.

'
From,
Theorleo of the Symbol
Tzvetnn Todorov (tr. C. Por lcr)
(lthaco, NY: Cornell U.P. 1982)
2
The Splendor and Misery
of Rhetoric
The IIfeal Cfl." 0' rhdoric (COincicle. wllh
beginning 01 our T.l ( ilus its stmy 11\ Ius ,ustly lamou,
I )inloK"t 011 Orarars. The very first sentence an awarenfSS
of drdine: "Our abovr alt , bauen amI , lfll'r,'d "I Ihe r,tory 01
c1O<Juence, sc.,cely relains Ihe wry 01 '.".Ior: .lIhough
"Oldier Iw lilut s \,lopml,,1 wHh Iht., rcnowllt"l1 I.lk" ... ,If
distinguished orators. "I .
It would be wrnnr, In SCI' in these wurth mUfe J
rcformul.,Iion of I Ill.' pe rennial r("e rence tn lilt! .good
old (bys ." Taci tus" .. own ilnalys('s and a s huty (,f thr of
rheluric in hi s .1.,)' Ihe 01 Ih.
change. . . '" II .
What was the rhe tor ic of "('arher pe rlnds . In a we -Known
I
I " " I it i .. 'In> iul tIt
I
, hrase. thuuR,h (lnt" .. IIOP;U ' .
I I
nl his 1<1""
pCl s uas 'on. Or, it S "ri s toth- put s it at 'U' w.; "ml"h
I
r
61
I"ic " IUu: turk may Il(.' Jt,fint" .. t Ihe f"fully uf ub:iCrvinc in any
Ihe tlvalbhlc m .. tlf (I . 2, 1355(-1). Tilt.'
,,1' i,'d III 1""'1'1":" i ... l' I' '' I"''II\'t' , tldimd l'I ft 'd i\"(' Sp("'fh I h .... '
fIt,ll .I 's ill,",; .. iI111 ' h. , I" tin .. llwrs. I{h,h,,u I:.-.t s ps Ihll
hum- it is nul ( l'lh'('rncc.f wit" "s stlfh- t"ul .1S ,,(liun;
lingtli!;t ir fill III ht' nmlcS an illJ;redicnt of it ad til utln
nllmir.tliun (nl whit'h JWrstlolsittn is llll' musl char.l f lcrislic typt) .
Rheloric eft'als wilh III(' f"".-lions III Spt 't" 'h , IUlt il !" slrut:lUft' , li s
um' nmsl,tnl is II", ul'in'livl' it Sl' \.''''S 1o . thil'vl' : lu pl'rSlliHll' (ur,
in the It."nninolll)W 01 tl later In ill s'rurt, 10 O1I1V(", and 10
'.in",ui.; li, ' 11H',IUS . In t.II':"11 il1lo .;1'\'''0111 III Ih,' t .. I, ' ul Ih.I'
Iht'y 'nlol), ht ' w:"llill ft ',l Ch this "l';t'di\'t' ,
Rlwlnrk 11ll' nU'.In:; Ih.11 .111,.\\, .1 dUlst' " (' nll III llt.,
.chievcd. II is nlll surprising I" dis<I1ver Ih.t the m,I'l'h .. ," "sed
ill rht'ltlric I .. rlU'ttlric.: il sdf art' till Ihi s
h' l"lion nf "wailS Itl RIU'lnrk is stlllwlillll'S \'umpi1r(' d 10
O\(',Iit-,,1 kdll\i'll"" o..: PlHdinw:; lu mililar\' '1Ims, in
1(Jlle:
It is dl',u. tlIl'II, Ih.I' rhl'luric . . ' is USt'fu' , II rll' ar, furlllt'r,
Ihal flln("lilln b IIHI :-oi l11l''' ' In ';111', 1'0 ,,1 in 1t(' , ", u" dinJ;, hul
rllther lu Liisc{lY ...r Iht, means ttl cumintt n('.u such as)
Ihe circumslanc('s uf ('.1Ch particular G1S.' .. lInw, In il resr m
hlc!Ii nil nlhl'r art s, hlr l')t.lmrlt. il is not Ill(' h",diu" of nU'lli -
(inl' !liimply lu . man qUitl' h .. .llthy, hul III Jlul him as far
A!' m.lY t'lt' UII IllI' ft.,.,1 10 IlI'.llIh; il i .. ,"'I" "il-l, ' Itl ,:i\'l ' ,',n'III'"I
bralml,.,1 l'Vt'l1 In Ih"St., whu COlO nl' v,' r (' ''ioy SUU,h' hl".llih.
IRI,,I. , " t,
Or, in Ihl' RI,d.";(II "d IIntHU;II". (Tn Hrrc nnius (Ill Ih('
(If ,' .. hli, ' 1r00,lititUl.,ltv .Ithilt"",,1 10 Cin'ru:
-This nl I"pics in like Ih. ", . lyinr, .. ( sol-
diffs in 1>,111,, "n n';lllily brin.: vicln,v" (II', III,
It is clt',u th.II IIU' (It rhdtlri<" is _HH' llr IIt.ll
\'f'n' il11l1"lr.,' : \\"h,lh'v('r Ih,' , 'ill " l1l1 ... "' Ih, ' , ' :111 '; ,' dt' -
' ,'r,dnl, .111\' I,' .l bh.. h . ldlil'Yl' (' :I .. S "'11'1. I It l' assorlt'd
df'(1.1 ... lions Ilf rrint"i p'" d llslC'rt' tI .,1 Ih .. , ('nlrann' or lilt' t' xit tl (
rhf'lorir .ll t','ifif" hardly prevl' nl th(" el'"l"l'nl elralur frum
,ut f(lr ",ho,o:; ,' i".; lin' "I'p.lnnl ,,"1\' III him:-;dl.
dpl " . 111.1 , .IIPII / " t'II, "1'" ,11 ,,\,,'1' nllllr .; ; ,II' Y
"' ... g'Hkl p ro\' i",'" Ih.lf till' obi n th,' .llIailwd , ,\!lY
,,, .,,1. 1I101\' dli, ',11 ill,, :;; il 11111:',.1 simply l't, lI :-. t' ,1 lowartl ""
.'
62
OF Tin:: SVMBUl
appropriate end. lHay rCf., .. 11 Ihe "topicOt)" th .. t
foresee all possible cases and rind a solulinn 'ur eat:h:
ElClernal Descent- in prais4' : Iht' ann'slors of
whum he tiprung; if hl' is uf illu:dfiuu:, I,,: II.b llf.,t:u
Iheir peer or superior; il 01 humble dcsecnl . he has had his
support. nol in th(:' virtul's ni his anccslUfS. but in his own. In
censure: if he Is of iUustriuus descent he has bet:n a llisll"an:- tn
his forebears; If of low dcS("tnt. he is nonc lilt' a \tishnnour
even 10 Ihese. I KIwI . ","k ... 111.7. IJI
Rhetoric leaches its prilclilinnt'rs to lise the tYlll' ul discourse
suilcd to each parlk' lIlar l:asu.
'Il,e key nolion 0' Iherclore Ihe nuliun 01 suilabilily.
apprul-'rialcncss (J'''',,,,,,. dr'-II,,,,,,), as I\.lhcrl Yun h.,s puintctl Hul
("an arbilrary simplilicalion has made 01 suilabilily a mmpoilenl
"I doculion. whereas il is II,, j;uidinj; I,,illdple Ih 1 j;lIwrns Ihe
whole arl of speakinj;") . Suilal>ilily is Ihe b.lsis .. I .lIi.adly. Ihlls
uf clOtlucnce. A':J Ci":l'rt) wrill':., ii, hi:; 0,,,,,,, :
This. indeed. is the furm of wi:o:;t.imn thai the umlm must espe-
dally employ- h) .hl,IP' hilUsd. In lk.'l".ISiuus .tlhl ,wlsnlls. In
my opinion I1lusl nnl speak in Ittl:' s.unc slylc at _III IilUl'S.
nor all people. nnr all opptllwnls. nur in tldcncc
01 .til client" nor jn partnership with all advocates. ftc. there-
lore. wiU be eloquenl who (an ada pi his speech lu iii all con
ceivable circumstances. IU:.l\f - JU.lVI. 1231
Speech is above all hlOcliunal; It) 1)(' fuor lional b lu lw..' filling.
Such WiI,S rheluric before il!J crisis. Can we tht! patll 'rom
this picture to the uri,.;in. Ihl' caust'S ur Ihe cri:.is? Yes. if we
willing to go alung with the analyses uf \dh' lIuks .hd-
oric Liirecily 10 politics ami sudety. In VilW .... -It"'I"l'un.- I'ru-
gre .. ed so long .dS i l aclually served sollie purpose. so long as il
was an effective inslrumen .. lhal waS unly pussiblc. huwever. in
a titale in which speed. hild puw.:r: in wurds. in a free and
democralic slale. -Creal d"'I"ence. like a /IallIe. i. luel. i,
l'xrilt.:'J lly motion, alh.1 as il htlnl s" (Vi,I"tS"", XXXVI) .
Now Ihis luel is prnvide.l. in a dem"cracy. by Ihe .Iesliny "f
people: " In addili"n. Ihere wao Ihe hillh r.,nk "I IIII' dc/endanl.
ilnd lhe Imporlanc,-' n' Iht..' wh".- h tt' an' iu lin'
dt..,t;,rcc nmJud"l' lit l' ltlllUt'nn' . I;or IIU' l'tIWl'r of
grows with nf allolirs. nur ,-'an ;:u'yune pru-
duce .l sJ"t.' t.'t.' h Ih.,. "rlUi.UtI ,1Ih.' ft..lIuwlh',1 1I .. 1,'ss h,' ftl'lIul
a case worlhy 01 il " ( ... VII) .
fl.\
'I h,' r t.'qlli s llt..' IHllliulI is .1S::' Wl.' t.I hy Ihe "l.'l'dulH til ciliLl.US Il)
spt'.,k of ;,"ylhing, willwul inhihih'tI hy ctlns idl'fillioos of
rauk or pnsull , willi ".ht..' privill' J.:C Ih.lt w.'s uf all.Il'klllg
Ilu' pnw,ftul IIWII " (!II) All Ih,ll j, . 1" ... .i .. ll to .. ll' ill .1 '. I.llt'
where iuslillllilm.II l'llnstrainl s .UL' w"" k _lnd Wht'fl' Ihe pt)Wl'r uJ
.a t1c1il)('r.llivl' .lssl'mbl)' is ""I' V s lr,lOl!.. thl'!'>l' ""IIUrl' S thl.'
L.lSis uf lh' "H ... : r.hY. ThL'sC ..In' tltl.' h'nus ill whi t' t. d',If.IL'
lerill'S Iltt' I'fl" 't',lin
h
ptrit ... l : " WI ... u W, IS in ,I stall'
H' l'lInlllSiuli .111-1 1,llJ..l'l1 ., UVtrM"'I . ".I,'h tll .lltll' nm'
sitleretl as wi st, as IIU' lrr.ln' pt'ollll' could ht' nHI': ill ("(.,( t Ih.lt I ...
\Vas" ( ... lIVI) '" lllf 1t ... I, ,I'" ','ug ,I'" it \\',IIIII,."',I .IIIIIII 's,,, !\- . ..
Uilliullhlnll\' pn,dtll ,'d , I IIInn' dlhlll"IIl' l', I"s i .I S .10 1111 '
(Ulli",Ih-d lid,1 !'IOtlllt "'s ,t,,.I.Iin I1Itll,' Ilnll" ,llIt 111.lIIh' (I
IL) . .
n"IHI ... 'r,II 'y is till' ilillislwl1!'oo.Ihlt, , 'Olhlilitfll 1111 Ih, ' IIttw.,,.ill
h
til
rlu'lllt'lh"'; t'ul1vl'rsl'iv, dUlllU,'lh'" is Iht' hi);h ...' sl 'I",IIIIV ftf tliL' in
dividual In a tlt'mtll' r;: ,,' y: Iwill"'f 011, ' ".,,; gl'l ollon
h
wilhuul the uther. lIulluencc is ' ,,,,n'ss.uy"; lIus i!'oo its tlumillanl
f ... atun-. "lilt at II", same lim" this ''x 1".1 ins ils sw', ',' ss, Thl' all '
cil'lIls "h ... 1 t.: .... vi ....... ,1 IIll'msdvl's Ih t 110 Ulll' l'ullid rist..' ill Ihl'
stall' ur nmltt m' linl in .. ,lt1sililH: ur imp,"I.IUf" ,l lld )"unlllH'III '"
without umhlrit..'.tl ,.hili,y (XXJlVI) . " No Ulll' in Ihust' IIUlt' S illl,lillt..J
glt!al power wilhnul some or utl",r" (lllVII) .
So ehMI"t.' uct.' Sp.llklt'J in drrumslann's Ih.l' W"U' III fhangl'
ror reasons ('asy lu surmise: in a WUrtt. lold, H' lihcrlv . ttt'mller.lcy
ouslt.tI by a slruu); sl . ll' wilh l,lWS ,HId .HlI I II)! i .
I,ui.\I1 1t.',ld,rship.' Sud. is Iht.' PiHli,ul.lf , ',I !'oo " ,.{ Ittl .. ", ( " CII';ll.' US
I'ompt.'y in his Ihih' nills uiship \y,,!,> II", fif !'oo llu nUllilw Ihe .."
lit'sllIlll . ;:IS it Wl'll' , put reins UpHIi dtklul'Ut.."'" l"l"VIIIII); sud, b
Iht.' spdlt'tl nul in ,ld,Iil hy T.h'itlls : " W, ' dn nol t'V"1I J
know uf dn'lul'lIfl' .1II11Ult; Iht!' Mact'<innians and Pl.'rsians or .lny
pt.uplt who Wt'(t' s,Ih ... li,'d willi ... I,.blt, gP\ ' I ' lllIIlI'lIl" ( 11 1) . If dl'IIHk"
lat..'y dis.lppl.lrs. il II is rt.'I'I.I,, '" hy .t !'oolrull
h
h1wl'IIHnl' ni Ih.II
can wilh puhlir ddil .... r"liu"!" ... , Wh.ll us,' i .. ,' h"'I''''IKt' !
"Whal nt'l',1 is Ihl'h' Ittr lung t..)'prt';i!"iuns III "pilliull III Ihl' St..'UillL'
when '],1' lit ", IIIc'" 'Iuit-kly (UIIU' I" .1n ,_grt"'lIu'nl! Wh,,1 is lillo'
nl'l'J for IlIolUY lx"nu.' Ilu' 1lt.,IP", wlU'1I II",
M" lIul .1 "t.lllt'r "I' pllhlil ' 1'"1,, '\' 1-1I1 III,' ,til, '
1I1,'i,I","", " 'hl l I'i II ... 1I'I'oI'sl?" '\' f ; lmph,lsi .. ,hl,I,',I) ,
hnlht'CllUtre. Hugh I we lu ... IIlis st.II,' ot .lf1ai .... ! Nol if Wl'
"n' In 1""lil'\t' . Ih,' IIIII'IIt,, 'ullll III lilt' dl ,lltlhlW whit
rsl.lhlisltl's Ihi s Fur lil""rl\' .In,' ,il ' mlk l . h \, l!tn.,"''' flU'
TilEO R1ES OF TilE $YMIJUI.
('ilee anLi wel l-heing of t'vl'ry imfivhJual : might 10 "'grd thr.
r
L
of c Uecli\'c remedies when we can rc joice III lilt'
a.,scnce I . I rd
of illness? " I( !'ome s tate should found in w lK. ' 11(1 < I
wronr" the uralnr would Il\' tllHwH' ssa ry :l mollg r.",lIhss pt'op',',
as a doctor is amour, healthy ones" (U.I) . .,
The clnqucnce uf (".'lrli,r times 1,00 "osHy: plll't: II",
insecurity of COld) t: ili /.C'I1'S lifl". Ihis tlU' <I"'-'fl rt'sult (If Ihe
de mocrati c institution .
Thai great and renowned l'h"luen(c is uffsprint; uf
which fopl s (all ... _ wUhout respecl, wilholll d'glllly,
violent, I., sil , Mrnnanl. which d'M's nol i1PJX':'If in .
I I
Neither Ihl' "llltltrcncl' tlf IIH' (.ri'rdu wa .. nf suth
sacs. . . . . h
hfl.'at 10 Ihl' stille Ihat Ihe . I"UN pUI up WII
. the ir laws nor did Cin: n. lintl Ih.lt Iwo ur.lhmc,II It' nuwn was
.,t1cquale rur hi s tc nihlr tlt'alh. IIC II
T;lcitus';q "Si nn ' nn ,m\' c .... 11 att .... in gu' at r(,llnwn
and gn' at re pc.lSl" at lin' saltlt' linn' , 1t' ll'.1( h lUll' l'!tioy Ihl.
or his o wn age withoul dl'lradillg frum Ihe tJ lhcr" (XI I) . ,
Let us leave thi' valll l' j1utl\n1r nl .,ide; Ihe facts 10 ""
analyzed. The nowering of eloquence was linked 10 a cerl.on form
of go ve rnment, denult:rary; with disal'Pl.'o1 ran:l' ur ,Il'nu,:,,-'racy,
cioquence ca n only decline. Or even di sappear? rhe ,hclu"c Ihal
laught how 10 be eloquent musl meel Ihe same. fal c. Unless ,,10-
(I"cnn' wrre to wrrt.' 10
it s ub; cd .11 Ihe hUH' . Ami. dS IlI l' ((III(' 111'1 d" .... d 111 I!,f'
Yl' ;U Onl' . tilC trum it, Ihal is what mtl s t have.." happ"'l1n' ; th.)1 IS,
in f., cl , wh.l1 did happtn.
III it d l' rnoc ra( y. s pc('ch coul..l he effkaciOlls. In a rnnn"rrhy (10
IC.lp quickly aheOlt.l), thi s is I1H pHssibl l' (I''''\,'t I: In
not to assl'll1bli, 's l. the i,teal Ilv ch.1I1grs.
the b esl s pecch is now tht, ""l' ''' '111111/"1 . "\"f,'rt' 1t.1\.0 debalr
un Ihe call ses or lhc d et' J l' ll (l.' or rlll'Ioric, the s;rml' nUllc'Xu,' t"l
(lnllClrs cl' ntOlins ;tlHlllwr txchanr.<" in which and Mcss;lia
comp.,re the r("I .. (ivl ",lrHs. tlf llil' ,,1,1 OlmJ t.h.l' IIl'W
Ape r, the lath' r, tinll s in it (luahill's Ihat. were ntll
noti ced ilt Ihe time ni tlnqllt l1lt' -jlc; ins iruflu' nl : '11'
s p("cches thai itrc 'hrilli.,nt . " "striking." ""cOIulilul " - an,1 hc IS
IlIU.: ont'l' rlH' tl with tlwi. dli'",H itv In Ih, < 11M sPI'ItIU' ,;.
jus t in ;, rutl dv buil,ling, th,' tv,III n'llainly
s trung ,l1\d gpjn.: III vt'l it j .. ill ,ukqll.llt ' Iv t 'tl ll '; llI'd ami
III &: ANU . MISERY OF RIIE1' ORIC 65
I. huw, 'tr. wan' an "",t,'r, .l!" ol ...kh anti la!!>tl'flll
I"',hl It' a In be not nnly by II,,: klnJ uf
h(lOll" Ih.,1 k(" ' J.s aw .. y Ihp rain and wind. J:,ul ('v('n one Ihat
Ihl' "p'; ,lIltl I wish him lu I"" 1'tI:"s('!":"t',1 nul "nlv of
flHUilllrt Ih.11 i ... . hll " I"" II luI' olllin.,ry Itut .tlhl
iewds sllOuM I ... !'iill thai hi' 111.,y mor('
orkn plt.01SUU Irorn hant.ilinf.t and upon Ihem. lUll ;
111'1(' tltl' shifl i'Wi'y frum inslrumcnlal I11l"I,' phnrs lo"" .. rd
Ih.ll e vukc.' urn.ll1l1'nll
eicern, of Ihe ancien Is .nd firsl of Ihe ""longs
amnnr, Ihe 1.1t" r by virille of ferlain <IU.llitil'S l'haracll'rislic of hi s
Spt"("Chl'S: ." It w., s II", fir!'ii' (lm. In ;l.,.,ly .1 finish 10 spt-l'l' h, the
first une ttl folluw il of seleclion in vucahulary find In
prnltlln' skillful ("XII) . TIlt' illt'vil.lhll ( HIlSl' II"l'lIft'
of Ihis is Ihat SIlC't."fh('s may mlln' anll mun' l"l'OlU.
liful, bUI Ihey .re nil more apt In fulfill Iheir (fnrnll'r) funclion,
which ttl nlUvill n'. tn ad. "r ....'s inlnlunllu, rl'lnrl!" : ' W\..
knuw hy l'xllt'rit'un' II'ill Gln' .1ntl ("(IIln'rll fur pn' parOllioll ;lrl'
h.rmful" ( ..... ). .
The new cilkllll" " '" .liffers fm", .. 1tI in Ih.1 ':s ide.1 is Ih"
(1".11i1), p, ralh('r IhOln Oll'lillld,' (uc s('rvin
h
an plirpOSt', As i1 malll'r ul tad, thl' l'tlrlil'r rhetoric in.
clu.fed sever.lnnlin", Ih.1 Ctluld have served frn", Ihe begillning
u Ihe basi ' for Ihi' 1.lIer concepl of eloquence; al Ihe lime of Ihl'
crisis in ')uestion. thl' se notions tonk on mnre prerise meaning or
a visihly l'Xptlntll'll rnl l' . is II", GISl' wilh tilt' h'fIU It,."",;o.
o",nr" which as we shall the fure (l' the n('w rhe-
torical ("(lifice: "TIlt' prupe r meanin,; uf orunrr is 'furnish,' 'equip.'
Dul 'a(lnr,, ' is nnt f.lr tiff, an,1 it is in Ihis Ihal ""Inl;" is Ihl.'
distinJ;lIishinK fralllrt." nf eloqul'nn' " IAII"'rl YUI1. PI' . clxx- dxxi) .
We 1i1l,1 ttf t .... lh n' thl' WU1l1 in Cicl' ro. whu
\'irillillly l'ruhu,Ii,'s Ihl. transition. As it h"PI"lns . Ihl' St' Iwu mca n -
ings also CtlHC;-; rttll,' Itt Ihe IWI' l"llfll(' rliulls or rltd,n ic. tlld and
n t' \\' . ill .. !! "1111 ,,,1.,, .lIhl orn.lOh'nl.lI .
rtm ,uf..."tllt ' :-- 1111 is Ihl' ". Iltl' "'rill " 'igurl'" ("lI,,;"III .
(0"(""",,';"_ Ittrlfl" , lIS""'). Nul IhOl I its nw.lninn vari('s, from Thcu-
phrasl .. (lr DeIHt ' IIius I" Quinlili,lII . E;d, linn', " Iigllfl' " is de .
finrd hy its :coy nlll1\' m "r.'rm. " or ltv " t'Pl1lp.'lfi sun wilh f" .... lttrt.s
,lIld p";I1I1,''': ;lI .... 1 ilS till ' hu,lv I ... t c :-- .... lfilv .hl"I" S I'u:-. lllres .
. 11\\'a)'s h"lds il s,' 11 til ,. n'rl,Iin w.ly. so di snlur .. , .Ihv,IYS has i1
((' II.lin ". \\' ,lY 0' 1'I1lI S ( ' in' ro It ' k, ... I" "Ih ..
66
TtlEORIES OF TilE SYMBOL
t!mbcllishmcllb th"l Ihe CrtTJ..S t ,.tll nxilluUu, l'igurl.'S, .IS it Wl'rl.'.
01 speech" (Oro lor, nv, 83) . imporlanl cunsc'l"cnce til Ihis
ddinilioll is that, if it is l.ll-l'U lilt .... lly. all is libur.llivt' .
Quinlilian not hil Itl null' litis . I i,' lilt' S.IH\(' tltlini
hun ul the h.'rm "il is .'pplk'll Iu _IllY Itlnu in whkh
is i"!"l . s it is II' lltktit's whit h. Wh.II",'vl' r Ihl'i.
l"t'lnpuSi liuli. must h.wl (/11:-" ;'''''11 I )III'IIIIJ' , UI. I. 10);
"Ihe name is 10 be applil'd I" ",,'Iain altiludes, ur I lIIil\hl say
gcsturcs ut language" ('1, I, 1:1) . Ill' t;tH.'S 1111 In (undllt.h: "In M)
doing we speak as if every kind 01 lar,/;ual\e p"sscssed a fiX"'" .. .
TIU'rdun' in th" first ,"\11" ("tllllln .. n tl( II,,' Wllftl
is exprcssed by (IX, I. 12).
11.e figure is Ihus cunsish-nlly clefint,tl as ,1 tli s,'must whnst.>
very lurm i. perccivcd. Hul whcrc.s, I .. nnerly, Ihe Iij;ure w.o,
only unc among counlle!i$ manUl'rs of an .. tlisnuusl', nnw
this aututelic concept ha!i llt.'nunc ""mint'ully apprupriall'- since
enlire speeches are In h ..., appreciated "ill
Thl! role of ligures thus cunlillues Il) gruw in the rh"'lurical hea-
lises 01 Ihe period- and we know Ihal Ihc "dY is enlllinl\ when
rheturic wlll be no ",urc Ih.m an l)1 ligllrt's.
8111 Ihere is anolher, slill IIIore imporlanl change, lrum Ihe old
lu Ihe new rheloric, belore and a/ler Ciccru, Ihal (Ul\cerns Ihe
very organizalion 01 ils conccplual lidd ... is well known Ihal
Ihe rhetnrical edifice is suhlli"itll'tt int.- fiVt' .,.uIS, uf whirh Iwo
deal with enuncialion anll Ihe olher disllOSWO,
dlJt'ul;H- - wilh ulll'ralht'S. III thl' nlll instnllnenlOiI pt. rspcclivc.
these Hve pariS arc in prindple (Jespill' Ihe sumetimes dear pref-
of authors) nil an ""'lllal fUClting: Uu-,y ('uHl.'spmul lu five
aspects of the linliuistk cll:I, whith arc 1111 sulljerl Itt ,ut ubjective
exlerior 10 Ihemselve., Ihal til Ihe lislcner . Nnw Ihal
Ihe exlerior objective has disappeared, we lind Ihal dtlculiun-
Ihal is ligure, ornamenl- occupies an increasinj;ly place,
since Ihe ncw ubjective- Ihal "I sp."kin/; (or wrilinl\) ;nIl lilly, 01
creating beautiful bt:st n'alized by Ihis means , Cicero
uses an etymological ar,;uuh.'nt to SUPf"lt)rt his uhscrvtllion uf Ihis
shill :
We must now hun to th\! lask of the J'Nfl'd uralor
and t.'lu'luCIll'c . Tlu' Yl'ry wnrd "Chkl"H'IIr' shuws
Ihal he exccls bl.'GUtS, 01 IllIs tIIu' qu . lily, th.'ll b, in Iht us,,' o.
language. and thaI Ihe uthef 'Iuahlics all.' uVl.'rsh.l,tuwcd by
. this. For the alHndusivt' WOht 1:-1 nut ",lisnlYt'n'r" tfrum ;"'''''' -
' 11I1i SI . f.NUUK ANn MISI'MY tH NIII' IUNI('
'i ), ur .. . u ln
h
" .. (lrum .1;=-'''':'''11'), or " ,h' llIr" (Irum .,,'IeI), hul ill
Cn't.'k Ill' is (''llktl ,I,rl,,,, frum II", W,Htl "10 spc,.Io..," "lid in
Lllm Ih' i:. s itl lu loc' hit ''V'" Y"lh' d,lIllI:' IlIr I.illl -
!-OI'H SOliII' 1.Ht ,II Ih. nih. ,. '1".Ililit!'> 111.\1 ,:,. Itl 1I1 . L.., III' ,III
1II,Ihtl, 1,"111", :-'III'"'IU'" Ill,wl'f III Ih,lt IS is
):r.Hlh,1 tu hilll .11,.'h' . Il)ld'ltI , I(U., hll
67
Thus invl'ulhHI, .... Iht' St',.Hh hlr id,',as, 1:-. hll'" Ify lillh- dUIli -
nalel.i from rheltarif, which h.'romls II"" pCtwinn' of t"ilKllliun
.IUIll', The laller' s vidnry. hnwl' vl.r, is ,lIuhitiUtlus. Winning 1111..'
bailie within rheturic itself, elucution Itlst.'s tl1I' w.lf:
ill!'1 Ill"l .IIISI ' Itt Ihi:-. "idlll)', rlU' 1'lIti,,' tli"'il'lill" Y,II",' til ,I
lout;l.' tlct;rt..'I.' , In Ihis \Yd)' lilt' p.1idllg III Inl'.IUS .11lct "IHI is
":pl.1n'tl hy Ih .... 1 tI' '''1'1'' .11hl ""111t'1i1. tI",.t.. With 'l.flH:
"ideas, " lunnelly 1UI.' ,UIS cump"r,lhll' lu " wlJrds," nuw .1SSlJlIIllhl'
edt.'rnal ""1,,1 llumin"lin
h
fundion ut "l'lhl:-. . "
Nnw ,tiSt.-UtifSI' Ih.,' cUIiM ()t lpprt''''i.IIl't1 lor ils"II, fur ils in-
trinsic 'IUi,lilil's, its turan and 1""'OIuly, illn'ally t'xish',1 tilt'
Rumans. hul such discuurse had nul prt'viously bel.'li known dS
it was ri,Uu.'r what Wl' w("lIti ,';1111;11'",1",.., Ap,'r,
in Tacilus's tlidlut;ue. is CtUlsciuus ul Ih .... "hJl t.'VI.11
Ihe beauty of poetry is now Hf Ihe ".."Ior, ,1 h ....aul, nol
defile,1 by Ihe uld fut of Accius ur Pacuvills hUI dr.lwn frum Ihl'
shrine of IInrace an,l Vergil and Lucan" (xx) In IMI. Ih,11 is how
poetry was ,'dint'd, in nHltmsl wilh "r It'fi,'.II dO'I'h'IIr,,': thL' 1.11 -
ler was dominal.-d hy a concern Inr 'ransitivt' "Hi,"l,'il\', ",hl'ft'olS
tltt! 'urmcr w .. s .hlmired fur its""'" t .....' .IlISI. til ,m' wurk which
Ihe very of the speech had Th .. whl.'n Cit'L'rn
w.nted In tiislill,;uish nraturs 'rnm pods. hc !'i ,Iid .It.,' Ihe I.Iller
"pay mun' ,Itll'nliull h.1 suund Ih . m In St.use" (C I.,"Jr , ).)I. , Otl) .
The 'h.'W t.'Ilhllltnl't in ,1n w"'y tlilkrs hom litn,lhul'; till' nL'W
obiect of rhetoric (uinchJes with literalure . And ,f t'I'Mluenl speech
was one..: ddinl.'''' bV its efficacity, UIIW. 'Iuih' III IIH' nllllr.uy, it is
useless Spt:t.'(h, spt.'l't'h withu", purpl'St.', Ih,11 ,h.I"':. "faist . I ....' us
return une Idsl liml' til Tacitus's It 0pt.'IlS wilh a
sion, nul yt.'l Illl'uliulH'tI hcre. ht:lwt.'L'n 1\I' ...or .uhl M.Ih'IIHIS UII Ih,,'
respective value of l'It\Cltlcnce and plH.'lry . Ih,,'y tlt'f,'u,1
oppnsint; "pinions. 1I1l.' twn orators 1m om' I'uillt : ,h.lt dn-
'lucnet' (all I'e lISl'tt auti Ihal put.tr), i!i fhl'ir disilgn'.'IIH.'nt
Ihlls hillgt' s "'nlin'lv un lilt' \'.11"" tht'Y .,11 bolt' III IIs,'hd.h:-;S .
, I I .. ils lh ..unpiun, t"lull"l'llI"t" ., Sp",.lkl'r hi "pr(l-
allt' tritutlships, ,It'lluin' ,llld bt 'l' IIIIl'"
,_r= SYMnclt .
Ihe palron 01 provinces" (\I); according 10 II. opponenl, II pul.
orillors in the position of N-inr, fur f.won; d'1ily ilnd of
;1nr,ering those who ilsk ()ltll) . or
Apcr holds Ihat "ro{'lry il'lll . dn nol win any
hnnor lor Iheir aulhors nor do Ihey produce any tangible benelit.
. . . Maternlls, whn gets my bendit il Agamemnlln I" Jason
wilh skill in yutlr plays? Who fur this IWlnE'
obliy,ated to y"u because III a slIccc .. 11I1 delense?" (IK) . Matl'rnlls,
on Ihe nther hand, says: ''In,lel'd, let 'th,' SWet't Mu,,'s,' as Vcrgil
S<lys, ca rry me off ttl thust' s.l en.ct plact' s and IhwO(" hmnttlins,
aft e r I have been r('lpflscd from wnrries and (.ues "Oll the n('C(,!I-
sily of doing something d."lily ar,ainsl my inciill,llinn; nnr lei
any more experience wilh dn."d Ihc mtld and tlangernlls forum
a'1d the glory that brings un paleness" (XIII) .
The une reproaches p".try I"r its lise less ness, the other re-
joices in it. P()('b have no conl,,(1 wilh th(' wurltl ; shuuld we-
applalld this or deplore it? Iler" is Aper's po.ition: "Poets have to
leave the acquaintance 01 Iriends anel the charm 01 the city, il they
wish to work out and p""llIcl' anythinl" wnrthy, that they must
disrer,Md olher amI, as thl' y themselve. say, th"y mllst go
off into nlc;tdows and Ih"t is, into s(lliludc" (IX).
But onc man's poison is another man's meal . Maternus says:
"Indeed the meadnws and groves and the very .olitllde which
Aper chid,.,1 allord m" so mcorh pleasur,. th.t I rank them among
the rcw;ut.is ttf IltK.lry, ll{'(tltlsc it is nol (tltnposcli in
hcostle ami hustle nor with a litigant sitting helore une's dour nor
in the rnid!il of the flulhe!) anti n' 1110 .. (' who art
"dng prosecuted, bllt the mind goe. nil into pure anel IInsoiled
hlC"ll's and cnjtlys holy (XII) .
Whatever allillld( nnl' may t"k(' luwanl lil('r.11tIrt, there is
agrecm('nt that it is tf.fined hy ils Quintil
ian's view is the s"me: " I'erhaps tI\{' hir,Ill'SI (I' all .,h::"asufcs i5
111;"\1 which w(, .-tcriv(' from priv"lc stucly. 2I nct the only circum-
Sl,'Ul ces under which the dclir.hlS of liti'milire arr nn"Uuycd are
wh('11 it wilhctrtlws 'rom .. ("Iioll . Ih.lI is lu s .. y hom loil , anti (an
('11 joy Ihe pll'OlSun> ur !'dl ... lll1lt-mplalit 111 " (''' '' ';' "lill ( tn"lIrin, II, lA,
4) . Poets "aim solely ,t pll'",inl" th"ir "',"l",," (V'", n, 17).
Thus u:'>cil'ss. judfil;l("inus ic; 10 II,,' tllljt'rI of
rIH.' hnic. anel rlu,tori, il-,,' H llo('fonws II", IlH'O;y of ,,(1,
mired in and fur ilsdf. To I" , s lIre. enl"in VnitTS will ht.' hr.ud
dt ' mtlnding" u'turn In dfit ,tt it\" ; Ihll s AlIgli slitw \\'ill \\'''111
1111: SI'I . I: NUUM /t.NI' MISI: MY tlf MIIl:.UMIt...:
lian preachers tn p"ssrS5 an '"""lllencf' at lea.1 ,s dlecti If' as th"t
nf Ihrir ;tllvt'rs"ri,'s:
WhH \Vllllitt ,bu' It' .... 'Y Ih.II trulh !'>hHIlItt st.llhl in tl,,' .. (
its tlde","'rs IIn,1IIne,1 against Iyinf'" so that they who wish to
lalsehouds mOlY know huw In makt Iheir li:'>lcnrrs bcncv-
ol('nl, ur .1Ih..'l1ti\'t', ur .. ltlitill in Iht'ir I"f(':'>t' nl.,tinn, tvhih' Illl'
"("('OUt't'r:,> til truth ..nt' ir.nuranl .. f Ihilt ilrl? . .. While' 11,<, f,l("ully
(Ii clct41I1c'nn', whidl nr J!,n'.II \,.,Iu,- in dllH'r c\'iI ,'r
is in ibt..1f imfifft..'rcnl. why shuuU il nol h-t... ul,t.,inC'tI fur
Ihc uses ur Ihe W""f in Ihe "f hull1 If II ... l'vil usurp il
for Ihe ur vain in of initl '
uily and err .. r? I()" C',r;s,itUl Vt.dri"t, IV, ii , :11
8uI h(> ..-I:-; wh.,t l' h"rOJdc"rs "n ..w: l'1, ... lut.'nc .... nl'cds
"eedom. It tloes not nnurish when its aim is prescrihed by dog-
ma, whether plliitical ur relillinlls, nllr it i. asked to inin in
Ihl!' servin' uf ",,, huth. Elot,luenn- nnly in 1Ill' scarch rur
truth, nol in the mere illllstration 01 a particular tnoth.
The second period of rheloric, hum Quintilitln In Picrre
Fonlanier in tin' t...'rly nincll"l'nlh n'nltlry (11 i:'> ., ,lisCllllinl.' in
which .uch shurtcuts are possiblp and even legitim;h:, so slow is
it. evulutilln: Quintilian and "ontani"r, hatl they heen able to
communicate with each other across the centurie" wluld have
understood eacll nth .. r perlectly), i. Ihlls characteri7.ed by one
f('ilhue! : tlU' rUllctinn nf Thus it is
poetic Ie!xt Ih,,1 bt'l'umes lilt..' privilt..gt.'tltxOlmpl .. . In the R/II"4_' -
ir. ", /lrmlll;UIJI, in a naive way perhaps, the description 01 each
ligure was Inllllw",1 by thaI 01 its ellects; in later ,hetories, lunc-
Uon fir:'>t Ir("ilh'tt thc'n lInifi" ..1 fur ,,11 "nd
releg,ted til tI,,, last fhapter; linally il is III'Il"ttell . Whl'n
like ftlntOlnil'r nn dft't.'ls ur "nd hl'
no lungt.'r considt'rs lilt' .-frect nn Illh('r pt"'plt', hut only 111(' rd;t
lion bctw('('n exprt'ssiun and form itnd (,tnlcnl- an in-
lunelinn nr litllf; .. tlge: "Wc shall he asked whether it is
userul to shllfy 10 know th("m. VI'S, wt-
is more u sdul. mure nt:Cl'!>sOtry l'Vt'n, rur thust.. whu st.' ..
In pe!lll'lr<lfto Ill(' uf I" m.lsh'r lilt' st..nt'ls or
slyle, "nel wh .. wish til be abl,. t .. r:rasp, in CVN)'lhinr:, till' true
U'l.l liull hdwl"' " ,xprt .... sinn ,llhl itl",1 or lI",ugh." (I ., ... ./11
di5W", 5. fl . ,.7;, I . p. I(7).
Of thl' Ilut.'l fllnfliuns nf inslrufl, In mnve ""tI to
.. ""IV II", I,Ilh'r Hm,lins. wilh .,,, illll'_41ry "xlt'llsion: .. rhl'
\

JO
TIIEOMIES OF TIIF. SVM80t.
gl.'llccilll.'ffeciS lof fi";IIH'sl IUust llt.: (I) hi L'lHlll"lIiSh l.1I1t;lIilt;t.'; (2)
10 plcase by Ihis embellishm"nl" (ibid . p. 4(4) .
Rhetoric's first gU'at crisis thus St'{'ms h.1rllloninlisly resolvl"t.
Since il is no pussihlc I" il is
to draw back, like Malernus, inln "PUft.- aud "nsnih'tl IlN:alcs ."
Since it is useless to know Iht. St.'erets uf t'Uit'adulIs discourst. (in
any case, such discourse nn longer ser.:es any purpose), rtu:lnric
will be lurned Inlo knowledj;e of lang'''j;'' for lan);ua);c' s sake.
, language offering ilself up as a speclacle. allowillg ilself 10 be
savored lor itsell. apart 'rum any ul the- uffensive M'rvin's .n whkh
it was formerly Ithl'll)ric ((, h.- br.lliun. II It,S-
lival of language.
All appears 10 be well; and yet Ih" celebraliu" i. "ul III be.
lJdween Quinlilian and Funlal1ier, fortune duL'S Iwl upon .1
single rhelorician nd Ihis IlInllesl pedlld ill Ihe hislory nf rhel -
uric- Iasling ne.rly IIIIMI years- Iurn. IIul III be. al in il.
broad a perilld IIf slllw d,'udel1<'e ."d d,'sradatiun.
!
.ullocalion and bad conscience. Rheloric embraces ils new ob-
jecl; poelry- Ianguage as surh-bul il due, so relucl."lly. Before
_ Irying 10 comprehend Ihis );uilty lei liS allempl 10
galher some evidence IIf il .
We firsl find leslimony III il ill Ihe very set;melliation 01 Iht
phenomenon 01 rheloric. Take Quintilian: fur him Ihe whllie sel of
rhelorical calegorie. is based lin Ihe "pp"siliun belwl-en ,tS and
vaba, IhoughlS (or things) and words: npl)usitiun is banal, but
ils inleresl lies in Ihe facl Ihal il doc. nol Iwo le,ms
equally. ld us look a lilll" more closely. FitSI. here is Ihe opposi-
tion. explicilly slaled: "Every speech however ennsisls al once of
Ihal which is expressed and Ihal which expresses. Ihal i. 10 say
nf mailer and words" ('"S/;/I//;II 0",111';11. III. 5. I) . 0,,111 Ihis art
grafled several articulations. Hrst o' all Ihdt (If (umpont.>nls U,
rheloric: As regards mailer. we musl study invenlilln . s rellard.
words Iyle nd a. rej;ar.1s bolh. arra"semenl" (VII'. I'r.. 6).
These components rdah:d In Ihc funcliuns nf discoursc: in-
81ructing and movin/l depend he.vily upun inventilln and .r-
ran/lemenl. but plea.lnl\ depend. upon slyle alune.
The duty uf the oralur ts cumpusc,t u' inshuc:tint; , i.Hul
hi. hCilrcrli, ,,1.Ih-rulnl u' 'acts i l",1 '.llllllt;
under Ihe he.d olln.lruclilln. while emlllio"al .ppe.ls are con-
cerned with mnvin,; Ihe JULli,': " ":. ;and, allhHlIHh Ih,\' lUay I ....
'1111; SII.f.NUUM ANI J.tlst::w.v Of 1011: 1 OMit '
""'plny,',1 III, t .I:-Ot ', .111' dh" li"t ' .,1 Ilw
ning tIIh.1 cnll . As lu the ck!mcnl 0' charm, . < it n",y
rl'si,Il. ..... Ih in ' ,Ids .lIhl wurtls, it:-. sp",i.,l :-tpl ... r, i:-. Ih.11 0' slyk.
IVII 1' ... 71
71
(In spill' ,,' lIU'ir ;'pp.u,nlly ....dusivl .,lIadlllhul I" Iht' .,tlllns:-t. ....,
Ihest! fUlu-liulis ". tlis..uluse l:lt-arly fl.,t:.ll1 Ihl' hasl" 'unLiiolls
dlscrilu_t.I lly K.ul Uuhll.r an,1 nUln.I" is
oriented Inward the rdl'rent, luw.ud Ihl' un_ivt.>r. and
"deli.;htinJ;," ur plc.,sing. luwartl Ihe ulh'rtlu(c ibdr. Sigoifi -
(.Jnlly. Ihe c)t.prcssivl funclion, uri,-nhtI Itlwartl Ill,' spl'aJ..l'r, is
tlbnHuSt. ,1'M's nul h_ ,.tl"' . ...: ... 1 sul-i., t - in ,. sys-
lernalk W,ly. in any ,-asl' - unlillhe rum,lulit' lr.i.) Ih.< nh_hl.'ll ....
theory of Ihl' Ihn'" slylts nmfnrms tn ".HU' "ppn .... ilinns: IIIl'
low slyle serws I .. i"slrurl. Ihe ,,, .ddle slyk h. I'le ."e. IlIgh
.Iyle III IIIl'Y" ( .... III. 511- 59) .
lhis triparfih' llivisiu" is h.1Stll un . 1 ltidUlI"I"Y (wuulsl
thouJ;hls) I'lus ., t."umprumisc term (II dst. 01\ Ihl'
same dkhuhllllY painl..t with a sLnm...t: iJL.lsl'lt.lillgs (Ihis I.Iltl.'r
dicholomy is Ihe b.lsis lor Ihe suhdivi si""
.nd allihal up"" il) . Hul Quin.ili." tI" .. s ""I limil hilll sdf I"
this simple illx1apusilitln; im .... li(illy _I nd l.')f.pli, illy, lit' v.dori/.l:-' Ih ....
term n's; hy tI", .. s.w....- luken, lilt' It'rlll lIe ' II", . wilh .111 its l'or-
relahvcs, is subicrt In a new ani,lysis th.11 is IIrt-;.lIIiLcd. WI (C
around ,Iu' 1"',1 .... axis . Doc:uhon ("styl,, "), whid, ...It.' ,
peruJs. as w. hav,' St','n, un wnr,ts. willllt Iht' PI"Vill,"t ' of slylislil-
qualitiLs. The lisl ul tln'St.. '11I.Ilili,s v.lrit's I,um 1I11l' ,IfnUIlI1 lu
tlnother. but Ihcir systematic prcsLot.tliun in UtH.)k VIII rl.'ducL's
them to twn Inaiur (lnes: discnurses must bt.> (,.. . , SI';CUd) a nd
ornale, .:mhdlish ....t.I (1" Wild) , Nuw wunls ,I(t' de. If \Vhclt thL'y
make us see lhinJ;s dt'arly, and tht.y an' llt..hllihll wl ... n wt. .1.1 -
mire flu'm for Ih"IIIS4'lvL's: darily is lu Ilt..wly .\S UlillhS oUt' III
\YonJs . This nppusiliun in turn ,,;ovt.'rns oll"." rs. Fur ",.,mpl .., lin;'
Oppuslllnn ht'lwl'l'n pU'llCr and Ir.lnsp"st., ! ml';\IIil'g:
"lhe c;lIIum. thaI ellarnt.Ss mainly u"tluin's prt1pril'ly II'
lind urnaUlt'li1 lilt' st..illlli uSt.. til nH'I.lphur is pl'rh-dly .
sound" (VIII, :l, I;rum hen- Wl' muv\' 'III 10 Iitt' oppositiull tI'
historic,,1 tilyll'" ur l'v,'n nf ... wt. fin,lel"", fur "J(amI1Ill, in
Ihe dkhuhu"y Allid!'tm anti Asl.llli:-om: ( ;rL .. ... ,:r.hl ,
lI.llly "lIh'n,h',1 its ill In II", dlil'S 4" Asi.l. th"fl'
, iUtSC a dilss "I 1Ilt.0 whu dL'sint.J In llislin}-tllish as
lltluft Ih,.y It.hl .u'l.llIirt.1 slIlIid"ul ,PIIIIH.II,,1 III lilt' 1.ln-
2
llifOMltS or SYMIIOI ,
gil age, and who conse'l"enUy I><>goo III p'press hy perlphrosc.
wh"l enul" h;lve llt,'\,U din'l,tly, unlil finally ahis prth'lin'
hl'GlmC all hahit" (:ell , Ill, Ill) . Gn.', k 0111,1 1..,lin .1ft' ctln-
...' d in lhl' !i''IIlll' w,'y: "" sli11 intlic:01liun ttf lIu ..' illr ...',
riorily of I.alin Is 10 he "'"od in II ... fori Ihol Ih"re or" m"oy Ihing'
whic h have nu L,lin n"IIll'S, :o:u that it is nt.'n,'ss.uv 10 (')(I'H'SS
Ihell' by 1t1c1i1phor ur plripluash" (XII, In, :H) .
r;inally. if in 0111 uhim .. h.' n'I't. titiun or II", Wt'
0,,0IY7.c Ihe lerm nllw Iinked 10 I""", Ihal i., Ira'''I'"sed mcan-
ing. we discover within it nnce a';;1in Ihe ol'pnsilitHl helw('cn
words an(1 Ihings. In fod , omllog Ihe lropes, "SIIII'" . . . a ..
employed 10 help nut tun ow.,ning and uther!'l In atfurn tutr style"
(VIII, 6, 2) . Thlls in wry w,'y lropes are IIse,l 1i,"1 yel ol\oin
Ihe familior dicholomy I><>lwpco Ihnse Ihol ,crve moillly 10 reveal
IllIn,!;hl o"d Ihings, ollli IhllSl' Ih,,1 are Ihrre I" be "I'I'"'doled for
Ihcm!=;clvcs. The r.,lh WI' havl' tilk,' " C;l11 tlt' in the
di.grom.
(Invellhufl ;"10(1 111:-1',1' ,1''''''
rcs, Iflstfuchnq
Inw and hlOh slvtr.)
,-
I('S Ic l:lllly.
(elocuhofl ,
verba, plr.RSton.
mlddlo S!yk'!)
11'011(':1 1H4!;,Il""1
1\1I1{: I!; Il1 .

Vf?lh,l ., UM!Auly. { hopes)
" j,nsIlOScd rnC"nlllo(l .
I\r,ta'"!';ln ...nlh:.,
I alK' lanqu8gc) (1!lOhf'lhslllng !lOpes
Such on arlieulalion hilS a paradll. icol aspre! : ilkI' 0 ,hrinkioll
'. skin, Ihe oIomain 01 1 ... 1 .. is conlinu.lly redllcetl wlwn nmfronlcd
with the rhetorician's d\:'!'>in. the prore r uh; ..' d (If rhel -
ori r, rur Q"inltli.,,, . is 11)t 'a ..... 1 mud, nt ' ,Ht'r Itl '''1 -,1", thiln In
Hhrltlric, which ollght 10 h.lve h .."t' n priviltgt" work with
Wtlrds. b ( tlnSlOlnliy 011 hOll' k ill rhl'lnriri.,"s d"im in
rUcct 10 valu" lnly lI'ill In inform, disnnuse
una,lllrm',1 wHh ... , ill Ihl' ,')C-
h,'ml..' ("as,', that .. s ul\I'nlind -- in s ho.t. ,Ii snltlf:-'I. Ih.II ,Iot.'s nol
,h-rive hom ,hl'luric I"ht, d"IIl,lIhl ... . 'f,' nll1iratli, lurv, ill,,1 tlU' (tln-
'r"didiol1 h., s iln ilH ..'\'i l.,l llt Ihl' .Iwtolh i.m ,I, .... s 1101
.111 ANn MIStley til 'till. I OM,, '
7J
'f"I.I\, but practiu' s it h .. ' nfl,fttflh with ,I ("('1\ -
sd,',,, ,,,.
Mon.nv.'r, Quinlili.IIl ,It""s nnl limit ',imSt,lf lu implidl
fUlu.ll' nIlMliul1; he hliliudalt'S il ttpl'nly; asstrlin,.; Ihat
h(' Jln'fcfs ",.",k II, "'lUI1, Allidsm In Asi.mism. ill s hurt, IlIl'OII\-
ing lul ..... Hlly . "Wh,'" , I sl't ..d'l pr"is,',I'or ils wOhl ", il implil's
Ih,,' ib senst' in,hlt -'llIal,'" (VIII, I'r " .11), 'Tnr "'y own p.'lfl. I
d ..'aflu:ss .l S flU' firsl ,' sst'uti,'I1 "f a slyll.'" (VIII, 2, 22),
"These crilics wou'" show finer feeling ood heller ludgemcnl if
Ihey Ihe vil'w Ih,,1 Allie el"'lucnce ml'anl rrrf,'ci eloquencc"
(x, 10, 26); ond s" "".
Quintilia" Cilnnnt I.'raw rht'lnric inln Iht, cdl'llralinll 01 lan-
lIu-ge, for hI' scrs onl 0 celebrolion hul .n "'I;y. Ilis Ihesis will he
wnflrmrd ood oml'lifi,',1 I>y onnllll'r onalysis nf Ih .. 1"'l'l'S II St' ,I
by rhel",idans I" ,iesi,;nale rhelnric,-or rolher, m",,' sp .. df;cal -
Iy, uf 11ll' partie-ubr Irup\.', which is l .. te;,I",I. as w,' hav,' iusl seen,
al the vcry h('ilrl uf rhl'luric. Lf'I U!II r('("all Ih:.. 'h,' ml'faphnrs of
tlu earlier rhl'ltJril' (frum Arislull,' Itt ("in"u) fI.fl.'rrl.'l.l In a n ' I.,Iion
of Ilu' llll'illts1"lhl typt' . Nnw .u, ,tiff,'rt'nl; IIw I11l'al1s1l' u,1
,rial ion hos been rel'l,,,ed hy Ihe form/wnk"l p,,;r, "r ,"Ih .. r-
and Ihis is where Ihe door i. I .. dev_loriZ<lI;"n- by Ihe
out!llide/insidc pair . Thoughts or things ;Ut" the inh'riur, which is
only cuvt'r"lI nv,', hl' i1 rhdori,'.,1 "'hI. s inn' 1.,nt;tI"hl' .
as Wl' hav,' sl,, .. i, is l.'I1,lIessly nmlpan',llo Iht' hUInilll tl4ltly. with
Us .m,1 ib pus h1fl.' s, rhdurk . 1 , !fI ' thl. .Idorn
menl. "f Ihl' "'"Iy.
Such an j,t,' ntifit.'illitlll implies IWtl nunpl"IHt'nlilry ptlsili('I's:
I" USt ml'l'Iplwrs ol1l.'s\'lf is In ((lvl.r Ihl.' hOlly: In Ihem
is 10 \lowil il . "f eorh on' (,O'Y I" fintl . '1 hl' inh'r;or/
C) 1l'riur rd.llinn is posited in Cin'ru; allhuu,.;h il IUrilS uul ttl "'-'
sli,;hlly "i,lt",oll',I , os il were: II", \>toJy ilsdl is on e.lerior
eonvelupc rnr else: "To disc('lv('r ilnct cf,'d,t" what In s:. y
is impure., nl , ,"I n,1 is let d'"1""nn- wh,.1 IllI.' min, 1 III tl\l'
body" (( h,I'lt" XIV, .I.t) . Apt.'r, wh" ,II.'snil"H.'s Ih,' m'w """I"l'nCl' in
Tacitus's invokl"!i Ih(' t .... tdy. ,",lit in il murt" "",tc-riill
scnse: as" n"'n's huJy, su rn"Cisdy is Ih.,1 sp,t'rh bt'auliful
in which Ill(' ,I" nut Ullt anti thl.' 1 ... ('.,nolll ill'
(CHlllk,f 11111 rililwr ftompl.'rah' 011111 I,,'allh\' 11100,1 lill ... Ilu'
",.tI swdls in IIH' .'InJ a ftl, l .... Ih,' tlllm."dvl..'s
\ aml;tll I'Iq:.III1,' ':r ... t ... Ilwln" (."It . 1.1".,,, .u,' lil.,' btllh' '' ,Ind
vt'ins; wultls, lI"jl's, illl" skil1 .
74
rllli OMlli S u. rllt: SYMIIUI.
One slcp turth""f alH.1 Wl' (OIlH .. In I'lt.' hwly's ;uturn-
Illl'ni or t"lHUI"ubllll Is (,"'lIni(",Ii : Arbln.le.
ing 01 melaphors. had .Iready slaled Ihal "il I. having 10
ourselves what dress will suit an old lUiln; certainly uul the crim-
son cloak Ihal suils a yuung lIIan" (RII'' .. 11 14115.,) . As lor Genu:
lust as 5ume Wtllnl'H an.' said 10 he h .UHbtUlH"r will'" IIn-
,adorned- this very lack of ornament becomes 111(."' - 5u this
plain style give! plcasuu l'ven wht' n .. Ihl"u' is
something in both cases which lends chMm, hut with
out shuwinR ilS<'U. Alsu .\11 nl,lin'.lhl., Ofll;"'U'III, 111",uls as it
were, will be t..'-.dudcJ; nUll.'Vl'U nllli .. will 1If.' ust',I; all
cosmelic5 rlilici.1 .nd rcd, will I. rein .. .I; unly eI,
and ncalness wail rCIiMin. 10",1,11, UIII, 7tl -7tJI
One of Tacitus's char.lcters 4.' hooses !,l'veral types of doth-
ing: "it is so much beller In dulhe iI Spt..l'lh .. in iI rm ;h log.
Ihan 10 make il sland oul wilh Ihe colored 01 a cllu!lesan"
--
(xxv.) .
Clearly I these cump,uisulis an' pern,,.)k(1 with moral nuutcm-
nations: ornate discuursl.' is like an l'asy \voman, with
Inakeup; how much mon highly must one value natur.,1 Ix.-auty,
the pure body. anti thus Uu' atl!*'ncl. 0' rlutllric! lip hI Kant
we conlinue 10 find tra(cs tlf lht..'se assimilaliuns: illeasint;, the
rheloricai' (unclion par cl(n,U4.IlH', as Wl.' h.)vl.' St'l'n, is wumen's
busincss (the funclion of luuching, muving, belongs lu men .. . );
is the province of women, intelligence of men (ObsL'rrraliollS
011 II" fcdillg o{ II" /k,,,,'i{,,1 ",,,I Sub/il"cj .
This moral cond("nlnalion rcaches a kind of pinl1adt' in Quintil
ian fur whoat discourse is masculine, trlllll whtl.:h it Ihal
is till" mOl Ie till' vin' HI hmno-
i'- superimposed "pon lusl . II is hard I .. believe Ihal
these invectives have In du wilh anylhinl; buI iI dl' ... ,-shaven
trOll\svestite:
There arc even some whu .lIe c.'pturctl hy Ihc of artificc
and think thaI there &s more beauty in Ihose who plud. nul
hair ur us(' depilalories, whu dress Ihcir lud(.s hy
scorching them wilh the cUflinK irun dlHI wilh a ulIl'plcx,
ion thai is nul Ihcir own. IhM' Gut ever be UIUh: fft'tl by Halluft.'
pure and simple. s.c' tlMI il rt.llly s ....t(Us as if physi''' ll 1"It.lUly
depended enllrely on O1ur.II hidl..'uusmss . 1'"",','ul,,1 0"",."". II,
v, 121
The same theme appears t+ .. t'wht(t:
1111: !'JI . : NUOM ANU 01 MIII . IOUII
I h.,tlhy I)()(tits. a l"irnll.lliPII .lIltl slwuhlht'IH'd
I,y . ,, "llIlIt' hun! III.' S,t"t,' '.lIlth t ' 11. 11 ,:1\"' :-' 11,,'m
shcnhlh, for II",y h.lve a hl'.1Uhy oo'mpl ....Ilio.t, firm .,ud
shapely lhews. Uut. on Ihe ulltl.'r h.lIld. Ih .... IItdU who aHclUp's
It) l'nhann' th,'s,' hy Iht.' dl ... IlI.n.llt- USt' 01 ,1t'l'il
a ... rits .Hltl n,s uHIi, s. :->1It't'I.,,b ml.rely in tht'm hy II" ..'
\I ..... y ('.u ... wllit'll Itt' hcsltlws un IlwIII , SIIUlI.uly . ,I Ir.l,,:-. Iu
75
{enl .1Utl iri,ttS4.-,' nl style mCH-Iy St.rv ....!' tn I.'masful.lh tilt' sul'it'cl
wh .... h il olJr.,ys with such pum!', or wurds . lVIII , I'r., Ill - 2UI
And
But s ud. urlt""'I. .. 1 as I h."lVl .lln".ldy s.lid, t)t., bold, 1lI.101y
ami "'hash' , 'H'I." frOIll _,n ...I1"min;-,h' smuulhlh'SS ,md lilt' f;lb,'
hues dl'rivl'lI hum ,utiliri.ll tlYl'S tud IllUst With hl'.lllh
all,1 viHUf . I VIII, 1, hi
ekern, a(cus ... J uf slylislic J\sianism, 1lt..4..11ll ... illllHl'diatl'iy sus-
peel in terms of his st-xual mnn's: he W;lS n'proi11' IH'lt with Iht'
chart;l..' lhat hl' W.ts " homb.lsti..-, Asi.tlit, n,hllhl.lIIl, );iYl.'1I Iu ...'1( -
(t'ssiVt, u'pt'liliun, li.lltll. i,1 liuu'S tn I .... I'Uilllll'ss in hi:-. willit'i s lll ,
sensuuus, and (an .. ,)('("us.llion!) .llmost d -
femillOlIt. in his rhythm" (UI, In, 12). Sud 111 .'lil1liu;ltiuII 01 III.IS-
culilll' dlar.l1'krislit.s I ..... h.ts Itl mun:,lrusity: \'Vt.' :-'1',' (h.tl s um ...
peuplt..' a value nn whit-II iln" in ,lilY Wily 111011 -
shuus ur .lislorkll Ih.1I1 thl'y Ju un thust' wll,' h,IV" lIot 10:-. 1 .Iuy
of the advant.'ges t)1 Ihe nurmal lu,"m uf lUiln" (II, 5. II) .
Discuurs .... lIlust ')tlth pleasure an .... awakt:'1l admiration;
ilnd Ihe admiratiun will be ul a kinll f.u "Ih"'r than 11t.\t whidl w ....
beslow on pur .... nts. whilt, till' I-.h"suft.., .. vu .... ld tty Iht' dl,lflll WIll
havt! nunbid aboul il, but will l>t: prdisewurlhy ,Hhl
(VIII. I' .. , 11).
Hheluriral urnill1u-nlaliun lhl' Sl'l( o( dislourS(' . And
we nn, 'ilC UIHIStl.,lIy pt.'rnpliv ..' In S4. 'I.. II ' I' l}uinlilian is lIul
partisan uf sex dliUlt;CS, Nur .Ill..' Wl' ;lshlllishl'J 10 Sl'4. 11t .II ,
Ill' had lx' .. ' n ahle lu Iran!'mil lhl' lh'finitiull ttl thl'
as an altitude uf a ddinitiun Ihal implil'd a vdlorilatioll
0' Illr its own sakl', hl' hilllsl'lf ruuld nd slop there;
ahandoned IItai ddinititln in '.,vor uf iHhtlher whkh ",,;IS 10
bel-UI1W l."anoni""ll ill Eurupedn rhl..'luril'.,1 tr.lllitil'll , l.}uilllili.lIl
jlllt,;t-" 11.,' ",lrlit'( ,Idinilion II!' II", IIItI \ ', lg'U' , .111.1 pro
post'1.1 Ihe following: "In lilt' S( fllilti "Ihl in whid, il
is ..-dlh.ll a II lIIe.II\S ,t r,lliulI.,1 d"'''gl' ill or lal1-
IrtHIi Ihl' onlill.lry ,lIIll siml'h- lorlll" (III., I. II); .lIld
16
eH' IIiE SYMhOI .
"we mu.t interpret "''''IIl. in the .rn<e .. I tll.1t whlrh is p ..
or rhetorically ;,11c..'."I'd rnml 1Ill' slmpl" 0111(1 "hvillliS I1lt'lhctt' nf
expre55ion" (IX, I, 13) . IIi. here Ih,t the lip.nre i . ldinr.l"I", the
lirst time a. divergence. This ,Ielinitiun will (Urne tn dn",inate the
entire traditio"; anll yet it conlain9 Vf"ry dose '
In OJ l'Imtlt'mllillinn.
If rhetelrical pn)(llicliul1 'rum :u.'urnmt' l1l anti
thrn lexls Ihal USl' lIlt'st is, a" ",.111 I'('rin
leacts US to observe. an Clclivity akin In .lwlll- with all
thai m.,y IX" ... l'I,'" in such ,Ill flrlivily . fur in twr -
'"t.'nl'tllics. In Ihl.' st ripll',' Sl'S t" Pig.tllt , tht' ,llIr.,Ii .. n or
l)iTK."CSS and even its tlirfkully augment its villllC- Stt itS nne
is certain to arriv(' in thL' l'fH' al till' h(ltly Tin' wrilings ul
on author whtl rheturir inlo hermeneutics,
,:;rc particularly rcveali;l.i Ull this puint. Thill 01 cnnsdulis principle
is indrcJ involved c.,n 1)(' shuwn tly clclt-",nal n'
1"lIowing sort: Christ ... li,1 nllt hi<le Itruth<1 in lI"ler tn rrevent
Ihem from being cnmmunicflled, hut in tn prnvukt' desire
for tlll'Ol hy Vl'ry t:unfl'all11l'ut" (Sf'lIIIIIU .... 51 . -t. ur : "Nu
one <Ioubts that thinr,. arc pt'r<eived mnre readily thrnur,h simil-
itmlcs and that what is slIught with ,Jirrkully i. ,Iis .... vere'. with
more rleasure. Tho.5(" who dn nut find wh.,t 1Iu.'y diredly
stnted labor in hunp,er; Ih(l<e whn <In nnt <eek be<OlI<t' they have
what they wish at .. nce fre'Iu"ntly hew",,, intlnl""t in tlisdain"
(0" Clrrisli." Doc/ri"" II, vi , R) .
At the end 01 this lme perind, in the eighl"enth <entury, we
encounter compflfisnns nncl:' mutiulak,1 ")' Ihe Swiss
I writer 'nhann ,.koh ""'itinl:er: "Md"rh",s ,1ll1 till' lither 1ir,lIres
I are like .all and .pices: tno .kimpy a <lo<e Icav .. the ,Ii<h taste-
k .. ; I"" heavy n sprinUi"!: "",k,', the dish i'Il'.lible. SlIch inup-
rmtune and disp"'pnrlillnat" p"'<lir.ality with <pic,,< in the prep-
;u.1tinn nf food 10 lilt' w('alth an,1 r,t'nernsily uf II" .." m01slC'f
0' Ihe house; hut it hc.."lrays, .,1 the sanlt" li!11l' , hi s corruplt'tI
(Krili'c/It A/I',n",11I11'g, r 1(,2) .
Ordinarily. how('ver, what is in (Iu("stinn is nnl it carefully
cuhiv.,tcd hunge r, h!'1 an" Ol fc'w ttf tlu' I1hUlY nmncC-
lions m.,de- tht'sc. ag41in. hy Augustint' ; ..... "l mOlt Ihesc
10 be ohscurt.'t.I 'lY wor,t .. , th .. Sw,' (' h'r tlwy 1)(' ,
come wht'n they (\,t' l'XplO1 inl'd" ()" 1)"." ;"1'. IV. vii, 15).
.. All th{'se Irlllhs In in li,: .. ns sprv(' to I('('tl II", firr of
Invc . ' , ; for IIH'y inspirt, ,Jltd inll"nw Iuvl" mort' Ihiln if tlH'y
SI'.tNIHUt ANU MIS.: KY Uf n
prc!'icnh'll in IIwi,r n.,k""lln('ss ltl'vuill nf ilily
111.21' . "1'111 in .,,..I,r .h . 1 IIl.Inihsl Irlllhs slu'IIltlnui
beeu",e tl1l'y have been nwer('d with a vl'il, while rt'main-
iny, "nch,nged, anti thus they been",e the object uf de.lre; being
"('!'iircII, th.'y .n." in a way mOld .. YUlinr. ,'gilin; with Iheir youlh
us'un't.' . IIwy ('uk. Ihl' spiril (ihill., 1:17. v. IH).
.lfl' vdl ... d in in ';i1lnwnls <IS it WCrt.." , in
oftft'r Ihal IIwy "MV Ih, minll III Ihc' p illus in'luiu'f .... nll
nol I>t..'cuml' cht'ap lur being bare anti uhvinll s . For heing
r('I11" .... llwy .'1(' 111"U' anlt'nlly ,I"sin'll (", .. j,' .. nIHIII,. """'",i" ... ) . . ,nli
for It"i"t; tlt.' si n' .. 1 Ilh' Y .1ft.' 1UllIt' i"ylully ,lbt.tI\Th,,1 ('un""t;" ... )"
(AJlni,,,' tyi"g, " 24) .
Wl' mOlY wdl I('inirc in J\uJ.;ustim"s S.'':'''' st'nsuOIlily (which is
.11 the ",v(lrl"I, I darr "y, in th,t it i< <l'i'l'n,ed tn hell'
Iransct;'nll Ihe primary Ihl' m.,h'ri01I an,1 unl', in
' .. vnr ul a st;'cnnJ01ry spiritual sellst;'). hut II remOlins no I(' r s Irue
that I ... him, lust n< Inr the other rheturida", and ex"get .. , doth-
ing is nIles< value Ih,n bn,ly; dOlhin,; i. an envelnpe
Ihal musl I", ft'l1Hlvnl ((v.'n this "P"loIlitHI CUt I", pit';)
""oble) . Further lor this pt"ition i. Inund in the Ire-
qU!!!!, c41mpMisun H' a melaphur It, a prn.sliluh.'-a cumparison
now urlented in tlU' inverse dirt"Ction (when 0111 ih", veil s have
bef'n r('mtwrtt. tilt' \Yuman fintfs 'wrsd' I101lc.t,.1 O1Ilt! Ihefe is nnl)'
one prole"i",; Idt Illr her In proctice). Thus Manubius relates
the misadventures .,f the neo- rylhagorean philtlsorher Numeniu5
(CoIIIIII",'.r. 0" II,r fJr .... rn of Sri"io, I, ii, 19):
100 ... .'('ll. Nunu'nills. t1 will, ., Inr ,,,c ult
thin,;s, hit" ,.,Yt.,It.,t.I .... him in n drt.'illn tll' had
Ihr ily prn.-l.,imlnJ; his inlrrprdOllinn
'0' thc i.:Il' usiui.1II lUyslcril-s. Thl' l:lcusini.m thl.' m-
sciv('s. in Ihe ttl ill'f1('."lrcd to him
Ilt.,run' an upt.n hrutht'l. "'0(' wht'n in his
Itt' askt.,1 thl' H',lSl111 Ittr this l'tIllJu(l. Ihl'Y
rcrli('(1 Ihal he h;u' Ih('m hum IIU'ir tlf mod
esly O1ntl h.,,1 pruslilull-d them In t.'very
Stich nHnp01risuns, and tilt' ;ud,;mt.'nls tflt'y imply, ilre
POlSS('t. thrnu,;hnul Ihl' sc.'-IlIl,1 pl'rint.' til Iht' hiSlory til
rhetnrie:. from Cin'ro In FuntOlnil'r . They hlcUmt till' defining 'ea-
IlIrt' of a (ivili1,.,lio" trntlt.r tilt.' influl'IIl"t.' of IlIl' Chrisli;lll
r('ligipn. (,("'''''sh'ullv \'alul:'!" thour-h' .,1"41V( WOrt I ... !"o sur.' is il
th,.t "the ;"ltcr kills, an,1 the spirit {,,;n,;s Ii"' ." l.eI liS re<,11 hrre
OF TI l E SYMBOL
one l.lsl of l'vitl,'nf,', lilli' Ih.1I is p.trlinll.uly d'kIUt'1I1
to the fame of its aulhur , II is found in Lucke's Ls:;..,.'1 CtlHfall;IIK
HUI/IQII Locke rhdoric (and Iherer",e
eloquence. and Iherelore speech) as a travesly ollho"l\hl.
I confess. In dist"tlUrS4.'S wh"fI' WI' sa't'k r.ltlll'r I'h"ts.trt' .uhl tl,' -
light than inlurmatiun. anJ iml'ruvcnu_'nl , sud I nUI.lIntub 'IS 'Ht'
b..rrnwed hum Ihl'm (,'n SI"lr,' ,' t},lSS for l,,,,lb, 11.. 1 yl'l it WI'
would speak of Ihiut;,s as 11\l'y an', we lIIuSt .-.110'0'1 Ih.ll .-.11 Ihe
art of rhelork, nrth'r .1nd cleolrOt'SS; all Ih .. , arlififi.ll ;Uh.1
figuralive applicftilln nf words l.lulluenn' hath invcnh'il, fur
nOlhing else bu"'-to insinu.1h wrun,; itteas, muve the .,.,ssions .
1IIJ tllt.'fl.'hy SII indt'('tl '-"1' I)f.'.','d
cheals: and thcrdure. howivl.r 1':'lIlli,I,It.' or alluw.lhlc ur"lmy
may render Ihem In tur;mt-:lH's .1nll popular Ihl'Y au'
(l'rldinly, in all th.I. preknJ lu illiurm or iuslrud,
wholly to be avoidl'd; .uhl wlll'fl.' Irulh .1ml knowlt'tIKl' .u, t:on
cerned. cannot bul tx- Ihou..:hl a t;u'al fault, l'ilhl'r ul II", lan-
Kuage or person Ihal m.1k,s IISl.' H' Ihe'l1I , I ' -.1nnot Ilul ob-
!WrVl' huw htlle 111t_' pll.' Strv.llill .. ,uhl impltll.','m,'ul "I hulh .lIhl
knowledge is the carc ami (on(ern of mankiml; Ihe arts of
tallacy are and rrcft.'rred, II is t'vhlt-nt how mut'h men
love 10 deceive and be deceived. sloce rhelorlc, Ihal rowerlul
inslrument of error all,1 d,'(t'i' , h,-.s ils lst.IM;sht.' d f'ru'tssms.
i::i publicly lolUt;hl. antJ ,llw,.y:-. l'Ct' n h . d ill rqull,Ilil"' :
and I doub' not but it will he Ihuught Kreal lxIIJul'!>S. il nol
brulality. in me 10 have s' Ij,t thus much .... t;ainsl ii , H(MIIIt.'IKC,
f
like Ihe lair sex, has 100 prevailint: beauties in il In suller ilsell
ever 10 be spoken a,;ainsl. Anil il is in v.lin 10 finlt 'ault wilh
those arts of dcivirlg. wlu'n'in nwn find plt.asun In bt..' dl.'
cdved. (III. x, 341
\
We can now return to causal analysis and ont:e 'lJ;ain raist! the
t.llu!slion, why1 Why is an acn'ptahl ... rht.'lmit" illlpnssihlt! t.l.uring
Ihis period? Why is il impossible III appreciale l,nl:u'l:e 1m ilsell?
Why c.Joes Ihe celebration l,;,iI In tKTUrl
A salislactory rhetoric woultl bt..-.: n pnssihlt, if t.l.isap
pearance of political, anti Ihus vt:'rhal. liht:'.tit!'l h;'HI a((-"in '
p,nied by a disappe,"lnC" "I .111 Stk'i,,1 mar.llily : Ih,t wo"ld h,ve
Ic.-;itimized the solitary admir.lliun, nn rrincirlt.'s, uf
each lint;uistic utterance for ilsdf. Yl:'1 Un' "prosil .. " is 11\1' case,
Whether we look at the Knman Empire or ill lalt'r Chrislian sl.tlt.s,
we are lar frum finding intliyitlll.11 l''''o\S1U.', .111d IIIl' v.IIIII' tlf self
salislaction ..,1 up as a mudel . We ..,e this wilh tilt
nit Sl'lENOOR ANn MlsUn Of RIU"TUKIC 79
hllilt IlI'lil'v"d """"'II. 11'"1,- .111,1 111111" 1111'11' 11111111" :-'
liull ul .,lIl1win.,; t..h:1t inliivi,lu.ll tu .Ippn'l' i.lll uwn truth .11ld
In lovt., nhjt'ds (in lhis cast.', lingllislk OIlt.S) simply for Iltl' S.lkt,
ul their hannnny ;UlIJ beauty. Thus ptK..'tir plt'.lslln', inasl11l1dl as
i1l'unsisb ill .111 "!'I'rt't'i.llion 01 IIst'll'SS IIll.I\ YI'I'I.1111, '
in this orilt ...
nlll if Ihi' iil",.1 til Iht, Ih' W Ihdtlrit- is impn!":-. iblt', why dUl' !> il
1lI.1I1,II;" 10 suhsist tlurillt; 1h'.lI'ly Iwn millt'lIl1i,I! It is Ilt.'t.'.lUSI' IIlt'fl'
is no 'Iut'slinn, t'ilht'r. uf .11lMltlilOin)!, II", rq;ill1l'IIt.lliol1 IIf dis "
cuurse, 1111: vt.' ry prin(iplc th.,t is n'spultsihlt lor Ihe JiS,lppl' .U-
anee ol Ihl' old lo ... n uf rhdHrit"- dli".h'iulIs t'I'NIIlt.'nfl-- Io.,"'Ps
dtl'lufit' .,)iVt' .1 Iludy til fIlll'S , TIll' \"1111,, th,II is (Ihli); "
alc.1I y lur Ihe wholl' sc.M.:it..'ly suppu.'SSt'S Irt.'l SPt.'l' '' h. but 1Il01in-
liiUls r ... TIlt' ll'lUd II. Ih.11 '"II,lt-IIIII ' ; ,IINI'IIIII ,. (.Iud,
with il ",dt.'l1n' , nmlrihuh's "I Ihi' s.mu,' limt' 10
it ,,'iv" In Iht., faft.' tlf lhis (ontr.1t I':tury n'tllllrt.IIlt.I1I -
Ihal rhduri( lll' ,'ullt't'rnt.',1 ,'xdll:'>ivl'lv wilh Ih, ' Ilt,.wly Ilf di s -
CUll!.::." hili ,II Ih. S.UI'" lill'" Ih . 1 il 11111:'>1 11111 \' ,II".-i/" 11'-,lIllv
tht.'re fl'mains only tlnl.' pussibll.' allihull': Ih.11 01 b.ld cOlbl' il.'Il(t:
(mw is lemplt.'ll lu say of ",t.' UI.ll iIInt' ss) , iU.dori(: pill'S ;thoul its
business reludanlly.
This sl.llt' til .,II,lil's finils .1 Io.iud til , "(lulin",llill" in thi' sul- -
selilleni hislury HI rlu.:luric- ;t hislory Ih ... Wt..' I" ..' u: unly
over r.'pittly, llislilry indl.'t.,,,, nnl slop wilh hUlI.1l1il.'r. or
ralher, only lilt.' hislury of rhel"ric sl"ps Iht'n' - Ihlll of Stk...' iCly
Intt uf civili.f.aliuns nUllinul.'s , 1\1 lIu' ,,'lid 1'1 tilt' ,'it;hll'l'l1th ,','II
tury a mulaliun tk.(urs Ihal will st.:i in .n"lion Ihe l' risis III
rhetoric, llilt.' Ihal will puw., It) Ill' murt' St'riolls th.u, IIH' fi .. And
I just as, t.lurint; Ihl.' lirst crisis, lIlll.' anti lhl.' s.nnl.' hlslllrt l"llll -
tlt.Ill .. ",1 il .mtl kept it alivl.', SH uuw til .1 sillhh' :-.lIl1lo.l' il will til'
acquill""!. liI",rall"t. 'lOd pul In .tl',lh.
Tht. ""'lIlury is IIII' ';,sl hi 'Ihl,)r:-.t' wh.11 h ,ld I ... 'n '"
preparation. wilhill rheturic, Silllt.' T.,.-itus's lilt' l'njoYllll'lll 0'
'angllan' .15 SlId" This s.lnw n'lIlliry i:" IIH' firsl III v,Ihh' illlit.,
liun- .I n'l,lliun til suhmissiull lu the L'Xh,'u",1 worltl - Il.ss lIihhly
Ih.111 1lt.'.llIty. whit'li is nnw ,it'filwtl .tS.1 h.trIHtllli'HI!'t l'tlillhill.llitlll
(1f lilt' t'I ...'nll.nls til ill1 olljt'ct Ihl'IlIStlvl's . 1S .111 .1CfI'IUplish ,
1Hl.'1I1 in itst'II , 'I his i:-. in I'lt'l .111 ,r.1 ill whit h i'\" '1 Vlllll' , "I,lilll:-' I"
h.lvt, lilt' :",111'" li);hIS .1:0; t'\,(\'lIlh' "lsi' .. 11111 lu ill hilll or
hersd' lilt' slantl.lrd I',.r llc,luly tlntl value, "\V,' III I
v
o
TItEOAIES (IF filE SYMBOl.
live "I Ihe 11m" wlwn IIniv""nlly " ..... "ph" r",,,,. wer"
dominanl ," wruh. Nuvali!-O . r"n' wdl In .hl' UHrm .:tllt' -
1l1On 10.,11; farewell hi Ill(' .-.ri!-Olufr01fY, 01 (,01:"lt wilh
rhe lI!i1eful .Ul .... lUI IK! allmir c tl, '01 Ihrre i:" no
a ( umnWIl It' o.; , ' t'V( , O1lhl ',H:!. st'par,,'" s(Tls
priority. Morit1. . Kiln', NUVilli s, SdH'lIin will tkfinl' Ih('llt';luf II ,
arl, poclry as 101 w ,ie" sullin's .. n'o lIlt'y will nol It( Iht,
firsl 10 do so, as we have :"l' ( ' n, hut Iht,y will tl(> thl' (jr sl 10 Ill'
hcard: Ihei r message falls IIpnn wdl -dispo:"t'ri ('ars .
And rhclnric? I kre il is, we miJ;hl Ihink, rre,'" rrom il s h"d
CCl I1SCII?n((", lim,', in truth. Ihe c(')chrfllilll1 of lan-
r,tI.lr,C. nul Ihe romanlic wavl' lh01I su 1 r
conscience 101 ar eel'l" consequl'nces: it .,Is" suppressed Ihe
nl' ccssity fur regimt'nlioJ', ,Ijsnlllrsl" c;.inn' now "Yl'lYllnc, by
(Irawing wilhuuUcdlni!IU\' tlr rules,
can rroduce admirable wurks of .ut. ThuUljht is no lungef di -
vorccd--or even distin (')( lrcssion; tlll'rc is no
Inog"r, In" word. aoy nt't",1 'ur r"durk, " .. dry can t {I wilhout il .
I his sr( ond nisis can ht.' simrly nn Iht.' hasis ft' Iht
, ",at('rial di!'appearanc(' of rhdorical Il' xls. Ihe s hallow in In which
! a whole prnblemalics will plunr,e. Murenvrr, we (an turn 10 somt
eio(JI,ent testimonials, sllch as Ihl' OIn' K"nt It' ft us in Cril;qltt
flf ,,,dsr,,,rrlt. Cl1mran ...1 Itl pndry, whirh finlt!-O it!" ;tlslific"linn in
il sf" U, rhclo!ic-stlhjur.ah'..J sp ...,...- h- is nol only infl.ior, il is IIn-
.- -- .
wnrlhy even tu e)dsl . As for Ihe fllrmt"r : " In poetry e vrrylhing is
s lrair,hl alltl ;:: huvc Il(l;ud. II shuws it :" h.1Dt. : it {I('sir.'s lu carry un
a mere e nterlaining play wilh Ihe ima,;inalinn, ant' nne Cunso-
nant , in respc<:1 of form, with the (I' Imtlrl s ta,utlng, and It
(Ioes nol seek 10 slt>al upon and ensnare Ihe nntlf'rstanding wilh a
sensuous p'esenl"lion" " . 5JS). (We Illighl he lislening 10
Mfllernll s. al Ihe of T"dlll s's dialur,ue ) AJUI as for Iht
1.,lIe r:
Rhetor ic. so far 01!' is 1;11"" .. tit mean Ihl' art "f Ilt'r!'lIilsion,
i .c . , Ihl' lIrl of hy IHt',lnS (If a filir st.'mhl.lnn' (as firS
ftrnlj1r;(,), anti not IHcrdy (''(ft.,lItnet' or (dp'I"I'nn' ami
s lyle). is a cli.,lcflie, whirh horruws from pudry only sn milch
O'IS is 1H(('ss.1ry 10 win "vI' r nwn's minll s 10 111(' .. itlt of Ih,'
s p".'1k, " b"fon' Ih,'\' kJVI ' Ihe m ;IIft-r , aU11 In Il1h Ilwir
vI' uli t"' of it s f,, '(, .. lnlll . I'bi,t I
Kanl 1I1IIS gnat f;Ut ' In ('!-O IaI1Ii s h Iwo 011 one sidr
Ilu're is !', wlr y. ptlft ' l y;t 101111.1' g.HlII', alld 1' 111'1111'1 It I ' !,flll" ' ''), so
rllt:: SII.ENUOR ANU MISUIY UF IlflETOMIC
81
(
(011..1. Ihal is. II .... ,,1 .. r savi"l: w..tl no,,' wilh slvl,'; "n,1 un Ih
oll .... r, IIU'ft is IlI',IIII"j",,, .1ft, whidl SlIhl11i1s Iht'!-O(' Solll1l'
m(',ms In flU l'xll',nal r,tltll. WIWSlo tli.lhulical killo;hip is immcdi -
all'ly "1'll"fl'nl : "str!I;, '){'wilrh. " .. tll'Hivr ." " win minds . "
rhdotir ,rifiti/nl hy K,1I11, tl, .. rly, b; Iht, rhl'luri, ' ullh(' lilll\'
tH.fnrt' Cit-l'fll , In r ...rsll,l ...tt .1nt' nnl tn S,1Y wdl .
Antf h ... s pl'lls 11111 his IltIslilily In I,;uliliulitli t ' lo'llIl'Un.' in a 1l0Il ' :
I I1m!';t oJI1', ss I" Ihe purl' which I have rver tlCcn
afford"tl hy ., Ilt' ,1"tirul put.' m; wl"'n',1!-O 11tl' rl'.ltling tlf Ihl' Nsl
sp('l'rh Clf ,1 Roman '"r('osif uralur. tI mUtt t'rn f'iulii1mrI11,uy
dth .. lrr. or Ol prt.,,her. has invariably bt'l'n min,;lt-d wilh ,ln
!'(' nSt' tlf tfi!'.lppruvOlI tlf Olt1 ins ittious oul Ihal knows
how, in m.llh.fS ... , moml'"I. lu tn(lve men likl' m.l( hines 10 a
!h," mllsl lUSt' "n its wi.h Iltt ' tH tllltUl {',,11ll
re.nCclltln. I'urn' and elrgancr of spet'rh (whirh con-
slrtuie rheluric) belling Itt finc arl; bul ur.Jlory ornlor;n),
/ being Ihe arl tlf rl" ying fnr line'!, nwn IIpun Ih(' w<,,,k-
\ n('SSt'S til I1H'n (I'" purp,lsc' Itt , ,-v, ' r ill il1h' nli" .. Ilf
('Vl' U in f.HI) mnih I1U wl""l,'cr. U,, sitlts, 1 .. 111t ,II AlhlllS
and .1 Rnme. il nnly alloined il. IIr.olrsl heighl 31 0 lime when
stall' W.l5 I" its t'c.'c"y, f'nd gt'lwin,' p"trioti c sen -
time nt was iI uf Ihe p., .... . II, ii ,
In 't''1I , lilt" ttirhtl'ulUV aln',ltly t'''llkt''''
lite wwful. whirl, is impurt, antllht, lISt'l ...!'"S. of Ulul'st'rv\' tl
'."'t' nult! tlu.' surfadn,.; of lypic"lIy buurgeois
values: Inttlvlchr",1 mtfeJl'f'ndence, nationOlI autonomy (palriotis m) .
tliSCutUSl' is nu wurlhy u' l'slt",m; nl'ilher is
rt.elnric. TI1('re is nil ruum fur rl",tnri( in il tlominah.tJ hy
",mantic values.
Ir .. m..- ahalUltins histOfY altogether aod Iurns 10 Ih(' prub-
It-mattes of I"",'ay, onE" may wunder 10 what t.>xllnl things have
changl'd, to wh"t t.'xllnt w(" slililive in Kant's {'ra. If, on Ihe one
hand, sndal rnnrtllily is still lacking in nur day, as it was in Kant's,
has increas{'t.f in impurtanrl". Tadlus reporled, as
a distant mlmnry. thOlI the and"' n' "ralors "h.ltl fonvinc('d them-
selv<,s Ih.11 nn onl' l'Cluld rise in till' slillt' Of maintain i1 position of
I
2. it "V .11.111,'" Ih.11 (:. .. Ih,. Ih.11 "Ih,, rum.HI' .... ,,l'III.t .11"",,' ., 11 d "", ill
...:,111' ... lVo"" !I,i ... . ,,, .. I, IIO.uti.," lit II ...... , .. ,, " , ..... \\, ... 1 . 1.\ ,"10' I ... . 10. " ".,1
,-"nll'lhlll,; .. 1 III '" ' t.;,II.f ... ' . I "'1l1ll1n!! ' ,,,1 t .. \ " 'I! 'Ii ... ( " ""1"" j' lI II,, ""'n" ., / 11"," .
"",n/ . ill ", "i,11 I .. ' h .... w"lh' n ,lt lll.i, . ','" """" ,h,I", .. . 1, .I,f." "" "!,,,n ...... " y. hili
uno;.,lj 'd.llhlfilv t." 1'1. ... .. , 11'111, 1.'," '1/,1/111 IN, \\, YII,k ,1"" I ., .n
,II''' . 1"IfIII. I' l 'If . /\ ""111 . IH:!71
82
TIIEOMIES OF TilE SV .... O ..
Importance and rrumin"nn' wilhuut "f.llurk.,1 . ltililY" (Pi."",'\"",
XXXVI); but in uur d.,y. wlu.'11 the wurds ,u\ .. 1 ,h:is \11 I'uhlif
are dircclly 10 Ihe must di s.om. nmwr s or the slale,
thanks to the mass media and allfJve all lel l! visiulI, is it shll cun-
ccivahlc that "withtllli dUlojlh'nn'" tint..' , ",111 hoM 1m til .an impur-
lanl posUion1 Two ,,-,(cnl I.Ids. i.lmunt-; huntlrL't. ls. pnlVl' lin' (un-
Irary. A presldenl 01 Ihe Unikd Slale. appeared less mnlcmplible
in Ihe eyes of his fcllllw l'ili/,ens wht' n un 1"lIucrnUS (","cilsiuns he
I
lransgressed Ihe laws 01 his wunlry Ihan whcn he revealed his
linguistic puhlkaliun u! his privak ,'lIllvlrsalions.
intended 10 prove his lehill innncl.'ncc. ha'" an uVL'rwhdlllingly
negative eUect. when it llt.caml" (I("ar IhOlt Nixun spuke lM,lIy, OlS
badly a. Ihe averag., Ameri can; Ihal he swore in every :;cnlen,.;
that his remarks wen" stwh',",' with slant; . ()u Wl' llau' "ffirm,
afler Ihal, Ihal "cln'luellce" is IU' Innt;er re'luin',1 "I Ihe slales
man? Anuther example (tuucs hum Frcnc:h polilkal In
opinion of the experts, Ihl" fhoice uf a 1\1"W presitll'nl in IlJ74 was
in large pari at Il"ievisicm ,khak in whidt the Iwn
candidates confronted cach ulher fur .tn hour and it half; arc wc
10 believe Ihal Iheir hel",i ... 1 skills, Iheir .!Jilily 10 lIlanipulale
spee,,:h in order 10 instrucl. 10 move, and tn plc .. st'. hd,l nu cUt'd
on the spectators? A puhlif ("aIlIlU' Ollinw himsdf lu
badly. "!lwer loday is al Ih .. lip III II ... IOIlI;ue; Iran,'
milled by lelec,sl. ralher Ihan as heard in dcliberalive assem
blies-has once agaill become all dleclivc wl'ap"lI .
We are perhaps 01 Ihe bet;inning 01 a era III rheloric, i.\
which dCMluenn' will lilt' " nt'ilht'r thl' thl' "nulVc-
ment" it needs in order lu shine; wililhis l>t.wlr of spel'l' h l>c OlLi('
In cOlulucr that of inslilliliuns? I shaU UHI til' the 01
divinalion, bul I shall lIolc whal is pt.'rhal's only a coincidence,
( afler all: Ihe awakeni"t; 01 rhelmiral sludics in W"lern Eurol'''
/ over roughl)" ihe pust twenly y".1rs- sinn .. mass l"'lmmunicillions
began 10 domina'! our world.
Will fortune (orne tn un rhl'lorit.'"ians nnn' as in
Ihe early day' hi Gre,'Cc a",1 nome? One ,loUes nol affirm il; one
must be content to absl'nn. ,turing Ihe twu
thousand our worl,1 has just livl.d ..
Unless we hav ..... the hislnry . U"ll'SS all Ih" Sl' ('hararlt'rs
I have been referring lu, Ciet.ru, Quintilian, Funtilnicr, and the
rest, are fictitious bf.:'inW', and their 1I1t.'fl iukl'S. Unlcss
Ihe lrue hislOry is the one Inld on., day in Ihe seve"lh cenlury by
. lIt ANU MISEMY Ut
Th(' tirsl. Illl'n, W.1S a h.rl .. in DUllalus JI 1. 'Y wi . . .. I
h I I I I . 10 b !j; iHl lu
.1V. IVI'l . 1 I U'U:-..Uht Y".us .. I ft t'" IIH,' .,' I' I I I
H ' \011111 11:-', 'Y \v IIIIH
1I."Il \V.IS 'Hlllld, ' ,I , .ltI,t W. I:-. n', , .. iv".1 I.\, 'lim wilh 1II.IIlY linn
IU.S .. .. 11,' ..!'o ll"1I1 YI'.lrs .1t"It ', ,,llIloul. ,IUd hi ' It'll
(lIunll,' ss hilit' ICN.ts in whit-h I ... s . , II ..
. , . . ' .. .. . , ur, tl'H' shuos tnr
:., ullo". !'illl h .I S : Whu IS II my Stm wi, I I b
t ' 1 t ' " .. , ... L'lll:-. IL'r n' .!O(:)
f U 1ft'" 1lt.'YIHhl nllmlll'r. ,In,1 whu prllvid, s as" mllfh u:,:.r ..
b U1u'nl ..IS lh,'v 1",111 I . k",'" This w '" w I
. . .. ' .. . .' 1:-... 11111. ..
. I s . II!'on. Oll T ruy . 1 1Irl.lin Virgil. ,I db' '' ll'k III Ih,ll
:klln' Il.IH hls. WitH W;,S o"Io!'o1 ill v'rsl .. I .
.."Il. !'ttvl.'nly un mdrit's , .mJ II Idler 10 V .. .;II
iIIutUl1 IIw ('xpl,lnahun of tile" wonl.
(or Ihl' IlIil"ll Virt;il, il I. ... .
Ihcl.' lh.,rl.' W.IS Crq.;urius. in d"v"lc\t 10
G ..' .t.'lk Shl,llt's, . whu (ump"St.,1 Ihh'" thuus.Hhl tn,ls un Crt'l' lo.
lustClry . . AI Nlftlllu.lia, lIu'n' W.IS 11.. I. .... ",,110
Oll r, '11I" sl tr.lUsl ll,1 huolo.s of ollr ililu 1 .. llin- buul.. s
wind, I rCild, my pari, in thl.' Grl.'l.'k .. .. . .. .
6J
ThefL' alsn Vir.;il nf Asitl. Wlhl d .liml,llh.lll'.hh Wllhl h.ld
1.... __ 1111 lI,llneS Ihal (uulJ he lIse"t un apl'H1pn.lll' ,N..... ,,,lsions .
I ht' n' W,lS Olls.. A"'nl'as 1Iu- Jhint v,, ',1 . I
I
' . I, S 1"11 ,'sstlr whll
,I hllll II", " .. hit, ,lIId us<'lul "I .. I 10, . . . I
. I .. .. , .. . II\IUJ; up Wilit S, III
&rouPIOA l'Ih'rs ill'l"Ort'IIIA In Ihdr simil uili. S (II . ..
I I
. . . , l tllllpOS lng 114.'\'01
won s Will "Id tII'l'S by lakinv a ,.in"le syll I." I I
1
., " n dU c rnnl t"ac 1.
Wits ..
.... IUfl h.lv,' I .... ,u lurlluMIt' I hdllrid .,
I ':"> .
3
The End of Rhetoric
Cla .. lcal rheloric has nnl .1<><", Ihe nlncl...,nlh "'nlury.
0,,1 belnre II dl,,'pP'nn.oJ, II I'rtKllIrcd- lhnlllflh n final dlurl
more powerlul Ihan any Ihal had gone belore II, .s \I 10 Iry 10
'lave oil Immlnenl exllncllon-a b"dy ul rent'Clions whuO<! qualily
I!I unmatched. This swan sung to bto from two
viewpoinls: Iheorelical- Inr Ihe body 01 Ihollllhi In 'l"eslion I. nol
yel ollld.lcd-and hlslnrkal - Ih,' Inrm I.hn by Ihi' dim I.
highly signincanl .
We are In France, anl' p<>rlod In 'Iueslinn (IIvel1l exactly
one hundred ye.l1I . II .... l:ln. in I7JO, when Ou M.r.;al.
a rhelorlc.1 Ircali.e d",linl',1 I" "Iir up n",,,' Inlere.1 In I .. own
cOllnlry Ihan any 01 ilo 1'" It'Cessor.; Ihe p<>riod in 18JO,
when Fnnl"nlcr rut the hmchC5 ,,, edition of his
Mntllfrl prcfadnr. it with wtlrd!'l. prophrlk
impnr' he cnuld nHI holY\." n .."lin .. I: wnrk ..... .n impruved
much .tuuh,lts!' nul in it s "wn h.'rms . t.ul with
nsfXcf In lilt! limih'tt ca rOlfilv ttr aullwf. wh .. ,'n-' ;ut'!" th,,'
h,,!'1 dnne his ulmus t an,1 thai rt' lll"ins fur him I .. do bu'
rc{'ummcntl the failhrul \'''''('u'itm tlf wurk In I Ill'
(" hour,cd with reproducing il .
TIIB INO Of _"UOllle
85
n ... rhelnrn'al h.>t.Iy 'mb.,I" .. "nlhl,,/: i, 1 .. 11
hut lu I'lu\, il.
lei us meellh .. aulhOl1l 01 Ihls rhelorlcal rhApsody, They span
one Y"'" an.! Ihr .... generali"n .
. '1'" .IU" ,!t'Ut ' r,tliun CI.. ly ( ( 1 ... 1)11 M.., .
Iii, an","!: "MII"r wnr\ts .lIhnu!:h
II by nu means a pruJueliun 01 hi, youlh. I'""r Ihmughoul
hi. hr., a lul"r wh ... ulhnred a ",'W nll'lhnd nlleaching L,lin Ihal
nmre 10 him Ihan anylhing elO<!. he 1 01
$("vrnly-ftv(', his firs' .. s il!'l!'4iJ!n"wnl: Ill' n'-
lor Iht! .. 1 3nJ ,hl'luri",'al ollht! r."C}-
clopnI, . lask .uiled him very mnfl'(lv('r: 011 was
('ndow,"" above all wilh lhe allribulcs "I a wriler- nol lu say a
popul.rlzer; beyond Ihal, h .. was uncncumbell'<l wilh uriginal
t'cll'Clic, he ha.J read wi.Jely, ht' ha.! Iht' "philo- \
sophKal splnl; nevertheless, his Indillere"", 10 all 'yslem and 1
wa, his undolnR on more Ihan ont' o('Ca.lon, Further-
hi' rollabur.liun on lhe .... ,;" wa. brid: when
he h .! .. nly jnsl cumpld'oJ Ihe HGramn rI.n"
The second genera lion ron,lsla, In our a""""nl, o( Iwo ralher
dissimilar individuals, The IiI1lI I, Ou Ma.,..,I,', heir as head 01 Ihe
r;rammalical and rhelnrical seclinn" of Ihe r."l'lfl/.,rr Iu. : Nicol.s
O"auz .... (1717- 17f1'1), " I'ml,.,. ..... 111,, r""I,' Milil.i,, , I h' .... ,,1 in
ued 10 cunlribul,' In lhe t'k',IfI.,.,rnI;" unlil II. cumplelion in In2;
durinR Ihe same ",,iocl. in 1767, he publl.hed a synlhelic work,
hi. Iwo-volume Grnrnm.ir. Kh",.I., which some
hom his [/lc1(d,,/on/in 1\1 Ihe 1'"le frum 011 Mar.
sal., n.au1.('(' had" 1',,<1'I.'(,I.rly sysl,m.l;" ,,",I n' min.! . Ilis prin.
cipal Inleresl was nol rht'loric. nul nne ,\0<" wilh
lhe oll."r, an.! IllS Lrdmlllll,n' al"<, int:lmJ"ol !10m" .1t'Ci5ive paKes
devo ... .! lu rhelurlc.1 llelween 17112 and 1711(,. lin.liy, Ihe
Ihrce vl1h,.m"" 01 II,, /I"'II ct>nlaininfl
ali Ihe arhde. 01 Ihe ["f,IfI.,,,, .. 'in .lea ling wilh "grammar and Iii .
". Tn Ik"." z",;",', Ino, It1) till' lask ttf rt..vi!\in,; Ih ... sect;un! un
,helnne In Ihe l"':l/d",<rdid, a la.k Ih.1 flave "im Ihe opl't>rlunily
10 un, anc.t {'Ctmr'cle Ih ... by Du Mars... ... is.
1Iu- uf Ihi!'> It",. wdl known
fnr 'n lillg<'r uv,'r the flif"nnr Ikmnul .
HI l'on,'iII.t, (1'l1 1 17HU), .t lutur likt I) .. M.lfsais; bdwl'l.'n
;md 17AH h,- " rtH'lnrit' thai w,'s plIMishttJ ill Iti:o;
(IIlIrs ,1',:,"",,,:, I""" r",strut'lim, ,I" I"",n' ,'e' I'a"",' (1775) . A fri('nd
86 TUt:UN.If.S ut "._lIi SVMIOI .
nf Du Marsajs and of Ihe {'nlh.fill,u' nOlll'lheit's5.
occupit.tI Q position apart hum thd .. in his In'.IIi:->l' .le 1"1"
II'/cri,t he was satisfied 10 participate in II ... , prt'vaHing almnsplu.'rc
ralher Ihan 10 begin an open debale with his predecessors and hi.
contemporaries. These had in cummnn IIw fact
they were all alao this I' a lime when grammar was
NphllosOphlcal"; II follow. Ihal lheir rhelnric.llre.tiSt'.
wise ""general and reasoned."" - "
. The ihlrd 'geniraik>n appeared after a considerable lapse of
lime (Ihe dlrecl Une of descenl is broken I: il is represenled by
PI"ne Fonlanler, .boul whom, oddly enough, virlually nOlhlng
15 known. lie musl hove laugh I rheloric in a using Du
Marsal.'. manual; dlssati.fied with lhe Incoherence of many pa.-
!Iages In Ihal work, he did",t 10 replace It with un,' ht' had wril-
/
Ien himself. Oul Du Marsai,', pre.tige was .uch Ihal Fonlanler
opled for a very complu stralegy: he firsl published, in 11118, I
new edition of Ihe along wilh In equally Ihick volume
which contained his own C,u"".,',,''';,t '1I;504f1111,' . llli:i cummcnlary
wen I beyond It. original objI'Clive, however: nol only Du.Marsai.
bul liso Deauzh, Condillac, and others ore invoked in a debale
Ihat no longer focuses on elu'Iuence-'-and Iherein lies il. origi-
nality-but ralher on rheluric (Folltanier's Co",,,,o"niu is a work
of melarheloricl. Having Ihu. laid the I\ruunrlwork, funtanier
published hi. MQllut/ c/.ssiqu< llOIIr /'IIIId< dts in 1821 (the
definitive fourlh edition _ppearerl, a. we have seen, in 18301; Ihe
second pari, Ihe Tr.ill glnlrQ/ dts figurts du discollrs QuIrts que Its
followed in 1827.
Reading Ihese lrealise! anJ arlide, lixlay, one Is in no wly
Impres.ed by Ihe genius of Iheir aUlhors; il wuuld nol be lIoinll
100 far 10 say Ihal genius i. purely and simply lacking here. Every
page, lake"by. il.elf. reeks "f mediucrity. We are dealill!; wilh an
elderly genlleman (rhelorlcl: he never dares to slray very far from
the Ideal of hi. youth (ext'llIl'lilicd by Ciee ... and Quintilian-
although Ihey were elderly !;entlemen Ihemselves, In Iheir way);
he doe. nol nolice Ihe Iran.fmmatlons of Ihe world .rmond him
(Font.oier came _{ttr J"omanlkhun, in ils German manifestation ,II
lea.I) . And yel Ihere I" lI"melhlnll splendl ... holll Ihl ... 1,1 al\t" Ihe
old rna" has fUfKuUen nl the twu-thuusand-year hblury
of his life. Detter still, In a ,Iehale animaterl hy many v"ice.,
nutions, definilion8, lind n.'l.tliuf1:i arc rt.'fillcJ and as
never before. Here Ihen is Ihe paradox: Ihi. !It'CJuence of IIIslerle.!
nil:: l:.NU tH MIII: IUMll
p.1J.;l' S. wlH'1l ....... IU .tS ,1 whtlk', pro,llh:" S .J d .lI Ililig imprt.ssioll
ilhl,,'(',I .
I .d liS now tr\ In lis ...... 10 ,I til Ihi .... 1Il,IIIY' yuin'd
rhapsudy 0
t I II ' !'It ;11100, nll' Otly "Nil U ."SSII'I( ..... IONS
[)u Marsais his In'aliS(.' wilh .1 dislindin" 1\4..h .... "t'll Iwu
ddinitions uf Uta' we (an 5wnnl.1(ill' as fulluws :
as dcvi.diulI, and figure furm. In fac!, Ihese Iwo li"'linilions hdd
already ht.'en n. .... nrJed by Quintilian: iusll'ad ul Ihe one
lu Ihe other, he presenled the second as a reslriction and clarifira-
Illt u( 1I1l.' first. Ttl S4ty Utili " is llll' "Irm ul ,m ulkr.llltI.' is,
ft)r Quirtlilian, insuUicient, fur in thai '-' ''St.' all I,mhllilt;e wtluld lx
figurative; thus we musl cumplete Ihe assertion by adding Ihal a
ligure is a manner ul speaking thai is u'nUlv('d frnm RIll' simpl ... ,
comm"" lIl.unll'r,
Du Marsais's preferences lie in the opposilt.' direclinn: hl'
Ih. hr .. ,Il' as npl'lCtS4.'l.llu Ihl.' 'lolHOW lldillililln, Ili s ,Ir.,;u.
menls at;ainsl lht" idea 01 Ihe __ ;0 dt.'vi .liion arl" wdl known
art prutJuotf in .\ ,I.I\' .It 1I1l' 11.\l1t' :-<
lhan in .. f _l(aLlt'mit" till nol dt"
viate from ihe ordinary language uf 1Ilt'1l. l.u from il; on Ihe nUl
bary, sl'"ceh with .. ul figures wuuld be rleviilllt, if il were possible \
10 construct a Liiscuurse thai cunlained unly
(DT, p. 31.
Consequently, he chooses Itl define the fil\ure as Imlll, and
dnts sn, mnrt'uv .. 'r. hy way til UlI.' ... ump,uis .. n- .,'u,.u.ly a (anun.
ie_lone in Latin ",d "fiX'
'''<, In Ihe pm",-' r ,,'nse,. ls the exler,,,, f .. ;111 .. f a tollly . All tollli",
htlYI! exlt.'nsiun; hUI beyond Ihal gt.>n,,rill prtlJ>'!'rt)' til t:'XIt'IiSioll .
I 'Ilk' 1:"'I""h , .. l>-.. 11o. ''''''*'nb II", .hd"f" ".1 ,"n:-. iJ"fnl
In tircoilltr d",oIIU (rl" M-11l1 -rhCM' Ih('t'l""ft 11,1\/,' .I!'oI' I" ... n J",),1t wllh bridty
&n Ilk- tulluwinK "hhlit'S wllhuul Jt'';''h' lu lI",if h, ... ,,",k: 1 (linin' tlf I ..
11N.if Inulu 1 n-I,"tun:oohil':ool: LJ'.UlJ t;"IM.'lIl, ".1'111":'0 (1'''":00, 1''''''"), PI"' 1I1S---112,
Todumv. Uti,'"'''''''''' (r .. ,i!'!, IlItI7). rl' . "1- ItK; C ... nl'llt. rrt'l,Kt' 1"lh.,
1%7 Itl U'" .. I"" "lnlfllthM'.iHU, 1.1 fhdl1fio,III' ., ..... "hUll' ''. in IIII'
IWIIt ",Iili"f! "' " ,'i"'t-:- .1" ,'1'. !Iio 17; I l ,.h"II, II .. """, tl. I., "hUh',
Ih 1''1711" .\ 2'-'; ';"'lIl"Ih' , '''.'.If .... I' i .!). rl' 21 -411, M
Ch.uk-:oo, " I,' ...... UKU""'," ".II 'hl.It , .. (I'j ;- II. \101. 1',Ii, Kk .. tIU, !..
"H"",oIhltl' j'''''', 1'011110. 1":;-",1'1". h..l4lIl t; , :-Whhn'", ... ,Ihl t ' l . "u ALu,",b ,
W.uil'. tt' ... M v,'O' lillk' wilh Ilu fht'lllfk".l1
11M
"f, rill: SYMnol .
each one .1iI1 has il. /il\"'" anet il. 'J'<'rllic furm. which make each
1l4H.ty "'PI"',1r diUt'u'ni 'nlltt ,.Ihtf!" In tHlf tlU' S.IIIH' htlhl!i
Irlle for (ir,urativ(" {')(rrcssinns" (11"'-, p. 7) . An utll'r."1ncc nlay
change ils figure. but il ("an nl'vcr avni,' having (lill' : "Whl'n a
word is taken in ;mulh{'r it Ih(,,11 flrpt',Us, as it wefe, in t1
h",rrnwl.'d form, in a figttrt. Ih.I' b "HI its .",h",,1 nlll' '' (I Jr, p . 27) .
I All bfxlies howe 'orm; ducs it folluw, Quintilian hal' sl"l.' n,
( th,d .. II lal1);Uagl' is Ilil M.trsais nt'v,-r faist.,s thi; (l'll.'s
liun openly. and its slIrrr('ssioll Ip;ul!'l him !o a whul(' seril'S of
anll l'v., shms. Ilis inili .. 1 u',Icliul1 is Iu f\'i,'d thl'
rerrntlch. aHlrming tllill (lint..' are in ...tt"ctl fhlnriguralivt. expres-
sion<; Iml he et"e, nol cq"ip him,clf wilh Ih. m .. an, 10 cslablish
I Ihe dislinclion. Thi< ,ldid,.KY is wibl lJy Ihe word
I
!inn": are exrn'ssions have a nutrll,h.
calion; bul On M.USiHS lives ""I speCIfy the n"turt" uf Ihe matenal
mot.IHird. Anti if the fir,lIrr is IhHIlt'cl. in u"alin" leI tilt' nunfig
ure, as il modHicOlliun impclsl',1 un " primary expn!-lsilln. have we
O(lt relurncd. minus till' Iwinrativl' nutln(c. to lilt' ,Idinitiun 0'
figllre as devi.liun? II<-rt' is I III Mar,;.,i" .... 1:
I Figur<1live exprcssiunsl firs t n'ycnl wh.,t (lnt thinks; they have
lirsl or .11 Ih.1 gcmr.1 p"'perly In all <cnlcnces and
all word groups, which consists in sumclhing by vir-
ItiC of i'I 1'lll1slrudion; hul I"'yunll this lilt'
live exprcssi(lns also h01ve a moditk"lion Ilf"fuliar to
Ihcmscivcs. and II is "y virl .... , or Ihls stx1.:iHc mUltifk"lion Ihat
each type of figur .. hcctllO('s a ararl. . . . Tht" ways
of in which nnll rht'loridan:r> 1 haye Clh-
'served no ollll'r I',opt;rly btlt 11t,,,1 (If 1I111 .. <lrc
: c"lIcd simrly ('xrrC'!'sinns. pcriu&.; hul thai ("x-
nol n\l'rl'ly Ihnllhlll:->, hUI lIH1ugl,(o; ulll'n" t in .1 p.1l1kttl.u
manner which IIR'Jn <1 ('.,It,rc. Ihc'sc, I <lm
silyinr,. arc cillkd ''' C,1USl' Ilu: y so In a
sl'C'cifir form. an,1 with Ih,11 charil(h'nshc fC' .l lure Ihat dlsh"-
Ihem frum ('.lch otilt'r and from what olI"l' fIlcf('ly s("n-
lence. or expressions. (Uf. PI' . 7- 9(
Du MarSili!i fonnlllillt"s his ddinilion at the end of this same
( hapler:
r('<flrr!' ar(" w ... ys "f sp(,aking llistiuclly of otlwrs by nll'flnS of a
specific mudifica tion. which nW;1ns Ih .. , c.lch nnl' IS rl'Juced 10
il st'p ... ralc Iypr and H'ndl ',nl "itlwr liv"'il ' r. or Ilobkr. ur mur('
III.ln Ih(' Wily!'> of "11I';,kinr, th"1 ('Xp"'55 IiI(' 5;"1111(' hask
wilhoul anv pilrtklll.1r mu,tlfk,IliulI 111'1', I'p.
" 1-11
Nul all 1.llg.J.1g, i, fil\uralive: senlenct's merely signify.
l1ll'rdy IIUHI,:hl; nllwrs .1lM 10 Ihis lIu'ir
UWII Ilr s pl'l"ilit- 11M "',,r. Ih'l \\'1"'11 h,' h.IS IUl'xpl.lin
nature uf IhiM nutdifit."aliun, Uu M.,rs.lis hillt's llt.'hind .,
argltll",,,I , .11',IIIt1Ul1in,.; tilt slrudur,,1 Il'rr;!ill tha' w.,s his
It.,cn: the .. 1 mndifiratinn is nn(' thai Ilon .
t')(pn'ssit1l1s .
, Itl rh .. ps ,Uti JUts I1l11 IUl"i111 'u imply ,h.,1 nonfip,ura -
live .lnct mUfI' c .. mmun." nnr thai 'thl'y
.ut' .. ahll. h. hgur."s; '",wlv"r. Ih" llichololllY Ihal he has
With III\' tu nUklify an ""prl'ssiun tI( ..
riVInf; 1'''''' Ih'>I.ght. draw, him illI'vilal,ly .,lonll Ihi, I'alh.
for IS ItIl .. p.lhlt " tlf surmtlllnlillt; OOt "f lilt' tnos l persislt'nl
pilr:''-'Igms uf WI'!'I"rn nllh;n', thl' Olll' ,IlTtlrdilll,; 10
winch IS I1Utr,' '"'purlant th.ln ils 01,.. Ihe spiril
b nUUl' .lm .. 1110111 II ... inshh' Inure impurl ... lt Ihall
thf' olllsu-tc. II n(1 aCCident that 011 Ihal Ih('
dinerenli3ting f"all"e of Ih" Irope "con,isls in Ih" way 3 word
d<l".'" from ,Is p"'p,.' r signilicalion" (Vr. p. III; lmph is .1It.k") .
It is nul without Ihal he 11..- d.lfi1v ur di!'c'''lrs,'
all III her """sideralinns (fur ",hat COli let ,,;, dearer Ih.n
U'ill knuwn wh.,. UlW Ihinks ' ?): "Tuday . .
people Inve wh31 i. lrue. wh.1 luch.s. inlere. I,. h.s
a reas,,",',,Mc Uhi( ..:I; tlll'y on ftklle. al (')(n'pi as
u,'cr. W!."d'. onl' llots nul linger ,,.n'pl In In whal Ihl'Y
slf.mry (nr, pro .12(1 -127). nu' if must I,. how
slt,tn we __ tJvl'r Iltl "(haradl'ristir fcatlln'" that sl'ls aparl
And huw cuuld Wl' arrfl'dah' il " 'alllfr, if Ihc
idral of is "1,,1 tr .. .,: I."ily? "Onl' f.'ltnnl fl'fX'
al
100 oflrn In ynllnr. '"'''1''' Ihal Ihey mllsl 'peak 3n wril. only 10
11(' un(I ....slnu'-I .,ntl Ih.,. clarity is llno firsl and "IfCOlost qu .. lily of
discourse" (" Amphihologie." ["'-I((f",';,/;r. 0,.11("". 'v. 137) .
The figurc's t")(lcriority--and Iherffore ils inf("riuritr... - art" best
re\'palc(J irl H1e- c(lfnpilfisons .rnrc-s Ihat 10 '.,Ik ahoul
il . ()II Marsais wilhuill difficulty frum Ihl' first
figure as bodY- ht .HlOlher. whit-h draws .llknlion In slIpt'rfi -
dlilr,lflt-r - lh.lt of 'lit' liJ-;lIfI ' ., .. do.lk . 1 ('(lIH-
rarisull Ih.d , <lS Wt' know, hits flrcnmpitnil'tt rhrloric sinc(' its
90
Tllenll:IES OF SYMBOl .
l>irlh, and nne that Uti Mars.1is St.'CIHS in di s(uvl.'r in his (urn
with a Jis("oncerling freshness . Hg,ures nobler dress, as !t
wt.' rc, Illest.' common idt:<ts " (I n', p. 34) . lit.' l.'Vt.:'1I a
un this puinl:
Imagine for a moment a crowd uf suldit.',s in whkh slime iUI!
wearing only th{' ordinary dolhcs lhal they hall bcfurc jnining
ull, and the others .ue in Ihe IInUnrm of thl'ir rcgiml.'lll : Iht:' lal
ler an have clothes lhilt sd 1Ilt'1ll ararl . and thai rt.'veal Wh.l'
regiment they belong. tu; SUlUe ilrc dressed in lcd, ulhers in
blue. while, yellow. and su on. II is samt.' with groufls of
words thai make up discuurs(' ; an infurmL>ti reader can relate a
certain word or phrase Iu a Iype of figure. assuming that
he recognizes in it the fmm. Ihe siRn, Ihe distin);uishinJ; (' harac-
It.' rislie ullhal lisun' ; sl'nh.'IKl'S .1111.) wl""b Ihl. IH'H'k of
some specific ligure are like Ihe ""Idiers Ihallack Ihe w,ifornl ut
a ' parliClllar Ihey have no mndifiCihuns C)(fI .. '1l1 !hose
Ihal are neces&ory fur revt"alill
b
1I""'gh': l(Jl. I'p. 111- 111 ..
And a few lines 'urllu' r nn Du M.1fsais aJds, "J\sidt..' hum the
properlie. of IhuUI;IoI. sharetl wilh .11 word 1;""'1'5,
Ihey also have. so tu speak, lIu: a,lvanl.l.,t.:' "' tlu:ir ,hess. by
whi ch I mean their p.uticul.\r nwdificatiun, which serves to
arouse allenlion .Io please, or 10 mOlv,," (OT, 1' . II).
This 'passage deserves allen'ion on mllre Ihall one aU"ounl. In
Ihe firsl place, iI bears wilness 10 Ihe facl Ihal Du Mars.,i. shares
in Ihe traditional ideology 01 rheturic, and. whal is more, doe. so
wilhoul nul icing il. AI Ihe ""me Ihis a';Jin illuslralcs
tile fecund inconsistency 50 characteris'ic of
nl ... uages 10 subvert this Iradili"n from within: everything is
clo"ked (figurative allJ nnnfihurcllivc c)!.pressiolls alike); mure
over, Ihe cloak no st.'rVlS In embellish, as il always (lid in
/ Ihe pasl, bul rather to indicatc belon!;in!;; the ciHak is functiona"
\.and no lonllcr omamenlal . II is nol enlirdy dear whelher Ou
Marsais is subvrting haditinn nr vice versa, in ahis l'unllict of
whi ch doubtless ncUher si,ll' is aware .
For no matter how Vu M.u s' lis lUanirulall's lhe comp.uisnn, it
h as, in itself, a meaning il has carried fur some Iwu Ihnusand
years, nne Ihat gives prima(y III Ihl' t'!isl'lI lially lIfI",mcnt.,1 fune
lion uf We .. Iwll nul Ill.' itslonisl",,,1 Iu St't p .. t'l"y, " '"V
uH' d h...:us 'ur ,I"'innl .IS ,lisnHusl' Ih.lt s,'ys "Ihl' S,llUl'
thing" as nOnpUl'lic d . .......uufs, . hut in a mOi l ' urn.ll, W.ly . "Thl'
t-; cnius uf puclry nlllsish in lilt' hy imilHl's
1"111: f NU UI MIIEIUWIt'
'.II
whi( h in lilt.:' I.Isl a al ' I
. . ' n. YSIS art..' tI It.:'n h.',lu(eJ 10 .1 Ihout-;hl Ihal
orJanalY (tlsn . urs.t' w'lUld express wilh 1l\tIU' sillllJlkily, hul in . 1
malHll'r 1'1.11 IS elllu'r hK. tlr\, ur hJ4.J luwlv " (/1/ ' 2"2 221)
'. . . 1'1' . - - . .
Wllh'lltl ,h III.IIIV h"II'. " :-, . tlt ' ,IW.I),
"um tilt.' s lInl'le m' Ulner of speakiu).;.
These c(llIlr.l"tktinns and bring .1huul thl' 0111
IInlable l.'vulutiun in Ou Marsais's wurk. tl\' lwl'l'1l his 'rt.:'alis,,'
an,1 his tlf rlwlurit-,ll tludrilw illlh,' ["'"!I"" '"''''''
In "rllde t." .'tillt.:'d he aw ItlllJ;l'r prt.'scnls as
ius nwn Ihl' 10 whi(h every l' xpn'ssiun has a figure
(form). bul IInnls lumself lu Ih,,' nuti .. n uf figufl' .IS ,h' vi ali,'n from
the simpl .. - e)(prt'ssiun. a murl.' nmsisl('nl bul 11'SS ' lfubiliolls con
eept.
f(f(urt' . This word ,-'omcs 'nun (iIlS"'I', in till' St ' US,' of ,'lb'"''''''''''
WIII,."Jlla(. lu funn, to tJispusc. 10 arrangl' . II is in Ihis sens ... , Ihal
S.IYS Ih.I' .1 is 1'"1 .1 1',1I1i"IIIM .lrr.mg'"
ml.'nl ul un .. - ur w"Iftis . .. . Ttl whid, WI ' nl ,1\' .1d,1 . . .
this p.uticular dispositiHn is r...' I.llivt 10 Ihl' primiliv(' .11lJ ,
wl'r" ,. slah' uf Ihl' Wt'hb or I h,'
various ,,'evioiliuns bruught .-buul in Ihis ptil1litiv,' stolte illld the
various alll'mHulls ,'''('(""ll'.1 in il Lrl'ilil' Ih,' voHious li,;Ufl'S ul
words and lhnul;hts. Io.-.,,,,.s, v, 21>21
Thus figurt's are now nothing murc Ihan lil'vialions anti .l ller
.tions; nnl. 10 be sure. with respt'ct tu Ihe 1110s I flUllnwn mus t
frequent manrU'r uf l'xpn'ssiu
h
I Hh:S(If. hul wilh n 's pp,.'1 10 .\
"'(undarnelllal" st.llt:' u' discuurse, abuul which Ull Mars.lis has
very lillie Itl say. lhl- dirt'ctinn in which his is inclined
Gm, huwt.'v(' r. ht." il1',,'rred frum thl' artidc "Cons lrudilln," whidl
cuntains l.hL essen(t.' ttf his un 'tlu'stions .
ur Ih,' synladir slrll ..... un 01 p.lrli.-tll.1f Sl'nh.'IKl' S,
may h ... prup"r or figur;:llivl' :
lhis sen.Jllt. Sur I uf nmstnictiull is ,'alhd 1i,\!IH.",. .. , 1..."st'''''';,III.
bt.(tlUSt' III 1.ld il 1.IL.. es a ... 'urm, wl,i,h nol 111.. 101 III\.'
5.i",1"'" 1"1
1
":- '1"11. '''''1 rhl' liJ;ur.llivl lUlIs'rudillll in IIlIlh .10-
Ihmill'J hy .\ "Mtinllar l1ul il is no ill ,onlo;lIIily
wllh Iht' must w.IY 01 :-'1 ... Ih,ll i:-., wilh Ih.11 ,0111 '
plt'lt allli ohll'rlv nlnslrilcliull 01 wllidl w,' sP""'" iii If ) . ", .
u .... v. III
IIt'rl' "sillll'lt-" is illh'rprl'l,,',1 ,IS {f'X"/.,, : IIII' liguft , is "PI'IISl', 1
In .1 rul, ', whidl III.,V bt) pru4.lun' u's,dh Ih.11 . lIt' .l"t 1111 pll'l l' "
91 TftEOIUES Of TilE !liYMIIOl.
Ihen' f'llil f:' i ... ) ,lntl " unlt'rly"' (ullH'rwisc' 11,,'u' I!-I iu-
The fir-nre. like Ihe is "authurizt:ll hy lIs .. g .... :
V it i:c; opposed nol In (as (Juinlili.)Il'!> .J"'inilioll would h.1V("
il) hul In the rul<", 10 IIII' norm,
Ttw .. Idinitinn Clr I'rnp(lsl'd hy DII In
ils own cundusiun, is no "Pl'ust,1 .... 1", illt'a ul
tip,lIre devialion, it is rnr .. dy .. v .. ri;:mt tlf id .... a (even though
Ou never succeeds in furmulating it with prt"lision). This
retractinn and relative 'ailufe from 1111 M.US.1i!>'s inahil -
ily In syslcm.,liu' hi:::i own hl(';ts .
SliII, in Ihe Immulali .. n< I",ond in Ihe rro, .. " Ih('re remain
sevf'ral that point luwtlftt nnuUwr solutinn of the initi'll .. Iifficulty
a, il had already been formulalrd hy Quinlilian (_inc .. every ul -
Il'ranc(! ha!l a particul.u furm, .. 'a..-h is .1 tlu.rt'fuu' IUlthin,.;
a figure). a' the vcry I'"'ginninr, uf work I)" M;usais
qtlnles several e)(amples uf "Anlilhpsis. for l"x;1mple. is
di stinr,tlishet.i from other tt' in fhaf, in r,rntJp of
words Ihal constllllles anlilhe,is, wllrd, are opposed 10 each
olher. . , Aposlrophe is dillerenl hom olher enuncialinns be,
calise il is only in apuslruphe thOlt one suddenly addresses one's
spC'cr h 10 ur allsrnt ... " (nT. p . R) ,
We perceive 0\11 Ihl' and l'ach h;1!'1 " furm;
howe ver, we discern lilt.' "d,.uilrtrrislk feature," thai is, thc qual
ily of only in c('rtain ones: as in thosf' in which someone is
addre"ed slIdd",/y, and nul ,Iuwly and aller some p'''paralion; or
in thosE' in which 'the WOrtts ;u\' nn(' :tnnflur. ;tnd nut In
Ihu,,, in which U",y a'e ,.lik., IIr simply Jill"renl. Why? Whal
accounls lor Ihe lacl Ihal cerlaln lurms ore perceptible whllr
others are nol7 the rart Ihilt "rr("ugl1i1.C" Ihe fir,ures in one case
h .. 1 nol in anolher? Du Mar<.is <eem< 10 relurn 10 Ihis que<lion
mud1 Iiller on: .. fir,tlres ilfl' only ways of spt'akinJ; Ihat have- ,
parlictll;1r chaucerr III whid. a "flm(' has Ptivcn . md more-
OVl'r since each Iype uf ri,;1Ifl' m.,y he varhtl in scvt'r .. 1 different
W.lys, il is ohvious Ihal, if wt." OU(' In uhs(,fve ('ach of these
manners and giv(" Ihern lIam('s, w. will nt' illr a c("rlain
numller 01 ligures" (IJT, p.
This 5('nlenc(' impurl;"lnl . Tf1e figure ;:; nul a prnfl('rly that
inlrinsically OIn,' 0111 ,.f illl (Huh'xI , In s("nh'fl CCS: evt'ry
s('nl('fl ce is pntentially thus no nilerio"
is to be found hert' . l1ul we k"uw how 10 "ohs('rvc" Iht' form tlf
errl"in ull('ranc('s . <l ncl not Ihal ul others. On Marsi\is does nol
TilE EN., OF IUIETOR.C
9J
que' sfi-tll Iht' uri,:ill s tl, Ihi!-l tlt;,.'renn (whh-h 11lt'11 in utlr
.1Itilthl .. ' h,w.".1 tlu' ralln'r 1110111 in tht S('ull' nn's Ihl'lII -
selv('s), with n nit f.,r it : th\' fOl et
thai ("l'rl.l1n. h,Wl' n;mlt'!'t whilt' otlu'rs dn nol . lIy . 1
nill1l(' til Wt iIl Sliluh",,,,li,,' il; hul .1.,. ilistilliliun,
" .. ll .. 1 i,1t .IIH' .. ).isllnl .. Hf Iht' ."'nt .. ... ..s us ttl I"' f\ .\'iv\'
errtal" 'ml;tllshc and II:OS I .. thl' ntheors, Thus in
Marsais'S there i:'i the basis fur it sC'Cund intcrpre.
... tUIIl nf .he :ts fnrm: it .. tU('S nol dt.' vi .. tl' 'rH11l Ihe rult" hul
anutlU'r rlllt" nul a ..- (II1t' Ihis lillU' bill a ml'I.1-
linguistic- mid thus" cultural-rull-. I\n i!l figurativl'
Wt know httw lu pcrn'ivl' ils furm; nnw Ihis knuwlt. .. is
Impnst..'ll tin us by a sudal nurm, incarnated in tlu.' l')(is'enct..' t)f a
fur II", h',ln 1',,,.11. .... , ill .1 nllnnH.It,.lry un Du M.lr
ha< n"le" Ihi sparadoxkal "Thi< i, 10 s,'y Ih.11
hav(' as Ih"., single Ih,' rellt-cli"ns an" I he
Ihal rh .... urid.'"s pursut. with ,..).to',..t In lIH'm" .. :-;
II, "Traill' ,Ies ligur"', " 1', 22'1) . All Is l"'lcn-
!I.IIy I'guralive, I", il is Iheorelically pos<ible It, Ihe lorm
o! ut,lerance; 1m wever. it i!l nol an omnipn.s('nl and Ihus
nond,shnchve property; 10 say th .... an i!li figurative is
nnt h, ',';mse 011 OIny inst.,,,t Wt' ,Ut ' CO'PO'hlc. u(
pe.n'lvlIll; Ihl' furm ullly tlf (t' rlai .. 1I1h-riln ..lS .Hul nul (If .,11 . Thl'
nollon 01 ligure is nul distinclive 31 Ille linguistil' level, hul il
irs 'ullmc.lI1inlt at Ihe Icvl..'l nf our pt.rcq,Iinn uf langllagt:' .
An utlerill1l"t' l)t','omts .. ;IS ilS Wt' ,wrn'ivi' it in
lI.ell.
, Iry lu summarize Ihis line ul Ihuullhl. Ou Marsais re o
1""1< Ihe Idea .. llh" <lIh<liIulint: I", il Ih,,1 .. I
Ihe ligure as lurm. nlll in Ihe lace nllhe dilliculties 10 which Ihi s
dcfinitinn r,ivcs risC'. unwilling 1(1 nmfrnnt th('m tlirl'CUy, he Jays
'h.e gruUflttwnr,k for Iwn inl('rrrl'lalinns of inilial position.
,qlhuut huwever. In furmul.lh' t.ilhfOr onl' : (I) Ihr fi
h
-
tJrc is intiE'ed i1 dt'vi.,linn. wilh rt..'spt'c1 Ihis lime.' nol 10 usahe but
.,h:,> lr:trl rule; (2) the is., 'orm, nut jusl any form:
II IS only Ihat furm which, 10 a stt(ial convE'ntion, is incilr-
nilll, ..1 in the cxish'nn' (I' a nilml' .1"tI is p('rn.' ptihh .1<> form hy lilt'
lISf'rs (If .1 1.1I1gU,'r.
e
.
Of two pO";"il,I,' WilVS ,tI., 1If" .111 inili.11 Ut, .107.t.'.("
0" Marsais's dirrct h""ir. rE' Solult'l y Ihl' formulilting
94
,,,EORIES Of Iliti 5YM6UL
it wilh a clarily enlirely .. 1-:-; t'ul in 1)11 Mars.lj :-; 's wrilinl;. and
it wider extension. Just as nlCanin
h
was Llt'rived from
Hun through the figure. the cmpiri..-al ftlrlll king uppHsed to .he
tlbslracl itiea, so any cunslruc:liun or nhs(' rvahl(' struc-
lure is produced by mt:ans til a Ii.,;un. un tlu.' basis ul .In ahstrad
and universal syntax. Each individual scnlent.:e is liguralive
cisely in thai it 15 In.uividual; only lhe abstr.'l', strudure
, ,: 10' several relaled senlences is ligureless. In Ihe lanlluage oltrans
formatiunal grammar, whit'h St't'ms lu iii lH.'u-. would bt
I
replaced by .... ransformaHun'; every sentence in surface shucture
is derived through a lransformalinn (thUlUKh a fi.,;urc) from ill
, deep slruclure, lIere is Ihe way Ihi. iJ"a is in Ileauue's
language:
Jusl as Ihc lif\ure, in Ihe plimilive and I'wl,er sense, is Ihe
individual dclcr",in.li"" n' a IK><ly by Ihe scI ,,'
paris of its contour, St) the linguistic figure is the individual
of a llnJy tty ItU' hun 01 that dis-
tinguishes it trom uther analogous expressions. In cold, lan-
guage, usage and a"alogy hav, esla"lisheJ Ihc male';al 01 die
Ilon, Ihe primilivt! meaning and the OIn:idcnlai ,.UIIlS of the
paris of Oil prayer. the rules uf syntax af'prupriJte In this basic
shK"k prcpart.tJ by Ih,' 0' Ilu ..' Ih.lt is. so 10
speak. the universal fOfm 01 which is found un-
changed in all discnufSt!. but which nevertheless receives vOIr -
iuus 6pedfic nuK.iififalitlflS in disuuust.'; uwillg In these modifi-
calions. Ihe primitive fnrm never appears in lhe same aspect
Thus it is Ihat all 11It.'1\ havt.' ill 'mm (ommon tu Ihe whole spe-
cies, and resemhlc (,Jch oillt.r IhrnuJ;h lhis g,-,neral cunfunn. -
lino: bul when WI! cnmp.ul' imJiviliuals. whilll variety! what dif-
ferences! not nne rt.'sl.lubks ,1 ItHIItl.r; futm , IS .tlways the
samc, " .. I all Ih" are different. II is Ihe same wilh Ih.
e)(pressions of a _.11 arc sul>it.'cl In Ihe sa"".' general.
inalterable 'ornt. yet e .. (1t une h.1S its uwn physiugnomy. so 10
6pcak. whleh fnlOl Ih, lliU,,...nn hdwl't'U II", !tuM-tifying
figures (lnd conunun fmm; fit;urcs inc likl.' thusc Ihal
... haraclcrizc indiviJuab mc.'n. lIu.'y annUunfC n".'- fi6iJi
ond deplcl h , - tM, II, HIIII
fhe "general" .111,1 ah!"ilr,ld "furlil " J\t.'fl'ssaraly 1U,1I1ih'sts ilsl'lJ
in a slate. b c)(lIcmc. ,;uuf tH."'l'ctll'
consistent : unlilu: ()u Mars.lis, Ill.' ltUt..'S ;\ul cnvasaw' the t.'"ish.'llCI
of nonfiguralive "cunslrudiuns" whosl.' mtlnift.'st slruflUI"C \VuuW
be a lailhlul rcOL,<lin" "I Ihe lIn""rlyi".: ,Irue",,,,; Ihi. IL'a,Is him
I II Ii liNIJ UI
10 :' Is . W:tV III Sp".1"- withollt (ibid. , l III
In 1,,:-. t.'''I1I111m,, 1\1'11"",'" Ill' llr tWS 1 I " I I ' I . I ).
I.', .' . , " !'>lr II II!'> pin , ' ,,'S:-'U, UOUl"
I It: t.!"iS. In I Itt..' lHurs,' uf a Jl'h,lh' wilh n\l' A(li " II II' .. I'
I I . It .1, U)., ,\lUlh IlIg
n w ""H it "glln' in nne lan'lIalt' milV l1ul I"' a " , ,
It ' . " ,,' .... Igun' 10 iU1UI "'r
l'aUi'.l' , ""1'111':-' ,IS 1"lIuws: Ih"I" , 1" "" I I ' '
III ' . . , 1' . 1 U1l11l01l1l1l01l11l
.l . wludl Je-st.'rv .. ,s un ,h .. 1 .'l",ollill til l)t ",111l'd ",\,IllI -
rOIl. an ,1(lllill 5"" .... ,, .. , may c.mhtkly Ih II '" , I' ' I
oJ... . . ..t nt: ra Hrm wll Illul
rn I .cahulI; bul dS SHun as there is muJitkdliol1, is a Ii, .
Uh', Wh.lh'Vt'r lilt' in 'itit'siion, .1,,&1 wh.-.t l'vt'r lilt'
lu",ary lIsa"e ""Y I", "A J' ' I '
. . n ' . ,xure', In is thus an c.x In.'s'
lI,al ,'s renlOW,' nllllrnm II ... "'tlinMy ;",tI lin", ' h"nu,,'} w.y
(rUIil the natllral m.lIHll'r 01 nl1dl.ril1g II", silln .. :
I 111 any whatever; su Ihal ordinarily what is a figure in
1U1t ,lUg,: ; .. Will, I .. , ',I ill ,lIItllh"f" Ip I).,,,) .
M OI , lh" IWil ,hn''''",", '"1:1:,"10'" hilI 11.. 1 l .. r",,,I.1I,' ,1 h)' I)"
Ueauzt.'l' dmuscs. in Iht.'ory. lilt.' (Ufllll'r. And d unlt..
Itt. ,.;i.\les cxamples nf or 'llh'mpls h; d,\ss il
hh all .. II", I,,' .... "si,!.-" ""Iv till' 'il:""" i;'
Ie, of traditiun- only till' libun's Ihal
Micady havt: nalllt.'s. MI).;ht this nul 1)(' prutll ill il sd( Ih.11 tilt'
S>t't,onc..l would have "t'l'n IImH'
IS uu'prUtldl,lhll' frum wilhin. t'xn'pl IIIf JIlt' (,,,1 thai hl'
:pphcs the ".ihlue- lu a IIHll.h bro.hln sL'l til phCUtll1Il'U.l
are urdlnanly by thai name (10 11ll' IinJ-tui Slic Inanilt:'s .
as lu 1I.,e absh,u. ,J1Il1 uuivl' l" s.11 fOlIll) ; thi s l' Jillen-
s&on ".,e IS St .' little ius' Hit," thai n"ilII1.'\I' himself dot' s nol
su((cc,1 In 11III1:-odf Itl il.
"
96
ur '1111: SYMntll .
dlflerence bel ween II,,! Ihe
tl( 'n in its Ilirn. Tlti .. is pndsd\' II", lim' .. f
(.Ire.dy nulli,wtl in II,.. Purl -Rny.1 .. by 1;.lhN
Bcrnard tamy) Cnndillac willlnlluw. More I'recisl'ly. wilhuIII
the (Ii s 'inclion htlwt..(' n ami h.'(linJ;s. he will
till without the distindiol1 h ..' 1 W('('U prtlpt'r amt l'xpn's -
sinn, in that each will h Ih(' prnper ('xl'fl'ssion of a different
!Jignifier: feelings art:' no longt'r an appent.iix In thuu,;hls hut a
source of signification in their (1wn right.
Con(liII;!( furth ",I lilt' PlIlsl'l a ,lis linrlic1I1 whkh Ik"l1l7.t"('
O1lsn n1:lde bllt whkh fur IIll' 1,'lh: r I;.ekctl J,,,:1rinal signifit: "n ..':
the distindion betwecn I1lcaninr, proper word .
lust ilS call word;ol lak"o In a IlorrowM
they enll .. .... rup(r name!''' words I.,kl'n In tin' primi -
live meilninf;: anJ we must IhOlI thl're is "' ,liUl'n'un'
hetween "propocr namc" 010(1 "prop("r wnu" " When w.' s"'Y Ihat
a writer alway!!> the "rtlpt'r word. we fin nol mCOln th .. t he
"IWilY5 u!!>("s in tlldr primitive w(" mCil" that
Ihe words he IISCS wnvey all his ideas pcrle<lly; Ihe p"'lll'r
word Is alway. Ihc be.1 .'pre,"i"n. (AL p. 5(,(11
Wh.1 Ihll. nol Ihe 10
the rigllrativl", hut ralher Ilu' arprnpriatl', which lhf
rip,lIfative. The notion uf apllrupriillt!f1css is h01rJly furdg
n
In da!l-
.... 1 rhetoric; it is ('Vl'U this IlH' .. ning t.r Ihe h.-'fln "1',ofW'r" thai
Quinillian ref .. ins ror his own lise- without r"ilinr" hnw("ver. to
draw the conclusion, n"lndy. Ihal the rip.urativf i!
nol nrrn!!>t'd 10 the "prtll"'r" (anlt Ihus cannni m., ddincd through
il) : " PrI'I"irt.y alsn m .. de tn include Ih(' aprrnpriat(" of word!
in melaph"," (IIIslilllli., On",.,.i<l. VIII. ii , IU) . Yel il')IIinlili,,, had
aprli t"d Ihis principle his whule study uf nrnamenta-
tion could not h<lvC COI11l' ahout . This is wl .. ll h"ppcns wilh
Condillac wilh himself. he en.ls ur eliminating Iht
nolinn olll(;",e.
Whal is soughl. Ihen, is " Ihe besl expression": whalever Ih.
nahrre 01 Ihe meaning inlende.t . Ihere nne exrresslon
Ih.11 heller Ih.n all Ihe Conti iliac so very
explicilly, in Ihe iniruclllriion 10 III Inllgll' (II. 419):
'" )ifkr'nt rl'pn'sl' nl the s .. ou' thing in as
peels, ;Hul Ihr .. ptlinI S I'f Ihr minlt, thill is. til(' OIsrrcls Olc
conlinr. 10 whit h consi,t.'r .... Ihinr. . dd"flUilll' III., dwi ct! \\'f
I .... . f' t o m:lk r 1111' " Ilw ,""<; 1'11 j .. , ""II.1t "' ,. ('.,11 Ill('
1111: I: NU In Mllf: 1UN. ..
'J7
I('rnt. ... ral , thl',..' is thus alw.l\ ....
St n't' S pn,r",..lh.' .. . . 1111(' Ih.lt dl' -
Ctll1Vt'rst'ly, an n I .
bt.' Ir;tnsl .... t('d wilhulil l(lS" ' ,I sl I ' I . r '.11. unVISI.' ---cttn Ill'v,'r
" . a , s ""n,lrE'll L_II h
('"" '1'1, ' , I h t"" er I an any
.. ' . t!rt" IS nu nnl'('r vilriill ' I
rur nil M .' , . ,... . UIIt, .... !!> t H'n' was
. ,I ('xl' .. ' 'I '
I I
.. nssums".1 Ihull -hi
HI van .. huu amull,. the Ihnl,,'I.I< Ih . I ' h h '
.. 1 ... t vt;'s ' tn ' h . T I
rorrespun"s illl' llIy il ... .,. I . . . (ttC le(
lale Ilnr red;Jce RUI' ' .... Iwith"r Ir.lns-
" Ires 'n Ihe sir;nif d
.1 lUll'. I 1t.' is hUI .1 rt'Ut'rllnlt ur 11' ., II 1('
., '" I ,I, Its . n,',:
1- I I ' I UV( s rom an urn.lnwn ... 1 conn'rlinn
t .. u whl.'lher ht, rl.'lurlls 1(1 Ihe
'" "u IIrnlr ,an ", Ih" n" .. II I f I' I
d'rl" It .' lil U nWI', foHnlani.'r is
f lUI In say. It IS I1nl1tUwll. ... s Ih -' - . II . .
silu;'1ll'" withill Ihl' d .... ssical C( . t.l1.
, tlnl I ac s wurk IS, In certain
;'11 le;lsi. fnnfcplually Ie) it .
Ittnk ill ('xilmrll.'S Clf 1111' Irt'iltmt' l1'
!J'lh,lxt!'l '11 which
is. fO,r t'ilch . sentiment, a prnpcr wurd III ilrUUSC its idca
' h" senhmenl ilt'Uer whl'n w(, sln--ss forcdull .
I (' reil!!>nns Ihil' pnltlucc it in uS II I I '1 I Y
(('("Is ,,' i1 passion ,In' OIl .. " flU' 011 S th .. d -
I I . II ' "t" tIIu'nl
n crnlJtahun . Is" nUItrilmh.'s In Ihe ex,lrt'ssiHn uf S.'l1ti ' , ' .' . ;
,'rl"1f'ilrS 10 1,\, Ilw (u f I ' men I
IA[, 572- 57.11 In Il I' must .11'1'Iupri.t" lu r.pro ..... hlS.
r Iltt' prup(-'r (ttnd IIlIi'1"(' , irn'pl;lt"',Ihld l'xpressi un
o a r,lvt!n selllmu ..'" . Interrogatiun!'; arc apl'ropriill I I
for . , . . c t.: u reproac I t'S '
pa!!>,Slnnl'll gt'lIt'r.ll. till' whult' rur 111(' p.lfl {sYIh'nlot:hl'} or III:'
(lr I ,e dl" cl (1IIl'Innymy) 0 '
. r.
To it is oflen tn lurn ,lWilY frum II",
I .. direct urtil'r !oiubj"ds itlt .... s . . ' . . The I"w
Ihttl .prCscftl)('s d .... rlfy "I!-itt tlil-I,lll"t hy Ihl.' dlolr,u .,,h'rislk .. III
glVl'U h,' styll', ol((urtlin,; tn thl' !'A'nliml'nls ul Ihl' sPc-.1kcr
miln W 10 15 up",d ilnd a In I ' I I .
Ih"d . ' I " an w "' IS l'a III ( Cl 1101 O1ffi'lllhC
(,Ir I cas In I Ie same ortil'r 0011 k'
. .. '1 . ' .. , mil e I It' r,re.,I(' .. 1
PUSSI It ...onncctlon ,tmunD IlIdr idl'i1.. iln' I 1 f
I. fU n' .. tV" t'," I onl' 01 -
m .. .... (I (rtnl t"PI1:" lrllc lion, 1111:". f' . '
In Ir .... rllt'ltlrir. nne wnllit. h .... \. s., iet Ih.l l direcl oril,'r
1o Inslrud, ;111,1 I., vtlrs when.ls inv,' ,sion st rvt s 10
mon .lIhf In ph-.I :-' I . . Ind ,unhil'"fIs In l't lilly II" , \ ./ I I
. \ III t'''t 1, ' lItl'
98
TIIEOMU: S OF TillE 5VU.OI.
as disrupted in Cundillac: inversion may darily if Ihe persnn
desnibcd (ur III ..... (Inc wi,,) is spe .. is uPSt."i : un
lunger have three {un(liams. llul (lnly uue: Ins'caLl " ,f .. t;,
movlot;. nnd plcasin
h
. Uwy "nly tlllly the
vary. nle absolule norm of urn. menial I helmie is rcpl.(eJ by Ih.
relalivism of "what "pproprialc": there art" as many Iruths as
and parlit.:ul,u .: .lSCS.
It is wurth nntin
h
'",n' th.11 this .1H.'tnrkal rt'l.,Hvism Icads
Condillac 10 furmulalc " lih.'r.uy acstlu ... 'lk lha. is ius' ,IS rd.llivis-
tic. in which Ihe classical and unifying n"linn of 1111/"" is replared
by the plural nuliun ul :\",." ';-; is the famuus Chal'ler v ttl UI,t
fourlh pa,l Df Ihe Ar/ ,,rrr;n) . We supp"se Ih.1 Ihe nalural IS
always Ihe .ame .... lAs a m.ller nf fdell. eve,y lillie Ihere is
diffe,enee in genre we are Jilferenlly disposeJ. anJ ron""'1
ucnll
y
v we judge aeeoHlinr, In ,ules (I' . 6411) . N.lhor;llm'ss Ihus
eonsisl. in Ihe ea.e wilh which a Ihing can be dune" (I' . (113). "In
general. it 'n nhSl'PJt' that in poetry as in prusc
'- as many ways 0' beillg nalural as Iht!H.' arc ... . I hus ,.
appears demDnslrahly dear lu lIIe Ihal th,' lIalu,alne" proper 10
poetry and to ead, typc uf IHM..'IU is OJ (Bliven"u ... ,1 l1alur ..
Ihal va,ies 100 milch h.l", (r. (11).
This re jeclion Df Ihe universal norm. of absolulti leulh. is ap
plieJ 10 Ihe noliDn of lile,alure il self: lile,.h"e <lues nnl exis!. 0'
ralher u isls only within spedfie hislnrieal conl".ls. "To Iry 10
discover Ihe essence of poeli c slyle wOlIlJ be a vain effo, l: Ihe,e is
nun,," (I' . 6(6) . II is ,1, ... i,I,,lly In Cnlulill.ICS r;.lhe, Ihan III
Ihe one Ihal preceded Quilllilian. Ihal l'onl ;lIIie, ""'I .. ngs afle, aU.
The Idlter's thenry of Ihl' remains In be thas
lake!j us backward in cunf t..'plual history. but 1101 in analytic.1
rdincment. Uk", DII hul ntnr<.> dcady. presents
a double delinilion. slruelural anJ funclional: Ihe figu.e is.delined.
al nnee by whal il is an.! hy wh.t II tI .... s. All.! if Fonl.lIlic, d".s
not innuvate so f.u as Ihe dfccb uf art! n UH.: c .. ncd,
moves away from Ou Marsais in his slructur;:,1 lldinilinn. by
c hoHs int) the secund of tllt_' well -havelt'" p ... lhs, Ihat of llt'vi,,'ion,
while Irying In il a p"'cisi,,n Ihal il dill nol haVl." befme.
Hcfuling nu Marsais's ohit'diun , 10 whit'll figurt.'s art.' I'S
cumlHon ht Wlilt's: "That .I(ug nol pn'vl' nl fit;\lrl's
from ,/"";I,'i".,(, in .1 Sl'ns,', ""111 ,',., 1111111'''''. ,,."11' II,,' 1I1,lilllll"
awl (O"'UIOII ",auuer uf Tht'y ,Il'vililc fruill il in thl.' Sl.'nSf
Ihat one cuuld suhstiluh' IthUt' unliuluy .Hlli Ullin" film'"
TilE hNU (If RIll::l'" ONI('
'1')
mon fur in Iht.' sense Ih,.t 'ht,y pn.' Sl' 11 I sOIlh'thing lollil'r ,
nubll'r, mUI'l.' _""l slalhlinK, mort' pidufl'sque; Silting .....
t'Ut' rt;l'lh'" , CII mOlt' hr"t'" iuli s. mun' ,I);n'l',lhh' " (l -U. pp, ) - 4) ,
IIH' S.HlH' dutlllh' d.' fi"ili"" i ... 10rllllll,ll ... 1 in hi ..; IIWI\ 1I1.Ili .... ,.;
"The uf JisHlurSt! are till" Il'aturl's . the 11Irms (lr thl. turns
of an" murt" nr It'sS and ",UH' ur !tss privj .
1t,'6
l
',1 In Iht' lr dh', I. "n,,' IhruuJ;h whid . in till' (xpnssillil ul
itll'as, . . lIhl (t'('lings. tlisnlurs(' dl'vi .llts mun' ,Ir It-ss
frum wh,ll wuulll h.lv, h,,,. lilt si mp'" ... hl ' "01111111111
(rD. p. M).
,Iuplidly of s lruchlfl.' anti hllldioll - of which t:ulIl ,lI1h' f
skillful nul the unly UllL' pnst.'nl in Ihi s Jdi -
rullun: lIu.' re IS ,."olht'r, ,II lilt' ht'.ul tl( Ih(' slnh' h l f,ll d e lll,'ul
aUtl il is embtkfied in Itlt' two terms "simpll'" {Uf urdinary)
" nllnIllUII , " "'IIl' Iwu tit) nut IU'ftss.Irily t-oill.-hl, : tht'
derives frum a '1'lo1lil ' lhve nih'rion, II".' t'" lImllHin frum a 'lualllil;' '" ,
HlIl' _ This .lIl1hi.;uily has It'll ill tl llr ,I<ly hi (ulilrovt'rsy .I",un)!,
' :onl;\IIil'f'S i"li ..rprt.'lL'rs," In I.ld. hlllt .. "j,r's h' :\ 1 is slIUid,'nlly
clear: Ihe cxpn'ssiuns Ihal nnt' "CUUlll sul1slilllh'" (IIr fi)!,un's Inll st
Ix: all !'i ml'il-r, mure tllft'd; fl l" llIt' Ut'" y 11111 pl.ly .1
(nmmalnry rull' ht'n' ," EVt'u though lilt' formlll,I "mon' 1)1
.ppea,s Ihrec limes ill Ihe tlefinilioli of Ih" fil:urc. Ihe Jiffercl1le
belween Ihe Idlle, anJ Ihe nnnligure is Ihe JiHerenn' a ll
4Ind nolhin).; . nul Ilil' Jiffercnn' Ilt.'twl.'(, 11 mOrt' .Intllt'ss: eilhl'r til t'
simple and dirccll'Xrrt'ssinn ('xisls ':Ir t'ISt, it ,tIft'S nul. and il il dill
nul ('xist, IIll' fi,.;uu wuultl nil I"n";"r r,' stlil Irul1I I ,huil't' ," Now.
for Fonlanier. nn nt't.'"l'ssary t'.isl s : "Th., . how-
rver (ummCln 'ht.'y m.lY be anti hUWl'Vt'r iamiliar 11t,y 1II.IV h"",-'
IhruuJ-;h USilt;l', Cdn nnly tltstrvt .lnl. IIIl'ir 1111t' tlf
inasmllrh .1S Iht'Y au' in (r, ... IIS.I):", .,ntl .u, l1ul in sOlin'
way imp .. by langua.:, (/V. p. M) .
lh, is h.lsttl nil Ihl' t'liI.isll'lKt' 'If nunt' xis h'II, 't' lIf .1 din'd
t' xl'rt.'ssinn. Thi s is ht'sl t'unVt'yt'lt It)' FOIII.lni,, in .tI'
uppusitiun Ihal ht lintls amung h"pt' s: Ih.' t1pposi liull Itt.' -
1.'",II.u-hl"l'si s ,lIhl ligures ," Wt' must u'm"",I,,'r Ih,ll, , 'Vt ' " hlr
fill.lehrt'sis \Vas nnl a Irl1l'ot' lik. lilt' "th,'rs , hul a \v.lY 0'
uSing illly 01 1Ill' IfUPl.S ," I:onl.l"il'r nnw n,HlWS IlIl' "lilt'r, ('0111 _
ph''''''nl;IIY asp"'" 01 .rupls: il b. ill f.ld , lilt' tiglllt' , TI,,' II ..
.Jlt ,Idin,'" by in Ihi:-. It, i ...... "'. dl"- ':-' util 111.16.." .1
Uut IIwy m.I), . in aJdilillu. bt.' ill two W.lYS: 10 fum
IllII ... . III lUI" lilt' ,It'li, 'i"nt'il's III Iht' I' '''h".lgt' (illl' t'.lh'(hrt'lil'
w
OJ
100
m In r('pi3", ,'xlslil11: .. n", "'lit Ihl. ",'Cond
use alone gives rise 10 lir,ures. The lrupe is with Iwo
nne primitive ilnct tile other tropic; the presup-
poses a Ihil' ht' tlt'!"ignatt'cl by IWIl nnr
rroper and .. lil:uralivr . bclw"l'll Ihl'se
rclalinn;e;hip!C>, ami Ihe curnplt:x nature nf 111(> hnpc-figure may bfo
schemali7.cd ns shown.
hUll_
11M .,
SIQnihcl A
0
signilie, 9
(Jllopcl) 1
L
S'O"lfK!fl ,1 s;gn;hed b
slqnlhcd ...
(trOPIC)
(fuiloilive)
Int .... Ftr.I,",
[."""U
s'Hn, llcl A n
- -h",,'-
l
1 l
===i
stQnll,cd if
SIQ,ul1cd h
""'.
name
Tht' lrope l>ecnm('s lif-me .. winr. 10 Ih(' relalinn ('slal>iishN
bel ween signilied nand 'ignilier 0; meaning Q 01 word 0 musl
have ii, oli,ecl name II , and wo,ol 0 musl have a rruper meanlnK
bin mde, lor n In be a I'''re-lig",e (melarhor, .ynecdoche, ond
sn on); tropes and are intersectinr, sets.
Annlher Wily lu wuul,1 lle through
Ihe 10l1nwlng diar.ram (in which we a,e no Innr-er concerned with
reialions among signilie,s and 'ignilieds bul wilh s,,!xllvisio",
within Ihese cI. sse,).
nonllOpcs
Fonlanier tlwse Iwo distinct inns in pas-
s"P'("s of his ilrr."I1l("nl , Iln(" he .t('"ls wilh lilt' suhdivision of
tropes , "Either 'ropt' s uf il word nUl'r 41 fi,;ur.,lh'f'
nleaning. or '1st' IIlPy nff('r tlnlv a purely exlensivt., me41ning. In
the fir sl (tlS(". nwy cut' Irtlt' figufC' s , In IIH' sl'(tlml GISt:' th('\
Cil f1 Ill' (tl lI ,'d I (I P . p, 77).
TilE (hi) UF IItIlETORIC
lOt
Anll hen' i$ till' .. thl' !Ilul .... livisk,n. IInnh ,Irk
.nd trupes: "In wUfll ligures ... Ihe words are lahn in
50(0" """ .. ', IIrnlll;".'\ . Ihilt is, in \tnt! (If Ihdr wiII,,1 "nd ofdin,,,y
wlU'ilU'f p .. imiliv,' (If n"I ; IIr IIwv iHt' I"'-,'n in "
IIIlJninJ;. l1ul .t ItIc .. tit .... is, in ,I signilil"illiun
Ih,'1 is purdy a Icmp",ary b"n"win,;" (rn, p . (6) .
In Ihis rassal;' , w" nole Ihal Ih" tr0r ... -figure exisl. only in
discuurse, wilhin a particular ullerann' (mnreuvl'r, hmtanier
sisls un Ihis: "lilt' /;,,\,m,';,,,' "''''''';'','\ is nt.' Vlr pn's,'nt \"xn'pl till
loon, and is allach,'d 10 Ih(' wo,d .. nly by Ihe very circum,l.nce
Ihal led I .. ils bmrnwing" ICR, p. 3HSII.
Thus it is int.lt."4..J a relationship uf all -tlr-nulhint; Ihal t;rnunds
thr figure. ant' nol lme of Rreatf"r or less('r frequ('ncy. i1!11
rrmilllb us in (lInncclion with examples: "'ntis synl'c-
doche, in lo,ingll ... b .. ldness Ihal il had in ils nnvdly, has never-
Iheless nol losl all of ils ligurolive character. and il musl not be
rtgardcd as a fII,,,d,n-s;!O. sinn' Ihl' it.fl'a Ihal is its nbi"'d coulJ
.hvays be expressell by Iht' rroper and 'p"cilic si,;n 10 which il
.. os originally allach"d" (CR, p. 54).
1'0 be sure, UlR' p;lssage of Iht." Cm"mru'airl' p':l"sl'nls all
prrl.lion 01 Ihe lil:"'" Ihal seems In gn in Ih(' direrlion:
One could prove by 0 Ihousand examples Ihal Ihe lir,"'''s Ihal
.ppeor boldesl al Ih" beginning slop being reg.rded as ligures
when Ihey become '1"ile common and mdina,y" (rr. 5-6). nlll
wr shuuld probahly he mure attentive lu tht. expn'ssiun funlanier
U5CS: "stup "X .. "k., ;IS fit;lIu's." ,lilt' nut "slup
urrs." Familiarity anll frequt'ncy of nrrllrrt'nc(, (ausc us In s lup
nollring Ihe lill",.live characler ul Ih" lil\u,,,- bul .In nol Ihereby
tliminale it .
Even il his "dinilion 01 Ih(' lig"'(' i, '1"alll.liVl'. Fonlanicr is
nol indille,enl III Ih" rrobl"m .. I I\r ... ler .. , Il'sSt'r n,e
prool lies in Ihe lact Ihal h" lakes up again enlirely on his own
.ccounl Ihe di,linctinn pror""ed hy Ihe de Raolonvillie"
belween trupes nl "Mge and Irnpes of inwnlinn s ub-
didsinn cuuld I", applied 10 Ih" ligu,e) :
5umc. in ,'11" ev('n mnc;l . Iht,,'y M., "cc('ph.d.
having nn novelty whalsoever. are rar. l,I the at ils
"('ry foul. Wht'H',I'" 't'w,'r ill l1umht' r. 'Ut nol p.ut til 1"('
011 .. 11 . t'illH"r 'IH'Y .Ut' IWW. tlr 11.,'
only authtlfity tllt' y have in ,hc.'if '.1\1'(1' is 111(' wrilt'f whit
IlwlI1 lilt , tit d.w, Ntlw is th.ll t.lifft'rt'IIt' t," Iht'1II 11\11
It .. us 10 mtlk(' it tilt' ;uhjtt:' .111" II,, h.Hic; 'or .1
102 TIIEO MIES Of T ilE SYMBOL
Jislinr liuu? Ld Wi l" ;IIIII", ,j, :-. I typt' III or "I" .. .'; "/"11'
ItJIIxuaXt. and Ihe 5t,.'cunJ Iypc ItcII"':; "/ """''''11111 ur ""''''!> "/ "'t'
wriler. If 0 , p. 1641
The diHcrcllcc Ihus "l'sst'nli,,1 (,IUHI,;h. " loll. ncvt'rlhdess
suix)((.Jjnalc 1(\ 1Iu.' ,liUl' n'un' 1lt'lwl't' n anti
The absence nf Ihe prupt'r wurtl In l'vulo..e lilt' .. u.-,mill}; ()f cal -
achrcsis obscures 1I11.' pussihilily (If ml.' .lstlriu
h
Ih,' hdwl'cn
Ihe proper word and Ihe fi.:uraliw word, and IlllIs il annihilales
lhe figure . 111e s.,nu.' is IrUl' 01 annllwr '" uhtin.uily
classified among Iht.' uf ilnd whkh art.' nul true
fiJ;urcs. ;lccortiin.,; lu Funt imitc, fur nn Jill'f.,1 ,xpnssinn exists
(nune morc "prorer" than Iht"y arc tht'tnsdvcs) lu whirh they
mi.:hl be compared. "Wuuld il Iherefore he Ihe parlicular ohjecl of
language, or Ih" fcc ling, 1Ill' passinn 1I;i1llangudge ""p,,'sses, Ihol
would make Ihe figure here? Jlul Ihen Ilhere wlluld bel as many
new ligures as there ar(" ltivl'rs(" nr p.lssiuns. ur as thert
Arc lliverse mmlOl'rs in whit-h h4.' lin,:s anll p,assiuns .:an burst
forlh" (fD, pp. 434-415) .
If il sufficed, for a figure 10 exisl, Ihal Ihe signified be a feeling
or a passion, the notion tlf figure wuuld lust., its interest Uolh
Cundillac and Fonla nier use this bul the y base op-
pusint;. pHsiliuns nil it lIu.' furllll'r ai:HJii slu.'s lIu,.' till;' laller
allempls 10 slabilize it. "Shall we say Ihal Ihcsc are fiSI/rts of
OWl/X"/?" Oul for It,ere III he a figure, Ihcre musl be deviation:
here, for example, a gap belween whal words seem 10 say and
whal Ihey really .flY, belw('en Iheir Irulh and Iheir falseh<K>d-
which would be the improper eJl:pressiun of a thai is
alway. idenlical 10 ilseIf. Now Ihe same cannol be said of II",
pseudllfigures, whirh fllnl"ni", "limin"h's for Ih,'1 ,,'aslln. "I. il
possible Ihal Ihpse sentimenls "lIered wilh so much force and
energy may nol be sincere and .:enuine7" (rD, 1'. 435).
Such is Fonlanier's Iheory; we shll have 10 ask whelher hi'
own practice con'orms lu his Iheory, whether figures arc always
idenllfied Ihrough Iheir opposition 10 a simple and direcl expres
siun, we mllsl rl'vit,w the varinus classes III figures U,
Fonlanler eslabll,h"d, whose articulalion we 61,all examine .horl
Iy. The nnllclpilted CtlmpMlsun bt'lwt'cn "prupcr" .ulli "figurative"
furms is rel.llivcly easy 10 m'lke (even if it is nul .Ilways
revealing) for SHUll.' (It Ihl'm: lur example. the lruJlt:'S,
and Impropt'rly so-calktl, ami Ihl' fi':lHl'S of didion, in whkh Iht
phonic form of words i. alt('red, (If Ihe of mnslructiun, in
TilE ENO OF KIIl:TUMIt:
It))
wlaidl II ... til IIIl' is lIul II "1" " It'll , II IlIu!'- 1
uuled oil tilt." uubt'l I.h." I.alll'r hvo .Ul' lIut l' lIlill' lr
alike: only trupes anti figures 01 di(:lion d ...'via lc from dlWlht'r c x-
P,u:SSi"Ul thaI is as spt'cific and ilS Iltt' figurative f'l(pH' S-
sum; IIt;un's ul .. udiun ll,' vi.a'" utli hUlia .anull,," t' Jl:p ...
lmt frum .1 rull' til thl' (th" St' _au' liglll'l'!" ill
senst) . is " wart' ul lIais : "TL,' u'lI'r,m,,' 01 whal h
filnl
-
mar and lut;1t' wHuld secm In rcjerl .I S supl'rfluuus, thc umi ssion
ul Ih,'y wnliM S,'t'lJl tn ,It'mantl as Ihn'ss.II'Y, or linally II",
ordt'nllt-; 01 an lIlh-r.mn' in a IN.ay "ntirdy dill,'u'ul 'Him II", IIlh'
anti , 'uhit: wuuM St't.'m III flU slrih, ' - Ih.al is wh.II
fist.' In IIU'Sl' (,.0, p, "S.l) .
, Uut it is in lIuee d .Iss(:'s uj lig'Hl's thai a rt.'.ll
.. hUt'n'lh'" "IUI'q;"s: 1."1'" hml.IU't,,. tlllUl"ddy ,l,l,lIIdllns I,i:. ,Idi .
nitiun 01 Ihe as a deviatinn from a lilt' ral l' )( prt' ssitHI, anti
has lu call upun lilt' St't'un'" hall 01 his iui'i.llth"illil;uu. till' lult c-
liUliitl h.aU, 10 Ih.,s. d.lsst ... ,Irt ' .. ' s
Iht'Y imprt"'" di s"4111"St'!
It is Ihe dUlin ', 11., arrangen1t'nt 01 words .lUd their mtH" or
less It'licilulis Us&.' in the sculL-'kl.' 11..11 givl.' 10 /1I,IIIf," II/
"" .... Ii"" . IrD. I' 2241 '
f;'I('''f:> ,I, :-1.111, ' tli'lI-.. (rom 01 l'Iuntfltlll ill 111.11 lIu'V n, '
lend lu Ihc of a nmapll'll.' 1I",u,.;I .... HtJ Ilh' Y
of a group nl Wtlr,ts Ihat conslilul,'s i t nul a whole s,'nh,'uo' ,II
a good pari uf une, and an esSt.'nli.ll rail , Tht,y afe ch.uac-
(crlled by a cerli.in livdiness, Ilr ,lllr, .. 'li\lt'l1l'SS Ih,,'
!Iu ... y ,'ny t'''11rl.'!'isiun. wh,Ih-,'",' ih wlu'llt"1
.. be hsur.,hyc IIf nonligurali\ll.' , II' , 22(.1
Aultwltli,' ttl 11111,,"':',' "unsist !n Slid. ,'I ,"dl'ul ill 1I11' " ,1 ... 1
of I,he ... u..l in the.' sl'l.'dlk lI"'I",,'r ul Hunki,,); or
Ih.ll e.'V"1I ., thl.' wor,ls USt 'J III Ihl ,lIt Wt'fI ' Itl
Ch.ll1hl', IIll'y wuultl remain "ss"uti,ally tlU' S. Ulh' IIl1l1t'lhd,' s s ,
Ip 22HI
And _g_ill :
Whdht'r I,hl.' is bt,rruw,',1 ur nul. Wlll.'lhl'f.t is Of
duulll,' , ,1"",, '1 ur, IIId.fl.cl, Clbstrv, in Iht' .. illll ,.1 IIH'
Iholl,.;hl hHW sln'dll
M
,lIhl tH11 ulll", tlftli, ... ,\, if IS 10 ih I,,', wl\l ,
,;r., cl.' , Of "(",w, ':> ,I, ,..; 11//, ' , Ip, :!Kill
If hmdiun 1 (lin' h'lidly ... hl IIII' Illl'
N-.lllly and ).;fi1t't. nf IIw dir.cullrs, . , , ), .1f,' SI'I .l s itil hPH' , lilt'
104 TIlEOltiES OF TilE SYMBOL
th,,' n'm .. in e: .111 in flU way l't, (unne:'dt'''' wilh IIw
('rOll principle. fur from what ,lut'S unt' .It'vi;tl' in flit .. ,!';".'!
". he (t r fil1iliul1 of of Ihtlur,ht helf' hrinr,!i us (Ii
rectly hack 10 DII Marsai" point "f d"part""" fir.torl" are "man-
m' rs" Of pa .. lkular "'urns." II Wt' iU!"ist 011 all ,'usl Ih.1I 11u.'
continue In be ('prUSt'''' Itt slimp l'xpn'ssiun. Wt' S3Y
111;'11 it dl'vii'l'es from anoliwf II I h'lilnn.' ill whit-h. all dst. b....inR
cquOll, this w(luhl Il\.' abs('nl. Ihll litis is ohvitlusly ;1 false
solution: the two orpositions have .titrefrnl we hilvr
moved hum a relation uf nmharies 10 a relalinn of nmlradiclories.
'In the riguralive frupe. one expression diverr,es from anuther; in
! lhe elocutionary hope ilS rcpt.,tilinn, f:;rOlft01tion. (lr polyp-
, lolon). an expression diverr,l's from its own .,hsrncp, frum any-
Ih .. t nnt itseU, nul then- is nulhinH in lin- wuritt , and
cer tainly no linguislic e'pre"i"n, th.t cannol he opposet! to its
own absence: such a definition of Ihe figure is meaningless _
Thus we musl bow II) Ihe we c,'ol1ul ;'1 cn-p' il' une Olnd
S;'1l1le tiOll' f(mlani",'r's tlwttry illl,1 pr;'1(1in' , his ,h-finilinn
of Ihe figure and his li s t of figures _ The situation, in shml, is quile
like the one we encc11lntrred with 0(' .. \I 7.c>e , IJuth 1I1(' urits ;'1re per-
fcr tly consis lenl In themselves (unlike nu Marsai,sl; hut neilh ..
creator succccds in using his uwn .henry. ilm' t'af h resorts, in
prOlclicc, 10 another uf the rigu.c- wilhout {'vt'r formu-
latin,; iI- which leads him linally 10 ,Ical wilh a never-changing
li s t uf fip,ur('s- prf'ci sely 11u..' one bt' qllcalhed In him by tradition,
As if. 1o return tn Du Mars.,is, tilt' Wt'fl' other
than what is called figurr ,
II is timc now In S:1Y il '(Ow wuuls ;'1 hu II I tilt' 0'
ligures, Uu Marsai s proposes Ihe oute rinr. o;;lwwn in thc diilJ;ram,
{
o llhooghl '
01 wflld,,;
{
o i fltclion
01 cnllsIJur:IN'"
liQu,r.s as
hOfW!S
Tlw is a ctll1l1nnnplacc 0' rlwturi<"al tradition;
Ihe s ubsequenl distrihulion ill dd,'n,I"",' "Ihl pu's(' ''I('t.l with
little explilnillion. TIH' third is fl:1rlkllli1rly "hunt it
nil SilyS only II1;ll. in ii , " wnrds k,'"J' their pnlp('r sir.ni -
fi cation" (I J" , 1' , Itl) -- <1 II',IIt"t.' , IIIHvl'vl'r, Ihill ,h,lr.lr h'ri l. t,s all
TilE END Of IUlfiTU'",C 105
Ih.,' iUt' nul In'J't"!1, i h' W.tS nn d"'01n'r in Ih .. - "'I;igun'"
.,tirlc 1"""a",.1 lor the tlln/'"',"';'I. Ilc,"" is his t!cscription of
Ih,,'
Iht' t"tllih ,,' Itl w'lrtl .... 11'1' II ...... " 111.11 , .. "m4,1
ind",f",f in Ih,' d,ISS ul in this ttl
h''''' p Ih..ir first nur ,',In mil ' ",.11 11,, ' m Ht
sit"',, IIU'y au,' I,y ,i, .. ", pt .m.1
alone, anti 1101 Ily virlue uf Ihey arl' that is,
IIH'y ltilV, Ih.ll p.ulicul.u um'o,.n_Ilinll whidl ..
them frum other ways of sp<'okinl\. 10,'11"'''', VI, 2h1>1
Civen such a ",h'finitiun," (mt" mOlY pre-fer Cmulillac's more
honesl approach . lie is nol concerned with the figures
nor CVt'n with t'nllml'r .. tlu' m--4'V(' n h's..; SU, in '.1fl , 111t'1l hl'
had been for Ihe tropes: "The rhduricialls havc i",lcl't.! it!c ntilied
variuus surls uf figures. bul nUlhing ",Ufl' tlSl'll'SS. your Lord-
ship, anti 1 havr not bolhered It. r.0 into s"ch .Irlails" (Ar., 1' .

Ik'aII 7.c .. Iht" figurt's inln fiVl' Ihl' ilrtirh.:
.ntilled "Fir.urr," rM, "and in Ihr "Tahlra" mrlhodique, " at the
.nd of II ... third vol ..
(
of thc holl
t
01 synf".
hOIllf'!S 01 Of all()ll (I, {'Jf)e S I
uf cl(x:"fl()f1
01 style
'Ie has t"(' numllf'r .,f J;ruups ;u Du :1l1d .lp-
proximately Ihe s..,mc categuries (his "slylc" furn'spnnds In lJu
.. and " .. 'Iueulitm" is tlU' nam,' of DII M.u-
sais's anunymous rI:1ss), We must a,td, first. tI,." 1\t.,.,UlC(' tries tn
(ouple;'111 aH",'cliv,' (Ir :1t"slhl'lit.: rl'ahn (l'lIphuny, imagin:1-
tion, harmony, ,lIlll feeling respectively) with pach of these lin-
guistic 'tlrllls. and, second. Ih31 within each of groups , he
pUKCC&c; In m .. k(' 'urther aCf(lrdinr, tn more ohvious
it is nrdin.uily a m.l'h'r (If hin."y pilirs s uch ilS ".,ddi
tion/subhartiun" (Ir and on,
funlani,'r t.llVUh'S span' 10 .1111.1 1H00liiil'S
Ih(,01 slir,ltlly ,,,,nt Oll(' .. inn tn :1nolll('r , Tltt' d .1Ssi(k.,linns
are his fl'al 11,hl,' .'lhl iny, as wt-" l'an 'null Ih, ' r.,lsl'ly moJ -
cst llcdMatioll Ih,'11 lollows till' p,,,,' sl'n,.,lioll of SOI1H' olher drtlrls:
"II is IIHI'" .1pprupri"", I" St.IV wilh Ih,' ('f1lirdy
nill"'o1l , "n'ds,', d,',If, .,ml (""'pit'll' ll.ISs ilil'.llino Ih.II Wl' h .Wl'
106 TltEORIES UF TilE SYMBOL
ndoph:d . l)Ul'!'l it nul surpass alithL' nllwrs? anti , .lllt'r Ihl' ilUJin'd
comparis()n that we have iust made uf it wHh tilt.' til hers, do its
adv.lnlagc5 nol "PP"".H Ihe more dcarly!" (fI). p . 45
1
)) , classi -
fi cation so highly pmi!'{"(1 is s hown in Ih ..
{
'''Ifl'l'
nOfllftlllCS
{
0' wo,lI s
ollhoughl
{
0' d' cli""
()I conslruclO\
of
01 slvlo
This chart is obviuusly murt! (umr1e)( than till! pu..'cl'llin.,; ones.
Oeauzee's five classt"s rCOlrpt';U ht'H", hutlhe hUpt.s .1rl.' subtlivided
into two groups, .. nd Ihl.' of arl.' th.'Ii1cheti
hom the fiE;llrfS of slyll' , hlrllwrmort' , a ("eflain hi"rarrhy is in-
IrlJ(lu( cd, as we can set' Ihe inh'rl1H'di.lle Glh'goril.'s. wOIdsi
Ihou(\hls and lropes/nonlr"!,,,s. Finally, an" ""'51 imp",lan!, Fon-
lani c r is the first tn scek tn illslify his classifiration, 10 explain why
Ihere are so many classes and nul morl', "uti 10 Ol("(ollnl fur their
mutual relalions . Yel ('V,,' f' he tint'S lIul go foU in this direc-
tion . One 01 Ihe calegories he uses in Ihis schcmatizalion is Iht
d;mension of the di::;linclivc linJ;lIistic s<'r,ment : Ihis is whal allows
him 10 oppose nf (wurds) 10 (I' cXP'tS-
sinn (prnposilinns), fi,;lIrt's tlf tI"',,'lItion In fiJ-;un's ut (tht
same crilcrion), ilnd finilily. li,;lIrt's ,,' clh,:tiull In rigllrL' s tlf (on'
struclion. Anolher opposition, bel ween siJ;nificr anti si(\nili.d,
seems In come inlu pl.IY .11 s\.' vt'r.tl Tlu.' ul Jidion
and (unstrudion have In ,10 wilh th .. m(lln;"J;'" of I.lnguage (St"f
fD, p .. 45J); in lI,is Ih.,y M" I" Ihe "1I,,,r ",,"1"'1'" fig-
lues. I hat would nuk(' it possible to orHal1ilC the different classes
of Ihal au' nul ill il JII.lhi:..: .
lIul the same calegnry comes inlo play in yet annlher lashioll:
in order fur a fit;llr\" lu ('xisl. lin' sil;nifk,t alun\.' IH.'lY 1-"..' I1txessary.
or lhe signHied and Ih\. signWt' r m,lY hUll! be [('clnirclt (Ihis is lilt
WUtll f'.IIII'(.',IIH)H
s'!J"",er .hUN)fl cl"lslfuc hon
5t 9
'I
,',ed
slyte
- --
'rilE l::NU UF 1t1lt:'fOMU": IU7
trilllilim",1 opposiliun 1--." .... ,,u ,Hul wI1ul ligIlU:-')
1 his Wl)ult,l tiS lu artiful.ltc rd,lIiull sitil's ,1111011.; Ih ..
t"rcc .cm.ll1un.; d"SSt ' S uf fiJ;url"s .
------
w, ' I', ... I' .111< ",

thoughl
Wl' I1l',-,,1 to fl'lognil.l.' Ih.11 Ihb sdu'II1.1 n'II1.Iin:-. 1'llIh'yonil' ,HId
anlxplidl. Till.' rlU'lnririans nt'v,,'r n'ilSL' I .. d.lssily. bul Ihey
h"JI,V. or rOllhl' r tlH'y .Ut' ul1ahll' 1,1 "n'olllli (,)r tlwir d ,ISsifil'.l linl1s ,
I tt:dUIlIl"i\I . I'I.W;I ' I. I ItVI.
We C.1II now rdurn tn IIU' St(Ulh.1 IIf II'L' pl'rspt ..'dives .111
nouncl',1 011 Iht, bq;inninJ; uf Ihis .m.llys is : alh'r ClIIC look .11 Illl'
thcoretic.ll i SSUl'S, w,' .... 'cd In "xamiilt' Ihdr hbhlril'al signifi c.mt'l' .
first, are here wilh IwtI traditiuns , 1101
iust nne, The first is cmllt.klied hy Uti MarsOli s , IJtau7.l"l..', and
(even Ihtlugh there an' diHert' llfl'S a
Ihem); the st.>cund by Condillac hl' i:-> link"lt It) eerlain
manifeslalinns of rhl'ltlrical al Ih\.' "-'fh.l til Il\t' St'vl'llh:c'nlh
ctnltary. mos l nOlahly in the ou I'nr' de" by Antoine
Arnauld and Pierre Nicole, and in Ihl.' R/,e'l"r;'I"I' (III ",lrI "c' IIt,rla
by Oernant (, ...amy . Th .. diUt,rt'nn's .1ppt',U mos' d,.uly lUI IwCl
poinls: lhl' IIhi,'d III rhl'lurk .lIhl 11.1' ddinili,," til till.' liJ:llrt , 1\
rhetoric stich as CUlhlillac's gf.,Uls all impurlan' plal'l' lu Ihe study
of (IIr "tllrns"). hulltu,,'S nlll ,'Iimiu,l'" .,11 till' It'S' (lh.I' is,
{onsidcratinns the (nnstrartion 01 discoursl' in general) .
f\ .hduric Slid, as I>u Mars-lis's, tin thl' utlwc h.,,,d, ,1 111011 Ills In a
simple SIUtly uf figUrt.'N (ur eVt'lI, in Ilu Milcs.,iss partif ulili' (,ISl',
of hop('s alune) . Mllfl'UVer. in till" DII M,lfS.lis .. lll';Hl/t'l' Folll,lnicr
Iraditiull. the lit;IIlf.' is t!efint' ll lilt" sibnifit'r: it is " 1n1.'ailS
of ('xpressinH Uill'sdf (a less simpt,'. ll'sS ,lltrarlivt' nwall s ) thai
differs frum SUIn(' uUll'r exprt.-ssitll1 with 1Ill' santi' llU'anillg. It is
drfim.'d thrtnlHh Iht sit;nili\",l in lilt' Irmliliol1 ""pu's\"" lcd by
("ntlill.l"": .1ft' Ih.ll tit'Si,.;H.' .... Ilr
rmotions, as npt'usttt In Ihnst' Ih<ll PUrl' thuughts , One
also say Ih.11 Iht' firsl lll'finititlil is t'rl'illw'oL,1 Ih" su:u.u,tl

'1IH: sL' diUl.'n'jU'ls ,Ill' imp"cl<lnl. Anti vel Ihev p.lh- in 'lie 1.U't'
A
N
lOB l "IIEOIUF.S OF TilE SYMBOl .
ur Ihl' csl"hlish thill huI" Irittlitiuns bdon,;
10 Ihe broader Iradilion (II rheloric. and more parliclliarly 10 Ihr
last (If rhrloriC".11 .1divity in fromrr , Evrn if Cmu.iIIi\C'!
rhrloric (";Hlnul 1)(' ,,'duCt'c' to Ihl' th'sniplitrll of alune, Ihf
,loluin;)l1! plan- giVl'11 Ih('111 twafs willh'SS In liti:-; It'II,lrflq
IlIfll we h.lve seen in Iht, ultWf hatlilinn. t:VPII if CUl1dillac's
rhetoric d(locS Hul descrih(' ., figur"Uve f"xrrf'ssiult Ihat ctivefgrs
fnun another, prnpcT expression. the cliverp,t'llcf" helween Ihouf,hl
and (t'ding, ide., ,tIld l'fllotion. is m;-einlaifWII . rI", n .. Marsais
nCil tllce Fontanier vflriant takes 10 the ("xlrem' a 'rlh.lf'ncy thai is
likewise pr('senl in " .. ft,'div(''' rhplnric Anti it is this cummon
honlt Ih"1 explains lin' tlis.tl'ptarann' IIf .Iwturic frtll11 the be-r;in-
ning 0' the ninelernth c('ntllry on- nnl only in ils r)(trell1e form,
that is. in lilt' v.uianl rquesl'nlt.'ll hy 1)11 MiHsais .1Ilei !l;U(-
c{'ssors. but also in its mo(ltrfll(' - alld. itt II", last "nOllysis. its
rnodt'rn- fnrm, cl11hndi(,tI lor hy Cuntlill;lc.
1 hc disappear"nc(' uf Ihetoric may intlcc(1 S('('111 pcrplexing.
The qua lily of the wurk w(' h.tve just surveYf'(1 is undcniablr.
Ev"n il on a poinl Ih" de"riplion of li"r,lIi,lic I.cls Ihal
Ir('atise s propose Ius I .... .. n surr.l!1;sed tc)(l;,y (al1tl thilt is not
ollen Ihe cas e, preCisely ht 'r.luse nf Ihe ahnlpl inlcHuplinn of all
work in this area), the wlH1lt' is impressive: fur accuracy 0' oh!.er-
vation. for preci s ion fl' fnrmulalirm, for the ahundance of pht-
nomen a considerrd (.lntl I have left the tre4ltmf'ltts aC"fordcll earh
separale figure complelely How ca" one acrollnl lor Ihis
aherration in the evoltllion nf knowledge, whirh leiUJ9 tn tht
nh .. ndnnment of such a rkh, wdl surveyetl fidd?
The answer li es in Ihr fa cl Ihal Ihe lurninr, poinls in Ihe his-
lory Ilf science (pnha!,s. Ill .. ,, modeslly ... I rhdurk) arc nol dr-
t('rminrd hy internal cnn(lilinns of m:thtrity nr fccundity . AI Illf
"'nl of Ihe s[,<',-ilic rl",luri,.,1 rcsearch we lil1.1 a Irw r.ene,.1
principles that wo1l1t1 hil\'(' to br unth'r thl' heading not
uf ritl'luric btll (If idtoloJ;Y. Wltt'n a radical in Iht
hkolngi("<ll :Hrlltl . In the ami r,clIlise9 thai ilrc generally
taken rur r,rantrd . the tlt1illily (1' uh!,,{Orvaliun tlntl {'Xl'lillliltion or
COllnls lor lillie: Ih"" arr swel'l aw,y alnnr, wilh Ihe prirl -
cirles Ihal Ihey imply. I\n" nil one worries aboul IIw baby being
out h.ll" walt-t.
Now it is pH'("i",'ly ;1 (1I111ltH' IIf thi " Ihal WI' ""iflu'ss il1lh\'
p.'rimt w(' .lle loo .... ing .tl 111'11 ', .1 h,, .lk whus\' W<ly was prl'parl'tI
in lilt' C'ighlt ' I'nlh Il'ulul v .md whn:-w filII "PJ")(.'ar in
IIH' cf"lllllry that (n!low .. . IIH' hilI utHl1i s'ak;lble- or
TilE Ef>,;U UF RllfTOIUC 109
Ji5rtlpliol1 is thl' riS4! or HIt.' butlrg\.(lisil". anti ollhl'
values Ihal Ihe bourgeoisie brings along. In Ihe area Ihal runcern.
us. here, this hreak nmsists in the abolition of a wnrld -view Ih"t
.lits"lo,," .uul unh',' rs.,1 \' .1111 ':;, Hr. 10 I.' ..... Hnly IIU' m,.,,1
(>1(H111("nl {xOll11plt" 11tt' uf pft'stigt' slIH"rt',tl hy Chrisli;lIlity;
am' in th(' rcpl"(TlI1cnl ur Ihis by nottlhl' r that rdusl's
In .lssign a lIuicll1e place In l'a(h vOlhll', {lilt' Ih,,1 anti
>ccepls Ihe exisknce of individual laller nn beinr,
Int'rdy ,IS impt.r'{'d t')(;unpit's 01 .UI I' ''; t1111It nun,, _
The id"olor,ical hasi. Ihal is ""Idrnly rl'vr.led In ",. <0
which tlU' whul(" t',Hfin' t,l" I", alt.lt-knt ,111\1 sh;lllt'rctl,
(uincidc!J, in Ihe d"milin uf rltdl'rif. with tilt' IHltiHIl (If figure. 1\11
I d rheluric. ur nrarlv b"ils down. in Ihis rcriod. 10 a Ihenry nf
\figu",s. N"w Ihis ",.Ii"n (Iik" 'Illy "Ih"r) is "",,"Iy ,ld,'rn.in"J, by
an empirical consit.lcfation- Ihe thcnry uf (ir.nres cnrresponds tn
Ihe observahlt' hy " theon'tifal {(Hlsiril"r,, -
lion-it can be inll'J!.rtlted intn ., cuherent system a
particular world-view. 11 is in this lasl respect Ih"t Ihe 'igure- an,I
wilh il all 01 rheloric- ."rs in Ihe eyes nl Ihe 01 Ihe new
ideology. For Ihe "nlir" rhclurical I",Jililln f"'IIl \)lIinlili;1Il III
Fontanirr. the is superimposed ,
ornamental (and it mailers lillie whether tlr nut the orname nts
Ihemselv"s are admired); Ihe ligure is. as we have lusl seen. a
d('vialiun with respcct to the norm. Rhetoric is no longer pussi bl e
l
in a world Ihal lakes Ihe pluralily 01 norms as a norm in it sel f;
and the fJn.,lily of a fnnt;anicr's cuun1s for lillie ,
does even Ihe fad that prafh(t'- by vlIhl t' e,f IIH' pial'" Ih,lt "
.11015 10 Ihe rhenomen. nf lanr,uar," - IIlay .. ,pH contradicl hi s
Ihcury.
U we ("(lO'in\' tlIlrsdv('s 't1r the.' mt1mt' nt In thr inl r r
nat rvoltllil1n (If t'll' tli9ciplilll', wt.' nole.' Ihal rlwltlric disappt';us
for two prindpal U'OIsonS-- f('olsuns "tlttUmmy, nmr(' tl v('r ,
is murt' appan' nt tholll w,ll .
(I) .",., "',,,liIim, II/ II,.' l'r;p;I.-,',,I" S"""("'.' ,.','"i" O",,'\,,;:-: ti.-l ("'''':'
111', .. '1) ThE." could \Idint,.t only a <kvi.l -
tion: deviation in tlt4o (.t" irufiu"ct, or IItlfOmmOn, Wily 01
om' sl' lf); tlt'vi.lli"n in 'IU' " iglfifi",1 ;I S
In Ihotl,;"' :--; ). Ilill III P"fft'i,' " li,:lIfl'S . 1!-' t ... d.tti,m" illlpli" S .1 ild,I'I
in II", t' xbl\",t (It . 1 norm, "' ;t'",' r.11 .lIh' I' solulc.' ide.ll . In "
\\,lIfhl wilhntlt (;nd, in whit h ' , 11 h j o...: 11"""1('11 It I nm
sWol\.' Ido;; own nnrm. tlwH' is 111' h1ngn ,IIlV rOtlOl for tl ...
110 TIIEURIES Of nil! SYMnUI.
eralion of deviant expressiuns. ECIII;tlily tlllwng expressions
as among men. Ifugo, a rom'lUlie, knew this well when he de-
clare .... "war on rheloric" in II", name tlf (-'()uillily .
And I said: nul word un whkh till' itlc in pun' Hihhl
Cannol illighl. aU "miSI wilh .IZurc;
( .... 11 decluf:d wurJs l-' tlual, Iret..', .... lull.
Rhetoric is from this pt'rs!",clive a vidilll 01 Ihal '.nll'
V Revolulion which, paradmically, lift- illio elu
quence.
(2) 1''', u"uls;oll '>/ "";111'"/;5'" "" t"'I';,;e;5'". "",/ "f 5,"1I/.,;.1t
COlIs',uc,ious "y Iris'ell"; .. al s'.,,(y. Ilere, rhl.'luric- whirh wt.. have
secn to be "general .md rcastlnctl" - shares Ihe 'alt uf (philo-
sophical) grammar. General IIrammar aimed 10 ennstrucl a single
model. Ihe universal struclurl! uf language; the same is true of
rheluric, whuse ubject is nul synchrunic bul panchronic: il
seeks 10 eslablish Ihe syslem 01 .'pressive devices in all periods,
in all languages; hence Ihe conlinuing perlinence ul Ciceronian
rheloric. even Ihoullh il deals wilh Lalin illId is .illhll'!'n
years old; hence, lou, Ihe explicil debale belween lleauzt'e and
Dalleu .
These two movemenls, rejeclion 01 Ihe "mm/deviance pairing
and rejeclion of panchronic constructions in favor of history, have
a common source, as it is easy tn see: tlie disappearancC' of abso-
lule and transcende" 1.1 with whieh one collid con"unl
(and boil down) individual lacls. In a wurld wilhulIl God, every
man is God. So, Ion, sentences are no lonl;er measured against
an ideal sentence, nor are languages romp.ued wilh all abstract
"deep" slruclure.
The entire debate on till' contemporary uf .heluric, on
the signification 01 Ihis old ductrine lor "' loday, Ihus depends on
Ihe way we respond 10 Ihe loll owing queslions: Tu wh.1 exlenl is
'- a body 01 knowledge reducible lu ils ideolugical premises1 To
what extent can a diSCipline built on a fmuu.lalion th.I' we our-
selves--inherilors 01 bourgeuis and fIlmanlic ideulogy- rejecl,
nonelheless include nolions "nd ideas Ihill we are slill prepared
10 accepl loday?
Out perhaps Ih(' rum.lnlirs iue nnly ollr Ollht pl.'rhaps
people are sometimes prep.lred In sQcrifkc their 'ilther::. to Iheir
grand/alhera?
4
The Misfortunes of Imitation
Aeslhetics begins precisely where rheloric l'",ls. The 1,,"
realms du nol coincide complelely; Ihey ha ve
enough in cnmmnn 10 prevent II\lom hum exisling simultaneously .
The r(>alily ul a lholl W'IS nul uul)' hi slnril'.ll hut ron -
ceplu.-I was pt.'rn.ivctJ by (unlcmpurary "hSl.' (Vl.'rs ut Iht.' (,:h.111);l" :
lhe first at'!oi"'t'I;( project, A. G. W.lS lUudt..' lcd 011
rheloric. An inlerpulaled remarl. by 1' . 11. . W .. U pmvi,I,'s ad,li
tional teslimuny: "Rheturic, or. as we say uursdves. at'S-
thelics, ... '" n,l.' substitutiun uf at.slhl'lks fur rlwlurir l "oil\ cides.
by and wHh the frum d.1SSir.11 I .. rumantic idl:'ol
ugy. In lact, il wuld be said Ihal in .-Iassieal d .. elri",: arl a"d
discoursl.! are subUHlinateJ In an exll'nl.,1 uhjl."flivl.'. wht.nas fOf
lhe rnmanlirs t11t.y cnnslih.h.' autullnmuus (Ialm. Nnw "VI.'
have secn Ihat could nut endurse Ihe id .. , ... thai Jiscuur:-. l.'
millhl find ils jllslilkalinn in ilsdl; .",sllwait's, in hun, ( ;11111111
fume inln i>t!iog until its ubicCl, lilt' htillilifui. is n',,:n";lIi7.ed ,IS
h'Iving .1ulnnunulUS l'lCish'nn', ,tlhf unlil Ihi .... "hil'd is i. ,
I ,: A Willi , tl., Ahl'hunwis:....lIst h,ll1 n,ll h Umt.lll): .
1WI'l" tlml \\",,1," ill J'. 1\ . WI'" ,InJ I' Uullm,lnn. , ..... , .\1" .. "'" .Iff , 1It","UfW'I.'
Of'II:.dfllJI Uk',Un, 1t4U71. '0 ...