Understanding Our Craft

Wanted: A Defmition of Intelligence

Michael Warner

.
all attempts to develop ambi devise a theory of intelligence
tious theories of intelligence and increase our understand
have failed. ing. In the hope of advancing
discussions of this topic, I have
Walter Laqueur
collected some of the concise
In a business as old as recorded definitions of intelligence that I
history, would expect to
one deem to he
distinguished either
find a sophisticated understand by their source or by their clar

ing of just what that business is, ity.2 After explaining what they
what it does, and how it works. do and do not tell us, I shall
If the business is intelligence, offer up my own sacrificial defi
however, we search in vain. As nition to the tender mercies of
Without a clear idea of
historian Walter Laqueur future critics.
whatinteffigence is, warned us, so far no one has

how can we develop a succeeded in crafting a theory

Official Solutions
theory to explain how of intelligence.
it works?
The people who write the laws
I have to wonder if the diffi
that govern intelligence, and
,, cult)
in the
in doing so resides
slipperiness of the
more

tools
administer the budgets and
resources of intelligence agen
than the poor skills of the
in

craftsmen or the complexity of cies, deserve the first word. The

basic charter of Americas intel
the topic. Indeed, even today,
ligence servicesthe National
we have no accepted definition

of The Security Act of 1947 with its

intelligence. term is
many amendmentsdefines the
defined anew by each author
kind of intelligence that we are
who addresses it, and these def
seeking in this manner:
initions rarely refer to one

another or build off what has

The term foreign intelligence
been written before. Without a

clear idea of what intelligence

means infbrnzation relating to
the capabilities, intentions, or
is, how can we develop a the
activities offo reign govern
ory to explain how it works?
inents or elements thereof

If you cannot define a term of foreign organizations, or for

art, then you need to rethink eign pet~ons.3
something. In some way you
are not getting to the heart of Study commissions appointed
the matter. Here is
tosurvey the Intelligence Com
an opportu
compelling definition of munity have long used similar
nity: a

intelligence might help us to

2 I credit Nicholas Dojmovic, Directorate of

intelligence, and his fine compilation of in

Dr. Michael Warner serves on
I
Walter Laqueur. A World of Secrets The telligence qootations for many of the defi
Uses and Limits of intelligence (New York, nitions recorded here
the CIA History Staff. NY. Basic Books. 1985), p 8. so Usc 401a,

15
Definitions

Many definitions stress

the informational

The Clark Task Force

aspects of inteffigence
language. Private Attempts
of the Hoover Commission in
more than its

1955 decided that: organizational facets Authors writing about intelli

an ironic twist. gence for commercial publi
Intelligence deals ui/tb all the cation might seem to enjoy a lit

things which should be known tle more freedom and flexibility

in aduance a/initiating a than the drafters of official gov

course a/action
1 ernment statements. None

theless, many outside authori

An influential report from the ties also say that intelligence is

mid-1990s (produced by the basically information. Here

Brown-Aspin Commission) pro

2. Information and knowledge are some examples, beginning
vicles this definition: about c/n adversary obtained with one of the earliest theo
through observation, iiuestiga rists in the field, CIAs re

The Commission believes itpref tion,analysis, or under doubtable senior analyst, Slier-
era ble define intelligence
to standing. 6 man Kent:

simply and broad/p as infor,na

tion about things foi-eign And finally, the Central Intelli Intelligence, as I an: writing of
people, places, things. rind gence Agency has weighed in it, is the knowledge which our
eventsneeded hp the Govern with the following sentence highly placed civilians and in/I
ita i-p itwi: If! 1st have to
for the
inent conduct of its

functions. Reduced simplest lernis,

to its safeguard the national

intelligence knowledge and

is we/fare.
The Joint Chiefs of Staff qualify forekiioivledge of the world
as both employers and consum around usthe prelude to deci
Former Deputy Director of Cen
of they tralIntelligence Vernon Walters
ers intelligence, so sion and action by US
deserve a say as well. Their lat published a chatty memoir of
policymakerc.~
his long and eventful public
est Dictionary a/Military and
Associated Terms defines intelli All of these definitions stress the career, Silent Missions, that
offers a more detailed
gence as: informational aspects of intel
definition:
ligence more than its organi
1 i7e product resulting /~oni zational facetsan ironic twist
the collection, processing, bite Intelligence in/b rination, not
is
given that all of them come
always available in the public
gration, analysis, evaluation from organizations that pro
and inteipretation of available domain, relating to the
duce and use intelligence, and
b zfoi-nicition concern big for
strength, resources, capabilities
which thereby might he and intentions a/a fbreign
eign countries or areas.
expected to wax poetic on the country that can affect oil r lives
procedural aspects of the term and the safety ofourpeople.~
Con~niis~ion on Organization of the Fxec as well.
olive Branch oft he Government (the
Another high-ranking CIA
Hoover comn)issjoni. Intelligence Activi
ties, Jrine 1955, p 26 This was an interim officer, Lyman Kirkpatrick, was

report to congiess prepared hy a team on Joint chiefs of staff, Drftifl#ne,ii 0/Dc

cler the Ieadercliip of Gen Mark clark. ,se hid I, ii iar~ ofAD/tie and Assoc ta/cd
Cormiiissn in on the Roles and capa Iiilities Te,,,js, Joint Puhlicaiion 102, 12 April
ot the United States Intelligence cotnirnini 2001, p 208, Slier man Kent siraieg,c ii ite/figence /hr
.

ty, Prepanng for the 2/si Cc;iiu ci An A/i c~nn~d tntelligence Agency (Office of ~4 nw/ice?? Fo,enn Policy (Princeton, NJ
pmiscl/ of US i~ztdligc;ice the Bro.vn ILil)lid Affairs). A cons,noc,-:c Guide loin Princeton tjniversity Press, 1949~, p, ii.
Aspin Report] (Washington, Dc: Govern Jell ,,qeuce. i \Vastnngton, oc centr:il Intelli Vernon Walters, Site,,; Alission.c (C :irden
ment lrintug Office, 1996), p~ 5 gence Agency, 1999). p \n city, Nfl Dooliled:iv, 1978). p 621,

16
 Definitions

The equation
inteffigence =

information is too vague

a tine student of die business don, or what makes the
to provide real guidance
while he senecl Agency in the information needed in the First
and enjoyed a second career as
in our] work. place. Intelligence involves
a respected commentator on information, yes, hut obviously
intelligence topics. He contrib it is far more.

utes the following:

Let us begin again. The place

inlelligence isi the knowledgc~ for definitions isa dictionary. A

and, ideally, fi.reknowledgt~- handly one found in many go~
there is no need to define intel offices ( Webster~i Ninth
sought by nations in response to ernnient

external tl,reats and to protect ligence any further. tells

Neiv collegiate) us that
their vital interests,
especially intelligence is:
the well-being of/heir oii~i
For producers of intelligence,
however, the equation intelli ii zfoimaiio
people. i concern n ig an

gence = information is too

eiiein~ or possible enemy or an
And last but least, a study vague to provide real guidance also,
not area, an agency engaged
in their woik. To professionals
of the American intelligence in oh/a em meg such information.
establishment conimissioned by
in the field, mere data is not
the Council
intelligence, thus these defini Of course, one should hardly
on Foreign Rela
tions are incomplete. Think of
tions in 1996 noted: consult just any dictionary on
how many names are in the
such important matter. The
an
telephone hook, and how few
Intelligence information is not dictionarythe O.~ford English
of those names anyone ever
pub//cl) ava i/able. or analysis seeks. It
Dictionam~~defines intelli
is what people do with
based at least in pail on such gence as follows:
data and information that gives
information, that has been pre them the special quality that we
pared for p0/ic ymakers or other call
7a. Knott/edge as to events.
casually intelligence.
acto,~ inside the government. ~ communicated by or obtained
With all due respect to the
front one another, irformna
leg
tion, neet.s, tidings, spec.
What Is with islators, commanders, officials,
Wrong information of enili/ar). va/lie...
and scholars who drafted the
Information?
definitions above, those clefini
b. A piece of information or

neus,. c. The
obtaining of
is wrong with informa tions let in far more than they
Nothing
screen out. After all, foreign imeJbimnal eon, the agency for
tion per se. Policymakers and
commanders need information policy clecisionniakers all need obtaining secret information,
information, and the staff ofpersons so employed,
to do their jobs, and they are they get it
From many sources. Is each secret service,,, d. A depart
entitled to cull that information
source of information, and each
mement of a state occanization or
anything they like. Indeed, for a
Factual tidbit, to he considered of a military or naval senilce
policyniaker or a commander, uhose object is to obtain
intelligence2 Obviously not,
because that would mean that information (esp. bj means of
Lvm:in B Kirkpatrick. Jr InteHigence, -
newspapers and radio broad secret service officers ora sys

in Bruce \\ entelson and llioriias C and atlases

casts are intelligence tent 0/spies,)
Paterson, eds E?IC)CIOpVthU of U5 Foreign
Relations. Volume 2 (New York t)x~brd documents, and that journalists
university Press, 1997). p 365 Sherman Kent
and geographers are intelli expressed some
Council on Foreign Relations Richard N.
Ha a s~, piotec ci ireuor], jIIak, ig Jr tie/li gence officers. The notion that thing similar in a 1946 article on

ge; ice Sn Icr/er Rcpo 1 of c,ii 1? icic~t?iilnt intelligence is information does the contemporary direction of
7asi, Force New ibrk, N\ Council on Foi

egn Relations. 1996), P 8 not say who needs the informa intelligence reform.

17
Definitions

Inteffigence is several
things: It is information,
In the
process, and activity,
c rcunistances, it/s sin intelligence, all right, but also
and it is performed by
pr/sing that there is not moie many other things, such as the
lawful authorities. number of American males of
general agreement and less
age to bear arms, the weather
confusion about the nieainng
conditions in Asia, and the age
of the basic terms The via/n
of a politburo member. Indeed,
difficulty seems to lie in the
almost anything military can
word intelligence itself which
he subsumed under Dr.
has come to mean both it/jut
Lowenthals definition, and
people in the trade do and what
National Intelligence Council many things diplomatic fit as
they come up with. To get this officer Mark Lowenthal reminds well. He has the right catego
matter straight is cruciaL intel us that intelligence is some ries, hut he has made them too
ligence is both aprocess ant/an broader than information broad. In addition, his defini
thing
endproduct. 12
and its processing for policy- tion is partly tautological in
makers and commanders, even saying that intelligence is that
This seems to he getting some when that information is some which is protected by
where, but it is hardly concise. how confidential or clandestine. counterintelligence.
We need something punchy. At His useful primer on intelli
this the Walter gence contains this definition: Nonetheless, one senses that we
point, same
have found the right road.
Laqueur who complained above
Intelligence is the process hj Lowenthal adds that interesting
about the lack of a coherent
which specific types of informna clause at the end: the carrying
theory of intelligence uncannily
tion important to national out of operations. Why did he
proved his own point by ren
security requested, col
are associate operations with infor
dering Kents point in a mation processing? My guess is
lected. analyzed, amid provided
sentence that contains no new
to policymnakers; the products of that is he is a good observer
insight but economizes on
that process the who draws what he He
safeguarding sees.
words: knows that information agen
oftheseprocesses and this infor
mnation by counterintelligence cies using secret information
On one intelligenceJ
hand, it
activities, and the carry/Jig out have beenand very often still
refers to an organization col of operations as requested hi areintimately associated with
lecting niformnation and on the laitful authorities ~ agencies that conduct secret

of hem to the information that operations.

has been gathered.~~ Lowenthal is on to something
In ancient times that coinci
important. Intelligence is sev
ProFessors Kent and Laqueur eral things: tt is information, dence might have occurred

that because the agent and the oper

recognized intelligence is process, and activity, and it is
lawful ative were the same man. In
both information and an orga performed by authori
nized system for and tiesi.e.. by nation-states. But many cases, the operation and
collecting
he still has the information are one and the
exploiting it. Iris both an activ too much Freight
loaded on his definition. Infor same; the product of espionage
ity and a product of that
could only be known to its
mation that is important to
activity. collector (for fear of compro
national security could include
mising the source) and thus the
collector becomes the analyst.
12 Sherman cn. Prospects For the Nation
alIntelligence Service, }ate Rei ~eii;, 36 i\lark 111~ Lowenthal, Intelligence From This is how the KGB worked,
(Autumn 1946), p 1 i7 Emphaaes in origi Secrets to Po/iq (Washington, DC: Congres and no one can say that the
nal sional Quarterly Press. 2002 second cdi
I.aqiiciir. p. I 2 uonl), p. 8 KGB lacked sophistication in

18
 Definitions

Secrecy is essential
because inteffigence is
the
part of the ongoing
intelligence business. Other Truman administrations initial
struggle between
nations, however, have impulse give to it to either the
differentiated analysis and oper nations. State Department or the Secre
ations and placed them in tary of Defense? Shulsky notices
separate offices, sometimes with the pattern, but wonders
and sometimes without a com whether it means anything:
mon director. Funny, though,
that both the analytical and the Eveii if forpiactical bureau
operational offices are com cratic reasons, intelligence
monly described doing essential because intelligence is
as orgaizizal fans are give,, 1/ac
intelligence. part of the ongoing struggle responsibility for cocci? actio,z,
between nations. The goal of theniorefuzidamental quØs
intelligence is tri.ith, but the tionfrom a theoretical, as ire/I
The Missing Ingredient quest for that truth involves a as a practical, viewpointof

struggle with a hunian enemy whether cocci? action should be

Why is it that the word intelli
who is fighting hack.15 considered a pail of intelli
gence is used to describe the
16
gence would remain.
work of analytical committees
Shulsky thus emphasizes the
and covert groups? Of
action
need for secrecy in intelligence The institutional gravitation that
signals collectors and spies? activities and organizations. tends to pull intelligence offices
Why do so many countries
Indeed, he comes close to call toward one another has been
Western and Eastern, demo
ing secrecy a constitutive observed by others as well. In
cratic and despotictend to
element of intelligence work, 1958 a CIA operations officer
organize their intelligence
saying the connection between noticed the same tendency that
offices in certain patterns
intelligence and secrecy is cen puzzled Shulsky. Rather than
around their civilian leaders and
tral to most of what distin setting it aside, however, he
military commanders?
guishes intelligence from other attempted to explain it. Writing
intellectual activities, But then under the pen-name R. A. Ran
Another good observer, Abram
he retreats when confronted dom in the CIAs then-classified
Shulsky, has noticed this aspect
with the problem of explaining journal Studies in Intelligence,
of theintelligence business.
how it is that covert action he suggested that intelligence,
Looking at this wide variety of
(clandestine activity performed by definition, always has some
intelligence activities, he
difficult
to influence foreign countries in thing secret about it:
laments, it seems to
unattributable ways) ahvays
find a common thread tying
them seems to be assigned to intelli Intelligence is the official, secret
together. But soon he
collection and processing of
picks gence agencies, rather than to
up the scent again: They
militaiv services or diplomatic iizfornzation foreignon
all, however, have to do with
countries to aid in formulating
obtaining or denying informa corps. Why did it happen in the
United States, for example, that
and impleine~iting foreign pol
tion. Furthermore, Shulsky
the covert action niission was
icy, and the conductof coven
explains, these activities are
activities abroad
tojiczlitate the
conducted assigned to the Central Intelli
by organizations,
gence Agency despite the
implementation offoreign
and thoseorganizations have
policy.
something in common: they
have as one of their most nota
~ Abram N ShLIIsky (revisedby Gaiy
ble characteristics., the secrecy Schmiw, Site,,! lt~hr/i;e: Uizclerctuuitiii,q find
with which their activities must the WorM of IHieltzgence (\Vashingon, Dc 7 H A. Random, Intelligence as a Sci
Brasscys (US), 2002 fthird dlionD, pp 1- ence, Si,thes nz Intelligence. Spring 1958.
be conducted. Secrecy is 3, 171-176 76 Declassitiecl
p

19
Definitions

Inteffigence] includes
clandestine operations
that are performed to
This is getting somewhere. It argue that the difference is
cause certain effects in
calls intelligence an activity and secrecy. agencies and
Plenty of
foreign lands.
a product, says it is conducted businesses have security offices;
in confidential circumstances on
mans also perform investiga
behalf of that
policy-
states so
(ive work. But not all of those
makers can understand foreign
organizations are thereby intelli
developments, and that it
gence agencies. Security and
includes clandestine operations
that are performed to cause cer investigative against for
work

tain effects in foreign lands. whistles to Random, but the eign spies becomes counter
There is really little to quibble addition of countenntelli intelligence when it has to he
with in Randoms definition. It gencehints that Bimfort has clone secretly for fear of warn

includes many things that it missed one of the essential ele

ing the spies or their parent
needs, but without incorporat ments of Randoms definition:
service.
ing much or anything that ii its assertion that intelligence is a

does not need. state activity that involves Indeed, secrecy is the key to
secreCy. If Biinfort had grasped
the definition of intelligence, as
Notwithstanding the quality of that point, he should have con
Random hinted. Without
Randoms definition, it drew a ceded that an activity that is

rejoinder six months later in official and secret ipso facto

intelligence.
secrets, it is not

Studies Intelligence
in from a implies subsidiiirv activities to Properly understood, intelli
CIA counterintelligence officer keep it secret. Thus Bimforts gence is that range of

pen-named Martin T. Bimfort, additionthe protection of activitieswhether analysis,

who complained that Random both process and product. as collection, or coven action
had neglected the discipline of well as persons and organiza perforniecl on behalf of a
counterintelligence in describ tions concerned with these,
nations foreign policy that
ing the constituent pans of against unauthorized disclo would he negated if their for
intelligence. Bimfort amended sureis not only ponderous, it
eign subjects spotted the hand
Random: issuperfluous. It is. moreover.
of another country and acted
unhelpful, because it reaches
intelligence is the collecting and beyond counterintelligence and differently as a consequence)~
processing of that ~/bimation subsumes all sorts of ordinary
cibout foreign countnes 6iiid security functions common to
151 he notion that people act d ifferenil ~
their agents which is needed b~ many government offices and lien watched familiar one to St 1cm I
is a

scientists, who long ago dubbed it the

a govern men! Jar its foreign pol
iCY ciiid for national securitj~
the conduct of nonattnhiitable
activities abroad to facilitate the
unple;neiitation of foreign
policy, and the protection of
both process and product, as
well aspe~ons and organiza
tions concerned with these,
against unauthorized
disclosurc*
private enterprises
This criticism of Bimforts
tique brings us willy-nilly
something important. What
the difference betweed security
(and the law enforcement
aspects of catching and prose
cuting security risks) and
coil izterintelligence? I would
t-lawihorne Effect The Western Electric
coinpinys Hiwtliorne Works in the I 920s
hosted a team of researchers interested in
cri
the effects of hghting on factory workers
to lie team, in sight of the employees, fid
tiled ~itli the illumination levels and
is
learned to its surprise that lxth brighter
antI di miller settings increased tail put 13 in
ployees worked harder even when they
mistakenly thought the lights had been ad
ustedl t)id they u at like the at tent ion, or
did they worry about the potential conse
quences of nut increasing their output? As
long as the workers knew they ~ver e being
ate lIed, the research I cain could riot :i

swei th:tt quest ion~lr lea in which I gilt

levels workers liked best F J Roethlisberg
Martin T Bimlk in. A Definition of intel er and William I i)ickson, jSIr / / /a,i4cn/e/ /1
This does not seem to help. I ge nec, Sin rties ii i / rcl/tge; ter. Fall i 958, (i//il the worLcr (c: mbt idge, i~ IA Ha na rd
Bimfort has added hells and p 78 DeclassifierL University Press, 1956 119391), pp li-iS

20
 Definitions

Inteffigence is secret,
state activity to
understand or influence
Toward a Solution in a fedora and trenchcoat
foreign entities.
skulking in a dark alley. We
A comprehensive definition of
intelligence officers know that
intelligenceone that says
stereotype is silly; intelligence is
what it is. without also far
something more sophisti
including all sorts of things cated than a Spy v. Spy
that it is norwould have sev
cartoon. And yet the popular
eral elements. We can say caricature possesses a certain
now that intelligence is that but I cannot supplant him. Here wisdom, for it intu its that
which is: is my definition, secrecy isa vital elementper
haps the key elementof
Dependent upon confidential Intelligence is secret, state actfn intelligence. Intelligence in
and methods for full 1W to ,,,zc/erstcuicl
sources or ln/lueizce volves information, yes, hut it is
effectiveness. foreign entities. secrecy, too. For producers of
intelligence, it is more about
Performed by officers of the
secrecy than information. Con
state for state purposes (this Conclusion vention holds wisdom for
a us

implies that those officers as well.

receive direction from the Platos Republic is an extended

slates civilian and military dialogue between Socrates and

Why does this matter? Various
leaders). his students on the nature of
agencies have gotten along well
justice. As their discussion
enough for many years, thank
Focused on foreignersusu begins. Socrates addresses the you ~vitliout a suitableforfram
ally other states, hut often distinguished father of one of ing definition of intelligence.
foreign subjects, corporations, his young admirers, seeking (lie One can add. moi.eover, that
or groups (if its objects are elders opinion on the topic. As
providing them with such a
domestic citizens, then the might be expected. the father thing is hardly likely to revolu
activity becomes a branch of replies in utterly conventional tionize their work. And yet, the
either law enforcement or terms, and soon leaves Socrates definition I just proposed could
governance). and the young men to their the assist the growing number of
orizing, which takes off in scholars who study the field
Linked to the production and several directions in turn and might ultimately help the
dissemination of information. Toward the end of the Repub Intelligence Community in sev
lic, however, Socrates has led eral respects. It could provide a
Involved in influencing for his students to an understand firmer institutional footing for
eign entities by means that are ing of justice that looks covert action, which has long
unattributable to the acting remarkably like what the old been a step-child in CIAin no

government (if the activities gentleman had offered in the small part because some

are open and declared, they beginning. Convention often Agency leaders and policy-
are the province of diplo holds a wisdoni that is not makers downtown have
niacy; if they utilize uniformed lightly set aside. regarded it as not really intelli
members of the armed forces, gence at all, but rather some

they belong to (lie military). Perhaps something similar has thing that the White 1-louse
happened with our definition of happened to tack on to the
Randoms definition has come intelligence. The typica Ameri Agencys list of missions. A bet
the closest to date to incorpo can, asked to define intelli ter definition of
intelligence
rating all of these elements. I gence, is likely to evoke an might also guide declassifica
can make him more elegant, image of some shadowy figure tion policy by clarifying just

21
Definitions

what are and are not the various activities performed in

sources and methods that the the Intelligence Community
DCI is obliged by statute to pro with an eye toward husband

tect. And finally, a stress on ing that which they and they

secrecy as the defining charac alone can doand leaving the

teristic of intelligence should remainder to be performed by
help future oversight staffs and other parts of the government.

study commissions to sort the

22