Digital Communication Through Fading Multipath Channels

Jukka Rinne
Institute of Communications Engineering
Tampere University of Technology

Introduction

Characterization of Fading Multipath

Channels

t = t0

t = t1

t = t0 +

t = t2

t = t 1 + 11

t = t 2 + 21

t = t 2 + 22

j2 f t

c ]
Let the transmitted signal be s ( t ) = Re [ s l ( t )e
In the case of time-variant multipath propagation, the received signal may be expressed as

x(t ) =

n ( t )s ( t n ( t ) )
n

j 2 f c n ( t )
j2 f c t
alternatively x ( t ) = Re n ( t )e
sl ( t n ( t ) ) e

Characterization of Fading Multipath

Channels (cont.)
The equivalent lowpass received signal is
rl(t ) =

n ( t )e

j 2 f c n ( t )

sl ( t n ( t ) )

The time-variant channel response is given by

c ( ;t ) =

n ( t )e

j 2 f c n ( t )

( t n ( t ) )

For some kind of channels, when a continuum of multipath components is received, the
received signal is

x(t ) =

( ;t )s ( t ) d

j 2 f c
j2 f c t
s l ( t )d e
= Re ( t ; ) e

The channel response is then c ( ;t ) = ( ;t )e

j 2 f c

Characterization of Fading Multipath

Channels (cont.)
In the case of s l ( t ) = 1 , well have r l ( t ) =

n ( t )e
n

j 2 f c n ( t )

n ( t )e

j n ( t )

where n ( t ) = 2 f c n ( t )
It should be noted, that n ( t ) varies typically slowly w.r.t. time. Relatively fast changes
are possible in n ( t ) , since f c is typically large and small variations in n ( t ) will produce
large variations in n ( t ) .
When the number of propagation paths is large and n ( t ) s change in a random manner,
c ( ;t ) can be modeled as complex-valued gaussian random process.
When c ( ;t ) is zero-mean complex gaussian then c ( ;t ) at any instant t is Rayleigh distributed -> Rayleigh fading channel
In the case that there are fixed propagation paths c ( ;t ) is no longer zero-mean and
c ( ;t ) follows Rice distribution -> Ricean fading channel
Depending on the known scattering conditions, also other types of distributions may be
used (Nakagami-m etc)

Channel Correlation Functions and Power

Spectra
The autocorrelation function of c ( ;t ) is defined by
1
c ( 1, 2 ;t ) = --- E [ c * ( 1 ;t )c ( 2 ;t + t ) ]
2
In typical radio communication path, the attenuation and phase shift of delay at 1 are
uncorrelated with path delay at 2 -> uncorrelated scattering
In the case of uncorrelated scattering well have
1
--- E [ c * ( 1 ;t )c ( 2 ;t + t ) ] = c ( 1 ;t ) ( 1 2 )
2
In the case that t = 0 , the autocorrelation is c ( ;0 ) = c ( ) , which is called the multipath intensity profile or the delay power spectrum of the channel
In practice, the function c ( ;t ) is measured by transmitting very narrow pulses and
cross-correlating the signal with delayed version of itself

Channel Correlation Functions and Power

Spectra (cont.)
c ( )

Tm

The measured correlation function may be like the one shown above. Here T m is called
the multipath spread of the channel and it is the range of s for which c ( ) is essentially
nonzero
The time-variant channel response, c ( ;t ) , can be analyzed in frequency domain by

C ( f ;t ) =

c ( ;t )e j2f d

If c ( ;t ) is complex gaussian, then also C ( f ;t ) follows the same statistics.

Channel Correlation Functions and Power

Spectra (cont.)
If the channel can be assumed to be wide-sense stationary, the autocorrelation function
can be defined as
1
C ( f 1, f 2 ;t ) = --- E [ C * ( f 1 ;t )C ( f 2 ;t + t ) ]
2
Furthermore, this can be written as
1
C ( f 1, f 2 ;t ) = --2

j2 ( f 1 1 f 2 2 )
E [ c* ( 1 ;t )c ( 2 ;t + t ) ]e
d 1 d 2

= =

c ( 1 ;t )e

j2f 1

d 1 = C ( f ;t )

where f = f 2 f 1
C ( f ;t ) is called the spaced-frequency, spaced-time correlation function of the channel.
Note that C ( f ;t ) = F { c ( ;t ) } .

Channel Correlation Functions and Power

Spectra (cont.)
If we suppose that t = 0 , then C ( f ;0 ) = C ( f ) and c ( ;0 ) = c ( ) and simply
C ( f ) = F { c ( ) }

kuva 14-1-3

The coherence bandwidth ( f ) c 1 T m is a measure of frequency selectivity of the

channel. Depending on the bandwidth of transmitted signal, W , the channel is either frequency selective ( W ( f ) c ) or frequency non-selective ( W ( f ) c ).

Channel Correlation Functions and Power

Spectra (cont.)
The time variations of the channel are due to the Doppler effect, which causes broadening
of the spectrum or spectrum shifting.
The Fourier transform of C ( f ;t ) w.r.t. t analyzes the spectral properties of the time
variations, i.e.,

S C ( f ; ) =

C ( f ;t )e j2t dt

By reducing the case for f = 0 , we can have

SC ( ) =

C ( t )e j2t dt

which is the Doppler power spectrum of the channel

The range of over which S C ( ) is essentially nonzero is called the Doppler spread of
1
the channel, B d , which is related to the coherence time of the channel as ( t ) c -----B
d

Channel Correlation Functions and Power

Spectra (cont.)

kuva 14-1-4

A slowly varying channel has large ( t ) c or correspondingly small B d

Furthermore, it is possible to define a scattering function of the channel by double Fourier
transform of autocorrelation function C ( f ;t ) as follows

S ( ; ) =

C ( f ;t )e j2t e j2f dt df

Channel Correlation Functions and Power

Spectra (cont.)
Relations between channel correlation functions and power spectra

Fig 14-1-5

Channel Correlation Functions and Power

Spectra (cont.)
Typical scattering function of a medium-range tropospheric scatter channel

Fig 14-1-6

Multipath Intensity Profiles of Mobile

Radio Channels (COST 207)
0

typ. suburban and urban

5
10
15

Power in dB

20
25
30
0

10

12

14

16

18

20

14

16

18

20

typ. bad hilly terrain

5
10
15
20
25
30
0

10

in s

12

The Jakes Model

A widely used model for the Doppler power spectrum of a mobile channel is the so called
Jakes model.
In this model C ( f ;t ) is given by
1
C ( t ) = --- E [ C * ( f ;t )C ( f ;t + t ) ]
2
= J 0 ( 2 f m t )
where J 0 ( ) is the zero-order Bessel function of the first kind and f m = v f 0 c is the
maximum Doppler frequency.
The Fourier transform of C ( t ) gives the Doppler power spectrum, i.e.,

SC ( ) =

C ( t )e j2t dt =

1
1
-------------------------------------------,
f
= m 1 ( f m )2

0,

J 0 ( 2 f m t )e j2t dt

( f m)
elsewhere

The Jakes Model (cont.)

1

0.5

J ( 2 f t )
0
m

J 0 ( 2 f m t )

0.5

0.5
5

0.5 3
10

f t
m

10

f m t

10

10

10

SC ( )

fm

fm

frequency

10

Statistical Models for Fading Channels

Several probability distributions are used in modeling the statistical characteristics of the
channel
When the number of scatterers is large in the channel, using the central limit theorem
yields to gaussian process model for the channel impulse response
In the case that the process can be assumed to have zero-mean, the envelope follows
Rayleigh PDF
2r 2
r0
p R ( r ) = -----e r ,

where = E ( R 2 ) and the phase is uniformly distributed between 02

Two parameter models, such as Nakagami- m and Rice PDFs are usable in cases when we
want to fit the model to observed signal statistics
m
---- r 2
Nakagami- m PDF is given by p N ( r ) = ---------------------- r 2m 1 e ,
( m ) m

2m m

r 0 , where m is the

fading figure (Rayleigh when m = 1 )

2
2
2
r
rs
Rice PDF is given by p ( r ) = ------ e ( r + s ) 2 I 0 ------ , where s is the noncentrality
2
2
parameter

Statistical Models for Fading Channels (cont.)

In many line-of-sight (LOS) radio links the number of multipath components is small
-> simple channel models are possible
In the case that only one multipath component exists, the impulse response of the channel
is
c ( ;t ) = ( ) + ( t ) ( 0 ( t ) )
where and ( t ) are the attenuation factors of specular component and fading
component, respectively. 0 ( t ) is the delay of reflected component
If ( t ) can be characterized as zero-mean gaussian random process, as is often the case,
we can model the channel attenuation by using Ricean distribution
The transfer function of this channel is
C ( f ;t ) = + ( t )e

j2f 0 ( t )

Stat. Models for Fading Channels / Rummler

A very similar model is used for fixed microwave LOS radio channels used for voice and
video transmissions
Based on the measurements by Rummler (1979) a three path model has been developed
The model has been reduced to a two path model since the delay differences between multipath components have been found out to be relatively small
The transfer function has a form
j2 ( f f )

0 0]
C ( f ) = [ 1 e
The parameters and are characterized as random variables, which are nearly statistically independent
The distribution of has the form ( 1 ) 2.3 (hence the exact PDF will be
3.3 ( 1 ) 2.3, [ 0, 1 ] )
Parameter is modeled by the lognormal distribution, i.e., log is gaussian
For > 0.5 , the mean of 20 log was found to be 25 dB and std 5 dB, for smaller values
of , the mean decreases to 15 dB

Stat. Models for Fading Channels / Rummler

The magnitude of the frequency response in the case that 0 = 6.3 ns is shown below.

Fig 14-1-9

Typical BW is 30 MHz

Propagation Models for Mobile

Radio Channels
In the free space, the attenuation is inversely proportional to d 2 ( d distance btw tx and rx).
In mobile channels, attenuation is typically inversely proportional to d p ( p [ 2, 4 ] ).
For example in widely used classical model by Hata, the mean path loss in dBs for a large
city in an urban area is given by
69.55 + 26.16log 10 f MHz 13.82log 10 h t a ( h r ) + ( 44.9 6.55log 10 h t )log 10 d
where a ( h r ) = 3.2 ( log 10 11.75h r ) 2 4.97
f 400 MHz (... -> p [ 2.98, 3.52 ] )
Another phenomenon in mobile channels is the effect of shadowing of the signal due to
large obstructions.
Shadowing is usually modeled as multiplicative, slowly time varying random process. In
the case that s ( t ) has been transmitted, the received signal, r ( t ) , can be modeled by
r ( t ) = A 0 g ( t )s ( t )
where A 0 is the mean path loss and g ( t ) represents the shadowing effect.
g ( t ) is often modeled by lognormally distributed random process, i.e,
1 ( 2g ) exp ( ( ln ( g ) ) 2 2 2 )
g0
p(g) =
0
elsewhere

The Effect of Signal Characteristics on the

Choice of a Channel Model
By using the previously introduced notation, the received signal can be expressed as

rl(t ) =

c ( ;t )s l ( t ) d =

C ( f ;t )S l ( f )e j2ft d f

1
In the case that the signaling interval is T , the bandwidth can be approximated by W = --T
If W is greater than ( f ) c the signal components will have different attenuations and
phase shifts over the bandwidth -> frequency-selective fading.
1
When the signaling interval is selected as T T m , we can write W ------- ( f ) c and the
Tm
channel is found to be frequency-nonselective.
However in general, time-variant characteristics of the channel exists, i.e., C ( 0 ;t ) const.
giving r l ( t ) = C ( 0 ;t )s l ( t ) . In this case the multipath components are not resolvable.
Furthermore, we can write C ( 0 ;t ) = ( t )e j ( t ) and if it is zero-mean complex gaussian
process, ( t ) is Rayleigh and ( t ) is uniformly distributed.

The Effect of Signal Characteristics on the

Choice of a Channel Model (cont.)
The speed of time variations of the channel can be determined from C ( t ) or S C ( ) and
hence the parameters ( t ) c or B d characterize the rapidity of the fading
In a special case when W ( f ) c 1 T m and T ( t ) c 1 B d , channel is frequency
non-selective and basically frozen during signaling interval, i.e,
Bd W 1 T m Bd T m 1
-> the spread factor T m B d < 1 -> channel is said to be underspread.
If T m B d > 1 channel is overspread

The Effect of Signal Characteristics on the

Choice of a Channel Model (cont.)

Taulukko 14-2-1

Frequency-Nonselective, Slowly Fading Channel

As was described earlier, the frequency-nonselective channel results multiplicative distortion to the transmitted signal as r l ( t ) = C ( 0 ;t )s l ( t )
If the fading is slow, the received signal can be written in the presence of noise as
0tT
r l ( t ) = e j s l ( t ) + z ( t ),
In the case that can be followed perfectly at the receiver, ideal coherent detection can be
applied -> now only the effect of has to be taken into account
In the case of binary PSK, the error rate in AWGN channel can be written as
P 2 ( b ) = Q ( 2 b )
where b = 2 E b N 0
For binary FSK the error rate is
P2 ( b ) = Q ( b )

Frequency-Nonselective, Slowly Fading Channel (cont.)

In the case that changes randomly and hence also b changes randomly, the average
error rate is

P2 =

P 2 ( b ) p ( b ) d b

1
In Rayleigh fading case, is Rayleigh distributed and p ( b ) = -----e b b , where
b
Eb
b = ------- E ( 2 )
N0

1
--2- 1

After integration well have P 2 =
1
--- 1
2

b
--------------- ,
1 + b

for binary PSK

b
--------------- ,
2 + b

for binary FSK

Frequency-Nonselective, Slowly Fading Channel (cont.)

When the channel response varies more rapidly with respect to symbol duration, the phase
estimation must be carried out only for limited number of signaling intervals.
In DPSK, only the phase difference of two consecutive symbols is detected and the
method is quite robust to phase changes in the channel.
1
For DPSK in AWGN channel we have P 2 ( b ) = --- e b and hence the average error in
2
1
Rayleigh fading channel can be solved to be P 2 = ----------------------- .
2(1 + b)
FSK with noncoherent detection (envelope or sq. law) is even more robust technique than
1 b 2
DPSK in fast fading channels. For noncoherent orthogonal FSK, P 2 ( b ) = --- e
and
2
after calculation
1
P 2 = --------------- .
2 + b

Frequency-Nonselective, Slowly Fading Channel (cont.)

If we let b grow very large for the discussed binary signaling methods, the resulting bit
error probabilities can be approximated as
1 4 b

1 2

b
P2
1 2 b

1 b

for coherent PSK

for coherent, orthogonal FSK
for DPSK
for noncoherent, orthogonal FSK

It can be seen that for large SNR, coherent PSK is 3 dB better than DPSK and 6 dB better
than noncoherent FSK.
Error rates are inversely proportional to SNR, whereas in AWGN-case the decrease is
exponential.

Frequency-Nonselective, Slowly Fading Channel (cont.)

Frequency-Nonselective, Slowly Fading Channel (cont.)

Binary PSK with Nakagami- m fading
mm
is Nakagami- m distributed p ( ) = -------------------- m 1 e m , where = E ( 2 )E b N 0
( m ) m