PLAXIS v. 8.

2
FEM computations in practice

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Programme
Mesh generation Soilstructure coupling Initial stresses Ground water flow Types of analysis Integration algorithms

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Programme
Mesh generation
Element types in PLAXIS Mesh refinement

Soilstructure coupling Initial stresses Ground water flow Types of analysis Integration algorithms

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Mesh generation: Element types in PLAXIS

Two types of triangular elements (isoparametric)
Plane strain Axial symmetry

Nodes

Gauss points

6-noded element
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15-noded element

Mesh generation: Element types in PLAXIS

Shape/weight functions for 6-noded triangle
Quadratic interpolation in two (three) directions

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Mesh generation: Element types in PLAXIS

Shape/weight functions for 6-noded triangle
Quadratic interpolation in two (three) directions

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Mesh generation: Element types in PLAXIS

Shape/weight functions for 15-noded triangle
4th order interpolation in two (three) directions

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Mesh generation: Element types in PLAXIS

Shape/weight functions for 15-noded triangle
4th order interpolation in two (three) directions

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Mesh generation: Element types in PLAXIS

Advantages of higher order elements
Good for the description of continuous strain and stress variations, e.g. failure in a zone Good description of a continuous displacement field with relatively few elements

Disadvantages of higher order elements

Failure loads may be dependent on the mesh Poor description of discontinuous stress and strain, e.g. failure along a line

Note: According to the manual, the 15-noded element is superior. However, you should test whether two grids provide the same result.
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Mesh generation: Element types in PLAXIS

Failure along a line modelled with CST-elements

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Mesh generation: Element types in PLAXIS

Failure along a line modelled with higher-order elements

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Mesh generation: Mesh Refinement

PLAXIS: automatic unstructured mesh generation
No possibility of making a so-called structured mesh The mesh size cannot be set explicitly The mesh is generated based on random seeds

The mesh size may be changed implicitly

Globally by means of global coarseness Locally by means of local coarseness

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Mesh generation: Mesh Refinement

Global coarseness
Average element length in the entire model

Coarseness

Very coarse: Coarse: Medium: Fine: Very fine:

nc = 25 nc = 50 nc = 100 nc = 200 nc = 400

approx. 50 elements approx. 100 elements approx. 250 elements approx. 500 elements approx. 1000 elements

Note: The number of elements is independent of type

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Mesh generation: Mesh Refinement

Definition of Local coarseness
At a point Along a line

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Mesh generation: Mesh Refinement

Definition of Local coarseness
At a point Along a line

Note: A line = two points

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Program
Mesh generation Soilstructure coupling Initial stresses Ground water flow Types of analysis Integration algorithms

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SoilStructure Coupling
Interface strength defined by Mohr-Coulomb
Elastic behaviour at an interface: Plastic behaviour at an interface:

Reduced parameters
Adhesion:

Friction:
Dilatation: for else

Rigid interface (Rinter = 1.0)

Applied at interfaces between soil and soil

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SoilStructure Coupling

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SoilStructure Coupling
In manual settings for interfaces, overlap and slip between soil and structure can be allowed

Id the slip/overlap becomes too big, the system of equations becomes ill-conditioned (inaccurate) The fictive thickness ti of the interface can be set, so that the problem is avoided

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SoilStructure Coupling
Permeability
Interfaces in PLAXIS are always fully impermeable Inactive interfaces are fully permeable Interfaces can be turned off in the flow phase Note: Plates are fully permeable!

Real thickness of interface, inter

Only used in the Hardening Soil model Typical thickness: inter = a few grain diameters Used in the computation of changes of the void ratio related to dilatation cut-off Significant impact on the capacity of tension piles
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SoilStructure Coupling
Real thickness of interface, inter
Significant impact on the capacity of tension piles

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Programme
Mesh generation Soilstructure coupling Initial stresses
Effective stresses Pore pressure

Ground water flow Types of analysis Integration algorithms

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Initial stresses: Effective Stresses

Over-Consolidation Ratio (OCR) Pre-Overburden Pressure (POP)

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Initial stresses: Effective Stresses

Pre-consolidation pressure

Jakys equation:

(used in HS)
is applied in order to determine which provides the position of the cap in the Hardening Soil model

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Initial stresses: Effective Stresses

Ratio between horizontal and vertical stress:

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Initial stresses: Effective Stresses

Procedures for determination of initial stresses
The K0-procedure for (nearly) horizontally layered soil Gravity loading for all other situations

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Note: No strength of cohesion-less soil w/o load

Initial stresses: Effective Stresses

The K0-procedure for horizontally layered soil
Initial stresses defined in Initial Conditions

For full gravity, in addition to K0 one must define

To avoid points with plastic behaviour, the at-rest earth pressure coefficient must lie within a given interval, here given for the case of cohesion-less soil

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Initial stresses: Effective Stresses

The K0-procedure for horizontally layered soil
If the state of stress found by the K0-procedure does not provide static equilibrium, a plastic nil-step is included, i.e. a step with no additional load If the K0-procedure provides completely misleading results, the solution of the plastic nil-step may diverge At the end of the plastic nil-step, it is recommended to Reset displacements to zero (check this option)

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Initial stresses: Effective Stresses

Gravity loading
Initial stresses are equal to zero (in the computation) The weight of soil is introduced as a body force Often plastic behaviour is observed at a number of integration points in the finite element model This happens in cohesion-less soil, unless

A number of plastic points can be accepted Poissons ratio should be set so that a realistic value of the at-rest earth pressure is obtained All displacements are reset after the gravitation step
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Initial stresses: Pore Pressure

Total pore pressure in PLAXIS
pactive = psteady + pexcess Excess pore pressure can only be determined in undrained conditions: Cluster is Undrained

Two different approaches

Phreatic level ~ simple definition Ground water flow ~ (anisotropic) Laplace equation

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Initial stresses: Pore Pressure

Ground water table (phreatic levels)
Generally In a cluster

Inaccurate

Accurate

Note: Phreatic level is defined at geometry lines

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Initial stresses: Pore Pressure

Ground water table (phreatic levels)
Generally In a cluster

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Initial stresses: Pore Pressure

Ground water flow
Steady state
Solution of Laplace (or Poisson) equation

Boundary conditions
Dirichlet: potential = position of ground water table Neumann: flux = flow through a boundary Seepage: mixture of Dirichlet and Neumann conditions

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Initial stresses: Pore Pressure

Computation
Phreatic level
Approximate solution All clusters turned on, whether they are active or not This is avoided by the setting Cluster is dry

Ground water flow

Better, but more expensive Only active clusters are included

Note: Time dependent flow can be analysed with the PLAXIS Groundwater Flow module

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Programme
Mesh generation Soilstructure coupling Initial stresses Ground water flow
Steady state solution Consolidation

Types of analysis Integration algorithms

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Ground water flow: Steady State Solution

Darcys law
,
Permeability [m/s]
Seepage velocity [m/s]

Flow in the direction of decreasing potential

Potential (groundwater head [m])

Pore pressure [Pa]

Vertical position [m]

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Ground water flow: Steady State Solution

Equation of continuity for incompressible fluid

Note: kx = ky Laplace equation in the potential

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Ground water flow: Steady State Solution

Permeability in partially saturated soil
Reduction factor

VS

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Ground water flow: Steady State Solution

Discretization

Potential in the element nodes Gradient of shape functions

Local: Global:
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, ,

p = w ( y - )

Inflow at nodes [m3/s]

Ground water flow: Steady State Solution

Example: Flow under a dam

NB: Interface instead of a plate

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Ground water flow: Steady State Solution

Example: Flow under a dam

Note: Interface instead of a plate

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Ground water flow: Consolidation

Effective stresses and pore pressure

Effective stress rate and strain rate

,

Interpolation

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Ground water flow: Consolidation

FE formulation of the equations of equilibrium
Internal forces (weight)

Surface traction

Residual

Note: The residual leads to a self-correcting solution

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Ground water flow: Consolidation

FE formulation of the equations of equilibrium
Incremental equilibrium:
Constitutive matrix

Stiffness of grain skeleton: Coupling matrix:

External forces:

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Ground water flow: Consolidation

Equation of continuity for an incompressible fluid
Porosity (pore volume/grain volume)

Bulk modulus for pore fluid

Steady state part of the solution

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Ground water flow: Consolidation

FE formulation of the equations of continuity
Flux through the boundary

Note: q = 0 in PLAXIS 8.2

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Ground water flow: Consolidation

Combined system of equations

Incremental form (elastic material)

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Program
Mesh generation Soilstructure coupling Initial stresses Ground water flow Types of analysis
Plastic calculation c--reduction

Integration algorithms

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Types of analysis: Plastic Calculation

Primary loading to ultimate failure Material behaviour
Elastic Plastic Pore pressure

Geometry
Normal computation: linear (small strain) Updated Mesh: Updated Lagrange formulation
Strengthening of anchors during deformation Large deformations ~ soft soil deposits May follow a normal (i.e. geometrically linear) computation by use of the option Reset displacements to zero A normal computation cannot follow an UM computation
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Types of analysis: c--reduction

Determination of factors of safety
Sf =

Same reduction of cohesion and friction terms

Initial value: Msf = 0.1 Subsequent values are found automatically

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Programme
Mesh generation Soilstructure coupling Initial stresses Ground water flow Types of analysis Integration algorithms

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Tolerated error Over relaxation Maximum iterations Desired minimum and maximum Arc-length control

Integration Algorithms

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Integration Algorithms: Tolerated Error

Set by the parameter tolerated error The default is 0.03 ( total external load)

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Integration Algorithms: Over Relaxation

Applied in order to speed up the process Upper limit
Theoretical: 2.0 In practice: 1.5

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Integration Algorithms: Maximum Iterations

Permitted number of iterations in a load step
The default value of Maximum iterations is 50 Values of 1 to 100 are possible If more iterations are needed, a warning is given in the Log info box on the General page

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Integration Algorithms: Desired Min. & Max.

Desired minimum and maximum number of iterations in a single load increment Can be set to values in the interval 1 to 100 Default settings
Desired minimum = 4 ; Desired maximum = 10

Soil with a low angle of friction

Desired minimum = 3 ; Desired maximum = 7

Soil with a high angle of friction (and HS model)

Desired minimum = 7 ; Desired maximum = 15 Maximum iterations = 75

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Integration Algorithms: Arc-length Control

Increased stability of numerical solution
Default for c--reduction Computation of collapse load

Note: Arc-length control may lead to unintended unloading restart without arc-length control
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