9-Generator Performance Curves and Static Exciation

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AnsaldoEnergia
Una Societ Finmeccanica
DPT.
ELECTRICAL MACHINES
_____________________________________ PRESENTATION PERFORMANCES CURVES OF THE ALTERNATOR + STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM _____________________________________
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Summary
1st PART
(sh. 3)
PERFORMANCES CURVES OF THE ALTERNATOR
2nd PART
(sh. 39)
STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM
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1st PART
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PERFORMANCES CURVES OF THE ALTERNATOR
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The performances given by a generation group of electric energy (type turbogenerator, hydrogenerator, etc.) they are essentially synthesized by the following types of curves, that represent an useful tool to support the exercise and maintenance operators of a production plant. 1a - Saturation and short circuit curves 1b - Capability diagram 1c - V curve 1d - Power vs. temperature curve (for GT)
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1 a SATURATION AND SHORT CIRCUIT CURVES
The saturation curve of an alternator shows the behavior of the stator voltage versus the variations of the excitation current Iexc injected in the rotor windings. This curve is done at no-load conditions, at nominal speed revolution and at a defined ambient temperature.
Temperature
25C
At no-load
Main Breaker OPEN
Vstator Iexc
G T nom
At nominal speed 6
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( 1 a Saturation and short circuit curves )
The a) diagram shows that, when the excitation current increases, after a certain linear trait, appears a knee of the voltage V due to a saturation phenomenon of the magneticiron material of which the laminated core of the stator is composed.
Vstator
a)
Iexc
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The diagram also shows the short circuit straight line b) obtained measuring the stator current versus variations of excitation current, when the main terminals of the stator have been short circuited.
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Istator
b)
Iexc
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The Saturation curve and the Short circuit straight line are significant diagrams useful to verify the quality and the intrinsic characteristics of the alternator. Normally they are used during the commissioning and after the main maintenances, and therefore not frequently. That curves are automatically generated by electromagnetic calculations done for each single project and they are validated by tests where the generator is completely isolated from any load and from the grid. Consequently, that diagrams are exactly representative of the specific characteristics of that particular alternator.
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1 b CAPABILITY DIAGRAM It is a particularly important diagram because it synthetically represents by a close surface all the possible working points of the generation group (turbine + alternator) in terms of MW and MVAR delivered for the external loads. This diagram therefore is valid if the generator is on load only [i.e. when it is synchronised to the grid or it is loaded locally (in island)].
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( 1 b Capability diagram )
Mw are in abscissa and MVAR are in ordinate. Each segment of the star having origin into zero is composed by working points having same ratio between MW-MVAR and therefore the same cos . Every half-circumference with center in the origin is composed by working points at constant MVA, but with different cos . The curves are at Vstator = constant. In this case the capability are three and each of them corresponds to a generator cooling more or less intense (here done with hydrogen at different pressures).
MVAR
Over
MW
Under
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The overexcitation quadrant is at positive MVAR (positive cos). The underexcitation one is at negative MVAR (negative cos). In the example at side, the nominal working point (on which the whole group is sized) is at cos= + 0,85 in overexcitation. The boundaries of the curves are due to the limits of the machine project.
MVAR
Nominal working point
Over
MW
Under
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At side, the boundaries of the capability, imposed by the sizing and by the characteristics of the machine, are highlighted with colored lines. More in detail: green line: limitation due to the max thermal ability of the stator blue line: limitation due to the max thermal ability of the rotor red line: limitations due to problems of dynamic stability and to heating of parts situated in the extreme zones of the stator package.
MVAR
Over
MW
Under
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( Appendix to the item 1b )
This curve is particularly meaningful for the exercise operators and therefore it deserves further details in order to explain the manner by which it is gotten and the reasons for which some limitations are applied to it. The following images go through the sequence of all the phases of the capability construction and they focus, particularly, the phenomena that converge to establish its boundaries in the plan of the active (MW+) and reactive (MVAR +/-) powers.
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Now we go back through the notes on the capability already seen, starting from the origin and using the physical considerations that have contributed to produce it..
-----------------------------The capability diagram is represented on the Active/Reactive Powers and it includes all possible working points of the generator (each point is defined by its active/reactive values). It is applicable to the synchronized machine only and it depends by the size of turbine and alternator, Some limitations are applicable due to the materials temperatures and to the dynamic performances of the group (stability). The following images show in sequence the main considerations that produce, as final result, the definition of the capability.
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1 step (pls. see next image)
On the surface Active/Reactive Power the portion at MW < 0 is not considered [because we are talking of generators MW delivered to the grid (MW with sign > 0) and not motors MW absorbed from the grid (MW with sign < 0)]. The size imposed by the Client (apparent power MVA) defines on this plan an half-circle including all working points having MVA the size required (its limit is just the half-circumference at max MVA). The nominal cos required, together with the apparent power required, define the nominal working point of the whole group turbine-generator.
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Nominal apparent power (MVA) of the alternator
Active Power (+) Nominal working point (nominal power at nominal cos )
nominal
MW
MVA
Generic working point (MVA corrispondent to a generic MW / MVAR)
0
MVAR
Negative reactive power
MV A
Underexcitation LEADING
(-) Motor
Overexcitation LAGGING
Positive reactive power
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2 step (pls. see the following image)
The nominal working point (MVA, MW, MVAR, cos) is the main reference for turbine and generator sizing. Consequently, the turbine is designed to deliver, as its max power, the MW correspondent to the nom. working point. This is the first limitation that cuts the upper part of the capability diagram. It will be physically impossible to over-exceed that MW and, therefore, the upper highlighted area will be erased because inaccessible (forbidden working conditions of the group).
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Active Nominal apparent power (MVA) of the alternator
power (+) Inaccessible area due to the turbine power limitation (max MW size)
Nominal working point Max power (MW) of turbine
0 Negative reactive power Underexcitation LEADING (-) Motor Overexcitation LAGGING Positive reactive power
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3 STEP (pls. see the following image)
The nominal working point (MVA, MW, MVAR, cos) is the main reference for turbine and generator sizing. The generator will have the stator size designed on the MVA of the nominal working point and, similarly, the rotor size. The outlined half-circumference (MVA=constant) represents all points at the same MVA of the nominal working point. The rotor is sized for the steady field current correspondent to the nominal working point and this size limits the working conditions up to the points correspondent to the red line. Consequently, the blue area also (at right end of diagram) is cutted and inaccessible, because of the rotor size.
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Nominal apparent power (MVA) of the alternator and stator size
Active
power Nominal working point (+)
Inaccessible area due to the rotor size of the generator Limitation due to the rotor size
0 Negative reactive power Underexcitation LEADING (-) Motor Overexcitation LAGGING Positive reactive power
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( Appendix to the item 1b ) Just for example, each arc of circumference in blue in the figure, corresponds to working points having all the same excitation current. In particular, the design of the rotor is sized on the excitation current corresponding to the nominal working point Pn. The center of these arcs is found in a specific point situated on the MVAR axis in underexcitation at about 1/Xd from the zero.
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MW
Nominal working point Pn
Underexc.
Overexc.
MVAR 0 1 / Xd
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4 STEP (pls. see the following image)
The last limitation on the capability diagram (the blue area at left end) is due to stability problems of the generator and to overheating of some parts at the stator core ends. The risk of instability is mainly due to weak flux inside the machine air-gap that makes feeble the magnetic connection between rotor and stator, with consequent its easy tear. The overheating on the extreme parts of the stator windings, due to a particular magnetic flux disposition in that zone, is the second reason of limitation on this underexcitation area of the capability diagram.
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Heating problems Inaccessible area due to stability problems and overheating of some parts at the stator core ends.
Active power MW (+)
Limitation
Stability problems Negative reactive power MVAR Underexcitation LEADING
0 (-) Motor Overexcitation LAGGING Positive reactive power MVAR
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The final configuration of the capability diagram for the turbo-generator set is shown on the following image. All permissible working points (at steady state) for the group ( if synchronized ) are included into the green area only. The protection to avoid the MW over-exceeding (to shift to ordinates higher than the max allowed) is intrinsic due to the turbine size. On the contrary, the protections against working attempts out of the above mentioned limitations at right or left ends, are foreseen and performed by the excitation system.
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Capability diagram of generator
Active power Max apparent power of the generator
Inaccessible area due to the turbine power limitation
Inaccessible area due to stability problems and overheating of some part at the stator core ends.
Nominal working point Max turbine power Inaccessible area due to the rotor size of the generator
Under-excitation limit
Max rotor current limit
0 Negative reactive power Under-excitation LEADING Motor Over-excitation LAGGING Positive reactive power
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CAPABILITY DIAGRAM OF GENERATOR Movements of the working points

From the point of view of the machine conduction, we remember that any change of the working point on the capability is done by commands on the EHC (turbine regulation) and/or on the AVR (voltage regulation into the exciter). In particular, as shown at side, the variations of MW are obtained by actions on the EHC only, while the variations of MVAR are produced by commands on the AVR only.
MVAR
Zone MOTOR
Over-excitation AVR EHC EHC MW AVR Under-excitation
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CAPABILITY DIAGRAM OF GENERATOR
Movements of the working points

MVAR Over-excitation
Zone MOTOR
MVAR Over-excitation
Zone MOTOR
MVAR1 Iexc1
EHC Iexc2 MW
MVAR2 MVAR1 Iexc2 AVR MW MW1 Iexc1
MW1
MW2
Under-excitation
Under-excitation
MW adjustments by
MVAR adjustments by Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008
EHC
only
AVR
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The performances offered by a generator (represented into itscapability) vary in function of its cooling. More heat is removed and more performances will be done by the machine (the surface of the capability on the MW-MVAR surface will be larger).
Readjustments for 3 other conditions at reduced cooling MW
Underexc. 0 Overexc.
MVAR
The image represents four capability curves and each of them corresponds to different cooling intensity (less cooling, less capability surface and vice versa). It is the typical case of the generators cooled by hydrogen : reducing the H2 pressure, the capability area also will be proportionally reduced (pls. see image).
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AnsaldoEnergia 1 c V CURVE
It is an other way to represent the same working points of the capability diagram but drawn on other parameters (field current and apparent power in p.u.). The capability diagram transferred on this diagram is deformed and it becomes a new surface with a shape similar to the letter V (from this the name of the curve). The point in evidence is the most critical from the dynamic point of view, due to the minimum field current.
MVA
Iexc
Working point at minimum excitation current
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( 1 c V curve )
AnsaldoEnergia V curve of the generator

P apparent
P app nom D C
B E
Under
Over
Limitation due to the max power of the turbine
0
.% Iexc at no-load
A Iexc at no-load
I exc nom
I excitation
The following image shows the correspondence of some working points both on the capability diagram and on the V curve.
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( 1 c V curve )
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Correspondence between Capability and V curves
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1 d POWER vs. TEMPERATURE
The max active power possible for a gas turbine is not constant (as it is for the steam turbine) but it is a function of the ambient temperature of its working site. The diagrams at side just show the max MW of GT that are variable with the ambient temperature (1) and the correspondent max MVA (2) that the group will be capable to deliver at the same load power factor (in this case cos = 0.85).
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( 1 d Power vs. temperature )
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MVAR
cos = 0.85
Sovraecc.
MVA
MW
Sottoecc.
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GENERATOR SYNCHRONIZED :
OVER-EXCITATION & UNDER-EXCITATION
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The image at side represents, symbolically and from the reactive power point of view only, the generator synchronized on the national grid. The interconnecting reactance X allows the reactive power exchange between generator and grid.
X
Va
Vr
Rete
In the synchronizing instant Va=Vr : no flux of reactive current through the reactance is there ( I = (Va-Vr) / X ---> I = 0 = Q ). If Vr remains constant and Va changes, reactive current increases. If Va > Vr I and Q go from G to grid (over-excitation). If Va < Vr I and Q go from grid to G (under-excitation).
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In over-excitation Ia flows from G to the grid and produces on X a voltage drop with sign + at G side. In under-excitation, on the contrary, Ia flows from the grid to G and produces on X a drop voltage with sign + at grid side. Being Ia always 90 delaied on Vt, in over-excitation the Va-Ia vectorial diagram says that G sees an inductive load, while in under-excitation G sees on the contrary a capacitive load (pls. see this images).
Over-excitation
G Vt
X
Under-excitation
+
Va
_
Vr Grid G
_
Va
Vt
X
+
Vr
Grid
Ia
Ia
Inductive load
Capacitive load
37
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AnsaldoEnergia Reactive power of the generator 1

Active Power Over-excitation Under-excitation
Active Power
Reactive Power
Reactive Power
Vt G
+ X _
Vt Vr Grid G
_ X +
Va
Va
Vr
Grid
Ia
Vt Va > Vr Vr Ia Va
Ia
Vt Vr Va < Vr
OVEREXCITATION
UNDEREXCITATION
Va Ia
Ia is 90 back Va = INDUCTIVE load
Ia is 90 ahead Va = CAPACITIVE load
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2nd PART
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STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM
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EXCITATION SYSTEM The excitation system of a synchronous generator has the main function to create an electromagnetic flux inside a running alternator (speed 3000 rpm for 2 poles machine - 50 Hz systems) in order to produce a three-phase voltage system on its stator terminals. In this way, with this three-phase voltage system, it is possible to feed local loads or to synchronize on the national grid, in order to contribute for the feeding of the entire country loads. A d.c. current injected into the rotor windings generates the above mentioned electromagnetic flux, which is equivalent to the flux generated by a rotating permanent magnet having the same magnetic power.
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Supposing constant and equal the rotor revolution speed in both following cases, the difference between a generator with its internal flux made by a rotating permanent magnet and a generator with its internal flux made by d.c. current injected into its rotor windings is mainly the following. a) In the first case, the three-phase voltage system generated on the stator terminals is unchangeable and its amplitude value is a direct function of the revolution speed only. This is due to the unchangeable power of its fixed magnet. b) In the second case, on the contrary, changing the d.c. field current, the three-phase voltage system is changing too and this gives the enormous consequent advantage to have a control on the stator parameters, based on specific logic.
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AnsaldoEnergia Equivalence between
permanent magnet and electrical magnet

GENERATOR WITH FLUX GIVEN BY ROTATING PERMANENT MAGNET GENERATOR WITH FLUX GIVEN BY D.C. CURRENT INJECTED INTO ITS FIELD WINDINGS
N
Iexc
+ _
VR VS VT
Same resulting three-phase voltage system

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When the generator is synchronized, the grid creates on its stator winding a strong rotating electromagnetic field (like magnet), which finds in front the rotor magnet with correct polarities and their attraction is consequent. But their magnetic connection is strictly dependent by the air gap magnetic flux, which is strong if the rotor magnet is powerful and fragile if the rotor magnet is feeble. The energy exchange between generator and grid is controlled through the regulation of that flux. Consequently, a rotating permanent magnet could not control that exchange, while a rotating magnet produced by field excitation (d.c. current) can properly regulate that exchange.
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If a generator is connected to a strong 3phase electrical grid, it appears on its stator a rotating electromagnetic field (and a flux stator) having the identical effects of a physical statoric magnet in revolution at the frequency of the grid. But the rotor also, excited, is a rotating magnet (rotore) which moves dragged by the turbine at the same frequency. Therefore, a strong magnetic connection (), an elastic liaison between rotoric and statoric magnets rises and this compels the magnet that precedes in the motion to drag the other one. For the generators, the rotoric magnet, even if it moves at the same speed of the statoric magnet, it is displaced ahead in the motion and it must drag the other (on the contrary, for the motor it is the opposite). In the image at side (clockwise revolution) the axis of the rotor precedes the axis of the stator (dragged) of an angle . This angle is function of the mechanical couple of the turbine and of the resulting electromagnetic flux into the air-gap. resulting = rotor - stator Rotoric magnet Statoric magnet
s
N
Symbolic representation of the rotating statoric magnet (it is the effect of the rotating electromagnetic field produced on the stator by the 3phase voltages set of the grid, which the machine is connected to).
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s
N
Rotor ---> represented by an equivalent big magnet generated by high d.c. current into the rotor winding producing strong rotating electromagnetic field
Rotating electromagnetic field on the stator generated by the national grid electric system [that is equivalent to a strong rotating magnet]
Rotor and stator magnets are coupled by STRONG magnetic connection N<--> S [connection tear very hard] Rotor and stator magnets are coupled by fragile magnetic connection N<--> S [connection tear very easy]
Rotor ---> represented by an equivalent small magnet generated by low d.c. current into the rotor winding producing feeble rotating electromagnetic field
s
N
N Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008 46
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A machine is a generator if its rotor magnet, powered by the mechanical couple of the turbine, rotates ahead of the stator magnet (of the grid) and pulls and drags it. On the contrary, a machine is a motor if the stator magnet (of the grid) rotates ahead and pulls and drags the rotor magnet. The angle displacement between the axes of the rotor and stator magnets is called load angle. We are always speaking about generators .
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Una Societ Finmeccanica AnsaldoEnergia In order to deliver big amounts of energy to the grid, the turbine gives high torque couples to the generator shaft. But that high couples, applied to the rotor body/magnet, succeed to drag the stator magnet if only the magnetic flux inside the air gap is very strong ( rotor-stator link, in this case, must be very solid to do it). Strong flux means high intensities of excitation current on the rotor winding (this is the over-excitation status). On the contrary, when the excitation current is reduced, the possibility to transmit energy to the grid is correspondingly reduced because the flux is reduced. In that conditions it is hazardous have strong couples on the shaft because it becomes easier to tear the magnetic link between rotor and stator magnets (under-excitation status).
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The previous general introduction clarifies the necessity and the advantages to create an artificial magnet on the rotor through d.c. currents flowing into windings mounted on the rotor body. The excitation systems was conceived just with the main purpose to supply d.c. currents for the rotor windings. Nevertheless this is not the unique goal of the exciters and, taking advantage of the control facilities on the field current, other important functions can be performed.
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We can here synthesize the:
MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE EXCITATION SYSTEM

TO EXCITE THE GENERATOR
TO REGULATE THE REQUIRED PARAMETERS OF GENERATOR IN AUTOMATIC MODE TO LIMIT THE WORKING AREA OF THE MACHINE INTO ITS OWN FIELD TO OPTIMIZE THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF THE GENERATOR TO REGULATE IN MANUAL MODE
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MAIN TYPES OF EXCITATION SYSTEMS ______________________ FULLY STATIC EXCITERS WITH ROTATING EXCITER
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Various types of excitation system

Dynamo
Alternator
_ + + _ _
Alternator and rectifier bridge (the electrical scheme is for brushless too)
Rotor rings
Static
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ADVANTAGES OF FULLY STATIC EXCITER ______________________ HIGH RELIABILITY (due to the static components only) COMPLETE REDUNDANCY (ex. brushless is not doubled) DYNAMIC RESPONSE (negligible delays and negative ceiling) GLOBAL EFFICIENCY (reduced losses) SHORT TIMES TO RESTORE EVENTUAL FAULTS (economic advantages for reduction of production loss) SIMPLIFIED MAINTENANCE (practically nothing) FAST FIELD DE-EXCITATION
(direct on the machine field)
SHORTER LENGTH OF THE SHAFT (reduced dimensions)
For all that reasons the plant strongly gains on its economical balance.
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BRUSHLESS EXCITATION SYSTEM BRUSHLESS EXCITATION SYSTEM

PERMANENT MAGNET GENERATOR BRUSHLESS EXCITER MAIN GENERATOR
RECTIFIER BRIDGE WITH ROTATING DIODES
EXCITATION CUBICLE
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BRUSHLESS ROTATING EXCITER BRUSHLESS ROTATING EXCITER
Measuring rings for Vexc Iexc Rectifier bridge with rotating diodes + Terminals for the - excitation of the field Stator and rotor of brushless [field is fixed (poles) and the armature is rotating]
Stator (poles)
Rotor Fan
Coupling flange with the main rotor
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STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM
ENERGY FOR EXCITATION SYSTEM
MAIN GENERATOR
ENERGY FOR THE ROTOR WINDING
EXCITATION CUBICLE EXCITATION TRANSFORMER
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Typical parameters for evaluation of the excitation systems performances ______________________ CEILING REGULATION ACCURACY SYSTEM RESPONSE SYSTEM SETTLING TIME
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CEILING: is the max excitation voltage (positive & negative) that the exciter can deliver on the field windings. It is used as an impulse, of very short time, in order to correct the excitation current in fast way. This current moves slowly into the field reactance (voltage on the contrary can move quickly) and it reaches its final steady value always in the same time, whatever would be the step (Vcp or Ve2). Final Ve2 could be applied, but, if the ceiling voltage Vcp is transiently presented as a false point to be joined (pls. see next image), the field current moves from Ie1 to that Ie related to Vcp (not toward final Ie2). Reached quickly Ie2 (because the false step is much more high), the ceiling is stopped and Ve2 is applied; the field current remains there steady, obtaining high reduction time during the variation.
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.
CEILING
transient
Vcp positive ceiling Ve2
Ve1 Ie1
Ie2
Ve3 Ie3 t
CEILING Max excitation voltage, transiently applied, in order to fast correct the excitation current
transient
Vcn negative ceiling

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.
ACCURACY
The regulation accuracy is evaluated by the displacement, at steady, between Vg2 (final value after oscillation) and Vg1 (previous value).
V stat. generat.
displacement
Vg1
Vg2
t [sec] O Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008 60
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RESPONSE It is a parameter that gives the idea of the promptness by which the excitation system responds to the variations, mainly in automatic regulation mode. The international Standards define this evaluation method as shown into the following image (find the compensation line, mark the intersection point at 0.5s and apply the indicated formula). Starting from the nominal excitation voltage, the ceiling voltage is imposed by the regulator and the resulting excitation voltage shape on the field is a curve significant of the exciter response. The response measure has meaning for rotating exciters only because for the static exciters it is directly proportional to the ceiling.
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AnsaldoEnergia . RESPONSE
V excitation
A
01
R = AB //(BC*OC) R = AB (BC*OC)
V ceiling Rotating exc. RED AREAS Static exc. GREY AREAS
V nominal excitation C B AC = compensation line considering instant t=0.5 s, area ABC must be equal to the area under the real curve (the exponential for rotating exciter and the step for static)
0.5 s O
t [s]
62
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Slide 62 01 sec-1 piu' num alto + sist. veloce. 3,8 num tipico ns. eccit. statiche.
00000614, 7/5/2009
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.
SETTLING TIME
V stat. generat. Band ( . %)
Vg2 Vg1 t0
O
t [sec]
Time t0 is defined as the interval from t=0 to the instant in which the oscillation returns and remains contained into a certain band up to the steady state. The width of this band ( . %) has to be defined in order to be able consequently to define t0 .
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STATIC EXCITER
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STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM ONE LINE BLOCK DIAGRAM ONE LINE BLOCK DIAGRAM
.
EXCITATION TRANSFORMER
Commands and signals from remote
EXCITATION BOARD
AVR 1
Bridge 1
Ref.
Signals to remote
1 2
AVR 2
CB RES
G MAIN GENERATOR
_
Bridge 2
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TYPICAL INTERFACE OF THE EXCITATION BOARD
INPUT 3 LV power line from excitation transformer Analogical signals from remote Excitation board
OUTPUT d.c. power output (+ and -) to the rotor of the machine Analogical signals to remote
Commands from remote Permissives from remote Trip from remote Aux feeding voltages
State signals to remote Alarms to remote Trip request to remote
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POWER SUPPLY
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The power converter of the static exciter is fed from the excitation voltage transformer (TRE) which, in turn, absorbs energy both from an aux plant line alive (normally MV) or directly from the main terminals of its own generator. In this case the system is self-sufficient, but, as opposite, at any starting it is necessary the temporary use of an external aux circuit, called circuit of pre-excitation, in order to firstly energise the generator.
Aux plant line in MT Direct feeding from generator terminals
TRE
TRE
Static exciter
Gen
Static exciter
Gen
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AnsaldoEnergia
A particular feeding system taken from the generator terminals, now no more used, is with a voltage transformer (TRE) and a current transformer (TAT). The TRE feeds a thyristors bridge which is in series with a diodes bridge fed, on the contrary, by the TAT. In this case too it is necessary the use of the pre-excitation circuit.
When the generator is at no-load, the machine is excited by the contribution of the TRE only (in fact the stator current I=0). If the generator is in short circuit (also permanent) it is the TAT alone that contributes to excite it (in fact the stator voltage V=0). In any other working condition (between these two extreme) both the transformers contribute to excite the machine. The quick intervention on the line faults of the actual digital protections has made useless this system whose principal characteristic was just to succeed in sustaining for long time the short-circuits prolonged.
Thyristors +
Voltage transformer
(TRE) From TRE
V of the machine
Static exciter
From TAT
+ Gen
Diodes
Current transformer
with air-gap (TAT)
I of the machine
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AnsaldoEnergia
AUXILIARY FEEDINGS FOR THE ELECTRONICS
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AnsaldoEnergia
Each regulation system is fed with security and with the possibility to be completely deactivated for eventual maintenances during the normal service also, while the alternator produces energy under the control of the other regulation system. Since the feeders of the electronics (1 for regulator) can be fed both in a.c. and in d.c., it can be chosen, as energy source for them, both the UPS and the battery of the plant.
UPS or plant Battery
Exciter
Feeder
To regulation system 1 To regulation system 2
Feeder
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AnsaldoEnergia
POWER SECTION RECTIFIER BRIDGES
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AnsaldoEnergia
The 3phase power rectifier bridge Graetz type can be made by diodes or by thyristors. Diodes rectifier bridge . Diode is a non-controlled semiconductor Vc _ cathode having 2 poles: anode and cathode. I Its conduction is conditioned by 1 status + anode only: potential of anode Va higher than the Va potential of cathode Vc. In this condition the current I can flow through the diode. A Graetz rectifier bridge with 6 diodes (next image) has its output directly proportional to its feeding voltage only.
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AnsaldoEnergia DIODES BRIDGE

+ VR VS VT i iexc
Phase voltages
V
R
V
S
V
T
V
R
V
S
V
T
V
R
V
S
V
T
R
i
T
--
Vexc
R+
Vexc V V V V V V RS RT ST SR TR TS VR VS VT VS
VR VT
Vexc The output excitation voltage Vexc (left side) is, in any instant, the highest among the actual differences among the 3 phase voltages VR - VS - VT at that instant (phase-to-phase values). The result is a regular sequence of the 6 typical ondulating peaks during each 20 ms (cycle 50Hz). Its average value is directly proportional to VR VS VT feeding values only.
S+ T+
V
R
VT VR VS
RST-
1 period of the fundamental [ 20 ms (50Hz) 16.6 ms (60Hz)
Time ]
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AnsaldoEnergia Thyristors rectifier bridge .
Thyristor is a controlled diode having gate 3 poles: anode, cathode and gate. I Its conduction is conditioned by 2 status: + anode Va potential of anode Va higher than the potential of cathode Vc and impulse Vg on the gate. In this condition the current I can flow through the thyristor. It can be assimilated at a breaker that closes when only the impulse on the gate is done, being of course Va > Vc. Voltage output of Graetz bridge (6 thyristors), can be changed simply controlling the impulses on the gates by the regulator.
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Vc cathode _
Vg
AnsaldoEnergia THYRISTORS
R+ means thyristor of the phase R, side positive (+)
BRIDGE
The output average value of Vexc is not directly proportional to the supply voltages VR VS VT , as per the diodes bridge, but it is function of the controlling signal on the gate of the thyristors. Changing the delay of their firing instant (changing the firing angle ) referred to the natural firing instant, it is possible to change the output bridge. This kind of bridge has the possibility to produce a rectified voltage with variable average value, being constant its feeding voltage. Theoretically, changing the control, the output voltage Vexc could be changed from + VC to VC , where Vc is the ceiling voltage (posit.), correspondent to the output voltage with = 0 (which is the condition where the thyristors bridge becomes like a diodes bridge). 76
+
R+ S+ T+
iecc
VR VS VT
S
ST-
Vecc
i
R-
-Vexc Voutput
(average value)
+ VCeiling (=0)
Permanent times ( Vexc > 0 )
Zone used for transient times only ( Vexc < 0 )
Time
- VCeiling (=180)
Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008
In the thyristors bridges, the sequence of the commutations is identical to that of the diodes bridges (pls. see the image). They are : R+ SR+ TS+ TS+ RT+ RT+ Sfor 60 electric for 60 electric for 60 electric for 60 electric for 60 electric for 60 electric
R+SR+T- S+T-
BRIDGE
+
R+ S+ T+
iecc
VR VS VT
R-
S
ST-
Vecc
-S+R- T+R- T+S-
R+ S+ T+
Each of the 6 thyristors conducts for 120 electric, in couple alternatively with the two thyristors of opposite sign of the other phases.
60
RST-
60
60
60
60
60
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77
Natural instant of firing of the thyristor R+ VR VS VT VR VS VT VR
BRIDGE
Phase voltages
VS VT
R S T
R+
S+
T+
R-
S-
T-
The 6 impulses are delayed each other always 60 and are similar to the blocked R+ Tteeth of a comb that shifts ahead and back on the phase voltages with a variable 60 delay on the natural firing 0 instant of each thyristor.
Delay = 30 on R+
Same delay of R+
S+ R-
T+ SThey move
Vexc
Average positive
60
60
60
60
=180
Delay angle
Bridge voltage output for = 30
Time
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AnsaldoEnergia THYRISTORS BRIDGE

Natural instant of firing of the thyristor R+
Vexc
R+ TS+ RT+ S-
Bridge voltage output for = 90 Average = 0
They move 0
60
60
60
60
60
=180
Delay angle
Time
Delay on R+
R+
= 90
Vexc
TS+ RT+ S-
They move 0
60 =180
60
60
60
60
Bridge voltage output for = 140
Time
Delay angle
Average negative
Delay = 140 on R+
Working conditions with > 90, and consequently with average voltage negative, can be for transient times only
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AnsaldoEnergia
The thyristors bridge has the particular possibility to deliver output voltages with negative sign, even if the semiconductors are controlled diodes (unidirectional). This is possible because the bridge feeds a big inductive load (field of generator) and any voltage variation on it produces changes in current very slow, compared with the voltage changes (inside an inductance any current variation is braked). Consequently, with the thyristors impulses delayed at >90, the voltage transmitted to the field is negative but the thyristors remain alive and in conduction until the current inside remains always positive (current is decreasing because of the V< 0). If the current would reach zero the thyristors and the bridge would be switched-off : this is why the time to deliver V< 0 on the output bridge is limited by the time of decreasing to zero of the current.
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AnsaldoEnergia
The static exciter are normally provided with two identical Graetz thyristors rectifier bridges working in alternative. Each of them can be commanded by its own AVR only or by both AVRs, operating in alternative. Any malfunction of the main bridge produce the automatic change-over to the other, in order to guarantee the continuity of the generator service. The cooling of the rectifier bridge is normally done by forced air in open cycle, except for the exciters at small sizes (natural air) or at big sizes (treated water in closed cycle).
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AnsaldoEnergia
EXAMPLE OF CONVERTER COOLED BY AIR IN OPEN CYCLE
3phase a.c. line from excitation transformer Warm air
3phase Graetz bridge with thyristors and fuses
3phase Graetz bridge with thyristors and fuses
Fresh air
Air filters
Air filters
2phase d.c. line for the rotor of the alternator
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AnsaldoEnergia
EXAMPLE OF CONVERTERS COOLED BY AIR IN OPEN CYCLE

Path of the air that cools a compartment by natural convection.
Warm air
Warm air
Path of the air that cools a compartment by forced cooling.

Extractor
Hot components
Hot components
Filters
Fresh air
Filters
Fresh air
Lateral section of the cubicle
Lateral section of the cubicle
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AnsaldoEnergia
EXAMPLE OF CONVERTERS COOLED BY AIR IN CLOSED CYCLE
Warm air
Sealed room
Extractor
Air-to-water exchanger
Water
Bridge
Fresh air
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AnsaldoEnergia
EXEMPLE OF CONVERTER COOLED BY WATER

Schematic representation of the converter and its cooling system done with treated water in closed loop (in the figure, the representation of the water that flows in the bridge, obviously, is indicative only, for explanatory purpose) Excitation board
+ P FUS P Tk Ex Ex P = circulation pump Ex = water-to-water exchanger Tk = treated water tank T = cells of water treatment FUS= fuses of the bridge
3phase Graetz bridge with 12 thyristors (100% series redundance) and 3 fuses at input side
Cooling water coming from an external hydraulic circuit for the internal water-to-water exchangers 85
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AnsaldoEnergia
DE - EXCITATION AND PRE - EXCITATION
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AnsaldoEnergia
The de-excitation of the generator reduces its stator voltage at about zero (except the effect of the magnetic residual). This condition is obtained with the discharge of the internal flux, dissipating the field current through a passive resistance circuit, composed by the rotor resistance and an aux discharge resistance connected in series. This is obtained by the crow bar positive (pls. see image) which can be fired by the logic with two voltage thresholds: higher used when CB is operated as overvoltage protection and lower used only when CB is actuated as field breaker. Its ON state allows the field current flow through RES and the consequent electromagnetic flux discharge.
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AnsaldoEnergia
Power converter
.
Crow-bar positive firing voltage

Crow-bar positive Discharge resistor Rotor Field resistance
1 threshold Overvoltage protection
RES
Iexc
0 Volt
De-excitation circuit or Static field breaker
2 threshold De-excitation function
Stator voltage
Being RES about double of field resistance, the complete discharging time is approx. equivalent to Tdo.
Tdo = Lfield /Rfield
= 0
Lfield / (RES + R field) = Tdo / 3
time
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AnsaldoEnergia
CROW - BAR
The crow-bar is made by 2 thyristors in antiparallel (v. figure), one called positive crow-bar and the other negative crow-bar. Both has the function of protection against the overvoltages (+ and -) but the positive one has the function also to de-excite the field of the alternator. Its two functions are discriminated by two different thresholds of intervention that are him imposed according to the situations and of the moments in which it has to intervene (v. figure). The thyristors firing is produced by the same overvoltages that directly activate the firing circuits, which are totally redounded, to guarantee the certainty of the primer. +
CB Iexc Crow-bar positive Crow-bar negative Iexc Iexc Discharge resistor RES Rotor
Primer thresholds of the positive crow-bar
1 threshold Protection against the overvoltages 2 threshold Function of de-excitation
0 Volt
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AnsaldoEnergia
Mechanism of de-excitation by crow-bar
It is shown the mechanism by which the de-excitation of the generator is done by the crow-bar.
Excitation voltage (for example) before the de-excitation command Voltage Power converter Crow-bar positive Discharge resistor Instant where the de-excitation order is done and it is ordered the negative ceiling
Iexc
Rotor
Phase-to-phase voltage time
De-excitation circuit or Static field breaker
Voltage on the discherge resistor and on the field
Negative ceiling Instant of command voltage of the impulses suppression
Instant where the output voltage of the bridge equalizes the voltage on the discherge resistor. After this point the bridge goes OFF because its thyristors become inversely polarized
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AnsaldoEnergia
PRE-EXCITATION
When the feeding of the power converter is directly absorbed from the main terminals of the generator, at any starting it is always temporarily actuated a dedicated pre-excitation system in order to give a first voltage ramp sufficient to make the group independent from its own excitation. The feeding source for the pre-excitation circuit can be a 3phase aux line of the plant or the d.c. services (battery system) of the plant. A dedicated logic automatically activates and deactivates this circuit and contemporarily oversees the correct behaviour of this phase.
Pre-excitation circuit
Feeding from an a.c. aux line of the plant
+ _ To the generator field
Pre-excitation circuit Res

Feeding from the battery of the plant
+ _ + _
To the generator field
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AnsaldoEnergia
During the pre-excitation phase the feeding source (for example battery) produces an excitation current having an exponential shape, with a steady state value of about 30% of the machine field current at no-load and a time constant equal to about Tdo of the generator. Typical duration of the pre-excitation is some seconds (pls. see the diagram at bottom). In case of problems, the logic of overseeing asks for the electric trip if the max time allowed to this phase is expired (this time is previously adjusted into the system).
Iexc Tdo 30% Iexc at no-load Resistor of adaptation and limitation Battery of the plant time 0 Typical time of the preexcitation Max time allowed to the pre-excitation Exciter
Main breaker of the machine
Generator Excitation transformer Stator Rotor
+ _
Bloc diode
Circuit of pre-excitation
Generator circuitry during the pre-excitation
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PROTECTION CIRCUITS
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AnsaldoEnergia
PASSIVE PROTECTIONS ON THE POWER CIRCUITS

The exciter foresees two types of passive protections on the power circuits: fuses in series to each thyristor and voltage limiters on the 3phase feeding line of the power converter. The fuses, obviously, protect the corresponding thyristors, having their I2t lower than the I2t of the correspondent semiconductors. The limiters (i.e. varistors) are three, connected triangle, and they limit the possible overvoltages on that 3phase feeding line.
+ Bridge Fuses Excitation transformer _
Voltage limiters
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AnsaldoEnergia
PROTECTION AGAINST SHORT CIRCUIT ON THE D.C. LINE This electronic protection has the purpose to avoid damages to the power converter against occasional possible short-circuits on its output bars (along the whole two-phase line that connects the power converter to the rotor of the machine). Its intervention consists of sending the immediate command to the firing circuits of the thyristors for their max impulses delay and contemporarily to produce the electric trip of the generator.
Crow-bar + Excitation transformer Fuses
Short circuit
Gen
RES
_ Rectifier bridge A.C. Protection
Rotor
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AnsaldoEnergia
PROTECTION AGAINST CURRENT UNBALANCE A.C. SIDE

This electronic protection has the purpose to detect possible unbalances among the currents values flowing into the three conductors (R-S-T) of the a.c. line that feeds the power converter. Such condition can occur in case of an internal fault of the rectifier bridge. Its intervention consists of actuating the logic of bridges commutation, in order to try to maintain the generator in service through the use of the backup rectifier bridge. If this was not possible it would be required the electric trip of the generator.
Iexc normal Anomalous current due to the fault
R S T
Rotor
The current in the central phase S is greater than the current in T, because S feeds T and the fault in R too. The currents in the phases S and T should be equal but, in this case, this in not true and this is detected.
Iexc normal
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AnsaldoEnergia
PROTECTION AGAINST MAX OVERLOAD CURRENT

This electronic protection has the purpose to avoid damages to the power converter due to possible thermal overloads. It allows the bridge to deliver also currents higher than the nominal, but only if they are contained within a threshold-limit following the quadratic law at inverse time shown in figure (higher overcurrents for brief times and lower overcurrents for longer times). Its intervention produces the request of electric trip of the generator.
Iexc
Zone (green) of overload allowed by this protection
Example of 2 points on the curve overload limit I1 I2 0 t1 t2 CURVE IMPLEMENTED IN THE AVR
Inom
time
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AnsaldoEnergia
AUXILIARY ACCESSORIES OF THE EXCITATION SYSTEM
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AnsaldoEnergia
ROTOR EARTH FAULT RELAY

This device guarantees a continuous monitoring of the insulation level of the rotor winding, referred to the earth potential (normally the rotor body). Rotor winding In normal conditions this insulation level must be very high (M), while, if it drops (some K), it is significant of some fault into the rotor winding, which is generated by insulation loss between the winding copper and the rotor body (i.e. insulation material of the rotor winding damaged in some point). This kind of fault, if occurred in one point only of the rotor winding, does not produce, from the electrical point of view, any visible immediate effect, but always it strongly suggests to stop the generator service as soon as possible, in order to avoid any further fault in other different points. In fact this situation could produce injurious effects to the system. This device can be chosen with one or two monitoring thresholds on the rotor winding insulation level and the corresponding operations are the following: - with one threshold its action is an alarm only - with two thresholds its actions are alarm (step 1) and trip (step 2) 99
+
Eventual fault GEN
Rotor earth fault relay
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AnsaldoEnergia
ROTOR TEMPERATURE CALCULATOR

Excitation board
Iexc
Vexc
+
Vexc
Iexc
Output signal for remote C
Rotor temperature calculator
GEN
Rotor winding
This device guarantees a constant monitoring of the rotor winding temperature, during the exercise of the generator. Its working principle is based on the continuous measure of the excitation voltage and current in order to calculate the actual temperature of the winding by the ratio Vexc/Iexc at any time interval of some milliseconds (cycle time of the digital program). Of course the function is programmed considering the high thermal inertia of the rotor winding, compared with the variation times of the excitation voltage and current (i.e. the ceiling voltage impulses are not affecting the calculations because too fast for a possible influence on the temperature winding). This function is performed by a dedicated software (subroutine) implemented into the main AVR program. The digital regulation system gives an output signal significant of the rotor winding temperature for remote uses (typically for a recorder in control room or for the DCS system).
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AnsaldoEnergia
REGULATION
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AnsaldoEnergia
The generator is provided with a regulation system which is the main responsible for the correct conduction of the machine. This system primarily operates in automatic mode, in order to have the best dynamic performances and securities, but it is possible the operation in manual mode too (next image). The first of the possible regulations is on the stator voltage, which normally has to be maintained constant or regulated following particular logic useful for the plant exercise. Other types of regulation can be done (i.e. cos of machine). The regulation system is digital and normally fully redundant, in order to be classified as fault tolerant.
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AnsaldoEnergia
Automatic and Manual regulation modes

Automatic regulation mode
Set-point selection Electric feed-back Stator voltage
Regulation & Excitation systems
GEN
Manual regulation mode

Human visual feed-back
Stator voltage indicator
Automatic correction
Regulation & Excitation systems
GEN
Continuous human correction Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008 103
AnsaldoEnergia
CLASSIC REGULATION LOOP OF THE STATOR VOLTAGE
VT feedback Feedback
Reference + Err.
Regulator Firing circuits
G
Bridge
Exciter
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AnsaldoEnergia
Next image shows the equivalent internal circuit of generator. It includes an ideal generator E and its synchronous reactance Xd1, and it is connected to the grid by Xe1 (external reactance). The diagram shows the voltages E1-V1-VGRID in two situations - at no-load, just synchronized ---> E10 = V10 = VGRID - loaded, delivering positive MVAR to the grid (inductive load) In last case, supposing VGRID=constant, increasing field current Iexc , E1 increases too (E10 --> E1A) and consequently V1 too (V10 --> V1A), delivering to the grid an inductive (+) reactive current I1 , and a consequent power rate QA , proportional to the difference V between the voltages (E1A-VGRID). Being Xd1>>Xe1 , large part of that V is on Xd1 and, consequently, V1 will be always very close to the VGRID (transferred to the generator side) : this is the reason way, when the generator is synchronized, the stator voltage is blocked on the grid value.
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AnsaldoEnergia
- Generator synchronized Blocks representation xe1 iexc1 G
Stepup transformer
.
- Generator synchronized Equivalent electrical representation G xd1

E
V GRID
iexc1
xe1
V1
E1
V GRID I1
Generator
Generator
Stepup transformer
Internal gen. voltage E1
Terminals gen. voltage V1
V GRID
Command to increase iexc1 in order to change from E10 (at no load) to E1A (Q (+) delivered)
E1 A
E10
xd1 V1A G QA E1A - -VGRID QA E1A VGRID V10
xe1
V GRID
AT NO LOAD
: E10=V10=VGRID
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AnsaldoEnergia
- Generator synchronized Equivalent electrical representation G iexc1 xd1
E
xe
V1
In case of increasing of the external reactance Xe of the transformer, from Xe1 to Xe2 (pls. see diagram below), with same voltages E1 and VGRID, the reactive current exchanged Ireact and also Q decrease because they are always proportional to the PENDENCY of the segment (E1-VGRID) - and not only to the level difference among these two voltages - according to the relationship:
E1
V GRID I1
Ireact Q (E1-VGRID) / (Xd1+Xe)

which, being calculated as ratio among the 2 cathetus of the triangle E1-E10-VGRID, it represents just the pendency of its hypotenuse, that is the pendency of the aforesaid segment (E1-VGRID). The pendency of (E1-VGRID 1) is greater of (E1-VGRID 2) therefore, with the external reactance Xe2 > Xe1 Ireact/Q are smaller (smaller pendency).
Generator
Stepup transformer
Internal volt. generator E1
Xd1 obviously remains unchanged but is Xe that changes
xe2 xe1
E1
E10
xd1
Xe2 > Xe1

V GRID 2
Inside the Generator
Ireact Q (E1 VGRID) )/ /(Xd1 ++Xe) Ireact Q (E1 VGRID (Xd1 Xe) Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008 107
AnsaldoEnergia
The automatic regulation operates as explained in the following image. If, for example, the grid voltage drops (VGRID A --> VGRID B), the generator terminals voltage V1 drops too (V1A --> V1B) being still unchanged the field current Iexc and the internal voltage E1A (pls. see the upper diagram of the image). In that moment the delivered reactive power increases because increases V between E1A and VGRID B . The AVR sees V1 drop and corrects it increasing the field current Iexc [and consequently E1 (E1A --> E1C)] up to the condition in which V1 come back from V1B to V1A (pls. see the second diagram of the image). Due to this, the reactive power increases more up to QC . Same sequence, but inverted, if VGRID A jumps higher.
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AnsaldoEnergia
.
GRID VARIATION AND REGULATOR REACTION GRID VARIATION AND REGULATOR REACTION Drop voltage on the grid with consequent drop voltage on V1 ( from V1A to V1B )

QA E1A - VGRID A QA E1A - VGRID A QB E1A - VGRID B QB E1A - VGRID B IB ,QB > IA,QA IB ,QB > IA,QA
Terminals gen. voltage V1
V GRID
E1 A
Inside the Generator
xd1 V1A V1B
xe1 V GRID V GRID
A B
Representative straight lines of the voltage drop on the reactances Xd1 (yellow part) and Xe1 (white part) xd1
Terminals gen. voltage V1 V GRID
E1 C
Correction due to the automatic regulation to bring back V1 from V1B to V1A ( which is the original value )
2
QC E1C - VGRID B QC E1C - VGRID B IC ,QC > IB ,QB > IA,QA IC ,QC > IB ,QB > IA,QA
iexc E1 A
xe1 V1A Inside the Generator V1B V GRID

B
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AnsaldoEnergia Behaviour on a near short circuit
During a strong and near short circuit on the grid, the voltage at generator terminals strongly lowers while, on the contrary, the statoric current increases correspondingly. The electromagnetic flux in machine [ total = rotor - stator] strongly decreases a lot immediately, therefore the magnetic connection between rotor and stator becomes very weak and so the mechanical couple of the turbine, still strong because slower to be reduced, can cause the tear of the weak magnetic connection and it can produce the so-called out of step. This is avoided, at times, if the short circuit duration is so brief that the excitation current, quickly increased due to the ceiling, has had time to create a flux in machine such to be still able to withhold rotor and stator connected among them.
Internal voltage of generator E1
E1 C
Forcing of the automatic regulator in the attempt to sustain the voltage at the terminals of the generator
xd1
Voltage at gener. terminals V1 V GRID
QC E1C - -VGRID B QC E1C VGRID B IC ,QC >>IB ,QB >>IA,QA I ,Q I ,Q I ,Q

C C B B A A
iexc E1 A
Inside the Gen.
xe1 V1A V GRID V GRID

A B
Correction on the terminals voltage due to the ceiling
V1B Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008
Voltage drop on the grid due to the short cicuit
110
AnsaldoEnergia Electric grid system
G1 ie1 xd1 E E1 V1 xe1 I1 xe2 V2 I2
V GRID
I tot
G2 ie2 E
xd2 E2
Each generator synchronised to the grid contributes to supply the grid load by its own stator current (I1,, In) ----> Itot = i Ii Increasing the generators number, both the total current Itot and the global grid power increase consequently P = 3 * VGRID * I tot . The total grid impedence Ztot can be difined as ratio between the grid voltage VGRID divided by the total grid current Itot in order to satisfy the relation VGRID = Z tot * I tot . When an other new generator is connected to the grid, its contribution IA to feed the grid loads is added to the preexistent Itot and the grid voltage will be modified by that contribution with the same rate by which IA modifies Itot --> IA / Itot gives V on the grid. if IA << Itot VGRID Z tot * Itot VGRID = Z tot * (Itot + IA) In other words, if the grid is supported by a lot of big generators, VGRID practically is not affected by any kind of contribution due to the connection of a new generator. Finally, we can say that, when a generator is synchronised on a strong grid, its voltage is mainly imposed by that grid and eventual variations on its set-point produce variations of the exchanged reactive power only.
n generators synchronised on the grid Gn ien xdn E En Vn xen In
Grid loads Z tot = very low

xeA IA VA xdA EA E
LEGENDA GA G1 Gn,GA E E1 En xd1 xdn ie1 ien V1 Vn xe1 xen I1 In VGRID I tot Generators synchronised on the grid Ideal internal generator Ideal internal voltages E=E(iexc) Synchronous reactances of the generators Excitation currents of the generators Voltages at generators terminals Reactances of the step-up transformers Generators stator currents Grid voltage Total grid current produced by all generators
ieA
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Electric grid system and its hydraulic comparison

n generators synchronised on the grid GA
G1 ie1 xd1 E E1 V1 xe1 I1 xe2 V2 I2
Gn
G3
G2 G1
V GRID
I tot
G2 ie2 E
xd2 E2
n generators synchronised on the grid Gn ien xdn E En Vn xen In
Grid loads Z tot = very low

xeA IA VA xdA EA E
Grid loads absorption GA
The tank level is mainly due and maintained by the big set of sources G1Gn balanced by the grid loads absorption. The new source GA is influent on the tank level as far as its contribution is relevant compared with the global contribution of all other sources.
ieA
The electro-hydraulic comparison is significant in order to emphatise the influence of a single generator contribution on the grid voltage alteration, when it is connected to a powerful national grid.
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AnsaldoEnergia
The regulation system provided into the exciter is normally composed by two identical digital automatic voltage regulator (AVR) operating in alternative (master & slave). At starting, each AVR can be selected as master. Being the stand-by regulator automatic type too (not manual) all functions of the main one are again available for the best dynamic control of the generator behaviour. The generator voltage feedback is doubled (one each AVR) and the feeders too in order to have 100% redundancy. A logic system (pls. see the following image) oversees the good operation of the AVRs and, in case of problems of AVR master, decides to switch-over to the second AVR.
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AnsaldoEnergia Regulation and Control
Stator voltage and current feed-back (for channel 1)
V stator I stator
AVR 1
AVR
Converter 1
Automatic regulator
Feeding
Control/Protection Logic
Plant
I/O to remote
Stator voltage and current feed-back (for channel 2)
V stator I stator
AVR 2
AVR
Converter 2
Automatic regulator
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AnsaldoEnergia Feedbacks of the regulators

Every regulator works correctly if only it is constantly informed on the actual values of voltage and current produced on the stator. For this purpose there are VTs and CTs connected as in the figure. Every set of 3 VTs feeds its own regulator making in this way two loops of stator voltage regulation completely independent. The CTs feed in series both the regulators and they are used to perform auxiliary functions (compound, limits, etc.).
VT1 For the regulator 1 VT2 For the regulator 2 CT-U For regulators 1e2 CT-W
Generator
Main breaker of the machine Set of 3 VTs single phase for the voltage feedback of the machine
Set of 3 VTs single phase for the voltage feedback of the machine
CTs for the current feedback of the machine Vc tensione statorica concatenata
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The following image shows a list of the main functions normally foreseen into each AVR (with optional too). Some note on them. - Each of the two AVRs has the possibility to operate, locally, in manual mode too (commissioning phase) through the display and the keyboard mounted on the cubicle front. - The function called Power System Stabilizer (PSS) is used to strongly reduce the oscillations (amplitude and time) on the stator machine variables, due to sudden load changes. - The best tuning of the PSS parameters have to be found by a complex plant/grid study, normally not given by the exciter supplier, but produced by the plant designer only.
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Typical functions of the automatic voltage regulation

Voltage calibrator Automatic stator voltage regulation Max field current limit Underexcitation limit Voltage/frequency limit Automatic alignment with the other AVR Field winding temperature Max stator current limit SFC interface and logic
Operating functions of the AVR regulator
Manual field voltage regulation Reactive current compensation (pos. and neg.) Stabilizing signals function (PSS) Automatic reduction to zero of reactive power Automatic cos regulation Automatic reactive power regulation
The green functions are optional and applicable in certain cases only.
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AnsaldoEnergia
AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Feedback of stator voltage Ref.
Error
Bridge Operator interface Regulator

Regulation system
Feedback of stator voltage
Firing circuits
Transfer functions
Ref. + A K1
1 + s T1
+ B
K3
1 + s T3
Feedback of field voltage
Thyristors firing angle
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AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR

The automatic regulation has the main purpose to maintain constant the voltage at the alternator terminals even if the load varies casually. The figure at left shows, for instance, the behaviour of the stator voltage of a machine that sees a load disconnection and reacts with its regulation. The voltage increases but the regulator reacts and brings it back to the previous value V0 after some oscillation (for simplicity in this example the contribution of the function compound is not considered pls. see next image). When the feedback changes the error on the reference corrects the Iexc.
Vstator transitory
Feedback Error negative ( reduce Iexc)
Error
Error = Reference - Feedback
V0
V0
Reference
Error = 0
time 0 0 Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008
Errors positive (increase Iexc)
time
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AnsaldoEnergia
COMPOUND AND COMPENSATION

This function automatically corrects the set-point of the regulation loop of the stator voltage, in proportion to the actual current reactive delivered by the generator. Such correction can be in increases (straight line in rise- compensation) or in decreases (straight line in descent- compound) but it is always done in automatic and transparent way for the operator. It is an additional signal injected in the comparison point that corrects the reference of the regulator. The compensation allows to maintain constant the voltage after the step-up transformer. The compound contributes to the automatic reactive load division among more groups of the same plant in parallel on the same bar (v. figures in the following slide).
Vstator Compound Ref. + +Other signals
Error
Compensation
Band 0 22% Band 0 22% Ireactiv a 1 p.u. di Ireact = I nom statoric
1 p.u. Compound
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DIVISION OF LOAD
High voltage V0
Generator 1 V1 IA1
The load connection produces a rapid lowering of the high voltage V0 that goes from here (V01) to here (V02)
Generator 2 V2 IB1
V01
T1
T2
V02
IA2
IB2
Ireact V1 (M.V.) G1 G2
Ireact V2 (M.V.)
Ireact1 Ireact
Ireact2 Ireact
V1
The load connection produces a rapid lowering of the high voltage V0 that goes from here (V01) to here (V02) V2
The reactive currents IA1 and IB1 increase equally up to IA2 and IB2 if the inclinations of the segments orange and blue (the compound) are the same. In this way the load is equally divided.
IA1 V02 IA2
V01 IB2
IB1
In the orange diagrams the Ireact increases to the right from left, while in those blues the Ireact increases to the left from right
Ireact1
Ireact2 Ireact
In this case both the reactive currents IA1 and IB1 increase up to IA2 and IB2, but in different rate if the inclinations of the segments orange and blue (the compound) are different. In this case the load is not divided equally.
Ireact
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STABILIZING SIGNALS ( PSS )

Purpose of this function is to reduce the electromechanical oscillations of the machine due to consistent load variations and this favors the stability of the group and of the grid to it connected. Its intervention is transitory (just for the strong load variations only) and the principle of its operation is to add brief corrective impulses to the field current in the most opportune instants of the oscillations: in such way the damping action will be favorite.
An intuitive comparison that can clarify the mechanism concept of this function operation is illustrated in figure. In the moments near to those in which the pendulum reaches the apex of its oscillation it is possible to influence its future run giving new touches of push, also of modest entity, but in well precise instants. If such touches of push are applied, every time, immediately after the pendulum has already reached and overcome the apex of every run, the ampleness of its oscillations will increase more always. Contrarily, if that touches of push are applied, every time, immediately before the pendulum has reached the apex of every run, the ampleness of its oscillations will find contrast and it will decrease progressively. This is the same principle of action of the stabilizing signals. Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008
Pendulum
Apex of the oscillation
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STABILIZING SIGNALS ( PSS )

The two following figures show what is the effectiveness of the stabilizing signals on the process to reduce the statoric oscillations produced by a strong transitory of power on the grid (for instance short circuit).
1.5 1.5
0.5
P 0.5 0 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 -1
Without PSS
With PSS
The setting of the PSS parameters for a generator connected to a particular electric grid can normally be optimized with specific SW simulations, given by the Manager of the Grid.
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REGULATION OF THE REACTIVE POWER

The regulation of the reactive power Q is done with the help of the regulation loop of the statoric voltage, through which, regulating the field current (and therefore the internal voltage Ei), it is possible vary the reactive power that the generator exchanges with the load (as already seen previously). With this type of regulation, Q is maintained constant maintaining constant the difference between the internal voltage Ei and the grid voltage VGRID. Practically there is a regulation loop in which the wished reference Q* is continuously compared with the real reactive power currently delivered: the possible error corrects the reference of the voltage loop to vary Ei in such way that the generator will produce a Q (= Ei-VGRID) equal to the wished reference Q*.
Voltages
Internal voltage E1 (E1 VGRID ) Q Grid voltage VGRID
Time
Correcting E1 in order to recopy VGRID , the Q will be maintained constant Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008 124
AnsaldoEnergia
REGULATION OF THE POWER FACTOR

The regulation of the power factor (cos ) is done with the help of the regulation loop of statoric voltage, through which it is possible vary the reactive power exchanged by the generator with the load (as already seen previously) and consequently its cos .
The working principle of this type of regulation is the following. Continuously it is measured the active power value that the machine is delivering now and, based on it, it is calculated the consequent reactive power that maintains constant the wanted relationship among these two powers (active and reactive) and therefore the cos . The automatic regulator will act to maintain this calculated reactive power until there will be a successive variation of the active power. The figure shows that, if the MW changes (from MW1 to MW2), the exciter will vary the MVAR (from MVAR1 to MVAR2) and P1 P2. Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008
Under-excitation
MVAR2 MVAR1 P1 P1 MVAR
Over-excitation
P2
0
MW1 MW2
MW
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LIMITS IN OVER AND UNDEREXCITATION ZONES

MW
LIMIT IN OVEREXCITATION This function protects the generator against prolonged trespasses out of the capability zone hazardous for the integrity of the field windings.
Underexc.
Action curve of the overexcitation limit
+
Overexc.
MVAR
Action curve of the underexcitation limit
MW
LIMIT IN UNDEREXCITATION This function protects the generator against prolonged trespasses out of the capability zone hazardous for the stability of the group and for the integrity of terminal parts of the stator.
_
Undrexc.
Overexc.
MVAR
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LIMIT OF FLUX
The flux inside the machine is given by the ratio V/f . The colored area represents the surface of the normal working points allowed indefinitely by the project, while the outlined areas adjacent to it, are always representative of working points allowed for the machine, but with more stressful conditions of those in the colored zone. For this reason the permanent exercise of the group outside the colored area is unadvisable, in order to limit, as far as possible, the "loss of life" of the generator. The flux limit of the exciter acts along the highest oblique segment and it adapts the stator voltage on the foreseen relationship V/f, when the frequency decreases.
V (%) Flux V/f = = 105% nom 105%
95% 98%
100% 102%
105% f (%) 103% Flux V/f = = 95% nom
95%
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In this diagram V/f the limitations are due to:
in A
V (%) Flux V/f = = 105% nom

A
105%
max flux (V/f) , max voltage (gen.) and min frequency (turbine)
in B
max voltage and max frequency

in C
95% 98%
D
100% 102%
105% f (%) 103%

C
max frequency, min voltage (max current) and min flux (instability)
in D
95%
Flux V/f = = 95% nom
min frequency and min voltage (max current)
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AnsaldoEnergia NOTES
- The reactive power and power factor regulations can be only actuated when the generator is synchronized to the grid. Its disconnection automatically produces a change-over to the stator voltage regulation (in island configuration too). - Any change-over to the other regulator is bumpless in order to avoid any dynamic and thermal machine variation.
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Typical exercise sequence of a generator
Predisposition completed Turbine at nominal speed Exciter fed and in automatic voltage regulation
Exc ON
Soft-start Voltage equalization
Synchronization
First loading (few MW)
VOLTAGE Regulation
LOADING
Reg. COS or Reg. REACT.
LOADING
INCR / DECR EHC and EXC
Reduction of Reactive Power to 0
Reduction of Active Power to 0
Disconnection from the grid
Exc OFF
Generator de-excited
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FRONT VIEW OF A TYPICAL EXCITATION BOARD
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INTERNAL VIEW OF TYPICAL POWER CUBICLES
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TYPICAL MODULE WITH THYRISTORS AND RADIATORS
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EXCITATION TRANSFORMERS
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The feeding transformers of the excitation systems are substantially different from those of distribution because they have to be expressly projected to feed equipments containing power converters [rectifiers with controlled diodes (thyristors) or non controlled diodes (diodes)]. The specificity is because the commutations of the bridges semiconductors alter the sinusoidal waveform of the current and voltage at the converter input supply, producing harmonics that significantly solicit the temperatures of the transformer.
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Excitation transformer isolated in resin
Excitation transformer isolated in oil
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EXCITATION TRANSFORMER IN RESIN The transformers isolated in resin have the primary and the secondary windings generally done in aluminum. Particularly, the primary winding in high voltage, that is englobed in resin, it is built with bands (stripes) of aluminum, while the secondary one of low voltage, that, on the contrary, is impregnated in resin, it is built by plates of the same material. The windings connections are collected according to the group Yd11. Generally, the Vcc of the excitation transformers is 8% .
Y
HV
shield
d
LV
Primary
Secondary
137
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AnsaldoEnergia
EXCITATION TRANSFORMER IN RESIN The cooling of these transformers is by natural convection: the air licks up the warm surfaces directly exposed and removes the heat with an effect fireplace that recalls fresh air from the lower part and that discharge it aloft obviously at higher temperatures. Generally, the considerable sizes of this transformers need a consistent quantity of air to adequately cool their warm parts : for this reason, when it is necessary to foreseen a coverage, it will have to be designed with a degree of mechanical protection suitable to allow enough passage of air .
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AnsaldoEnergia
EXCITATION TRANSFORMER IN RESIN

Thermometer
the thermoresistors (PT100 type) monitor the temperatures in the windings and in the core. They are normally connected to the control system.
PT100
PT100
PT100
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EXCITATION TRANSFORMER IN RESIN

The transformers in resin always foresee the possibility to slightly vary their transformation ratio, making accessible to outside some points of its primary winding. In the image at side a metallic plaque L is visible, mounted among 2 of the 6 available clamps. It fixes the ratio of the transformer according to the couple of clamps that are connected by it (among the possible different combinations allowed by the dimensions of the plaque, correlated to the physical geometry of that 6 points made available).
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9-Generator Performance Curves and Static Exciation

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Una Societ Finmeccanica

Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008

Una Societ Finmeccanica

PERFORMANCES CURVES OF THE ALTERNATOR

STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM

Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008

Una Societ Finmeccanica

Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008

Una Societ Finmeccanica

PERFORMANCES CURVES OF THE ALTERNATOR

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Una Societ Finmeccanica

Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008

Una Societ Finmeccanica

Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008

Una Societ Finmeccanica

Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008

Una Societ Finmeccanica

Una Societ Finmeccanica

Una Societ Finmeccanica

Una Societ Finmeccanica

Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008

Una Societ Finmeccanica

Nominal working point

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Nominal working point

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Una Societ Finmeccanica

Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008

( Appendix to the item 1b )

Una Societ Finmeccanica

( Appendix to the item 1b )

Una Societ Finmeccanica

1 step (pls. see next image)

( Appendix to the item 1b )

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Nominal apparent power (MVA) of the alternator

Generic working point (MVA corrispondent to a generic MW / MVAR)

Negative reactive power

Positive reactive power

( Appendix to the item 1b )

Una Societ Finmeccanica

2 step (pls. see the following image)

( Appendix to the item 1b )

Una Societ Finmeccanica

Active Nominal apparent power (MVA) of the alternator

Nominal working point Max power (MW) of turbine

( Appendix to the item 1b )

Una Societ Finmeccanica

3 STEP (pls. see the following image)

( Appendix to the item 1b )

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Nominal apparent power (MVA) of the alternator and stator size

power Nominal working point (+)

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Nominal working point Pn

Doc. n 196 W 429 Rev.1 Oct. 2008

( Appendix to the item 1b )

Una Societ Finmeccanica

4 STEP (pls. see the following image)

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