempts must be made to encourage the involvement of the community both in
survey and in the implementation of the entire programme of education for all.
Members of the community can give constructive suggestions for the improvement
of the programme.
6. In order to make the programme of education for all community, the
community members should be encouraged to hold all their celebrations and other
programmes in the education center
7. Experts of home science should help the village girls and women, the art of
preparing fruit-juice, Jams and Jellies.
8. Teacher training will remain in charge of the preparation of teachers for the
centres of education for all.
9. To implement the programme of education for all UEE, Early Childhood Care
and Education (ECCE), Minimum Level of Learning (MLL), and Women’s
education programme should be improved.
10. Emphasis must be given on health education, nutrition education and sports
and games.
11. Early childhood education should be streamlined.
12. Teachers of regular schools should be encouraged to work on part time basis
in the education for all centres.
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3.1.3.3 NEW INITIATIVES, SCHEMES AND PROJECTS UNDERTAKEN
TOWARDS EFA
The Hartog Committee (1929) pointed out one of the major defects of Primary
Education i.e. Wastage and Stagnation. According to this Committee ‘Wastage meant
the premature withdrawal of children from schools at any stage before the completion
of the Primary course’. If any child drops out from the school before completing the
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first stage of education, it is considered as wastage. Wastage is more in girls
than that in boys.
(a) Causes
The Causes of wastage refer to the following areas
1. Personal Factors - The personal factors responsible for wastage are
Physical handicaps
Emotional difficulties
Social mal-adjustment
Educational backwardness
dissatisfaction at school
lower achievement
fear of punishments
lack of positive motivation and
lack of proper attitude towards education
2. Familial Factors - The fo llowing factors from the side of home of the
child cause wastage :
unfavourable attitudes of parents
social backwardness of home
migration of parents
economic backwardness of family
illness of parents
dissatisfaction of parents with schools
parental opposition to education of their children
low educational level of home
non-recognition of value of education by home
low cultural background of home
over-crowding in the home
loss of parents
less facilities at home and
excessive involvement of children in domestic work
3. School Factors - The following factors are responsible for wastage from
the side of the school
poor standard of institutions
higher pupil-teacher ratio
inadequate physical facilities
distance of school from the residence of pupils
non-provision of mid-day meals
non-provision of books and uniforms
collection of more fees
improper school - community relationships and
lack of relationship of educational system with the economic needs of
country
4. Social Factors - The following community factors may be considered as
causing wastage
caste structure
economic status of the community
class and caste consciousness
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occupational patterns
educational status of the community
its material culture
its provision for social participation
its level of aspiration and
early marriages
Remedial Measures
6. Define Wastage.
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3.1.5 NATURE AND CAUSES OF STAGNATION AND ITS
REMEDIAL MEASURES
a) Causes
The causes for stagnation may also be found in the person himself, in his home, school or
society. They are described hereunder :-
1. Personal Factors - The following are the factors resident in the pupil that
are responsible for stagnation
low inte lligence
physical handicaps
irregularity of attendance
lack of earnestness for learning
illness or ill health
unfavourable conditions for learning
lack of proper guidance at home or in the school
influence of undesirable associates and
non-inculcation of love for learning
2. Family Factors - The following factors, relating to home, are also
responsible for stagnation
non-provision of educational aids
absence of guidance
unfavourable home environment
over-crowding in home
occupational status of the family and
residential status of family, rural or urban
3. School Factors - The educational factors that result in stagnation are as
given below
poor quality of teaching
inefficient instruction
indifferent attitude of teachers
defective curriculum
lack of graded curriculum
defective examination system
over-crowdedness in classes and schools
heterogenity of age-composition of students
poor school environment
faulty admission policies
making admission throughout the year
lack of play-way techniques and
adoption of non-promotion policy
4. Societal Factors - The following factors of society are also responsible for the
evil of stagnation
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discouragement of education by parents engaged in agriculture
artisanship, casual labour
absence of proper relationship between educational system and economic
needs of proper relationship between educational system and economic needs
of the society
education backwardness of the society
existence of incomplete schools
dull character of schools
lack of capacity to attract and retain students and
absence of ancillary services like mid-day meals
Remedial Measures
8. Define Stagnation?
9. List out any two remedial measures to over come the problem of stagnation?
.
144
3.1.6 LET US SUM UP
In this lesson, you have learnt the concept and purposes of EFA, and the
implementation strategies to achieve EFA. The state and central governments have
taken a number of measures like providing better staff and equipment, improvement
of curriculum, developing text books dynamic methods of teaching etc., to reduce the
problem of wastage and stagnation in order to achieve the goal of EFA.
1. a. Universalization of Provision
b. Universalization of Enrolment
c. Universalization of Retention
2. Article 45 of the Indian Constitution, therefore, directed that, “The State shall
endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the
commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education
for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.”
5. Hartog Committee.
145
7. a. Personal Factor
b. Familial Factors
c. School Factors
d. Social Factors
146
LESSON 3.2
SECONDARY EDUCATION
STRUCTURE
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 Objectives
147
3.2.8 Unit – End Exercise
3.2.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2.2 OBJECTIVES
148
2) Both men and women can be appointed in such institutions saving
expenditure on staff.
3) All the existing facilities provided by the different education it managements can
be appropriately used for the education of boys girls alike without additional
involvement.
4) Educational supervision and inspection will also be well facilitated
5) It provides opportunity for the children of both sexes to come together and
understand each, other directly and have emotional purgation of sex impulses
indirectly by sublimation in an accepted manner.
6) Co-education is in tune with the equalisation of educational opportunity and helps
for avoiding discriminating on the basis of sex.
149
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
The problems of examinations are to be looked into from various angles as such
Administration,
Instruction,
assessment and
Finance.
150
printing and distribution of question papers,
appointment of-examiners
organisation of valuation and tabulation,
announcement of results, etc.
Merits
Educational measurement is important from different angles-
Demerits
The demerits of the existing examination system can be accounted in different
151
ways from different angles
1) From the view point of aims of education, it can be said that they don't help
us in measuring the attainment of aims of education. They do not take into
consideration the new conceptualizations that have developed in the field of
education. The overemphasis on examinations is only helping to defeat the
real aim and purpose of education.
2) From the angle of content of education, it has been noticed that examinations
have come to dictate the content of education, instead of being satisfied
with measuring the content learnt by the pupils. Subjects, not meant to be
assessed in the examinations, do not appeal to the students and parents. Such
subject teachers are also being looked down by the students and public.
3) With respect to method of teaching, it can be said that they become
examination-oriented. Teaching is mainly carried out keeping the
examinations that the children have to face in purview. Dynamic
teaching techniques are neglected and preparation for the examinations is
only aimed.
4) With regard to study habits also similar observations are made, as
examinations have come to influence them abnormally. The students are
mostly guided by the cheap notes and guides that are examination oriented and
are neglecting actual text books, which they are expected to study. Rote
memorisation, takes the place of comprehensive learning.
5) Also the areas of testing it are evident that the traditional examinations only
test the academic progress or the intellectual of the pupils and not other
aspects of pupils' development: Even the intellectual achievements are also
unsatisfactorily tested.
6) With reference to scoring procedure, it s a common experience that
subjectivity, halo-effect, inter-examiner variability and intra examiner
variability etc., make the traditional examinations quite unreliable. Vagaries
in making, lack of objectivity etc., may also discredit them.
7) In connection with the question papers, it is noted that ambiguity
8) Of wording, stereotyped questions, lack of clear-cut limitation as to the
scope of answers etc., also forbid the reliability of these examinations.
Some of the modern reforms in the field of examinations are described below
The following steps are but suggestive to improve the external examinations
Only one terminal public examination may be insisted upon at the end of
school education.
The School Record may be considered side by side along with the external
evaluation.
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Paper-setters should be adequately trained in the technique of preparing
improved question papers.
Quest io ns used in the quest ion papers, and quest io n papers used in
the external examinations should be improved appropriately.
Spot valuation, revaluation, re-numbering of answer scripts, etc., may be
introduced.
Administration of examination may be improved by appointing one invigilator
for each batch of 20 students.
.
4. Enlist any two steps to improve internal examination.
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3.2.5 NEW EVALUATION PROCEDURES
The new system of evaluation reflects the needs of a fast changing society. To
declare a pupil as a failure in any class at so early an age will give him an inferiority
complex for life and stunt his growth. Educationists all over the world are unanimous
on the inherent drawbacks in the prevailing system of assessment through
examination. In actual practice, the entire system of examination tends to focus on the
score in the examination. The new scheme of assessment, therefore aims at
rationalization and imbibes the following features:
Advantages
More autonomy is given to students.
Their interests, attitudes, skills are given importance.
When a person chooses to work extra, he is given extra credit points.
Disadvantages
Practical limitations are there.
It is complicated, especially in the view of shortage of teachers or
infrastructure.
154
discipline.
• To remove hurdles in the free mobility of students.
The marking of alphabets or adjectives such as v.good, poor, v.poor.
The human error of evaluation is ± 10.
This system reduces comparison of marks.
One of the major features of the new system is that not every paper is treated
equal. While designing syllabus, courses can have weightages defined. These
weightages are called credits.
A paper/course which has 4 contact hours per week per semester is taken s a
full paper/course and is considered as having a weightage of 4, or as a 4 credit
course,
A paper with 2-credits is like a half paper.
An example is a seminar, dissertation projects typically carry higher credits,
this is indirectly equivalent to giving more marks for more important papers or
for activities such as dissertation projects.
In the new system, instead of specifying number of paper/courses, only the
total credits to be earned is specified.
If a 6-semester UG program specifies credit requirement as 120.
Credits it means that an average 20 credits need to be earned each semester,
which can be earned in different ways such as
• Five-4-credit courses.
• Four-4-credit courses and two 2-credit courses.
• Five 3-credit courses and one 2-credit course.
Advantages
Avoids or less comparison.
Qualitative way of communicating results
Students are motivated towards learning.
Groupism is encouraged.
Disadvantages
Less understanding by the parents.
The present mode of assessment does not take into account the assessment of both
cognitive and non-cognitive learning outcomes and this encourages lop-sided
personality development. The one shot written examination is not an effective
155
measure for gauging all the abilities nor does it promote the application of multiple
techniques of assessment. The scheme of CCE is inspired by the idea that it is the
teacher who knows the pupil best, and it is through the teacher that we would get to
know how the learner is progressing with reference to his/her own earlier
achievements, with reference to his/her peer group as also with reference to the
expected levels of attainments set by the teachers.
In order to combat the menace of mass copying the CBSE introduced the
system of multiple sets of question paper in the year 1992. This has resulted in curbing
malpractices and unfair means in the examinations. Some State Boards like the one in
Punjab have also adopted this measure.
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3.2.5.7 OPEN BOOK EXAMINATIONS
.
6. What is the reason for introducing grade system?
Supervision and inspection in India till recent years suffered from many
handicaps in spite of the recommendations made by numerous Commissions. Even
now in some States the distressing conditions prevail in this regard. The defects in the
pattern of supervision and inspection in our country can be summarized as below:
Latest developments in the field of supervision and inspection are mentioned below
which are still in the state of making. When they are fully realised, it may be
hoped that the lot of the educational field would be far better than what it is now.
158
2. Changing Conceptualisation of Supervision and Inspection. There has been a
revolution in the conceptualisation of supervision and inspection and consequently in
the varied roles the supervisors and inspectors have to play in their professional lives.
159
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
In this unit, our main focus was on the problems of secondary education like
co-education, examination reforms and supervision and inspection. Then we
discussed the new evaluation procedures like Choice Based Credit System, Grade
System, Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation multiple sets of question paper.
2. a. Administration,
b. Instruction,
c. assessment and
d. Finance.
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4. a. Oral and practical tests may be taken as .a part of internal assessment.
b. Class and home assignments should be necessarily a part of internal
assessment.
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LESSON 3.3
STRUCTURE
3.3.1 Introduction
3.3.2 Objectives
3.3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.3.2 OBJECTIVES
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3.3.3 HISTORY OF HIGHER SECONDARY EDUCATION
Colleges were existing in India even before the establishment of the three
Universities as per the Wood’s Despatch by 1857. The Calcutta Madras, the
Banaras Sanskrit College, the Hindu Vidyalaya of Calcutta, etc., have been some
of the earliest Colleges on modern lines.
Int ermediat e Educat ion came into exist ence only aft er t he
recommendations of the Calcutta University Commission of 1917-1919. The
Commission said that the dividing line between the University and Secondary courses
was more appropriately drawn at the Intermediate Examination than at the
Matriculation Examination. Consequent on the recommendations, Intermediate
Colleges came to be established throughout the country and two years
Intermediate Education came to stay in the country. Also Boards of
Intermediate Education came to be founded in many States. The, University
Education, Commission emphasised to continue, 12 years schooling including two
year Intermediate Education
Similar is the case with some other States. This shows that there is a
variation in the implementation of the recommendation's of the Kothari
Education Commission, which was firm that Higher Secondary Stage should be
tagged on to School Education. Yet it may be stated that many of the States have
accepted the +2 year course of Higher Secondary Education. This pattern has
some obvious advantages as described below :-
The Objectives of the Higher Secondary Stage of' 'Education may be given
in the following way :-
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for themselves
to promote knowledge of healthy living and physical wellbeing;
to broaden outlook of students by modernising curriculum by incorporating
the developments taking place in other' parts of the world;
to provide sufficient opportunities to students to become productive
and self-reliant by introducing work experience and community service
to inculcate in: them' the nat ional goals such as- national integration,
international understanding, social justice, democratic living,
cooperativeness, cultural and' religious tolerance, etc., and,
to develop national character.
The newly visualized Higher Secondary Education has two distinct spectra namely
1) General Educational Spectrum and
2) Vocational Sepctrum.
The academic stream may also be terminal at the end of Higher Secondary
Stage of Education, but it may also ‘serve a feeder for the tertiary level of
education Hence it is designed to match the educational achievement-expected at
the level of Class X, on one hand, and that required to enter the tertiary level,
at the other. Here the choice of subjects is provided for, not only in accordance
with the aptitudes and interests of the students but also in keeping with the admission
requirements of the tertiary level institutions into which some of the students may
desire to seek admission. Hence at the Higher Secondary level diversification of
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courses—academic as well as vocational—has been effected. Such a flexibility in the
system is introduced.
In the vocational spectrum, the basic sciences that are related to a vocation are
necessarily introduced. Biology, chemistry, physics or mathematics, commerce,
economics concerning the vocation are to" be included to make the courses attractive
to more intelligent students.
In the curriculum of the Higher Secondary Education, the needs of rural India
are taken care of specially. Vocationalization of courses would be based on
survey of economic activities, potentialities and consequent opportunities of work or
assessment of man-power needs. Vocationalised higher secondary education is not to
be considered as technician training. In our country, industrial agricultural
production is growing; the application of science and technology is opening up
diverse fields of activity; commerce, trade and public services are expanding
rapidly. All these need for an. adequate supply of qualified personnel at the
administrative, professional, technological, technical, semi-skilled and unskilled
levels. Vocatonalisation of higher secondary education is to cater to the middle levels.
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etc., should find their due place in the vocational spectrum. In this way, the
national goals of equitable sharing of economic benefits, social justice, etc., can
be ensured.
5. List out the vocational courses needed for rural population at the Higher Secondary
Stage?
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3.3.8 LET US SUM UP
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LESSON 3.4
WOMEN EDUCATION
STRUCTURE
3.4.1 Introduction
3.4.2 Objectives
3.4.1 INTRODUCTION
“Education is not the filling of a trail, but the lighting of a fire”. Education
contributes to human development. Education provides the individuals with
knowledge, skills and attitudes required to succeed in their personal, social and
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economic roles and there by accelerates the process of national development.
Education - higher education in particular, can be termed as a catalyst that moves
individuals and communities out of a life of poverty and ignorance into a life of
prosperity and wisdom.
With this concept of higher education at the dawn of the 21st century, effective
participation of women is very vital at all levels of development. A recent World Bank
Study says that educating women is not a charity, it is a good economics and if
developing nations are to abolish poverty they should educate their women. It is
universally accepted that education is a significant instrument in improving the status of
women. There is a close connection between education and development. No society
can prosper without making women educated and empowered. The relevance of women’s
education to social, economic, cultural and political development of the individual,
family, community and nation is universally acknowledged.
3.4.2 OBJECTIVES
The first woman being admitted at the University of Calcutta in 1877, the
second in the University of Chennai in 1881 and the third in the University of Mumbai in
1883 were landmarks in the history of women's higher education. Since a woman first
entered the university we have come a long way, although we have miles to go. While
women constituted only 9.3 percent in higher education on the eve of independence,
the percentage has now risen to 43 in the course of five decades.
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women. The idea of women’s education for equality, participation and empowerment
was given top priority in the plan of action in 1992. In the ninth plan also emphasis was
given to women’s education and the setting up of Women’s Studies Centre was
encouraged. Today we have five women’s universities viz — S.N.D.T Women
University, Mumbai, Mother Teresa Women University, Kodaikanal; Avinashilingam
Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women, Coimbatore; Sri
Padmavathy Mahila Viswavidyalaya, Tirupathy and Banasthali Vidhyapeeth, Rajasthan
and 1195 women’s colleges, in our country.
ENROLMENT OF WOMEN IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Year Percentage of
enrolment
50-51 10.9
55-59 14.0
60-61 16.2
70-71 22.1
75-79 24.9
80-81 27.2
85-86 29.1
87-88 31.0
90-91 32.0
00-01 43.0
Today, we have more than 1200 institutions, out of 9200 and odd colleges,
meant exclusively for women in different disciplines, levels and professions. Yet, a
sizeable number of women are still to enter higher education.
Even today, there are large inter-state variations in the enrolment of women in
higher education. There are 15 states and union territories where the percentage of female
students is above 40. The highest percentage of enrolment is found in Kerala whereas the
lowest percentage of enrolment is in Bihar which also falls in the category of most
backward state and most populous state (83 millions). In the rest of the country,
women’s enrolment is still very low showing a great need for further improvement in
higher education.
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that of boys, particularly in the technical and industrial streams.
GENDER WISE AND CLASS WISE ENROLMENT
The faculty wise classification of female students indicates that most female
students (54.4%) prefer Arts subjects. The percentage in Science and Commerce are
in 20.1 and 14.1 respectively.
.
2. Name the existing Women’s Universities in India?
Economic reasons middle poverty is the pre dominant parents of factor that
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hinders the girls from getting higher education. The major hurdles, which are the
common reasons for the early drop out of girls in higher education are, lower classes
think it is wise to save money for their dowry rather than their education. Whenever the
purse of the parents gets tight their first step is to stop the expenditure on education of
their daughters. Most of them consider it as an unnecessary expense as a girl has to go to
some other family. Also, higher education is so expensive that the parents of middle
class families cannot afford it. In every third family, we find girls who are not able to
get education due to the, financial difficulty of the parents.
Familial reasons
There are conservative parents who think that education spoils the character of
their daughters. If their loving daughter goes to college she will not be able to prove
herself to be a modest daughter-in-law. In college, she will only learn fashion, and co-
education may spoil her character. They argue that when their daughter need not earn,
what is the need for higher education for her. The parents discriminate between their male
and female off-springs in the matter of financing their education.
Educational reasons
The dearth of good colleges and universities and difficulty in getting admission are
also serious problems faced by girls who aspire for higher education. The educational
reasons which stand in the way of girls' higher education are inadequacy of facilities,
particularly, distance of the college or university from home, irrelevance of the content of
education, curriculum not suited to their requirements, etc.
Social reasons
It is felt that higher education for girls resulted in raising the number of spinsters it so,
most of the parents want their daughters to discontinue higher education. They think it will
lead to late marriage for their daughters if they continue in higher education. Thus, amongst the
hindrances to girls' higher education, marriage is a very common I factor. According to a
survey, 75 percent of girls who dropped out gave up their education due to marriage.
They gave up their studies to enter home life.
Gender sensitivity camps to develop the right attitude towards women should be
organized in backward and Gender remote areas. Incentives like scholarships and
freeships recommended by commissions and committees should be popularized,
promoted and increased. Provision for part time jobs should be ma d e in a
l a r g e n u m b e r o f organizations.
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Topics especially relevant to women's need maybe introduced as additional
curricular components in the existing regular courses.
Domestic preoccupation,
Full-time employment,
Geographic distance of educational institutions,
Social customs and cultures preventing them from attending schools and
colleges.
At present there are about 26 open universities and about 740 distance education
institutions throughout the world. Studies reveal that about 40 to 50 percent of distance
learners are women.
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conscientization which helps individuals to perceive their environment.
Women are partners in development. They can play a more positive and active
role in development if they are given relevant education and training to enable them to
use improved technology in their daily activities. As the National Policy on Education
(NPE) 1986 has indicated, for full development of our human resources, for the
improvement of human potential and for moulding the character of our children during
their most impressionable years, education of women is of paramount importance.
Because of it’s multiplier effect on posterity, education of women must be given
priority in national plans. The NPE has rightly envisaged that the national education
system should play a positive interventionist role in the empowerment of women through the
following action strategies:
Building a positive self image
Developing the ability to think critically and fostering decision making and
action
Ensuring equal participation in the process of bringing about social change
and
Providing the where withal for economic independence.
1) Personal
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2) Local level
In gathering women to take up useful activities which will help them as individuals
and also the local community. Better opportunities, more organized activities and
better access to legal and monetary aid will lead to more meaningful contribution of
women to the local community. The educational institutions, through their NSS/
Community and Social Service (CSS) programmes can help in this regard. Each and
every individual woman in the adopted village should be personally approached and the
support extended should match their individual unique requirements. The local
administration, may help in monitoring this programme and also ensure that not a single
village is left out.
Empowerment of women at the State and National levels should result in a larger
number of women participating in bureaucracy and governance. Scholarships and
concessions for women, who are eager to take up courses, which had been the sole
domain of men, will encourage them to venture new grounds. Reservation for women,
which is pending for a long time, has to be implemented at the earliest. Media support
will speed up this process if it adopts a positive approach to the cause of women in this
regard by highlighting their achievements rather than their failures. Universities and
NGOs can organize training courses in political leadership and governance for
aspiring women.
4) International/global level
We have had women who had risen to such high levels in their own fields to attain
international acclaim. But their number is small. The higher education institutions should
work towards establishing network with many international institutions. More
opportunities should be created for women to take up higher education and skill training in
institutions abroad. More funds should be made available for women to participate in
international conferences / seminars / workshops. Interaction with the global
community will result in a broader perspective of social issues and enhanced capacity of
problem solving. Enterprising women who have proved as successful entrepreneur at the
local level should be trained in the know-how of making it big in the international arena.
Contributions of women at the national and international levels should be given wide
publicity and the international organizations like WHO, UNICEF and UNESCO should
make special: efforts to involve a high proportion of women in all the programmes as
contributors as well as beneficiaries.
In the global scenario also, it has been a recognized fact that women have been more
limited access to education than men, especially so in the developing countries.
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Hence it is felt that illiteracy is mainly a women’s problem. Though the global focus
is on increasing the access for girls to primary and secondary education with a view to
decrease illiteracy rates, the importance of tertiary education for women has also been
recognised as it will promote their employability. According to Lindy Hyam, Chief
Executive, IDP Education, Australia, participation rates for women in higher
education are alarmingly low, especially in developing countries like African
countries, where there are fewer than 200 women enrolled in tertiary education for
every 100,000 women in the country.- She also laments that even where there is near
equality in enrolments, they are concentrated in the so-called 'female disciplines' which
has resulted in the poor representation of women in key industries at all levels of
management. Even within Universities themselves women are poorly represented at
higher levels and management.
International education has the potential to remove the gender imbalance as it will
increase opportunities in the global workplace. But, it has been found that there are
low levels of female participation in international education, especially among students
from the middle-east where it is 2.3 percent, and India and Bangladesh where it is 10
percent.
Also, although female students feature prominently in the areas of health (72%) and
education (75%), there is a noticeable under representation in the fields of Information
Technology (25.9%), engineering and related technologies (16.1%) and architecture
and building (38.8%). The consequences are that women will continue to be under
represented in key occupations.
To meet the challenges of the twenty first century, women’s education should
aim at economic independence and self reliance. Their education should create such
confidence in them that they can excel even in the masculine jobs. It also must help
women to discover their latent abilities, talents, capacities etc. Women should be given
the choice and freedom to pursue and study the courses according to their interests. Such
educated and emancipated women have the potential to bring about prosperity and peace
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to the family, community and the nation.
1. Discuss the hurdles in the higher education of women and give your suggestions
2. Write a short note on women and distance education
3. Give an account of strategies for the empowerment of women.
4. Explain the global perspective of women in higher education.
5. 43%
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LESSON 3.5
TEACHER EDUCATION
STRUCTURE
3.5.1 Introduction
3.5.2 Objectives
3.5.6 Training teachers for Primary, Secondary and Higher Secondary Courses
3.5.1 INTRODUCTION
To procure the required personnel suitable for the purpose and train
them in an adequate manner is the chief problem of teacher education. It is
the major task of the nation to be accomplished in a phased and planned
manner. It relates to human resource development in the work of teaching.
Elaborate teacher educational programmes have been envisaged in the five-year
plans to meet the growing demand for the qualified teachers by the different
types of schools at different levels.
All this is possible when the teachers themselves are fully aware of these
things and when they act as the symbols of identification to the students.
Teachers are the instruments that can effectively bring about educational
reconstruction in the country. They can play their due roles when they are
professionally educated to do so. Hence teacher education has to be properly
planned to meet the desired goals of educational reconstruction. Educational
reconstruction forms the basis of social reconstruction, which in turn becomes the
basis for national reconstruction.
The importance of teacher-education in post-independent India in the matter of
educational reconstruction has to be recognised by the educational administrators
and teacher educators so that the planning and administration of teacher
education curriculum may include the related aspects to effect the desired changes
and attain the designed goals.
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Less qualified teacher educators.
Faculty methods of assessment of trainee’s work.
Ineffective supervision of the teaching practice by supervisors.
Meager training in the art of organizing co-curricular activities.
Insufficient training in the art of communicating with the community.
Isolation between the colleges of Education and the schools.
Insufficient time and attention paid to the actual practice teaching.
Inadequate training in practical skills.
Lop-sided curriculum.
3.5.4 CLASSIFICATION OF TEACHER EDUCATION
Teacher-Education
All the educational authorities, the centre, the state Government, the
Private Agencies and the Universities are taking active part in providing
teacher Education at various levels. The Central Government has been evincing
keen interest in the in-service and extension education of the teachers and also
in educational research through the National Council of Educational Research and
Training, (NCERT) New Delhi. The State Governments through the Departments of
Education maintain some teacher educational institutions to provide pre-service, in-
service and extension education programmes. At the diploma level, teacher
Education Boards conduct examinations and issue certificate, Graduate Institutions
are affiliated to the respective Universities and they recognise, conduct
examinations and issue certificates for B.Ed., and M.Ed., students. Numerous
educational societies and missionaries also run teacher training Institutions and
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Colleges of Education and prepare candidates for the examinations conducted
either by the teacher Education Boards or University Departments of Education. For
providing Extension Education Programmes and for encouraging education
research, state Governments are also establishing state councils of educational
research and training, state Institutes of Educat ion, extensio n service,
depart ments etc. Also Guidance Bureaux, Science Education units, Evaluation
unit, Educational teehnology cells, collegiate cells, non-formal. Education cells,
etc., are established.
1. Expand NCERT
The following defects are found in 'respect of primary teacher training in our country
• no special efforts are made by the State Governments to give training to
teachers of pre-primary schools
• the conditions of primary teacher training institutions are depressing
• the standards of such institutions are unsatisfactory ;
• the teacher educators working in these institutions are not specially trained for
the purpose ;
• good and efficient secondary school teachers and inspecting officers are
not attracted towards these jobs ;
• the general education of primary teachers is far less than that of secondary
teachers
The following are some of the desirable measures to improve the primary teacher
training
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manner the staff of the primary teacher training institutions should be
adequately qualified ; for this the Kothari Education Commission has
recommended that the-staff-should be possessing a Master’s degree either in
Education or in an academic subject besides the B.Ed., degree;
• they should be trained in the work of preparing primary teachers, through
special orientation courses or introducing such courses in the B.Ed., which
should include experience in the primary schools too.
• material conditions relating to libraries, laboratories, audio visual aids,
should be improved on a top priority basis;
• every training institution should have an experimental school attached to
it
• the size of the primary teacher training institution offering a two year degree
course should be 240;
• a large number of such institutions should be located in rural areas;
The quality of professional education of teachers in the post-independent era is found to be either poor
or mediocre, despite its vast expansion. The following defects are note-worthy
• it has been traditional with respect to curriculum and programmes:
• set patterns of teacher training and practice teaching are followed ;
• the institutions are remaining isolated from the University life, schools and sister
institutions; and so on.
The following are some of the measures designed to bring about the desired changes in the fields of
secondary teacher training and its institutions as recommended by the Kothari Education Commission.
• Teacher education should be brought into the main stream of academic life of
universities by introducing pedagogy at the undergraduate and ,post-graduate
degree levels to break its isolation from the universities ;
• Every training institution should guide neighbourhood schools and their staff in planning
their work and in using improved methods of teaching which helps to break isolation from
schools
• Extension education programme should be organised instituting extension education
departments in each of the training institutions for training pre-primary., primary and
secondary school teachers, which would be duly co-ordinated by the National Council
of Educational Research and Training through its Field Services Department, the State
Institutes of Education or the
• State Councils of Educational Research and Training ; which help breaking
isolation from one another ;
• All teacher training institutions should be upgraded in a phased manner to the
collegiate standard to become comprehensive colleges of education providing
teacher training from pre-primary stage
• Establishment of State Boards of Teacher Education to prescribe standards,
to improve curricular programmes, to prescribe conditions for
recognition, to offer consultative services, to ensure teacher competence, and
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to prepare immediate and long range plans for the development of Teacher
education qualitatively and quanitatively.
184
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
The different types of professional education of teachers have been discussed earlier.
Hereunder some of the modern trends are presented.
185
some Faculties of Education of some Universities. However, this is considered
to be inter-disciplinary approach to education and not a kind of professional
preparation. Hence the employability of M.A., (Ed), and B.A., (Ed.), as teachers
directly without professional
preparation is being questioned. Hence they may have to undergo some kind of
professional training to be eligible to join the profession.
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3.5.9 LET US SUM UP
6. a. They should serve truthfully and honestly to realise the objectives and
purposes that are expected of them.
b. Whatever may be the frustrations and difficulties they face, they should be
conscientious, and noble-minded as far as their professional activities are
concerned.
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3.5.12 SUGGESTED READINGS
188
UNIT – IV
189
190
HEALTH AND NUTRITION EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Nutrition is one of the major factors influencing the health of an individual.
Since food is the source of nutrients, consuming the right amounts becomes
important. If the diet is poor, ill health will result due to the deficiency or excess of
one or more nutrients. The food eaten must not only be nutritious but it must be clean
and free from harmful germs. The person’s environment is equally important.
Lesson 3 discusses the meaning, objectives, need for population education and
impact of population growth on social, economic and educational developments.
Small family norm and family welfare programmes of government are also described
in this lesson. In lesson 4, our attention shifts to physical education – its need,
objectives and role of the physical education.
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192
LESSON 4.1
STRUCTURE
4.1.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Objectives
4.1.1 INTRODUCTION
193
School health education is very important for it goes to the individual
student, to his family and to the community at large. School health education has as
its scope under “instruction” the following: information of the needs of the
community, content of health education, training of teachers and evaluation.
4.1.2 OBJECTIVES
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4.1.4 RESPONSIBILITIES OF SCHOOLS WITH RESPECT TO HEALTH
EDUCATION
195
afford school adjustment for the children with heart troubles.
• Physical Education Programmes
The role of physical exercises in t he develo pment of normal healt h is
obvious. The schools should also co-operate in the National Fitness
Schemes, etc., Students should be encouraged to take active part in the
athletics, sports and games in the interest of their health.
• Emergency Services
Emergency services should be offered for such emergencies like sprains,
fainting (epileptic fit), bleeding, poisons, wounds, burns, scalds, cuts,
dislocations, fractures, insect stings, drowning, and other accidents.
Teachers are concerned with the incubation period only during which
period symptoms show off themselves. They are also concerned with the
after-effects after the children return to school during the convalescent stage.
The schools are chiefly concerned with the immunisation programmes.
The following are some useful measures for minimising the mass infections
• Use the handkerchief while coughing or sneezing.
• Have adequate ventilation for your living and bed-rooms.
• When sleeping in groups, alter the beds in such a way that the heads come
alternatively in a row.
• Keep all rooms clean.
• Take nutritious food.
• Have adequate rest and sleep.
• Don’t use articles used by the infected persons.
• Close the schools, if epidemic is wide-spread,
• Compel vaccination and immunization programmes.
• Find out the cases, isolate and notify.
• Re-admit when the child is free of the disease.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
• Children suffer from a number of illnesses during their early childhood years.
They have less resistence to diseases than adults. So they easily get illnesses.
The School children also suffer from some ilnesses, which are – cold,
headache, cough, fever, pain in the joints, backache, asthma, polio,
tuberculosis, chicken pox, measles etc.,
• A large number of diseases children suffer from are due to infection. These
diseases are called communicable diseases. Another kind of diseases called
deficiency diseases are also common in children. Those diseases which spread
from one person to another are called communicable diseases. These are caused
by harmful germs which are not visible to the naked eye. The saliva and other
excretions of the infected person carry disease-producing germs. From the
infected person these germs are spread to others through air, water or bodily
contact. Flies and the other insects also pass on the germs to other people. Once
these germs get into the body, they multiply rapidly and cause the symptoms of
the particular disease.
• There are three stages in any communicable disease. They are: i) The
incubation stage, ii) the acute wage and iii) the convalescence stage. The
period from the time the germs enter the body to the time the symptoms appear is
called the incubation stage. During this stage the germs multiply rapidly and
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start affecting the body systems. The period of actual suffering is called the acute
stage. In this stage symptoms appear and the individual suffers the maximum
discomfort. Good diet and rest are important for speedy recovery. The
duration of these three varies depending upon the illness. Some of the
communicable diseases are harmful enough to cause the death of children.
Others make the children very weak. The following are the common
communicable diseases.
• Common Cold - One of the frequent infections of the child is common cold. This
is caused by cold virus. Cold is usually accompanied by running nose, head-ache
and cough. Children catch cold from persons having cold. Some suffer cold due
to allergy. Children may suffer from stuffy nose when they have cold.
Applying camphor oil over chest may give relief to cough. There is no special
medicine for the common cold except to make the child comfortable by
keeping his nose open with nose drops.
• Diarrhoea - is passing three or more loose or watery stools in a day due to
infection of the digestive system. Important salts and water are lost in this
process. Excessive loss of water and salts leads to the death of the child.
Hence it is called a killer disease. The common causes of diarrhoea include
drinking impure water, unhygienic living conditions, eating food which is not
clean, unhygienic bottle feeding, etc.
• Oral rehydration solution can be easily prepared by mixing salt, sugar and
water. In a glass of boiled and cooled water one pinch of salt and four pinches
of sugar are added. This solution must be given little by little whenever the
child is willing to drink.
• Mumps - This is a condition where there is swelling of the glands in the neck
as a result of infection by virus. The child may have fever. He may not be able to
eat anything because of the enlargement of the salivary glands. Hence liquid
diet is recommended.
• Tonsilitis - This disease is caused by bacteria. Throat is affected. There may
also be fever accompanied by cough. Gargling with hot water containing salt
gives relief. Only liquid diet should be given as it is painful to swallow.
• Ear Infections - It is common for children to have mild infections of the ear.
Whenever there is ear-ache doctor must be consulted. Applying hot pad and
giving aspirin may give temporary relief.
• Scabies - When a child suffers from scabies, there is generalized
itching which results in ulceration and crusting. Treatment consists of applying
Benzyle benzoate emulsion as per doctor's advice t4 the whole body for three or
four days after a bath. Keeping the body clean a preventive measure. Children
should not be allowed to play in dirty soil.
• Measles - It is caused by measles virus. The virus is present in the secretions of
throat, nose and mouth and the disease is spread through air. Children who inhale
infected air will get it immediately. The symptoms include cold, cough and fever.
The child’s eyes become red and watery and become sensitive to light. After
three or four days of fever, rashes appear first behind the ears and then
slowly spread to the face and all over the body. One dose of measles
vaccine between 9 and 12 months may prevent this disease.
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• Chicken Pox - It is caused by the germ called Variola minor. It begins with
fever. Shortly, separate, raised pink spots appear on head, face and waist. They
increase in number rapidly forming nodules and blisters and then a crust within
about seven days. The incubation period for the disease is 11-21 days. The pox
may cause intense itching that makes the child very restless. By scratching he
causes secondary infections. So the child's hands should be washed with soap
several times a day.
• Diphtheria - This is a fatal disease caused by an organism known as
Corynebacterium diphtheriae. These bacteria are usually present in the nose and
throat of the infected child. A child can get this disease by being close with the
patient or when the child uses the patient's belongings.
• The first symptom is that the child gets a sore throat with or without difficulty in
swallowing. The child suffers from mild fever and cannot breathe easily. As
the disease progresses, the child is not able to breathe. If proper treatment is
not given, the child may die. The disease can be prevented by giving three
doses of DPT before the baby’s first birth day.
• Typhoid - This disease is caused by the bacteria typhoid and is contracted by
eating food or drinking water infected organism. The disease is accompanied
by high fever and severe headache and can last for 3 weeks. The intestines are
inflamed and so only diet is advisable. The child may also have diarrhoea.
Nourishing so drinks and soft boiled food must be given. Typhoid has a tendency
to and so great care must be taken of the child.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
7. Expand DPT .
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4.1.7 FIRST AID
Students meet with some accidents either in the play field or on the roads e.g.
cuts; sprains; swelling; bruises; simple fractures; bleeding; drowning; fainting; snake-
bites; scorpion stings; dislocation; eye injury, head injury; sprains, wounds; etc. In
such cases, first aid is to be given before the medical help is rushed in. Hence
the student-leaders should be well aware of the contents of the First Aid Box and
how to give first aid to the needy in case of emergency.
The students are also taught about the use of First Aid Box and about
giving first aid to the sufferers as a part of the content under Health Education and
also under the area of Health and Hygiene included in the subject: “Socially Useful
Productive Work, and Community Work and Social Service.”
The first aid to be given depends on the nature of the accident some are indicated
below
1. Cuts and Bruises - Wash with a Carbolic soap or Dettol and apply Furacin
or Dettol Ointment.
2. Burns – Cover it with Vaseline gauze or apply Burnol or the Cream that comes
out by shaking a mixture of Coconut oil” and Water.
3. Sprains - Tincture Iodine may be applied Turperitine will be useful.
4. Wounds - Wash with dettol—sprinkle boric powder and bandage.
5. Drowning - Artificial respiration is to be given following First Aid Charts.
Sex is popular, exciting and body-oriented; it is a subject of art, fiction, films and
jokes. It has its rightful place in education too.It is not desirable to leave children
completely to “sex literature” and other mass media to gain the knowledge
regarding sex; which is quite inscientitic and unpsychological.Reconciliation of
personal desires with social obligations is the fundamental problem of all human
cultures.
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Education for sexuality and responsible family living is a dire need and it should be
given number one priority by the State anywhere in the world. The home, the school,
the religious organisations, the state and the private and public enterprises should
work together- co-operatively to give sex education to the young. Sex education
in schools has been approved by a large number of national organisations. In
secondary schools, male-female images and proper sex roles may be taught. Free-
dom of activity with a corresponding understanding of human sexuality will lessen
the problems.
Population education overlaps with sex education in the field of population control. And
here is where some protests would be inevitable. The modern age brought along with its
glittering advances some dark spots in our lives. We Lave inherited a world with a new
malady namely AIDS, and are trying desperately to prevent this scourge. This malady has
no cure but we can help prevent it. We can arm people with knowledge about sex, it is carried
through sexually transmitted disease.. Sex education has the major components as follows:
Sex education becomes inevitable for the school teenagers. In today's liberal and
interactive society, mixing of the sexes in their reproductive age is common. Should the
boys and girls, in their ignorance, try experimenting with their bodies, they would be treading
the path of sure doom. Hence, sex education is being recommended in schools. There is
another reason for making children aware of their bodies. We have mentioned in the chapter
on environmental education, that the
Sex education must be given judiciously according to the maturity level of the child. It
should not excite them to try out experimenting with this new found knowledge, but preserve
them from disaster and disease. Care should be taken in drafting a curriculum and adopting
teaching methods that will lead to positive attitude. The values of life, health, celibacy are
age- old values, have to be ingrained while teaching about how to maintain the sanctity of
life, and how limits may be drawn to not only self but a whole community.
The imparting of population education rests in the able hands of the teachers, who
again need training to carry out their heavy tasks. NCERT held several training programmes for
the in-service and pre-service teachers so that the country could depend on the able and
intelligent teachers to lead the children to the path of light and life.
The point for discussion at this juncture is “How to impart sex education?”
These are the following alternatives
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1) as a separate course; and
2) as a part of health education: and
3) as an integrated approach.
Some of the teachers feel shy of handling subjects on sex education. The is need
to impart proper knowledge to teachers so that they will be able to undertake the
programme. Teacher education institutions are, hence, offering sex education as a
part of their curricula. For the working teachers extension education programmes
will have to be organised.
In this lesson you have read about the general aims and objective of health
education, the school health programmes, common ailments of children,
communicable diseases and their prevention, first aid and sex education.
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4.1.10 UNIT END EXERCISES
11. cold, headache, cough, fever, pain in the joints, backache, asthma, polio,
tuberculosis, chicken pox, measles
12. Those diseases which spread from one person to another are called communicable
diseases.
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4.1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS
204
LESSON 4.2
NUTRITION EDUCATION
STRUCTURE
4.2.1 Introduction
4.2.2 Objectives
4.2.1 INTRODUCTION
205
4.2.2 OBJECTIVES
(i) Proteins : They are essential for repair and growth, and for preparing
digestive juices, enzymes and hormones of the endocrine glands. Shortage
of proteins results in stunted growth, and poor physique and lack of energy.
There are two classes of proteins: Class I contains amino-acids e.g. milk and
its products; egg, fish, soybean, nuts, etc.. Class II is of vegetable origin like
bread, maize, peas, beans, etc. They repair muscular waste.
(ii) Carbohydrates: Sugar and starch are examples. They are vegetable in origin.
They are easily digested.
(iii)Fats and Oils: These things supply heat and muscular energy. They are of
animal origin and vegetable origin too. They supply A and D vitamins. Fish
liver oils are good for health.
The common nutrients needed for child growth and wellbeing include
carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamins and minerals. When these nutrients are not
present in adequate quantities in the diet of children, they suffer from deficiency
diseases. As the origin of these diseases is the inadequacy of nutrients, they are
both preventable and curable by diet alone. The common deficiency diseases found
among Indian students are discussed as follows:
206
Vitamin A deficiency. It results from deficient intake of green and yellow
vegetables, fruits, milk and milk products. It is the commonest cause of
blindness among children. When there is deficiency, the child may suffer from night
blindness. The conjunctiva of eyes become dry, wrinkled and muddy resulting in
Xerosis. Bitot’s spots form on either side of cornea. The cornea becomes soft and
ulcerated leading to blindness. Xerosis can be treated by giving 5000 to 6000 units of
vitamin A daily for about a month. A diet containing plenty of vitamin A is the only
method of preventing vitamin A deficiency.
Thiamine deficiency. Thiamine is also called vitamin BI. Deficiency of this vitamin
in child's diet leads to Beriberi. The early symptoms include restlessness, loss of
appetite and sleeplessness. Death may occur if treatment is delayed. Giving whole
cereal food may prevent deficiency of Thiamine.
Iron deficiency. Anaemia results from iron deficiency. The child looks pale and
his conjunctiva, lips and tongue are pale. Deficiency may be due to poor absorption of
iron from the intestine or from hook-worm infestation. Treatment for hook-worm and
giving a suitable form of iron will help to cure iron deficiency.
207
Summary of Nutritional Deficiencies
S
um
ma
ry
of
Vit
am
in
Def
icie
ncy
208
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
209
4.2.5 P R ES E RV A T I O N O F N U T R I EN TS
C ut ve g et a ble s a s b ig a s p o s s ib le t o r e d u c e t h e co o k in g
lo s s .
Do no t w a s h v e g et a b le s a ft e r cu t t ing
Do no t w a s h r ic e t w ic e o r t hr ic e b e fo r e co o k in g . Wa s h i n g
o nc e a n d ut il i z i ng t h e r ic e w at er he lp t o r et a in nu t r ie n t s.
U s e m in i m u m a mo u nt o f w at e r w h i le p r e p a r in g ve g et a b le s .
C o o k ing t h e ve g et a b le s ju s t b e fo r e co n s u mp t io n is o n e
w a y o f pr e s er vi n g v it a m i n C co nt e n t in t h e fo o d s.
E n co ur a g e t he st u d e nt s t o co ns u me r a w ve g et a ble s a nd
fr u it s.
Avo id t he u s e o f b a k in g s o d a.
Do no t o ve r he at o r o v er co o k t h e me a t p r ep ar at io n
U s e p r e s s u r e co o k in g o r S t e a m co o k in g me t ho d
A balanced diet can be defined as one which contains different types of foods in such
quantities and proportions that the need for calories, minerals, vitamins and other
nutrients is adequately met and a small provision is made for extra nutrients to
withstand short durations of leanness.
If you look at the definition carefully, you would realize that a balanced diet
• meets the need for nutrients
• consists of different types of food items and
• provides for periods of leanness when the diet may possibly not
supply adequate amounts of all nutrients.
210
Balanced diets provide for periods of leanness: We have now examined the first
two aspects of the definition of a balanced diet. Balanced diets also provide for
periods of leanness. This implies that there is a “safety margin” or a “little extra”
for those times when you do not meet your nutrient needs adequately. A normal
individual consumes a variety of foods. It is possible that on a given day he may
not consume foods in the amounts he requires. But such an individual would not
develop a deficiency if the diet meets the RDIs on most days. This is because RDIs
already include a margin of safety. Planning diets on the basis of RDIs would take
care of this aspect and minor variations in intake from day to day would not cause
problems.
This is the reason why we cannot plan a general or a balanced diet common to or
suitable for all individuals. A balanced diet is specific firstly, to an individual of
a given age (age-range) and sex. In the case of adults, it is also specific to a
given activity level - sedentary, moderate or heavy work. A balanced diet for a
sedentary worker (e.g. typist or clerk) would differ from that of a heavy worker (e.g.
construction labourer). A balanced diet for an infant would be very different from
that of an adult (influence of age). A diet for an adolescent girl would be different
compared to one for an adolescent boy (influence of sex). A pregnant or lactating
woman's diet would differ from that of a woman who is not pregnant or lactating
(influence of physiological stress).
Two other points are of importance when we plan a balanced diet. These are:
region where the person resides and income. In other words, where does the
person whose diet we are planning stay and how much money is available to spend
on food? Let us talk about regional considerations first. The particular foods available
in a region should be used in planning. Using others would be impractical and
unsuitable. There is no point, for example, in including a cereal like ragi in a diet
meant for a North Indian because ragi is grown only in the south.
Preferences/customs are also important. The North Indian prefers wheat based
preparations such as chapati, paratha and poori. Rice or rice preparations such as
idli, dosa are typical of the south. People in the east of our country prefer rice.
Those in the west also tend to eat rice. Seasonal factors also come into play
especially in the case of fruits and vegetables.
A balanced diet for a particular region must reflect the characteristic meal patterns,
the social and religious practices of that region. In Bihar the traditional pattern is to
have two full meals - one in the morning and the other at night. In Andhra Pradesh
there is a morning meal followed by tiffin in the afternoon and then the night meal.
Even within given States there is considerable variation. So the meal pattern you
select would have to be one that is most suitable for the person for whom you are
211
planning the diet.
Among the social factors, taboos related to food may play an important role. A
pregnant woman may not be given papayas because the community/family
believes that this would result in an abortion. This is not scientifically proven
but you would have to keep the existing beliefs in mind unless you manage to
convince the individual. Another factor which influences avoidance of some food
items is religion. If you think of your own religious group, you would probably be
able to list specific foods which are forbidden totally or forbidden during periods of
fasting. You would be familiar with the fact that some people eat no meat or other
flesh foods. Even among flesh foods, eating of beef is forbidden in one community
and pork in another.
These examples would have given you an idea of the importance of being familiar
with the practices, customs, attitudes prevalent in a particular region. These determine
the acceptability of foods. They would also have helped you to appreciate the
importance of using locally available foods.
In addition to these, income plays a vital role. Balanced diets should also be
income-specific. Balanced diets for an individual of a given age and sex (and activity
level where relevant) vary depending on income. A balanced diet would imply the use
of all food groups — energy-giving, body-building and protective/regulatory in each
and every meal. However, the selection of foods and the amounts in which they
are consumed would vary depending on income. As income increases, consumption
of cereals reduces and consumption of milk and other animal protein foods,
vegetables and fruits, fat and sugar tend to increase. While planning balanced diets
for the affluent these trends are kept in mind but excessive amounts of fat and
sugar are not recommended. Having more money does not mean spending more on
fat, sugar and expensive foods like meat/cheese, nuts and dry fruits. It means
consuming the amounts absolutely necessary so as to maintain good health and
avoid putting on weight and developing other health problems. Having more
money, however, enables a person to add more variety to the diet. Unusual foods
or foods not locally available can be purchased or ordered from elsewhere. Judicious
selection of food is, however, as important for the rich as for the poor. The
ultimate aim is always to meet the nutritional requirements.
As you read this discussion, you would have realised the importance of both region
(and associated social factors) as well as income in planning balanced diets. Another
crucial factor we have to keep in mind is the individual's likes or dislikes — in other
words personal preferences. One person may be fond of milk products, for example,
while another may hate them. It is difficult to expect a person to follow a diet
which includes items or methods o f preparation which he or she does not
like. So it is best to emphasize foods which are liked. One must, however,
try to change the person's attitude if he/she tends to leave out nutritious foods such
as milk or milk products. Sometimes it may be just the form of a food that is a
problem. A person may dislike milk but may enjoy curd or paneer. Including these
212
milk products would make sure that essential nutrients are provided and would make
the diet acceptable too.
Parents hostel authorities and teachers should take care to see that the students
cultivate healthy food habits. For this, if the teachers have good food habits,
they can stand as symbols of identification to their students, which they will
imbibe into themselves by introjections.
213
4.2.8 LET US SUM UP
In this unit you have learnt about food nutrients some nutritional deficiencies,
preservation of nutrients, planning Balanced diet and Healthy food habits. Nutrition
is closely interlinked with health. In fact, good nutrition is essential for good health.
Eating the right kinds of foods in the required amount is very important for an
individual to develop normally and to remain healthy throughout life. When the diet
is inadequate, there are chances that individual’s health would suffer; the likelihood
that some of his body may start malfunctioning or that he may acquire some disease.
A glaring example is the fact that thousands of your children in our country go blind
every year because their diet does not provide them with sufficient Vitamin A.
1. a. Proteins
b. Carbohydrates
c. Fats and Oils
d. Inorganic Salts
e. Vitamins
3. Beri Beri
4. Vitamin D
214
6. a . U s e m in i m u m a mo u nt o f w at e r w h i le p r ep ar i n g ve g et a b le s .
b. C o o k in g t he ve g et a b le s ju s t be fo r e co n s u mp t io n is o n e
w a y o f pr e s er vi ng v it a m i n C co nt e nt in t h e fo o d s.
7. A balanced diet can be defined as one which contains different types of foods
in such quantities and proportions that the need for calories, minerals, vitamins
and other nutrients is adequately met and a small provision is made for extra
nutrients to withstand short durations of leanness.
Begum, R.M. (2008). A Text Book of Foods, Nutrition and Dietetics. New
Delhi : Sterling Publishers.
Sri Lakshmi B. (2004). Nutrition Science. New Delhi : Sterling Publishers.
Chopra, P. (2009). Food and Nutrition Education. New Delhi : APH
Publishing Corporation
Mishra, R.C. (2005). Health and Nutrition Education. New Delhi : APH
Publishing Corporation
Mahindru, S.N. (2008). Food and Nutrition Education. New Delhi : APH
Publishing Corporation
215
LESSON 4.3
POPULATION EDUCATION
STRUCTURE
4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 Objectives
216
4.3.1 INTRODUCTION
4.3.2 OBJECTIVES
217
4.3.4 OBJECTIVES OF POPULATION EDUCATION
The need for population education may be stressed from the following view points:
218
Population explosion is presently plaguing the world and our country.
Strenuous efforts are being made by the nation to tackle the grave issue
of population control. An addition of more than one million to our legion is
nullifying our efforts for planned progress.
The younger generation should be fully informed and exposed to hazards of
future.
They should be equipped through proper education for a planned living in
their adulthood.
They must be trained to face the greatest challenge of times and avoid facing
doom.
Population education is a common cause of all mankind belonging to
either developed or developing countries.
About 50% of our population is below 18 years of age. If they enter into
reproductive stage without sufficient orientation on population problems it
will be hazardous.
The marriageable age in India is lower t han that in other countries.
Hence some understandings about population-problems should include into
the school curriculum.
Any modern state is responsible for the welfare, health and happiness of its
citizens, which will not be possible without population control.
Population growth has obviously its impact on the social, economic and
educational development of the country.
219
The population pressure is felt everywhere now—in streets, in buses and trains,
in cinema halls and theatres, in parks and other places of public gatherings.
Swollen cities, unemployment, heavy intern I migration etc. are the results of
demographic pressures on social life.
1) There will be a very high gap in teacher—pupil ratio, i.e., more than 50 pupils to 1
teacher, leading to less attention to individual pupils while teaching; possibility of
sickness and poor health among the pupils; lack of proper health care, facility for
drinking water, toilets, and so on. Many students herded in a small room, will have
scant motivation to stay in the classroom. This will be one of the reasons for steady
dropout of the pupils.
2) Teachers will be paid less and will be less qualified. They will have meagre
motivation on their part and get less social recognition.
220
3) Organization index will show inadequate supervisory staff, less space facilities,
less budget for education, less administrative initiative and leadership talents.
4) Material index will reflect the deficits in many aspects. There would be poor library
facilities, and laboratory equipments, even text books would be in short supply.
There would be very few audiovisual aids. Buildings will be inadequate for the huge
numbers; thus, there will be lacuna in many other spheres.
Languages Material in the form of stories, essays, blank verses etc. can be
incorporated in the language textbooks in mother tongue, Regional Language, Hindi
and English.
221
4.3.8 LEARNING EXERCISES FOR POPULATION EDUCATION
222
be opened in their schools, how can the amount which was otherwise spent on
new classes but spent under the new situation could he utilised.
16. Finding out total number of doctors we need in a district if there would be
one doctor for every 500 people.
17. Finding out what happens when one new job is created in the school or a
village. Also finding out what happens when a person loses job against his
wish.
18. Comparing life in various respects in two families, one with a working
woman and the other only a house wife.
223
their entry into the world”; “He who is responsible for population growth, is
also responsible for feeding the mouths” etc., should be overcome at the intellec-
tual levels, which education can only do. The socio-economic and cultural
advantages one has when one adopts a small family norm should also be
inducted into the minds of school children.
The main objective of the National Family Welfare Programme was reduction in
fertility rate thereby stabilizing the population by ensuring reproductive health and care
for the mother and the child and greater acceptance of family planning measures.
The various services provided under the family welfare programmes include
• Provision of contraceptive measures
• Medical Termination of pregnancy
• Maternal and Child Health
• Education and Motivation
• Research and Trainee
Papanicolaous (PAP) smear test facility for early detection of cervical cancer
among women started in 1977 and extended to 105 medical colleges / institutions in a
phased manner by 1998-2000. The Primary Health Care System developed on a three-
tier structure of Sub centers (SCs), Primary Health Centers (PHCs) and Community
Health Centers (CHCs) in rural areas to provide the basic minimum needs of family
welfare to the targeted population which failed to deliver quality services and attain
desired coverage.
More than 45 years ago, India became the first country in the developing world
to initiate a state - sponsored family planning program with the goal of lowering fertility
and slowing the population growth rate. Since the program's inception, fertility levels have
declined throughout the country, at varying places in different regions; on an overall
basis, the total fertility rate decreased from 6.4-6.6 lifetime births per woman in the
early 1970s to 3.4 births per woman in mid-1990s.
In the eighth five year plan the Government launched the Child Survival and Safe
Motherhood Program to enhance the health of women and children and further reduce
maternal and child mortality. The Family Welfare Program, however, continued - to
emphasize family planning services, and the child survival components of the news:
program, especially the expansion of child immunization services - were implemented
224
earlier than the safe motherhood components. Therefore, the overall national program still
offered little to improve the quality or availability of reproductive health services for
women.
Since the mid 1970s when the Indian government vigorously promoted
sterilization as a means of population control, various stakeholders have voiced concern
about the National Family Planning Program.
In April 1996, the government of India took an even bolder step: It announced that
the National Family Planning Program would become target-free. This decision also was
made without adequate discussion about what would replace the old system and without
assessing the experience of several districts that had become target free in 1995.
Few models exist that can serve as guides for the provision of comprehend
reproductive health services. Local programs vary in their approaches, but they are
similar in their emphasis on comprehensive services for women and children and in their
focus on women’s rights and choice. These programmes include attention to clinical
services and counseling; a focus on health promotion; expansion of services to
unmarried women, men, adolescent girls and boys and postmenopausal women;
reliance on local women as community health workers; innovative and repeated training of
workers using folk and other media; and nominal fees for services.
The evidence also suggests that contraceptive prevalence has increased among
women and condom use has risen among men. Moreover, the community appears
willing to pay for services, allowing for a greater range of service to be provided without
costs becoming prohibitive. However programs run by local non-governmental
organizations continue to depend quite heavily on external funding.
The RCH program utilizes district-level planning and monitoring to make it more
responsive to local needs, and it focuses on improving the quality of care by
225
emphasizing the needs of the client, involving the community, improving the client-
referral system and providing local oversight for female health workers. The programme
strives to revitalize the existing network of rural health facilities by improving supplies of
drugs and equipment and enhancing training, so that workers can provide better
information and counselling to clients and communities (World Bank, 1997).
226
4.3.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
2. a. To create among the students and the teachers awareness about the
population situation in the country and the strategies adopted to meet
this critical situation.
b. To create an awareness among children that the present population
explosion in our country is due to steady birth rate as against rapidly
death rate over the past few decades.
3. a. Teachers will be paid less and will be less qualified. They will have meagre
motivation on their part and get less social recognition.
b. Organization index will show inadequate supervisory staff, less space
facilities, less budget for education, less administrative initiative and
leadership talents.
5. a. Children may also collect figures of school enrolment for the past few years
to draw their inferences
b. Children may collect figures about area and population of countries like
Soviet Union, Canada, China, United States of America, Brazil, Australia
and India and compare them in terms of population, area and average
density of population.
6. The main objective of the National Family Welfare Programme was reduction in
fertility rate thereby stabilizing the population by ensuring reproductive health
and care for the mother and the child and greater acceptance of family planning
measures.
7. The goals of the RCH program include: phasing out incentive payments to both
providers and acceptors of family planning methods; increasing utilization of
existing facilities rather than creating new structures; and using the voluntary and
private sectors to increase access to services and fill gaps left by public-sector
providers.
227
4.3.14 SUGGESTED READING
228
LESSON 4.4
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
STRUCTURE
4.4.1 Introduction
4.4.2 Objectives
4.4.8 Games
229
4.4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.4.2 OBJECTIVES
230
contribute not only to physical fitness but also to physical efficiency, mental
alertness and the development of certain qualities—perseverance, team spirit,
leadership, obedience to rules, moderation in victory and balance in defeat.
Education is a continuous and lifelong process dealing with the all round
development o f man. It is int erpreted in terms o f knowledge. To be more
precise, education develops the abilities of the individual and the growth of
culture and morality. Education is defined as a series of experiences which
enables one to better understand new experiences’. Every individual is a part of
society. Hence education must be broad enough to include the individual and
good of the society,
Acquisition of knowledge alone is not sufficient for the growth of the total
personality of the child. Physical Education must plays a significant role in the
development of the individual. Therefore, g en er a l ed ucat io n in c lu de s
231
P h ys ic a l E ducat io n as par t and parcel of it.
A proper and wise use of leisure enables one to attend one’s work
with a high degree of efficiency. Physical exercises, game and sports, recreative
activities and other big muscle activities involving individual and group
practices enable one to gain efficiency in action, a sound health, pleasing
manners, pleasant character and such other desirable qualities that in turn aids to
develop a sound mind.
Rousseau states, “It is the sound constitution of the body that makes the
operation of the mind easy and certain.”
Montaigue writes, “Physical education does neither train up the soul, nor body
but the whole man.”
The great saint Swami Vivekananda has also stressed the importance of well-
built bodies when he remarks, “What India needs today is not the Bhagwad Gita but
the football field.”
Our Indian schools must give due importance to this aspect of education.
There is a great need of a general philosophy of physical education in India, though it
appears to be very strange in a country famous for ancient Yogic system. There is no
denying the fact that of late we have been ignoring this side.
232
a properly directed physical education should result in health, happiness, efficiency
and character.
Froebel says, “If we wish to develop the whole being, we must exercise the
whole human being.”
In brief, physical education is important on account of the following benefits:
It helps in building individual and national character and strength.
It helps to develop desirable qualities and values like agility, elegance,
endurance, initiative, resourcefulness and smartness.
It makes a significant contribution to the social adjustment of an individual.
It helps in the spiritual development of an individual.
“Physical education is that part of the educational programme in which the child is
not merely encouraged to move but is taught to move effectively. Through physical
education we make sure that a child's movements are the most suitable ones for stages
of developments.”
Physical well-being: This implies providing physical education to students for normal
physical growth and development, in developing endurance and strength to do normal
tasks of life as well as to meet the demands of the stress of life, without feeling undue
strain and in maintaining and developing proper and sound functioning of organs and
organic systems.
233
Cultural Pursuits: As observed by Cozens and Stempt, “Sports and physical
activities belong to the ‘arts’ of humanity. Such activities have formed a basic part of
all cultures, including all racial groups and historical ages, because they are as
fundamental a form of human experience as music, poetry and painting. Every age has
its artists, its adherents and its enemies. While wars, systems of government, plagues
and famines, have come and gone in the long record of mankind, these fundamental
things have always been present, in greater or lesser degree.”
A. Physical objectives
B. Social Objectives
235
4.4.6 FUNCTIONS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHERS
236
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
4.4.8 GAMES
Types of Games
All minor games are suit able for young bo ys and girls. The term
minor is applied to all games o f low organisat ion wit h less: rules, less
equipment and less expense. They are purely recreational games and provide a
lot of fun, frolic and jo y. As such they are well enjoyed by children. They
are simple games that can be conducted in the play fields and also indoors.
237
With a very few rules, the games can be modified according to convenience.
They are played for a shorter duration. On lawns, on sea-shore, on hard
courts, on mountain tops and on river beds, wherever the kids assemble, the
games of low organisation can be conducted to engage the children.
They are classified under games because all the movements involved are
natural movements and unrestricted free expression of the big muscles receive the
richest, benefit in playing minor games.
These games are taught invariably at the elementary school level. They are tag
games and relay games such as simple tag, couple tag, snatching the kerchief,
finding the partner, zig zag relay, over ball pass Relay, under ball pass Relay,
Jump the stick clay and so on. -
Almost every game involves chasing and tagging. Hopping, Jumping,
skipping, leaping and running are the movements insisted on each game and the
effect of these exercises are well seen flowing through the muscles. Imitative
activities in the form of minor games are totally enjoyed by the children. Most of
the activity programmes of the Kindergarten schools, Nursery schools and
Elementary schools are nothing but minor games.
Major games are games of higher organisation. For each game the
rules are many. They are rules approved by the International Associations.
Each game is played for a specific duration on a ground of approved dimensions
with markings and equipment as per international specifications.
The dimension of the posts and nets, the play equipment, the number of
players and substitutes, the duration and extension times are all approved
internationally.
Major games are suit able fo r pupils at Hig h schools and college levels
and also for grown up people.
Major games include almost all games such as Foot-ball, Volley Ball, Basket
Ball, Cricket, Hockey, Ball Badminton, Shuttle Badminton, Tennikoit, Tennis,
Khokho, Soft Ball, Kabaddy etc.,
While many of them are played in the open playfields, some of them are
played indoors. Except a few games, women take part most of the games.
238
4.4.8.3 INDIGENOUS GAMES
Chedu gudu, Kho-kho, Kummi and Kolattam are indigenous games. They
are of Indian origin and are native to ones own soil. They appeal to our taste
and from times immemorial, they are in existence. On occasions like marriage,
birth, death, festivals connected with religion and public functions, these games
being popular, village folk take a very keen interest and participate, in these
games with zeal and enthusiasm. They have an abundant social value. These games
find their places in the high school activity programmes.
Lead up games are games but mostly modified and devised for mastering the skills
of major games. All the fundamental tactics, skills and stunts are put together
to gain practice of major games. For example, the captain ball is a lead up
game for Basket Ball. Devised games enable the participants to gain mastery
over certain skills and lead up games are usually played repeatedly. Novices and
beginners in any game are made to play lead up games so that they can master
the skills required for any particular game. While observing the players in
action, the coaches can easily spot out the defects and correct them on the spot
by tentatively stopping and starting the game. Each lead up game of any
particular major game is so designed that it invo lves all t he finer skills o f
that part icular major game for which it is a lead up one.
239
4.4.9 LET US SUM UP
In this lesson we have discusses the concept, aims and objectives and need of
physical education, the role of physical education teachers and types of games.
Physical education is closely correlated with mental and social development of the
individual. The traditional practice of preparing selected students for sports and
games competitions should be replaced by mass participation of pupils in physical
education activities. Schools should help students to keep them mentally, physically
and emotionally fit and alert. Hence all efforts should be made to develop desirable
health practices in them and provide necessary facilities for the purpose.
240
6. Foot-ball, Volley Ball, Basket Ball, Cricket, Hockey, Ball Badminton,
Shuttle Badminton, Tennikoit, Tennis, Khokho, Soft Ball, Kabaddy
7. Khokho
8. Lead up games are games but mostly modified and devised for mastering the
skills of major games.
Mathews, G.K. (2009). Health, Physical Education and Sports. New Delhi :
Crescent Publishing Corporation.
Aggarwal. J.C. (2008). Education in the Emerging Indian Society. New Delhi :
Shipra Publications.
Mohanty, J, (2005). Modern Trends in Indian Education. New Delhi :
Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Krishna murthy, J. (2008). Handbook of Physical Education. New Delhi : Common
Wealth Publishers.
241
LESSON 4.5
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
STRUCTURE
4.5.1 Introduction
4.5.2 Objectives
4.5.1 INTRODUCTION
242
educat ion for the environment, education about the environment and
education through the environment. Environmental educat ion will enable the
pupil to learn how hazardous environmental pollution, population explosion
and resource depletion could be. The best place to start such learning is school.
4.5.2 OBJECTIVES
The scope of environmental education is very vast. Broadly, it covers the following
elements:
1. Essential knowledge about the Environment.
2. Essential knowledge about the Problems of Environment.
3. Broad based measures towards the Solution of Environment Problems.
243
B. Energy Flow in the Abiotic Component of the Earth Eco-system
• The earth’s ultimate source of energy
• Factors affecting energy flow in the earth eco-system
• Water cycle, its role in energy flow
• Energy transformations and eventual “lost”
• Energy from the earth’s interior
C. Energy Flow in the Biotic Component of the Earth Eco-system
• Photosynthesis
• Respiration
• Food chain and food web
• Tropic levels
• The ten percent law.
D. Materials Flow in the Biochemical Cycles
• Earth processes, their role in nutrients flow
• Water cycle, its role in nutrient flow
• The gaseous cycle:
Carbon cycle
Nitrogen cycle
Oxygen cycle.
• Sedimentary cycles
Phosphorus -
Sulphur.
• Biological magnification
E. Population Dynamics
• Population density
• Natality, mortality and dispersal
• Age structure
• Population growth form
• Regulation of population size
• Natural selection and evaluation.
F. Human Intervention in Natural Processes
1. Human activities that affect energy flow in the earth eco-system:
• Increased combustion and carbon dioxide production Smog, soot
and other particulate matter
• Ozone
• Concentration of human population, heat sink and wind flow in
cities.
2. Human activities that affect materials flow in the earth eco system.
a. Air pollution
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of sulphur
Oxides of nitrogen.
Oxidants
Other pollutants.
244
3. The human ecosystem
245
b) Developing new and unconventional food sources
c) Treatment of malnutrition
d) Pollution abatement:
i. Air pollution abatement
ii. Water pollution abatement.
e) Recycling.
3. Planning human intervention on the natural processes. Broadly speaking
following may be the major topics of environmental education:
• Purpose and Role of the Biosphere
• The Environment and its Elements
• Reserve of Natural Resources
• Man and Ecological Balance
• Atmospheric Exploitation
• Conservation and Exploitation of Sand Resources
• Conservation and Exploitation of Biological Resources
• Population Problem
• The Environment, Public HealthCare and The Food Problem
• Environmental and Economic Development
• Environmental Management Control
• International Cooperation and Environmental Protection. (UNESCO, 1983).
246
4.5.5 KI N D S / TYPES OR CATEGORIES OF ENVIRONMENT
Environment can be divided into two categories
4.5.5.1 Natural environment
The environment that comes into existence without the interference of man is
called natural environment. It operates through self-regulat ing mechanism
called homoeostat ic environment mechanism, any change in the natural ecosystem
brought about by natural process is counter-balanced by changes in other components
of the environment. Under this type of environment any change in the system caused
due to natural processing is counter balanced by the change in the - other components
of the environment. This type of environment is called homeostatic environment
mechanism. Environment may also be classified into following two kinds.
a. Physical environment
Physical environment consists of: (1) forces of nature like wind (2) Gravity
conditions like temperature and light, (3) time and (4) non-living materials: like soil
and water. These are biotic components.
b. Biological environment
The biological environment, includes the plants, animals and other organisms
(biotic). The biotic environment is made of all living beings including t heir
react ions int eract ions and int errelated act ions. Any constituent or condition
of the environment, which affects directly or indirectly-the form of functioning of the
organism in any specific. way is called environmental or ecological factor.
Botany
Chemistry
Chemistry may include: (i) water pollut ion, sources of pollut ion,
reasons, population, explosion deforestation, over exploitation of ground
water, water scarcity, (ii) Air pollution, sources, effects, importance of trees in
the production of oxygen, ozone layer deplet ion, acid rain, greenhouse
effect, relation between population and pollution, importance of nitrogen
cycle, air pollutants from industries.
Zoology
Physics
History
The rise and fall, of civilizations, wars and hazards of war, nuclear warfare,
etc. are the topics which may be taught in History.
Geography
248
may be inc ded in Geography.
Meaning of health and hygiene, aims and scope, role of plants and
animals to make the healthy environment. Role of p lant s t o pro vid e
valuable herbs and medicines should be integrated with Health and Hygiene
Education.
Sociology
249
Send their waste oil, old batteries and used tyres to a garage for
recycling or safe disposal; all these can cause serious pollution.
Never put any left over chemicals, used oils down the drain, toilet or
dump them on the ground or in water or burn them in the garden. If it is
done, it will cause pollution.
Don’t burn any waste, especially plastics, as the smoke may contain
polluting gases.
Reuse carrier bags.
Use unleaded petrol and alternate sources of energy, and keep the
engine properly tuned and serviced and the tyres inflated to the right
pressure, so that vehicle runs efficiently braking of automobiles.
Walk or cycle where it is safe to do so. Walking and cycling can help to
keep you fit.
Use public transport wherever it is possible, or form a car pool for
everyday travel.
Avoid unnecessary or wasteful packaging of products.
Plants and trees will help to absorb excess carbon dioxide.
Observe World Environment Day on 5th June.
5. Mention any two school programs for the conservation and protection of
Environment.
250
4.5.8 R O L E O F T E A C H E R
The teacher may structure the learning experiences and activities and
prepare the points of enquiry. The students can be divided into small groups
to conduct the invest igat ion. The groups may exchange, their experiences in
the general class and enter into discussions. The funct ions o f the teacher
may be summarized as:
251
Maintenance of productivity of an ecosystem avoiding harvesting more than
sustainable yield, preserving natural cycles.
8. List any two values that can be teach to the students on Environmental conservation.
In this lesson you have learnt that Environment Education as the process of
recognizing values clarifying concepts related to environment and its problems for
developing skills, interest and attitudes necessary to comprehend our surrounding or
ecology. It also involves decision making and developing strategies for promoting
environment protection.
3. Rapid population growth, new problems from science and technology, new
problems from development and industrialization and concentration of human
population.\
6. June 5
Sharma, Y.K., Kuldeep, S.K. (2007). Education for values, Environment and
Human Rights. New Delhi : Deep & Deep
Publications.
253
254
UNIT – V
255
256
PHILOSPHICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Unit 5 comprises five lessons which deal with western schools of philosophy,
educational philosophies of Indian thinkers, curriculum construction, promotion of
scientific outlook and attitude and institutional planning.
Lesson 5 deals with the characteristics and areas of institutional planning and
application of modern management techniques in educational institutions.
257
258
LESSON 5.1
STRUCTURE
5.1.1 Introduction
5.1.2 Objectives
5.1.3 Idealism
5.1.4 Naturalism
5.1.5 Pragmatism
5.1.6 Realism
259
5.1.6.1 Pragmatism and aims of Education
5.1.1 INTRODUCTION
From our inquiry into the meaning of the words ‘philosophy’ and ‘education’,
it is clear that the two notions, like two sides of a coin, present different views of the
same thing, and that one is implied by the other. The art of education can never be
completed without philosophy and philosophy cannot convert others to its aims and
values without education.
5.1.2 OBJECTIVES
5.1.3 IDEALISM
Preparation for a Holy Life Idealism prepares an individual for a holy life
Froebel says, “The object of education is the realization of a faithful pure, inviolable
and hence holy life”
In short, the idealists believe that education must help in the full evolution of mind, the
emancipation of spirit, self-realisation and the realisation of higher values of life and to
train “the whole man completely and fully for manhood and not some part of man.”
261
The curriculum should give good mental experience of all types. So cognition
(knowing), affecting (feeling), and collation (striving) should find due place. Sciences
and arts should be taught as fully integrated Since the main aim of education
according to the philosophy of idealism is to preserve and advance the culture of
human race, so subjects like Religion, Ethics, Philosophy, History, Literature etc
should be provided in the curriculum Healthy mind is found in healthy body only. So
health, hygiene, games and sports should find an important place in the curriculum.
For intellectual development, subjects like Languages, Science, Mathematics etc.
should be there.
Herbert advocated instruction method, while Froebel insisted upon Play way
method In all, Socrates Method and Discussion Method form the basis of idealism
Butlei4rightly remarked, “Idealists consider themselves as creators and determiners of
methods not devotees of some one method.”
Idealism assigns a special role to the teacher. It considers teacher as. a spiritual
guide for the child. The teacher serves as a living model for the students. He sets the
environment in which education takes place. He carries the child from darkness to
light. He is to guide the student towards utmost possible perfection.
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perfection and beauty. Ross explains, “The naturalist may be patient but the idealist
wants fine roses.”
Thus we find that the philosophy of idealism has contributed richly to the field of
education.
5.1.4 NATURALISM
263
the human machine as good a machine as possible by attending to its
constitution, by elaborating it and making it capable of more and more
complicated tasks
• Education for Adjustment. Education also aims at helping the individual t,o
secure his adjustment-physical as well as mental Education) regarded as the
process of adjustment to environment.
• Education According to the Nature of the Child It has been rightly said that,
“Education finds its purpose, its process and its means within the child-life
and child-experience.” Nature of the child should be first understood for this
purpose. In all, education should develop the child into Joyous, rational
harmoniously balanced, useful and mature child.
Naturalism does not advocate any rigid or fixed curriculum. Its firm belief is
that child teams best in natural settings:
1. It is based on the psychology of the child. Naturalistic curriculum, is based on
the nature of the child, his interests and inborn tendencies
2. It lays stress on subjects that are helpful in self-preservation. Spencer contends
that only those subjects should be included in the curriculum which help in self-
preservation
3. It stresses basic sciences. Naturalists lay emphasis on science subjects such as
Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Arithmetic, Zoology, Botany etc Language,
Literature, Art etc are subsidiary subjects.
4. It emphasises physical and health education
5. It lays stress on the study of past experiences of the race. The past experiences
explain the origin of the present ones. Therefore, subjects like history,
geography should also be included in the curriculum.
There is no place for religious and moral education. Such education is a matter of
experiences rather than of instruction. Punishment is given by nature in its own way.
264
5.1.4.3 NATURALISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING
Nature is a great teacher. Naturalists consider Nature as the only supreme teacher in
whose close contact the child develops normally and naturally. Naturalists do not like that
children should be taught in classes by teachers. In the .naturalistic scheme of education
the teacher plays the role of an observer. His job is to facilitate the process of child's
growth as well as Learning. Ross says that "The teacher is only a setter o. the stage, a
supplier of materials and opportunities, a provider of an ideal environment, a creator
of conditions under which natural development takes place. The teacher is only a
means to assist child's full and free development.
5.1.5 PRAGMATISM
265
absolutism of idealism. Pragmatism holds that whatever fulfills one’s purpose and
develops his life, is true. According to pragmatism education is not the dynamic side
of philosophy as it is advocated by idealism. It is philosophy which emerges from
educational practices.
Pragmatists do not believe in any preconceived aims of education Aims are not
fixed, immutable or final They arise out of the ongoing experience and should be
wholly within the child’s experience. Some of the aims suggested in pragmatism are
given below:
266
Technical Education, Mathematics for boys and Home science for girls, should find
proper place.
267
5.1.6 REALISM
268
5.1.6.3 REALISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING
What ever is taught must be taught surely and thoroughly, certainly and
clearly, easily and pleasantly. They recommended
• Learning through experience
• Child centered
• Experimentation
• Tours / Excursion
• Demonstration and Observation
269
5.1.7 LET US SUM UP
1. a. Self Realisation
b. Universal Education
270
5.1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
271
LESSON 5.2
STRUCTURE
5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2 Objectives
5.2.4.2 Curriculum
5.2.5.2 Curriculum
272
5.2.5.4 Role of the teacher
5.2.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2.2 OBJECTIVES
Immediate Aims
Character Aim According to Gandhiji, the end of all knowledge should be the
building up of character. Character building implies cultivation of moral values such
as courage, strength of mind, righteousness, self-restraint and service of humanity.
Perfect Development Aim Gandhiji once wrote, 'The real education is that
which fully develops the body, mind and soul of children He further observed, 'Man
is neither mere intellect, nor the gross animals body, nor heart or soul alone A
proper and harmonious contribution of all the three is required for the making of the
whole man and constitutes the true economics of education."
Dignity of Labour. Gandhiji wished that all individuals especially the learners
should do some manual work Studies are important at their own place The students
must learn the dignity of labour. They should not feel shy while doing some work
with their hands.
274
Training for Leadership. Gandhiji believed that for successful democracy,
good leaders are needed Education should imbibe the education of good leaders. That
way only the students will be able to shoulder the responsibilties in a satisfactory
manner.
Individual and Social Aims. Gandhiji stressed that education should equip
the learner for individual and social aims Both these aims should be synthesised That
way only the individual becomes better and the society is enriched. Only good
individual forms a better society.
275
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
276
knowledge, faith and enthusiasm They must be patriots, men of character and
nationalists
Gandhi as Naturalist
Like Rousseau Gandhi also believed that natural and rural environments were
important educative agencies. He also agreed with Rousseau that the child is good
by nature. Education must be child centered. He also advocates freedom for the child.
That is why, he greatly emphasised the importance of educating the child in
natural surroundings He equally decried book learning
Gandhiji as Pragmatist
Gandhiji as an Idealist
277
and to enable one to work towards a knowledge of God and self-realization all
training without culture of the spirit was no use and might be even harmuful,” Like all
other ideals, Gandhiji believes in the harmonious development of human personality.
Rabindra Nath Tagore has been one of the topmost educationists of India. His
name will ever shine like a star in the galaxy of educationists who contributed
handsomely to the cause of education His thoughts on education are worth studying.
He believed in the oneness of humanity. He was deadly against untouchability. He
was a true patriot. He had all regards for all the religions of the world Besides, he
believed in the harmony between the East and the West and above all, he was a true
Vedantist
278
Physical Development Tagore strongly believed that good health is a must for
the learner, a sound mind is present in a hale and healthy learner. Education must help
the learner to grow and develop fully. It should help the learner have good physique.
Physical development leads to all round development of the personality.
5.2.4.2 CURRICULUM
Subject of Study - Language and Literature - Mother tongue and other Indian
languages, English and other foreign languages (ii) Mathematics (in) Natural Sciences
like Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, General Science and Health Education (iv)
Social sciences like History, Civics, Geography, Economics and Sociology (v)
Agriculture and Technical subjects (vi) Arts, Music, Dance, etc. (vi) Philosophy,
Religion and Psychology.
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Activities and Occupations (i) Dancing (ii) Dramatics (iii) Music (iv) Games
and Sports (v) Drawing and Painting (vi) Agriculture and Gardening (vii)
Excursions (viii) Regional Study (ix) Laboratory Work (x) Social Service and (xi)
Self-Government
Actual Living and Community Service. The curriculum revolves round actual
living and Communit y Service Life at Shantiniketan is a living example of this
everybody there is an active member of the community and he/ she has to render
social service. Manual labour and participation in community activities is a must for
everyone there. Department of Rural Reconstruction is a centre of attraction for all
this.
Tagore was dissatisfied with the methods of teaching which were used in
the institutions He called those traditional methods as lifeless and unsuitable ones.
His preaching was that the method/ methods should be in accordance with the needs
of the individuals. Let individualised methods be used for teaching. That helps in
proper growth and development of each individual. The following methods of teaching
were recommended
The teacher plays a very significant role in the education of the child. He is a
Guru and he is expected to understand fully his disciples the learners. Only a good
learner can be a good teacher. A real teacher is able to inspire and is ever ready to
guide his students. Tagore rightly says, “He who has lost the child in himself is
absolutely unfit for the great work of educating the children.” He further says, A
teacher can never truly teach unless he is still learning himself. A lamp can never
light another lamp unless it continues to burn its own flame."
280
Shanthiniketan has open spaces, atmosphere of freedom surrounded by natural
environment. It is open to all irrespective of country, race, religion and politics It is
a self-governing institution Size of the classes is small and so individual attention is
paid to every learner They believe in simple living and high thinking All around there
pervades spiritual and religious atmosphere.
281
5.2.5 EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF SWAMI VIVEKANADA
Narendra Nath Dutt was born at Calcutta jn1 863 He belonged to a kshatriya
family of Calcutt Iis father hri Vishnu Nath Dutt was an advocate in Calcutta High
Court.
3. Education for Self-reliance. Self reliance is the most important thing for
everybody on this earth Self dependent finds ecstasy everywhere and in every
way within his ownself. Education should make a person self-reliant.
282
5. Education for Physical Development. A physically strong person is the need
of the society. Brahamcharya helps in becoming physically strong and stout.
Education should help in the physical development of an individual.
5.2.5.2 CURRUCULUM
Self-Study. The teacher should be the facilitator. He should help in creating the
environment which will help the student do self study. The real example of the teacher
with this regard will also do
Meditation and concentration are very near to each other. Every individual
should be trained for concentration. Of course, concentration depends upon
Brahamcharya. Practice of concentrating will help the student learn more and more.
The teacher is a friend, philosopher and guide to the students He. with his Own
example imbibes in the students all good things. The personal life of the teacher is of
much more importance than the knowledge he possesses. Only a selfless person can be
good teacher. The teacher should be pure at heart and he should be a dedicated one.
283
Swami Ji wanted that the teacher preaches religion and be should impart secular
education to the people. Swami Vivekanada believed in self-teaching He said that
every one was his own teacher. In this regard Swami Ji's words are worth quoting He
says “As is the plant so is the child The growth and development of plant and child
takes place according to their nature.
The role of external teacher lies in helping the pupils so that they may learn
to apply their own intellect to the proper use of their hands, legs, ears and eyes.”
284
4. Explain Vishwabharathi.
5. Bring out the educational philosophy of Swami Vivekananda.
1. Basic education.
2. Self realization.
3. Nai Talim
4. A number of crafts such as agriculture spinning and weaving, wood work,
metal work, gardening, leather work have been suggested.
5. a. Activity Method
b. Learning by Doing
c. Technique of Correlation
6. 1937
7. a. Provision of free and compulsory education for seven years to all children.
b. Mother-tongue as the medium of instruction.
c. Education should involve manual work, productive work or vocational
work through art and craft methods of teaching.
d. Self-reliant/self-supporting aspect/concept must be kept in view.
e. Cult of non-violence.
f. Ideal of citizenship.
8. (i) Dancing (ii) Dramatics (iii) Music (iv) Games and Sports (v)
Drawing and Painting (vi) Agriculture and Gardening (vii) Excursions
(viii) Regional Study (ix) Laboratory Work (x) Social Service and (xi) Self-
Government.
10. Where the whole world forms its one single nest.
12. a. Self-Study
b. Meditation and concentration
c. Discussion Method
285
5.2.9 SUGGESTED READINGS
286
LESSON 5.3
CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION
STRUCTURE
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Objectives
5.3.1 INTRODUCTION
287
under the direction of the school. In the words of Kerney and Cook, “It is a
complex of more or less planned or controlled conditions under which students
learn to behave and to behave in their various ways. In it, new behaviour may
be acquired, present behaviour may be modified, maintained or eliminated;
and desirable behaviour may become both persistent and viable”. The
functions of curriculum are pointed towards the realizat ion of the object ives
of educat ion. Curriculum includes b o t h t he c u r r i c u l a r a n d c o -
c u r r ic u l a r a c t i v it i e s . A g o o d curricu lu m, in fact , is t he su m t ot al o f
goo d lear ning exper iences that the students have in order to achieve the
goals of education which determine the direction of these experiences.
5.3.2 OBJECTIVES
Education has to integrate the two processes. One is the individual process
and the other is the social process. In the former sense, it is identical with
individual growth and the development of latent power in the child. From the
latter point of view, it is identical wit h socializat ion, adjust ment to
environment and imbibing o f culture. Both the processes are integrated.
Curriculum is intimately related to education. While education is a process,
curriculum, in the form of new experience, is a means to the process. While
education is learning, curriculum signifies situations for learning. Educatio n
deals with ‘how’ and ‘when’ but curriculum deals with ‘what’. Education is the
product and curriculum is the plan.
Curriculum is not rigid and static. It is dynamic and flexible and changes
constantly with the changing needs and ideals of society. Curriculum in schools in
Independent India can never remain the same as it used, to be in schools
during the British regime or in Gurukula in ancient India. Similarly
curriculum in elementary and secondary schools in England is not the same
as in India, in the U.S.A., in Russia or in Japan. Since the demands, ideals
and aspirations of these different social groups differ widely, curriculum also
offers a wide contrast.
The school curriculum is under fire since the times we threw away the
shackles of slavery. From a slave-country we became secular, democratic and
socialistic country. We need a curriculum that would reflect the ethos of our
country and also its pressing needs. We also need a curriculum which could
help the country to supplant the unsuited educational system bequeathed by
the British by one geared to the needs of a developing economy. A balanced
and dynamic curriculum is the need of the hour. A number of attempts were made
to renovate and revamp the curriculum to make it suitable to the growing needs,
aspirations and demands of a modernizing egalitarain society.
289
(vii) it does not include technical and vocational subjects which are so
necessary training the students to take part in the industrial and economic
development of the country.
The above defects point out that tradit ional curriculum is ‘narrowly
conceived, unpsychologically planned and ineffectively executed;. It leads
only to intellectual development at the cost of physical, social, moral,
emotional, aesthetic and spiritual development. So it is inadequate, unsatisfactory,
uninspiring and unscientific.
At this juncture, there is need to comprehend the subtle distinction between ideals,
aims, objectives and goals of education to have a clear-cut insight into the national
goals.
1. Educational Ideals : These are broad-based and, they depend on the political,
social, and economic ideologies of a country at a given time of bistery. They
speak of perfect goals, which may or may not be attained. They are visionary
goals e.g., Self Realisation,
2. Educational Aims : They are the foreseen ends Of education. They are
achievable through better organisation of educational process. They speak of
immediate purposes of education. They may be ultimate or proximate, general or
specific, remote or immediate, individual or Social and so on. Every nation
develops its own aims of education at a point of history to suit its requirements and
demands. e.g., Vocational Efficiency, National Integration, etc.
3. Educational Goals : They represent the objects of an educational stage or a
level of education. They reflect the ambitions and aspirations of the nation. eg.,
Goals of Primary Education, Goals of Secondary Education, etc.,
4. Educational Objectives : They denote the narrow conception, of classroom, in
instructional objectives. They form the basis of instruction a nd evaluat ion of
lear ning outcomes, T hey ar e pr edet er mined behavioural changes, which
the instruction is likely to bring about in the students. They are achievable,
specific, tangible, unambiguous and functional. e.g, Knowledge Objective,
Understanding Objective, Application Objective, etc.
290
5.3.7 PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION
Totality of Experience
The integrated whole of human experiences should be included in the
curriculum as one unit. The curriculum should include both the literary and
academic subjects as well as the sum total of varied human experiences which a
child receives in the school campus, in the class rooms, on the playing fields, in the
libraries and laboratories and through the various informal contacts with the teachers
and other. educationists.
The Secondary Education Commission Report lays down, “Curriculum does not
mean only the academic subjects, but it includes the totality of experiences.”
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Utility
Curriculum should include those subjects, activities and experiences which are
useful to the present as well as the future life of children. Irrelevant and useless
material should find no place in the curriculum. The dead wood in the present
curriculum should be removed and replaced by needful and relevant materials.
Forward Look
Curriculum subjects and materials should be forward looking so that the child
is able to solve the various problems coming before him in the immediate as well
as remote future, and also to find out suitable solutions and achieve harmonious
adjustment with the changing conditions and situations of life in a progressive ways.
This capacity for adjustment should also enable the child to modify the environment
according to his needs
Implementation Strategies
The strategies for implementing the national curriculum are linked with
1. reorientation of teachers and other educational personnel,
2. development of professional capability at all levels,
3. phased preparation, production and distribution of textbooks and other
instructional materials.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
16. Run.
18. 1937
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5.3.12 SUGGESTED READINGS
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LESSON 5.4
STRUCTURE
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Objectives
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5.4.1 INTRODUCTION
5.4.2 OBJECTIVES
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So that, they may be able to avoid ragged traditions and use scientific deduction to
solve the various problems of their own life, as well as of the society.
NCERT launched various schemes through its extension services for the
improvement of scientific education at all levels and in all fields of human work. Some
of its working schemes are as follows:
1. Schemes of teaching science. Various schemes have been launched to stimulate the
urge for scientific education among school children. Class-room teaching is
augmented with independent investigations and research at all levels of school
and college teaching by providing guidance and equipment for experimental
work.
2. Promotion of science clubs. Establishment of science clubs is promoted to
popularise scientific education among common people. These clubs are
provided with adequate equipment and facilities for experimental and practical
work.
3. Organisation of science fairs, seminars and symposiums. Through newspapers,
teachers of science are encouraged more and more to develop their knowledge
of the subject matter and adopt the most up-to-date devices and techniques of
teaching.
4. Selection for science education. Through examinations, talented and gifted
children in the field of science are selected and encouraged by the award of
scholarships, stipends and appreciations in various ways.
5. Central science workshop. On the advice and under the guidance of talented
and learned members of UNESCO, science council has established a central
science workshop for imparting effective instruction to science teachers in
practical investigations, workshop methods together with techniques of work
and instruction.
6. After such experience and training, teachers as well as students are
encouraged to prepare designs, models and scientific instruments for
laboratories. The central workshop also tries to improve models and designs
prepared by Indian schools besides modifying foreign equipments to suit Indian
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needs and conditions.
7. Training of science teachers. For laboratory and workshop techniques, a part time
curriculum for teacher training has been organized at various important places in
the country to prepare
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
• Scientific outlook helps the learner to search for truth and harmony in
different aspects of life.
• Scient ific out look imp lies a rat ional out look. It helps to reduce
obscurantism and prejudices based on narrow considerations of caste, sex or
religion.
Children are curious by nature. They ask many questions about the objects they
see. They encounter many social events as they grow. They experience natural
phenomenon. They ask questions to understand all these events and
phenomenon. At the root of this lies an enquiring mind. It is, therefore,
essential that teachers, should provide opportunities to. each child to “enquiry
skill building”, which is essential for developing scientific outlook. Enquiry
teaching is, based on the assumption that all knowledge is tentative. In the inquiry
approach, learners are presented with problem or puzzling situations. After
presenting the problem, the pupils are encouraged to ask questions. Practice
develops inquiry skills in the pupils. The pupils can be allowed to consult each
other. The pupils can be allowed to work with an experiment kit or resource
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books, if they like. The teacher helps them in selecting relevant information by
providing cues. Inquiry training is closely related to scientific outlook. Scientific
outlook is not confined to the natural sciences. Social sciences, offer numerous
possibilities for developing scientific outlook.
5.4.6.2 ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN DEVELOPING SCIENTIFIC
OUTLOOK
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Jawaharlal Nehru defines “It is Science alone that can solve the problems of
hungry and poverty and illiteracy of superstition and deadening customs and
traditions, of vast resources running waste, of a rich country inhabited by the starving
people”.
The formation of scientific attitudes which is a processes that starts right from
the very beginning in the immediate environment provide by the parents, friends,
neighbourhood, school and society at large. Attitude is a “condition of readiness for a
certain type of activity”. (Vaidya 2007).
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pursuit should become a habit in the students learning science so that these are
developed as a metal attitude in them. (Das, 2007).
An individual who has learned the scientific attitude and makes use of it does
not jump to conclusions. He is patient and reserved in his judgement. In considering a
situation or a problem, he studies all aspects of it, looking at every side of it before
approaching the study with a minimum of prejudice or bias.
The person who possess the scientific attitude has no time for old wives tales,
rumor, or superstitions. He is person of caution who observes carefully before coming
to conclusions. He is ready and ready to change his mind when he observes new
evidence that he can accept as valid. Individual without a proper attitude toward the
application of knowledge or the acquisition of new knowledge gain little value from
their education. Those with the scientific attitude have a means of applying their
knowledge and a thirst for new knowledge.
Scientific attitude if ever it is developed in the mind of the child “he will live,
think and work it”, Kohli (2007) says that a person who possess scientific attitude is
reflected as:
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• The willingness to change an opinion or a conclusion if later evidence shows
that it is wrong.
• An intention not to experiment or to work blindly and carelessly, but to begin
only after careful planning.
One of the major aims of teaching life science is the development of scientific
attitude in the pupil. Problem solving in all of its elements is closely associated with a
group of attitude or mind sets which are important as outcomes of instruction in
science. A person of caution who observes carefully before coming to conclusion. He
is ready and willing to change his mind when he observes new evidence that he can
accept as valid.
Tyler (1998) made some suggestions for planning learning experiences in order to
inculcate scientific attitude in the pupil. They are summarized below:-
The major role can be played by the science teacher in developing scientific
attitudes among his students and this he can do by manipulating various situations that
infuse among the pupils certain characteristics of scientific attitude.
Teacher can use one or more of the ways for developing scientific attitude
among the pupils.
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• Proper example of the teacher
• Study of superstitions
• Planning of activities
• Preparing the students for activities
• Suggest project which give the pupils experience in problem solving
• Preserve democratic procedures in the classroom
• The maximum use of all the immediate resources like laboratory, manuals and
reading materials available in school
In this lesson you have learnt the importance of science education, and
fostering of scientific attitude and scientific outlook. Scientific attitude is one of the
key objectives of science teaching. Scientific attitude makes the pupil live as efficient
citizens in the present scientific society. The scientific attitude is no one that simply
comes with maturity, it must be encourages, practiced and emphasized during the
learning process. The teachers will have to provide situations in the classroom where
the students can experience, see and feel the need of developing scientific attitude and
outlook.
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5.4.9 UNIT END EXERCISES
5. a. Wide reading
b. Proper example of the teacher
c. Study of superstitions
d. Planning of activities
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LESSON 5.5
INSTITUTIONAL PLANNING
STRUCTURE
5.5.1 Introduction
5.5.2 Objectives
5.5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.5.2 OBJECTIVES
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3. discuss the modern management techniques in educational institutions.
It is high t ime t hat in each edu cat io nal inst it ut io n, each teacher,
and each student are regarded as separate entities. Institution should be regarded
as the unit, and educational development programmes should be prepared and
implemented in a planned and phased manner. By recognizing each institution as a
separate entity it is quite easy to develop district and State educational plans.
Each institution on its part should consider each teacher and each student as
individual entities and plan its' developmental programmes accordingly. In such a
scheme of things the individuality of the institutions, teachers and students is not
lost sight of.
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implemented; heads of the institutions and senior teachers should be oriented
as to the techniques of instructional planning; and
• minimum financial aid should be provided by the State Five-Year Plans
• Instruction;
• Classwork;
• Syllabus;
• Examinations;
• Co-curricular activities; and
• Personnel services.
Administrative Pattern
Every school should have a Planning Council to be headed by the Head of the
Institution and all teachers should be its members. There should be some Standing
Committees for (1) Academic Affairs, (2) Co- curricular Activities, (3) Teaching-
Learning Aids, and (4) Discipline and Welfare Services, etc. The Committees should be
headed by the senior teachers, who are usually in charge of those programmes in
routine work.
The Planning Council of the School should meet a week before the commencement of
the academic year to prepare the annual plan. The Standing Committees will work out
the details in their sessions, which will be discussed in the general, council and,
approved after making necessary modifications. The annual plan should be submitted to
the District Educational Officer to become the basis for the district plan as well as the basis
for inspect ion.
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THE DETAILS OF THE INSTITUTIONAL PLANNING
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5.5.7 THE HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
If the problems relating to human relationships with the school system can
properly be tackled and solved, the same will have its concomitant effect on
the larger society and on the world at large also. Hence Pounds and Garretson
observe: “This single most important end of all our educational efforts may well
be that of preventing some kind of world catastrophe.”
The human relationships in, the school system are of great significance and
consequence for the ultimate success of the whole educative process rests on the
cordiality and congeniality of the human element in the school. Amicable and
adjustive human relationships in a school system and in the societal system
would go a long way to establish international peace, understanding, co-operation,
and solidarity.
The complexity of school organisation in modern times and the many formal
and informal relationships that exist between the school system and the
societal system lead to creation of sub-systems within the sub-system such as
teachers associations, headmasters associations, science teachers’ associations,
students’ associations, parent-teacher associations, etc.
Interpersonal Relationships
The formal interpersonal relationships, which are divided as the in- group and
out-group relationships are as given below
i. The In Group Interpersonal Relationships administrator-teacher;
administrator-pupil; teacher-teacher; teacher-pupil; and —pupil-pupil.
ii. The Out-Group Interpersonal Relationships. Administrator-State;
administrator-administrator; administrator-supervisor; administrator-non-
official functionaries administrator-managing body; teacher-State; teacher-
inspector; teacher-managing body; teacher-nonofficial functionaries; pupil-
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State; pupil-inspector; pupil-non-official functionaries; and pupil-
administrator.
The informal interpersonal relationships of the school systems and societal system are
Administrator-community leader: administrator-parent; teacher-community leader;
teacher-parent; pupil-community leader; pupil-parent.
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Modern Management Techniques
At this juncture, it is essential to know about the modern management
techniques
1. Decision Making - This is an important aspect of modern management
techniques. Those, who occupy the managerial positions, should be quite apt
and adept in the task of decision-making.
2. Leadership - The manager should have leadership traits. He should be able
to command the employees that are placed under his control and make
them carry but the decisions that have been taken. He must be capable of
impressing them with his approach and actions.
3. Motiviation - He should be able to motivate his subordinates in a suitable
manner. He must wisely make use incentive motivation in the interest of
efficient work.
4. Communication - The manager should be capable of having better
communication with his employees. He should be able to provide his
instructions through proper communication channels.
5. Better Human Relationships - The modern manager should be very good
in inter-personal relationships. He should be an artist in human
relationships. He should have cordial and courteous approach either with
the subordinates or superior.
6. Socio-Scientific Approach - Of all the approaches, the socio scientific
approach is considered to be the best in the management techniques.
7. Rapport between the Management and Employees - There is need to
establish full rapport between the management and the employees, without
this the efficacy will be handicapped.
8. Coordination between the Administrative Wings and the Technical
Accounts - This coordination should be ensured to have better results
from the managerial endeavours.
9. Worker Participation - Any good management allows its workers to
actively participate in the administration of affairs. This is the latest
democratic trend in management.
10. Cost-Benefit Analysis - Any management is also concerned with the
cost-benefit analysis. If the cost benefit ratio is less, the worth whileness of
the enterprise is well established. If it is more, it is not worth-while.
11. Democratic Management - The manager should take his subordinates
into confidence. The relationship should change from master- sla ve t o t hat
o f a demo cr at ic- lead er fo llo wer r elat io nship . T he d ecis io ns
should be taken in the group meetings and should appear as though they
are evolved by themselves and not as imposed from the above. The
status of leader enhances in proportion to the extent he appears to bow,
low.
12. Liasion with the Public - Any good management will always have good
public relations. It stimulates and maintains public interest in the
enterprise.
13. Economic Management - Management should be efficient and economical
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too. Wastage and duplication should be avoided. Things should be done
as quickly as possible and quite successfully too.
14. Collaborative Thinking and Cooperative Performance - These two
are, indications of a good management The managers should seek
collaboration of their subordinates in planning, and cooperative performance
should be ensured.
It is quite obvious that all the modern management techniques are not adopted in
educational management. Our educational management still follows the old
bureaucratic process and procedures with the result that many of the educational
goals visualized are remaining unattained. Hence there is need to apply these
modern management techniques to the educational institutions without further delay.
In this lesson you have learnt the concept, objective, characteristics and areas
of institutional planning, the human relationships in educational institutions and
modern management techniques in educational institutions. The institutional plans
can enable every educational institution to do a great deal more through better
planning and harder work, to improve the quality of education it provides. The
emphasis in this movement should be not so much on physical resources as on human
resources for improvement of education. There are large number of programmes
which an educational institution can undertake on the basis of human effort for e.g.
improvement of teaching methods, enrichment of curricula, reduction of wastage and
stagnation etc.
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5.5.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
3. a. Instruction;
b. Classwork;
c. Syllabus;
d. Examinations;
e. Co-curricular activities; and
f. Personnel services.
5. a. Decision Making
b. Leadership
c. Motiviation
d. Communication
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CORE PAPER - I,
CHALLENGES IN INDIAN EDUCATION
Objectives :
On successful completion of the course the student - teachers should have :
1. Understood the history of Indian education indifferent periods of time.
2. Learnt the role of teachers and various systems in education
3. Realized the problems of school education, higher education, women
education and teacher education in India.
4. Gained the knowledge of school health programmes, nutritional requirement,
population education, physical education and environmental education
5. Appreciated the divergent philosophies behind education and their differential
implications.
UNIT I : History of Indian Education
1.1 Gurukula system of education, Buddhist and Jain system of education,
Education by Christian Missionaries
1.2 The progress of education in Free India with special emphasis on
vocationalisation community and Social Service - Socially Useful Productive
Work (SUPW)
1.3 Directive Principles - Article 45 - Responsibilities of State and Central
Governments on Education.
1.4 India's Secular Policy - Religious and Modern Education
1.5 Regional Educational Development in India - Imbalances and Variations in
different environment.
UNIT II : Role of Teachers and System of Education
2.1 Inculcation of Socialism, Secularism and Democracy through Indian education
2.2 Teacher's role towards : a) Pupil's development , (b) Community development
(c) National Integration and reconstruction (d) International understanding and
(e) Elimination of social tensions and conflicts
2.3 Educational Influences of Home, School, Community and Mass Media
2.4 Formal and Non-formal systems of education
2.5 Continuing Education and the concepts of Open University
UNIT III : Current problems in Indian Education
3.1 Primary Education : Education for all, wastage and Stagnation
3.2 Secondary Education : Co-education, Examination reforms, New evaluation
procedures, Inspection and Supervision
3.3 Higher Secondary Education : Curricular needs and Vocational needs of Rural
India, social Impact
3.4 women's Education : Status of Women in Higher Education
3.5 Teacher Education : Training teachers for all levels of education - Pre-service
and In-services facilities, Code of conduct for teachers.
UNIT IV : Health and Nutrition Education
4.1 School Health Programme, Common ailments of Children, Communicable
diseases - Preventive measures, First Aid, Sex-education
4.2 Nutritional deficiencies, Preservation of nutrients, Balanced diet, Healthy
Food Habit
4.3 Population Education : (a) Impact of population growth on Social, Economic
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and Educational development: (b) Family welfare policies of Government -
Small family norms; and (c) Correlating school subjects with population
problems
4.4 Physical education : Importance of physical education and role of teachers
4.5 Environmental Education : Types of environment, Teacher's role
UNIT V : Philosophical Foundation of Education
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