“How Cells Release Energy”_________Biology 7th Class

How do cells obtain ATP?

Autotrophs – nutrients obtained via light or chemicals
Heterotrophs – nutrients obtained by consumption of plants or animals

Most cells break down nutrients to make ATP by:

• cellular respiration (aerobic process)
• fermentation (anaerobic process)

A. Cellular Respiration (aka Aerobic Respiration)

Biochemical pathways that extract energy from nutrients in the presence of

oxygen

C6H12 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 30 ATP

Cellular respiration occurs in 3 stages:

Eukaryotic Cells Prokaryotic Cells

Cytoplasm <<<< Glycolysis

Krebbs Cycle >>> Cytoplasm
Mitochondria >>> Electron
Transport Chain >>> Cell Membrane

1. Glycolysis (“glucose splitting”)

Glucose (6C) is split into two pyruvate (3C) molecules
>> does not require oxygen

2. Krebbs Cycle (aka citric acid cycle)

Acetyl CoA is broken down to CO2

3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

The flow of electrons that cause a proton gradient that stimulates the
production of ATP
Understanding cellular
respiration
This article will help you to understand the process of
cellular respiration -- including where it takes place,
why it is important, and what it produces.
Cellular respiration is the process by which food is broken down by the body's cells
to produce energy, in the form of ATP molecules. In plants, some of this ATP energy is
used during photosynthesis to produce sugar. These sugars are in turn broken down
during cellular respiration, continuing the cycle.

There are three main stages of cellular respiration: 1) glycolysis, 2) Krebs Cycle, and 3)
the Electron Transport Chain (ETC).

Cellular Respiration Overview: Cellular respiration is carried out by every cell in both
plants and animals and is essential for daily living. It does not occur at any set time, and,
at the same point in time, Neighboring cells may be involved in different stages of
cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is an exergonic reaction, which means it
produces energy. It is also a catabolic process - it breaks down polymers into
smaller, more manageable pieces. The ultimate goal of cellular respiration is to
take carbohydrates, disassemble them into glucose molecules, and then use this
glucose to produce energy-rich ATP molecules. The general equation for cellular
respiration is: one glucose molecule plus six oxygen molecules produces six carbon
dioxide molecules, six water molecules, and approximately 36-38 molecules of ATP.

(Please Note: The three steps of cellular respiration have been summarized below. The
description does not include all of the sub-steps involved. Unless you are planning to
major in a biology field, no high school or college course will require you to memorize
each individual step in these three processes. They are looking only for a general
knowledge of the process as a whole and its major component steps)
Glycolysis: Glycolysis involves the breaking down of glucose molecules from
carbohydrates into molecules of pyruvate, which will continue on to the Krebs Cycle.
This process occurs in the cytosol of the cell and can proceed regardless of the presence
of oxygen. In the first stage of glycolysis, energy is actually used to phosphorylate the 6-
carbon glucose molecule. This means that a phosphate is taken from ATP (which
becomes ADP) and added to the glucose molecule. This addition of phosphate makes
the molecule much more chemically reactive. The position of the glucose molecule is
changed, so that it becomes its isomer, fructose. An enzyme then cuts the molecule
apart, producing two 3-carbon molecules of pyruvate. Through several more steps,
catalyzed by several different enzymes, the phosphate groups are removed and these
pyruvate molecules are ready to enter the Krebs Cycle. The reactions of glycolysis
produces a net gain of 2 ATP molecules, as well as a release of 2 water molecules and 2
NADH molecules (these are another type of energy-rich molecule)

The Krebs Cycle:

As pyruvate is being shuttled from the cytosol to the interior of the mitochondrion, a
microenzyme removes one carbon and two oxygens from each molecule, producing
Aceytl CoA. This two-carbon sugar that actually enters the Krebs Cycle. The Krebs
Cycle is a series of steps, catalyzed by enzymes, which completely oxidize the Aceytl
CoA molecule. The Krebs Cycle is an aerobic process, meaning it needs oxygen to
function. Two complete turns of the Krebs Cycle must occur to produce: 4 carbon
dioxide molecules, 6 NADH molecules, 2 ATP molecules and 2 FADH2 molecules (yet
another energy-yielding molecule).

The Electron Transport Chain:

Very little energy has been produced during glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle. Most of the
energy locked in the original glucose molecule will be released by the electron transport
chain and oxidative phosphorylation. The electron transport chain is a network of
electron-carrying proteins located in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. These
proteins transfer electrons from one to another, down the chain, much in the way a
bucket brigade passes buckets of water. These electrons will eventually be added, along
with protons, to oxygen, which is the final electron acceptor. This produces water, but
does not produce any ATP. The ATP is actually produced by a proton motive force. This
force is a store of potential energy created by the gradient formed when hydrogens
(protons) are moved across a biological membrane. Therefore, the electron transport
chain merely produces a gradient through which ATP can be made (this is known as
chemiosmosis). The electron transport chain produces the remaining 32-34 ATP.

Fermentation - an Alternative to Cellular Respiration:

While some steps do not require oxygen, cellular respiration, as a whole, can only take
place when oxygen is present. For organisms living in anaerobic conditions, complete
cellular respiration is not possible. For these organisms, glycolysis is the first and last
step of the cellular respiration process. Glycolysis proceeds normally, as in aerobic
conditions, producing a net gain of 2 ATP. The two pyruvate molecules, however, are
reduced and the NAD necessary for the initiation of glycolysis is recycled. In this way,
the cells do not deplete their store of NAD, although they are only able to produce 2
ATP. As a by-product of fermentation, either ethanol or lactic acid is produced.

Cellular respiration is an almost universal process by which organisms utilize the sugars
in their food to produce enough energy to perform all the necessary actions of living
creatures.