Source documents Vibration Damping

Damping is the energy dissipation properties of a material or system under cyclic stress. Active damping and passive damping:
Active damping: Active damping refers to energy dissipation from the system by external means, such as controlled actuator, etc. Passive damping: Passive damping refers to energy dissipation within the structure by add-on damping devices such as isolator, by structural joints and supports, or by structural member's internal damping.

Description
Vibrations within high-precision machines are often badly damped, and may easily show up as a major factor in limiting the achievable accuracy. As it is hard to damp these vibrations by passive means, active vibration control may become inevitable within such machines. Robust active damping can be obtained by applying integral force feedback to so-called _Smart Discs_, i.e., active structural elements consisting of a piezoelectric position actuator and a collocated piezoelectric force sensor, which are inserted at appropriate locations within a machine frame. A wafer stepper, i.e., the advanced microlithography system that is at the heart of integrated circuit manufacturing, is an excellent example of a high-precision machine with a frame that has low structural damping. Badly damped vibrations of the lens of the wafer stepper may in future limit the attainable line width of the circuit patterns. For this reason an active lens support, based on Smart Discs, is developed. Experiments with the active lens support show that the relative damping of the dominant vibration modes of the lens is increased from 0.2% to 16%, which effectively results in 86% reduction of the vibration amplitude

The Active Damping Device (ADD) consists of a vibration sensor, an inertial actuator and a controller. The ADD introduces structural damping into any vibration mode that can be observed by the sensor.

The ADD is not sensitive to changes in the supporting structure dynamics; frequency variation of 100% have been observed without performances degradation.

The fine-tuning of the device can be easily performed by in-house technicians. The device is made of a mechanical subsystem to be connected to the structure to be damped and a remote electronic box requiring only power lines; a diagnostic plug is also available.

Both devices are sealed and can be used in harsh environments. Up to 15% structural damping has been achieved on first attempt with un-characterized structures or machines.

Material damping and system damping: Material damping: Energy dissipation in a volume of macro-continuous media. System damping: Energy dissipation in the total structure. in addition to damping due to materials, it also includes energy dissipation effects of joints, fasteners, and interfaces. Damping Measurement: There are many methods for measuring the damping of a vibtation system. Logarithmic decrement method and bandwidth meathod are introduced here. Logarithmic decrement method is used to measure damping in time domain. In this method, the free vibration displacement amplitude history of a system to an impulse is measured and recorded. A typical free decay curve is shown as below.Logarithmic decrement is the natural logarithmic value of the ratio two adjacent peak values of displacement in free decay vibration. To estimate damping ratio from frequency domain, we may use half-power bandwidth method. In this method, FRF amplitude of the system is obtained first.Corresponding to each natural frequency, there is a peak in FRF amplitude. 3 dB down from the peak there are two point corresponding to half power point, as shown in the figure below. The more the damping, the more the frequency range between this two point. Half-power bandwidth BD is defined as the ratio of the frequency range between the two half power points to the natural frequency at this mode.

Introduction The design of high-precision machines heavily relies upon a limited number of well-known design principles, examples of which are kinematic design, stiffness management, vibration isolation and thermal management [15]. An issue that is equally important, but nevertheless often appears to be neglected in the design of a machine frame, is the realisation of sufficient damping. Especially within highprecision machines, damping values are very low. The lack of damping is an unwanted side-effect of the main design principle for achieving high accuracy, which states that

uncertainty should be avoided as much as possible. For this reason, highprecision machine frames should be designed free of typical unpredictable damping phenomena like friction, hysteresis and micro-slip. As a consequence, vibrations within high-precision machines are often badly damped, and may easily show up as a major factor in limiting the achievable accuracy [6]. Due to the fact that damping is relatively hard to control by passive means, damping management is not yet a common issue in the design of high-precision machines. Instead, damping is usually realised in an ad hoc fashion, as an addition to an existing machine, e.g. by means of a tuned mass damper or via layers of highly dissipative material [1,2,4,7]. An important problem with this kind of damping solutions is the increased weight of the total structure. Furthermore, it is known that the smaller the vibrations are, the more difficult it is to damp them by such passive treatments [8,9]. It is for these reasons that, especially in the field of space and aircraft applications, active damping methods have gained a lot of research interest in the past decades [10,11]. As the accuracy demands for high-precision machines are continuously increasing, active damping management is becoming a necessary design principle for eliminating micro-vibrations, also within terrestrial applications. At the Drebbel Institute for Mechatronics of the University of Twente, research is aimed at the development of an active structural element to be used within highprecision machines, in order to improve their dynamic behavior in general, with a particular focus on the damping properties. The active structural element, referred to as Smart Disc, consists of a piezoelectric position actuator collocated with a piezoelectric force sensor, and control and amplifier electronics [12,13]. Active damping by means of collocated actuatorsensor-pairs is a well-proven technique [8,11,14] and active damping elements have already shown their use as add-ons to vibrating structures [1517]. However, a Smart Disc is envisioned as a load bearing structural element, rather than as an add-on. The idea of considering, already in the design

phase, the utilization of load bearing active structural elements within highprecision machines, as such appears to be a new one. An excellent example of a high-precision machine is the advanced microlithography system referred to as wafer stepper, that is at the heart of integrated circuit (IC) manufacturing. Microlithography is used by IC manufacturers to transfer a circuit pattern from a photomask to a thin slice of silicon referred to as the wafer, from which the ICs are cut out in the end. The circuit pattern is projected onto the wafer through a carefully constructed lens, which is in fact a complex system of lensessee Fig. 1. The most important variable to control in the lithography process is the line 16 J. Holterman, T.J.A. de Vries / Mechatronics 14 (2004) 1534 width of the circuitry on the wafer, as this width has direct impact on the final IC speed and performance [18]. The current IC line width is about 0.1 lm. One of the possible future bottlenecks in decreasing the line width, and thus in the miniaturisation of ICs, is caused by badly damped micro-vibrations of the lens of the wafer stepper. Up till now, micro-vibration problems within high-precision machines could often be relieved by means of adequate isolation of the equipment from the floor, through which most of the disturbing vibrations enter. However, once the equipment is sufficiently isolated from floor vibrations, an other disturbance source becomes dominant: acoustics. It is practically impossible to come up with isolation means for acoustic vibrations, due to for instance the design principle concerning thermal management which requires a well-conditioned airflow within the machine. Damping of the lens vibrations by passive treatments has also turned out to be practically impossible. As a consequence, the wafer stepper constitutes a challenging test-bed for evaluation of the active damping potential of the Smart Disc concept. Experiments with prototype Smart Discs within the lens support of the wafer stepper are the subject of the present paper.

Current applications
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Chatter control in machine tools (i.e. grinding, milling machines) Vibroacoustic control of steel railways bridges, Vibroacoustic control of machine tools (punching machines)

Potential applications
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Industrial robots (speed and precision improvement) Industrial & medical vision (Image stability) Production machines (speed and precision improvement, noise emission attenuation)

Main Advantages
The simple and compact design provides:
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Stand-alone device Wide-band structural damping Insensitive to structural uncertainty

Simple implementation (non intrusive)

4. ACTIVE DAMPERS There exist various types of passive dampers used in practice. They include squeeze film damper, seal, friction damper and eddy-current damper, which are not a mechatronics device, so they will not be further discussed here. Traditionally the most common type of active damper utilized either the electromagnetic force or the AC eddy current applied to rotating shafts. In recent years, more active (semi-active) dampers, including semi-active squeeze film dampers, are found with controllable fluid such as electro-rheological (ERF) and magneto-rheological fluids (MRF). 4.1 Electromagnetic damper Electromagnetic dampers are similar in structure to the passive eddy-current damper, except that the magnetic flux is formed by electromagnets, instead of permanent magnets. They are able to change their damping properties depending upon the current levels to the winding coils. The generated magnetic forces can be attractive for a DC damper, repulsive for an AC damper or shear-resistive for an eddy-current damper activated by coils [80].

Nikolajsen, et al. first applied an electromagnetic damper to vibration control of a transmission shaft in 1970 [58]. Schweitzer also applied an active magnetic damper to stabilize self-excited vibration of a high speed centrifuge rotor in 1974 [71]. Matsushita, et al. [51] used an electromagnetic damper to produce the particular damping effect for stabilization of a centrifuge partially filled with liquid. Such centrifuge is notable for its self excited vibration due to presence of cross coupled stiffness effect, inherent to the contained liquid rotors. Figure 4.1 shows the schematic of the AC eddy-current damper bearing built by Nikolajsen [57]. He demonstrated that the damper, without feedback control, can stably support the short rotor but render damping in its full five degrees of freedom. However, the damping capacity is lower and, above all, the power consumption

is much higher than the conventional DC eddy-current magnetic damper [22]. 4.2 Controllable fluid dampers Nikolajsen and Hoque [59] demonstrated with a rotordynamic test rig that the peak rotor vibration amplitude at a critical speed can be substantially reduced using a disk type of electroviscous damper shown in Figure 4.2, utilizing ERF as the working fluid. It consists of six thin nonrotating disks moving with the outer race of a ball bearing and with five nonrotating disks attached to the housing and sandwiched in between. The resistance force generated by controllable fluids such as ERF and MRF to shear motion is often well predicted by a Bingham type model, which is the combination of Coulomb-type friction and viscous damping models. Later, almost the same device was used to reduce the vibration of a test rig by Yao, et al. [84] MRF inherently has higher yield strength than ERF, not requiring high voltage amplifiers. It stimulated the application of MRF as an active shear type damper for unbalance response control of rotors [82] [85]. Although controllable fluids are commercially available, they still suffer from, among others, sedimentation and stability problems that limit their practical applications in rotating machines as well as other structures. 4.3 Active squeeze film damper Squeeze film damper (SFD) has become an effective machine element, because of its capability of high Coil damping. It finds many applications to the rotating machinery, which are supported by lightly damped bearings (rolling element bearings) and foundations. In particular, SFDs have been used extensively in almost all aircraft turbines designed since 1970 to damp out unbalance response. However, it encounters some problems during operation that its damping property may deteriorate as the temperature, oil supply pressure, imbalance and speed of rotation vary. To enhance the stability of rotating machines under varying and adverse conditions, active or semi-active SFDs have been sought by controlling the pressure [10] and flow rate [19] in the SFD. Since the advent of controllable fluids such as electro-rheological (ERF) and magneto-rheological fluids (MRF), there have been many attempts to introduce such fluids as the working fluid of SFD and to improve the performance of passive SFDs in the sense that the optimal damping property can be scheduled with the varying operation conditions, particularly the varying rotational speed of rotors. A slotted ERF SFD, which has a predetermined clearance at its leakage sides and thus eliminates the electric discharge problems, has recently been suggested by Lee, et al [48]. It features that ER fluids are unexcited in a squeezed annular region, behaving as a Newtonian fluid, while the fluids are excited by an external electric field at the slot of ring, behaving as a Bingham fluid. More recently, Forte, et al. [20] demonstrated that the unbalance response can be significantly reduced by increasing the current flow to the MRF SFD. Wang, et al. also developed an MRF SFD and applied it to on-off type control of unbalance response of a test rig at its critical speed [83]. As one way of improving performance of the conventional SFD, the controllable SFD with the electromagnetic coil wound around the inner damper of the SFD [1] has been proposed and tested with a test rig. The damping increases as the applied current to the coil increases. Experiment with a test rig demonstrated that the whirling amplitude is significantly reduced and the critical speed is lowered with the current applied to the SFD. In 2004, Kim and Lee developed an MRF SFD shown in Figure 4.3 and experimentally derived its dynamic stiffness model, which varies depending upon the input current levels and the harmonic excitation amplitude. Employing a scheduled input current controller for the MRF SFD, they demonstrated with the laboratory test rig that the unbalance response of a flexible rotor could be effectively attenuated as the rotor passes through two ELECTROMAGNETIC SHOCK ABSORBERS Dr. Abhijit Gupta Dr. T. M. Mulcahy and Northern Illinois University Dr. J. R. Hull Mechanical Engineering Department Argonne National Laboratory DeKalb, IL 60115 Energy Technology Division Argonne, IL 60439

ABSTRACT Automobiles and trucks have shock absorbers to damp out the vibration experienced due to roughness of the roads. However, energy in conventional shock absorbers gets dissipated as heat and not used in any way. Regenerative electromagnetic shock absorbers provide means for recovering the energy dissipated in shock absorbers. Electromagnetic shock absorbers for potential use in vehicles are fabricated and tested for their performance. NOMENCLATURE Bi = Magnetic flux in tesla f = Frequency in Hz F = Force in N h = Height of pole ring in mm I = Current in amp K = Constant (nhBi) in volt-s/m L = Length in mm n = Number of turns / mm P = Power generated in watts Rc = Total resistance of coils in ohms Rl = Resistance of external load in ohms v = Velocity in m/s V = Voltage in volt INTRODUCTION Goldner et. al [1] proposed electromagnetic shock absorbers to transform the energy dissipated in shock absorbers into electrical power. Gupta [2] has studied the available energy from shock absorbers as cars and trucks are driven over various types of roads. Graves et. al [3] studied electromagnetic regenerative damping. They mention that energy regeneration is small and may be relevant only for electric vehicles. They also propose ways to amplify the motion of the shock in order to increase recoverable energy which on the other hand may have a negative effect on vehicle dynamics. Another interesting observation made by them is that device output voltage must be large enough to overcome the barrier potential of the storage device. Suda and Shiba [4] studied a hybrid suspension system where active control is adopted at low frequency and passive control by energy regenerative damper is adopted at high frequency. Fodor and Redfield [5] tried to design a regenerative damper. However, they came across the design limitation of amplifying mechanical devices input force which is necessary because available energy is low and a threshold for energy storage exists. Karnopp [6] studied the electromagnetics involved in designing permanent magnet linear motors used as variable mechanical dampers. However, until now no practical electromagnetic shock absorbers have been designed for automotive or truck usage. EM SHOCK An EM Shock has been fabricated. The shock consists of three assemblies: the permanent magnet assembly, the coil assembly, and the case assembly. Voltage is induced in the shock windings when the coil assembly moves relative to the magnet assemblies. The case assembly aligns and enables the piston-like motion between the coil and magnet assemblies. Generator Design The magnet assembly consists of an inner magnet stack surrounded concentrically by a larger diameter outer magnet stack. Each stack consists of three axially magnetized ring magnets separated by two iron-pole rings and two additional pole rings located at the ends of the stack. Sintered anisotropic NdFeB permanent magnets are used. The polarity of the magnets is chosen such that radial magnetic flux emanates from both sides of each iron pole and the flux of the inner pole rings adds to that of the outer rings. Note that the radial direction of the flux from the pole rings is opposite at opposite ends of each magnet ring. Also, the flux through the two end pole rings is about half that in the interior pole rings. For purposes of estimating performance, a 1 Tesla (T) radial flux density is assumed to emanate from the interior pole rings and 0.5 T from the end rings. The coil assembly consists of an inner coil surrounded concentrically by a larger diameter outer coil. Each coil consists of four continuously wound layers of #25 magnet wire with approximately 800 turns. However, each coil is broken into four sections, separated by insulators. In assembly, each coil section is centered on a different iron pole ring. The winding direction is reversed in adjacent section of each coil to accommodate the reversal in radial flux of adjacent pole rings. In other words, the induced voltage in each section of the coil has the same polarity. Voltage Generation To first order, the magnetic flux from the magnet assembly radially penetrates each coil section over the height of the pole ring, h = 10 mm. Thus, for coils with n = 8.26 turns/mm moving axially with a velocity v past a stationary pole emanating flux density, Bi, a voltage, V = n h v Bi, (1) is generated in each section of the coil. Assuming Bi = 1 T and the coil is at 0.01 m/s, then each middle section of the outer coil will generate an open-circuit voltage of 0.169 volts. Each middle section of the inner coil will produce, in proportion to its smaller diameter, a smaller voltage of 0.062 volts. The bottom and top sections of each coil will generate only half these voltages, since their Bi = 0.5 T. For both coils the total voltage is V = K v(m/s) = 68.9v = 0.69 volts. (2)

Damping Force When a straight wire of length L(m) conducts a current, I(A), and is subject to a magnetic field, Bi(T), normal to the wire, a force, F(N), is exerted on the wire of magnitude F = I L Bi (3)
The direction of the force is normal to the wire and field. The damping force developed on the coil assembly of the EM shock is the sum of the forces exerted on each section, i, of the coil, and (3) is applicable because of the coil geometry and the radial directions of the flux. Already, L = n h and

Bi = 0.5 T or 1 T are known for each section of the coils. The current I will be the same in all sections of the coils, but its magnitude depends on the impedance of the coil and the external load. For the frequency range of interest, 0<f<100 Hz, the inductive reactances of the EM coils are negligible in comparison to its resistance. The resistance of the inner coil is 9 ohms and the outer coil has a resistance of 22 ohms, for a total of Rc = 31 ohms. By combining (2) and (3) for every section of the coils, the total damping force is
2

F = K v / (Rl + Rc) (4) where the impedance of the external load is assumed to be entirely resistive, Rl. The power developed in the shock coil is given by
2 2 2

P = K v Rc / (Rl + Rc) (5) The maximum damping force is developed when the external load is zero, Rl = 0. Maximum power occurs at the external load when Rl = Rc, and is equal to the power that occurs at the coil of the EM shock. Results EM shock fabricated at ANL was tested on a 300 lb electrodynamic shaker. The base of the shock was supported from a stand and the moving rod was attached to a stinger through an impedance head as shown in Fig 1. The shaker was run using sine dwell at certain frequencies. One end of the inner coil and one end of the outer coil were connected such that combined voltage can be measured. The other ends were connected with various resistances (0.1 , 30 , 50 or open circuit). The EM shock was excited at two different levels 0.5g and 1 g at frequencies ranging from 10 Hz to 100 Hz. Fig. 1 Shaker set up The EM shock was tested at 1 g level with a 33-ohm external resistance (close to optimum resistance) and results are shown in Table 1. All values are RMS values.

Improved Concept and Model of Eddy Current Damper

When a conductive material experiences a time-varying magnetic field, eddy currents are generated in the conductor. These eddy currents circulate such that they generate a magnetic field of their own, however the field generated is of opposite polarity, causing a repulsive force. The time-varying magnetic field needed to produce such currents can be induced either by movement of the conductor in the field or by changing the strength or position of the source of the magnetic field. In the case of a dynamic system the conductor is moving relative to the magnetic source, thus generating eddy currents that will dissipate into heat due to the resistivity of the conductor. This process of the generation and dissipation of eddy current causes the system to function as a viscous damper. In a previous study, the concept and theoretical model was developed for one eddy current damping system that was shown to be effective in the suppression of transverse beam vibrations. The mathematical model developed to predict the amount of damping induced on the structure was shown to be accurate when the magnet was far from the beam but was less accurate for the case that the gap between the magnet and beam was small. In the present study, an improved theoretical model of the previously developed system will be formulated using the image method, thus allowing the eddy current density to be more accurately computed. In addition to the development of an improved model, an improved concept of the eddy current damper configuration is developed, modeled, and tested. The new damper configuration adds significantly more damping to the structure than the previously implemented design and has the capability to critically damp the beams first bending mode. The eddy current damper is a noncontacting system, thus allowing it to be easily applied and able to add significant damping to the structure without changing dynamic response. Furthermore, the previous model and the improved model will be applied to the new damper design and the enhanced accuracy of this new theoretical model will be proven. _DOI: 10.1115/1.2172256_ Keywords: eddy current damper, magnetic damping, passive vibration suppression, viscous damping

1 Introduction
When a nonmagnetic conductive metal is placed in a magnetic field, eddy currents are generated. These eddy currents circulate in such a way that they induce their own magnetic field with opposite polarity of the applied field, causing a resistive force. However, due to the electrical resistance of the metal, the induced currents will dissipated into heat at the rate of I2R and the force will disappear. In the case of a dynamic system the conductive metal is continuously moving in the magnetic field and experiences a continuous change in flux that induces an electromotive force _emf_, allowing the induced currents to regenerate. The process

of the eddy currents being generated causes a repulsive force to be produced that is proportional to the velocity of the conductive metal. Since the currents are dissipated, energy is being removed from the system, thus allowing the magnet and conductor to function like a viscous damper. The use of eddy currents for damping of dynamic systems has been known for decades and its application to magnetic braking systems _14_ and lateral vibration control of rotating machinery _5,6_ has been thoroughly investigated. While the theory and applications of rotary magnetic braking systems have been well documented, there are many more applications of eddy current dampers. Karnopp _7_ introduced the idea that a linear electrodynamic motor consisting of coils of copper wire and permanent magnets could be used as an electromechanical damper for vehicle suspension systems. He showed that his actuator could be much smaller and lighter than conventional actuators while still providing effective damping in the frequency range typically encountered by road vehicle suspension systems. Schmid and Varga _8_ studied a vibration-reducing system with eddy current dampers _ECDs_ for high resolution and nanotechnology devices such as an STM _scanning tunneling microscope_. Teshima et al. _9_ investigated the effects of an eddy current damper on the vibrational characteristics of superconducting levitation and showed that the damping of vertical vibrations was about 100 times improved by eddy current dampers. Lee _10_ considered the dynamic stability of conducting beam plates in transverse magnetic fields. The research showed that three regions of stability existed: damped stable oscillation, static asymptotic stability, and static divergence instability. The buckling field was also found to exhibit a linear dependence on the geometry of the ratio of the thickness and length of the beam plate. Kobayashi and Aida _11_ explored the use of a Houde damper _a type of damped vibration absorber_ using an eddy current damper as the energy dissipation mechanism. The eddy current damper consisted of a conducting plated moving between two permanent magnets. The study found the Houde damper could increase the damping ratio by 2% and suppress the displacement of the pipe by a factor of 8 to 10. Kienholtz et al. _12_ investigated the use of a magnetic tuned mass damper for vibration suppression of a spacecraft solar array and a magnetically damped isolation mount for the payload inside of a space shuttle. The magnetic tuned mass damper system targeted two modes of the solar array _first torsion at 0.153 Hz and first out of plane bending of 0.222 Hz_ and increased the damping by 30 and 28 dB, respecrespectively

Viscous damping has been widely used as the energy dissipation mechanism of choice in abating resonant vibration in structures. Such damping is provided either by the flow of high viscosity fluid thru large openings (gaps) in laminar flow viscous damping units or the flow of low-viscosity fluid thru small openings (orifices) in turbulent flow viscous dampers. The latter type is commonly used in the making of shock absorbers (dashpots) in automobile suspensions. Turbulent flow viscous dampers, i.e., dashpots, are rather complex mechanical devices and require periodic maintenance, but laminar flow viscous damping units have simple designs and are maintenance free.

Laminar Flow Viscous Dampers

Laminar flow viscous dampers are multi-directional damping units made up of a plunger (piston) and a container (cylinder) partially filled with a viscous liquid. The vibratory motion of the plunger thru the viscous liquid shears the fluid, dissipating the vibration energy into heat. There is ample clearance between the plunger and the container and no seals are used in their making; as such, they have no metal to metal and/or metal to rubber (seal) contact resulting in no stiction (static friction) or other undesirable nonlinearities associated with solid to solid contacts. DEICON custom designs and fabricates laminar flow viscous dampers for variety of structural damping applications. Home | Contact DEICON

Sound and Vibration Control

DEICON uses computation fluid dynamics (CFD) tools to design viscous dampers. The cut-out Figure 1 (a) shows the typical results of a CFD model of a laminar flow viscous damper in terms of velocity field distribution. Figure 1(b) shows a snapshot of the same information at the cross-section encricled in Figure 1 (a). Clear from Figure 1, the large velocity strain induced by the motion of the plunger in conjunction with the high viscosity of fluid will create the desired damping force.

Figure 1 The veloicty field (a) and velicity distribution in a cross-section of a laminar flow viscous damper

The CFD software tool allows the designer to select the proper geometry for the plunger and housing as well as the right fluid so the the desired damping coefficient is realized. The damping coefficient was numerically measured, for each damper, by subjecting the plunger to a sinusoidal motion and plotting the force that it (the plunger) experienced as well as its velocity as a function of time as shown in Figure 2(a) or the plunger motion vs. plunger displacement as shown in Figure 2(b). Either the ratio of the two traces (force and velocity) shown in Figure 2(a) or the area of the hysteresis curve shown in Figure 2(b) was used as the measure of the damping effectiveness of the damper.

Figure 2 Damping force (blue trace) and velocity of the plunger (red trace) vs. time (a) and damping force vs. displacement of the plunger (b) Following the design of viscous dampers, they are prototyped and their damping effectiveness verified, experimentally. This is done by subjecting the dampers to periodic motion and measuring their force as well as the displacement. Figure 3 shows the experimental set up for measuring damping force and plunger motion of a viscous damper. The two traces in Figure 4 depict the measured (blue trace) and the identified (red trace) force vs. displacement of the viscous damper shown in Figure 3. Note that the small angle of the oval traces shown in Figure 3 indicates the presence of a small amount of elasticity in viscous dampers.

Figure 3 The experimental test set up (a) and the measured force vs. displacement (blue trace) and the identified one (red trace) (b)

Applications
Viscous dampers may be used as a stand-alone damping unit to dampen the resonance of an underdamped structure or in conjunction with spring elements in base isolation applications or realization of tuned mass dampers.

Coulomb damping
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

Coulomb damping is a type of constant mechanical damping in which energy is absorbed via sliding friction. The friction generated by the relative motion of the two surfaces that press against each other is a source of energy dissipation. In general, damping is the dissipation of energy from a vibrating system where the kinetic energy is converted into heat by the friction. Coulomb damping is a common damping mechanism that occurs in machinery. Contents
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1 History 2 Modes of Coulomb Damping 3 Example 4 Theory 5 References 6 External links

[edit] History Coulomb damping was so named because Charles-Augustin de Coulomb carried on research in mechanics. He later published a work on friction in 1781 entitled "Theory of Simple Machines" for an

Academy of Sciences contest. Coulomb then gained much fame for his work with electricity and magnetism. [edit] Modes of Coulomb Damping Coulomb damping absorbs energy with friction, which converts that kinetic energy into thermal energy or heat. The Coulomb friction law is associated with two aspects. Static and kinetic frictions occur in a vibrating system undergoing Coulomb damping. Static friction occurs when the two objects are stationary or undergoing no relative motion. For static friction, the friction force F exerted between the surfaces having no relative motion cannot exceed a value that is proportional to the product of the normal force N and the coefficient of static friction s.

Kinetic friction occurs when the two objects are undergoing relative motion and they are sliding against each other. The friction force F exerted between the moving surfaces is equal to a value that is proportional to the product of the normal force N and the coefficient of kinetic friction k.

In both of these cases, the frictional force always opposes the direction of motion of the object. The normal force is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the object and equal to the weight of the object sliding. [edit] Example For a simple example, a block of mass m slides over a rough horizontal surface under the restraint of a spring with a spring constant k. The spring is attached to the block and mounted to an immobile object on the other end allowing the block to be moved by the force of the spring.
F = kx

Because the surface is horizontal, the normal force is constant and equal to the weight of the block, or N=mg. This can be determined by summing the forces in the vertical direction. A position x is then measured horizontally to the right from the location of the block when the spring is unstretched. As stated earlier, the friction force acts in a direction opposite the motion of the block. Once put into motion the block will oscillate back and forth around the equilibrium position. Newton's Second Law states that the equation of motion of the block is or depending on the direction of motion of the block. In this equation is the acceleration of the block and x is the position of the block. A real-life example of Coulomb damping occurs in large structures with non-welded joints such as airplane wings. [edit] Theory Coulomb damping dissipates energy constantly because of sliding friction. The magnitude of sliding friction is a constant value; independent of surface area, displacement or position, and velocity. The system undergoing Coulomb damping is periodic or oscillating and restrained by the sliding friction. Essentially, the object in the system is vibrating back and forth around an equilibrium point. A system being acted upon by Coulomb damping is nonlinear because the frictional force always opposes the direction of motion of the system as stated earlier. And because there is friction present, the amplitude of the motion decreases or decays with time. Under the influence of Coulomb damping, the amplitude

decays linearly with a slope of ((2 mg n)/( k)) where n is the natural frequency. The natural frequency is the number of times the system oscillates between a fixed time interval in an undamped system. It should also be known that the frequency and the period of vibration do not change when the damping is constant, as in the case of Coulomb damping. The period is the amount of time between the repetition of phases during vibration. As time progresses, the object sliding slows and the distance it travels during these oscillations becomes smaller until it reaches zero, the equilibrium point. The position where the object stops, or its equilibrium position, could potentially be at a completely different position than when initially at rest because the system is nonlinear. Linear systems have only a single equilibrium point. [edit] References
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Ginsberg, Jerry (2001). Mechanical and Structural Vibrations: Theory and Applications (1st ed. ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. ISBN 0-471-37084-3.

2.2 MR Dampers

Magneto-rheological dampers are perhaps one of the most common applications for MR fluids. The fluids adjustable apparent viscosity makes it ideal for use in dampers for vibration control. Real-time adjustable systems can be developed to change damping based on certain physical measurements, such as velocity or acceleration, in order to better counteract and control the system dynamics. Typically, MR damper applications use the pressure driven flow (valve) mode of the fluid, or a combination of valve mode and direct-shear mode. Dampers that use only direct-shear mode tend to be used in applications that do not require much force from the damper. 12 In a typical pressure driven flow mode damper, either the movement of the piston assembly, the accumulator charge, or a combination of both pressurizes the MR fluid. As the fluid flows through the valve, the coils can be powered, causing activation regions where the fluid has been polarized, as shown in Figure 2.7.
FIGURE 2.7. MR DAMPER OPERATING IN VALVE MODE.

Lord Corporations Motion Master damper is similar to the damper shown in Figure 2.7. Instead of using the housing as the second paramagnetic pole, a small sleeve is attached to the coil via stainless steel welds, which prevent a magnetic short between the two poles. As the coil assembly moves, the fluid in the direction of travel is pressurized, and flows through the coil/valve assembly, where it can be activated by the electromagnetic coils. Increasing field strength produces stronger MR particle chains between the two poles of the field, creating a higher resistance to the flow of the MR fluid through the valve section of the damper. This resistance provides the force mechanism for the damper. The flow resistance can be regulated between the off state (no applied field) and the saturation state, at which point the particles are fully aligned and an increase in the electromagnet current fails to produce a higher damper force at a certain velocity [5]. MR dampers can also use a combination of the pressure driven flow and directshear modes of the MR fluid operation. In this case, the damper housing is used as the second paramagnetic pole, and the coil assembly moves relative to the damper housing, as shown in Figure 2.8. The fluid flows through the fluid gap between the damper housing and the coil assembly, where it can be activated by the coils. While the fluid is primarily operating in pressure driven flow mode, the relative velocity between the two pole plates leads to a direct-shear mode of operation as well.
FIGURE 2.8. MR DAMPER USING BOTH VALVE AND SHEAR MODES.

The magnetic flux lines illustrated in Figures 2.7 and 2.8 do not represent the actual flux lines of the magnetic field. Since the coil assembly and the housing are made of low reluctance iron, the fluid gap has the highest reluctance of the magnetic circuit. Therefore, the flux lines will probably be normal to the flow of the fluid, as opposed to the angled flux path across the fluid gap demonstrated. Since the fluid is the highest reluctance component of the magnetic path, the fluid gap has tremendous impact on the effectiveness of the coil to control the fluid.