Introduction to

Fading Channels, part 2

1
1
Dr. Essam Sourour
Alexandria University, Faculty of
Engineering, Dept. Of Electrical
Engineering
Fading Channels, part 2
Local reflections cause multipath
Each path has a random gain, with random
magnitude and random phase
Each gain is represented in baseband as
n
j
n
e

Small Scale Fading

2
Receiver, and/or reflectors, may be moving
Building 2 v
n
Assume a group of paths with small relative delay
Net effect is one path with random gain and phase
n
j j
n
n
e R e

According to Central Limit Theorem, the net gain

Small Scale Rayleigh Fading
3
Building 2 v
According to Central Limit Theorem, the net gain
Re
j
is complex Gaussian with zero mean
The envelope R is Rayleigh distributed and the
phase is uniform [0, 2]
The net gain is the sum of all closely delayed paths:
( ) ( )
cos sin
n
j
n n n
n n n n n n
e x jy
x and y

= +
= =
( )
e
n
j j
n n n r al imag
R e e x jy g g jg

= = + = = +

Rayleigh Fading
4
( )
e
n
n n n r al imag
n n
R e e x jy g g jg = = + = = +

Each of g
real
and g
imag
is the sum of many independent
random variables
Hence g
real
and g
imag
are independent and Gaussian
with zero mean and variance
2
each
Fading gain g = g
real
+ j g
imag
is complex Gaussian with
zero mean and variance 2
2
(sum of two variances)
Rayleigh Distribution
From probability theory we know:
( )
2 2
1
tan
real imag
real imag
R g g g R is Rayleigh Distributed
g g g isUniformly Distributed

= = +
= =
( ) ( ) ( )
If is transmitted, then will bereceived
j
s t r t Rs t e

=
Received amplitude follows Rayleigh distribution
Received power follows Exponential distribution
Received phase follows Uniform distribution
5
( )
( )
2 2
2
exp 2
, 0
r r
p r r

= >
( )
1
, 0 2
2
p

= < <
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
2
exp 2
, 0
2
y
p y y

= >
Amplitude, Rayleigh Distribution
( )
( )
2 2
2
exp 2
, 0
r r
p r r

= >
6
Power, Exponential Distribution
( )
( )
2
2
exp 2
, 0
2
y
p y y

= >
7
Fading of 16 QAM signal
No fading Faded signals with random amplitude and phase
Signal has a higher probability of being week
For example, to receive the 16-QAM signal
we must estimate and compensate for the
amplitude and phase
8
No fading Faded signals with random amplitude and phase
Effect of Mobility
Fading gain changes with time
g(t)=g
real
(t) + j g
imag
(t)
Fading change rate depends on the
maximum Doppler frequency
Coherence time << 1/f
D c
v v
f f
c
= =
Coherence time << 1/f
D
Example: f
c
=1GHz, v=100 km/h gives:
f
D
= 92.6 Hz , Coherence time << 10.8 ms
9
Fading Example for R
10
Statistical Properties 1
Complex fading gain g(t)
The two parts g
real
(t) and g
imag
(t) are zero
mean
( ) ( ) ( )
e r al imag
g t g t j g t = +
mean
The two parts g
real
(t) and g
imag
(t) are
statistically independent
11
( ) ( )
( )
0, for any
real imag
E g t g t t t + =
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
0
real imag
E g t E g t = =
Statistical Properties 2
Fading gain is correlated over time
Usually Jakes model is used in mobile comm.
Autocorrelation function given by
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
0
2 2
*
g D
A t E g t g t t J f t = + =
J
o
() is the Bessel function of order zero
A
g
(t) indicates how much the gain is correlated
with itself after delay t
Power spectral density of fading is the FT of the
autocorrelation function
( )
( )
2
2
2 1
1
g D
D
D
S f , f f
f
f f

= <

12
Statistical Properties 3
Usually the fading gain is normalized to unity
power, i.e,
2
=1/2
( ) ( )
0
2
g D
A t J f t =
( )
( )
2
1 1
1
g D
D
D
S f , f f
f
f f

= <

13
f
D
t
f/f
D
Rician Fading Channel
If the channel also includes a LOS component we
get Rician fading
Fading gain is now
Rayleigh
g
rician real imag
g g j g S = + +

g
real
is Gaussian with mean S and variance
2
The envelope R is Rician distributed (see Proakis
chapter 2)
rician real imag
,
real imag
g j g = +
( ) ( )
2 2
,
Rician real imag
R g g = +
Rician Fading Channel
The channel amplitude R is Rician
I
0
= modified Bessel function of order zero
Now, when s(t) is transmitted
( )
( )
2 2
0 2 2 2
exp , 0
2
r S
r rS
p r I r

| |
+
| |
| =
|
|
\
\
Now, when s(t) is transmitted
Power ratio K=LOS/faded=S
2
/(2
2
)
If K=0 we are back to Rayleigh fading
As K increases, more power to LOS
15
( ) ( ) ( )
Rayleigh
r t g s t S s t = +
Rician PDF
16
K=1, 2, 3
Channel may consists of groups of delays (echoes)
Each group is composed of many closely delayed
paths
Maximum Delay Spread: Delay between first and last
Typically few microseconds outdoor and less than
hundred of nanoseconds indoor
Large Delays Effect
17
Typically few microseconds outdoor and less than
hundred of nanoseconds indoor
Channel with large delay spread is an FIR filter:
( ) ( ) ( )
1
0
L
l l
l
h t g t t

=
=

( )
0
g t
( )
1
g t
( )
4
g t
Power Delay Profile
Power of the multipath decay as delay
increases according to power delay profile
Each path g
l
has a variance
Example, exponential profile
2
2
l l
v =
( )
exp
l o
v v l L =
Example, exponential profile
Example, uniform profile
Typically, fading is normalized
Mean delay spread:
RMS delay spread
18
( )
exp
l o
v v l L =
, 0,..., 1
l o
v v for l L = =
1
0
1
L
l
l
v

=
=

1 1
0 0
L L
l l
l l
l v v

= =
=

( )
1 1
2
0 0
L L
l l
l l
RMS l v v

= =
=

Time and Delay Picture
Channel may have many
resolvable paths
Each path at a certain delay
Each path changes with
time, t, and has its delay,
19
time, t, and has its delay,
Autocorrelation function:
( ) ( ) ( )
1
0
,
L
l
l
h t g t t l

=
=

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
*
, , , A t E h t h t t = + +
Scattering function: twice Fourier
Transform of the Autocorrelation function,
over t and
Simulating Classical Fading Model
H
o
u
s
e
P
u
b
lic

h
o
u
s
e
Jakes model
20
P
u
b
l
i
c

h
o
u
s
e
Simulating Classical Fading Model
Assume a mobile station in the middle of
4N reflectors
Reflections with equal amplitude but
different Doppler
21
different Doppler
Doppler from path with incident angle
n
is
f
n
=f
M
cos(
n
) , f
M
is the maximum Doppler
Reflectors have different propagation delay
around the circle
Classical Fading Model
After some mathematical manipulations, the gain
of the path h
k
(t):
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
,
1
2
cos sin cos
N
n
k k n n n n k
n
h t W j t
N

=
= + + (

22
( )
8
M
n
16 (a good choice)
carrier frequency in Hz
= vehicle speed
c = speed of light = 3 * 10 m/s
2
0.5
2
c
c
N
f
v
v c f
n
N

=
=
=

| |
=
|
\
( )
n n
,
n
k
cos
random angle in (0, 2 )
W Walch code chip n in code # k
M
n
n k
n
N

=
=
=
=
Classical Fading Model
With L resolvable multipath, the channel model
is given by
( ) ( ) ( )
1
0
L
l l
l
h t v h t t l

=
=

The gains v
l
select the desire delay profile
They are normalize the total channel power to 1
1
0
1
L
l
l
v

=
=

23
They are normalize the total channel power to 1
( )
0 0
v h t
( )
1 1
v h t
( )
4 4
v h t
Walch Codes of length 16
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1
1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1
1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1
1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1
n
k
24
1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1
1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1
1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1
1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1
1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1
1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1 -1 -1
1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1
k
Fading References
1. Classical Model: W. C. Jakes, editor,
Microwave Mobile Communications,
New York, Wiley 1974
2. Modifications: P. Dent, G. E. Bottomley,
and T. Croft, Jakes fading model
25
and T. Croft, Jakes fading model
revisited, Electronic letters, vol. 29, pp.
1162-1163, June 1993
3. Good reference: Chapter on Fading
channels in Digital Communications by
Bernard Sklar
Small Scale Fading
Fast Slow
Small Scale Fading
Non-selective Selective
Effects on Signal
26
Fast: Channel changes
within symbol. T
c
<T
s
Slow: Channel constant
during more than symbol
time. Tc>Ts
Selective: Delay Spread >
symbol time T
s
Non-Selective: Delay
Spread < symbol time Ts
Speed and Selectivity are independent issues
Definitions
Coherence time = 1/max doppler = 1/f
D
Coherence bandwidth = 1/max delay
spread
Slow fading: Symbol time < coherence Slow fading: Symbol time < coherence
time
Non-selective fading: Signal bandwidth <
coherence bandwidth
Fast fading and selective fading are the
opposite
27
Fast Fading:
Due to high speed
High distortion to the
received signal
Effects on Signal, cont.
28
Slow Fading:
Terminal may fall in a fading
null for long time
Worse performance
time
time
g(t)
s(t)
time
g(t)
Fast Fading
Slow Fading
Selective Fading:
Due to high Delay Spread w.r.t
symbol duration
Channel is random FIR filter
Signal spectrum
Effects on Signal, cont.
29
Non-Selective Fading:
Delay Spread << symbol
duration
Channel is one tap
frequency
Signal spectrum
frequency
Channel gain
frequency
Channel gain
Selective
Non-Selective
Receiver Antenna Diversity
Transmitter Antenna Diversity
Transmitter and Receiver Antenna
Diversity (MIMO Systems)
Fading Counter Measures
30
Diversity (MIMO Systems)
Rake Receiver
Channel Equalization
Channel Coding
Receiver may have two or more
antennas
Two main types:
Antenna Selection:
Receiver Antenna Diversity
31
Antenna Selection:
Select stronger antenna signal.
Best for slow, non-selective fading
Antenna Combining:
Optimally combine signal of antennas (MRC)
More complexity & better performance
h
o
h
1
s
o
s
o
h
o
h
o
*
|h
0
|
2
s
o
s h
h
1
*
+
|h
0
|
2
s
o
+ |h
1
|
2
s
o
Maximal Ratio Combining
32
Maximal Ratio Combining
Receiver Diversity
s
o
h
1
|h
1
|
2
s
o
+
Two antennas are used in Tx
Two successive symbols are pre-coded as
shown
Need two orthogonal sources for two
channels estimation
Transmit Diversity
33
channels estimation
h
o
h
1
Transmit Diversity
s
0
then -s
1
*
s
1
then s
0
*
r
0
=s
0
h
0
+ s
1
h
1
h
o
*
r
1
=-s
1
* h
0
+ s
0
* h
1
h
1
*
h
o
h
1
( )*
+
+
|h
0
|
2
s
o
+ |h
1
|
2
s
o
|h
0
|
2
s
1
+ |h
1
|
2
s
1
-
Same as Tx Diversity, but with two Rxs
We have 4 channels, h
0
, h
1
, h
2
and h
3
Each receiver combines as before
The two receivers are then combined
Tx & Rx Diversity (MIMO)
34
The two receivers are then combined
h
o
h
1
s
0
then -s
1
*
s
1
then s
0
*
h
2
h
3
Combine
s
o
( |h
0
|
2


+ |h
1
|
2
+ |h
2
|
2


+ |h
3
|
2
)
Combine
+
+
s
1
( |h
0
|
2


+ |h
1
|
2
+ |h
2
|
2


+ |h
3
|
2
)
Used for Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Systems
Multipath diversity = multipath is advantageous
One finger (correlator) per path
Each finger synchronized to one path
Finger outputs combined (MRC)

Rake Receiver
35
Finger outputs combined (MRC)
Carrier
p(t)
( )
.
b
T
dt

c
1
(t)
( ) .
b
T
dt

d
1
(t)
c
1
(t-) p(t-)
1

chip

Need to estimate channel gain for each

path
Rake Receiver performs Maximal Ratio
Combining
Rake Receiver, Cont.
36
Combining
Number of fingers = number of paths
(ideally)
Small inter-path interference
Equalizers attempt to compensate for
channel fading effects
Linear Equalizer: FIR filter with adaptive
tap weights
Channel Equalization
37
tap weights
Adaptation to minimize some criteria
Most famous: Least Mean Square
(LMS)
Other criteria: Recursive Least Squares,
Kalman Filter, etc.
Z
-1
X
Z
-1
X
Z
-1
X
Z
-1
X
+
w
0
w
1
w
2
w
N-1
X w
N-2
y
0
y
1
y
2
y
N-1
Linear Equalizer
38
LMS: w
j
(n+1)=w
j
(n) e*(n) y
j
(n)
+
Threshold
e
+
-
data
Summary
Fading Types:
Large Scale: Distance + Shadowing
Small Scale: Fast or Slow & Flat or Selective
Counter Measures:
39
Counter Measures:
Diversity Types
Rake
Equalization