viii The Jaguar and the Priest

4. The European Within

78 79

Conclusion: The Fold

202 205

The Magic Mountain A Perpetual Fiesta

83

Person, History, and Memory,

Castilian Features in the lab

86 a9

The Counterpoint between th'e Indigenous and the European 207 Appendix: An O u t l i l ~ c of Tzeltnl Souls Notes
215 231 233 213

The Ethnic Contrast between Heart and Head Loss of the Senses and Exposing the Heart
91

5 . Animism as Histpry 9 8 Birds of the Heart, Livestock. Metal Tools

Priests
102 112

99

Glossary

Scribes and Writing Cattle Ranchers Christian Music

116 118

Bibliography

The lab "Mothers-Fathers" and Coffee Cultivation Soul History and the Body 6. Narrative, Ritual, Silence The Past in Narrative Ritual
135 137 143 126 126 132 121

120

Exceptions to Neutrality

,
1

Christian Rituals, Indian Simulation Crosses

Difficulties of Dialogue with the "Castilians"

147 151

New Religious Identifications

7.1 The Mirror in the Saints

The Body o f the Saints Saints in Narrative
I

155 157

162 165 168

Images o f Origins in the Mirror

8.

A Case of Healing: Text and Ritual The Ceremony The Text

176 193 169

Commentary

Foreword
R O Y \\',iGNER

For nlost peoples, everything tllat matters-tl~e.character of a person that we oftell confuse witli personalir): rhc al~ticipnrory intelligence thnt is necessary for all meaningful forms of innovarion, rhe energies that bind us to the people and places we lovc-is joined togcthcr in this \vord tllnt we call rlir "soul." It is the soul that gets to decide whether thrre is a God or not, and generally, like things in this mirror-reflection universe, this is reciprocated. More tl)an rhat, for the Tzeltal people of C:a~icuc,it gers to decidc just bo7u rhis happens and ;uhy. Perhaps these other\r.isc obscure people of the h4csican highla~idshave jnsr T C ~ ) J C ~ I J Bend something that the Old bVurld pcoplcs have long forgotten, \vI~ich is that n,itliout the ilmnm, the acute holographic ~r~te~uity, that unfolds around eecry significant lesson, rhr lcsson itself is wortldess. T h i s is 9 book of just such significant lessons and the dra~tiathnt follows upon them as tlie tliu~ider encompasses the lighuning, \\~ithout \rhicIi it \\pould l~ave no \voice. i \ n :istonisIiing ]lumber of correspondc~srs exist bctwcen h,lesicnn ideas of the soul nnd the ones found aniotlg the pcoples of interior New Goinc;i arid !\horisinal :\usrmlia. i\ccording ro JcITrey Cl;~rk, rhe \T'iru pcol~le of the Southern I-Iighlands Province of Papu:i New Goinen speak of the pbjririri hody of a person as the "picture-soul" of rllat licrsoli. l'his is an c.r:icr l i j i u r ~ - ~ r o u nreversal d of tlic w n y in rvliicl~European licol>les11:ii.e ~r:tditionall!; approached the rclnrioll 11rr\\.rcn \.olition sn<l ~il~ysic,llity, 1houg11it does rcsemble Plato's "c;lve" analogy. It io\.crts the sc11se :irirl in~agcry of I ~ P ~ I Iitsclf. X l3uv of rvhar is rhe "pictnrc-soi~l"itself :i lpicturc? T h e \ \ ' i ~ - t ~ were ancient enett~ics and tra(ling partners of tlie Dal-ilji, \vitli \vllont 1 harl ar,rbccl, and Cl;ir-k intended his strzily :is 3 coltil~arisoltwith Ilarihi concepts. One evening in Jnne 2000, 1 was crossing tlie airsrrip : i ~ I<:~rimuri

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CHAPTER 1

Introduction

What Are the Souls?

?'he Tzeltal people of Cl~iap,s, Mexico, claim that human bcings llold a 1:eterogeneous combinrtion of souls in the heart, from a minimum o f four to a masimurn of sixteen. One of these souls, knotvn as cb'nlcl, takes the form of a human body; it resides in the beart and, as a doublc, also lives insidc a mountain where, together ~ i t the h rest of the souls from the snme lineage, it fornls a society parallel to that of humans. In contmst, other souls cnllcd L b have a nonhuman form. Thcp map bc animals of any species, such as hurumidgbirds, butterflies, jaguars, rodents, or creatures of rile river, or a t ~ n o s ~ l l &phenomena ic like lightning bolts, wirals, or rainboxs; others are spirits of E u r o p e a ~ appearance, ~ such ns Cntholic priests, Castilian scribes, scl~oolteacliers,or evangelical inusicians. I-Iu~nan beings may have up to thirteen of these beings. Nct,crtheless, although in appearance thesesouls enlbody beings that for the most port may be found in the ordinary natural world, in reality they are other beings; they are not of this world but come fro111the "ot11er side." Some come from I~eavenand enter the embryo at rhc rnolnerlt ofconception; othcrs are tmnmiitted to the fetus by ;L relativc from the generation of the grandparents at the time of their de~th-in other words, they co11:e from death. This "other side" represents an existence that is different from that of our ordinary world. \Ire could call this slate is "tl~e other." 111 the TLCIIBI "sacred," .IS ~rrldcrstoodto mean that \vhicl~ Inngu:lge, this stnte is known as c l ~ ' n 1 or rD'iilcl, the sarnc \r,ords that are used to clesign:~tcthe souls, a state that is the opposite of the j/ininlnl st::te, thc everyllnp plane of existcl:ce. T h e T~.cl~:zl coslnos cxn 11e di-

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4 The Jaguar and the Priest

Edunrdo \'ireirns rle Cnstro (1998) , , denls wit11 the aucstion of rlie I I : I ~ umlizarion of culture and tlie culturalizntion of nature ill a particul:~rly locid contribution ro the held of Anierit~dinli studies. If the Europeans, observes \'ir,ciros dc Cilstro, lrnve :I ~n~llticulturalist cc~sr~rology based on the concept of the unity of nature and the plurality of cultures, the Arnerindinns, in contrast, have "multinaturalist" cos~nologies bnsed on , 'tlie idea of spiritual unit); an4 bodily diversity. T h e first "postulates :I physical continuity and ;I metaphysical discontinuity" between 11u111nns al~d all other living beings: tbe body integrates naturnl beings into one c:~tegory;the soul o r the s ~ i r i (or t the iilind) js \i,I~aldiffercnrintc: 11s from o t l ~ c r livi~~ beings, g n the otller hand, Amerindian cos~nology "postu1:~tes :I rnet:il)llysicnl continuity and n physicnl continuity l)etli,een the bei~iysof tlie cosnlos. . . . T h e spirit or soul integrates ashile the lbody differentiates" (1908, .t79). t\s a conscquencc, in Indian terms, rhc I~odg hna to bc fn!>ricatedbccansc, contrary to Europenn colntnoll sense. it is not conceived as so~nething innate or inherited biologically hut :IS:i social ol~ject bclo~iging to th domain of invention 2nd t h r artificinl. F 111 sl~ort, if a.e m-r the body and do the soul, indigenous pcoplcs n1.i. t l ~ sot>l c and do the hod!;. ,\s Ilrngner (1981, 98) remarks: "M'hcrcas errnr a ~ i dexcess are expectable tendencies of an individual self, to be 'corrected' lhy iliscipline anrl education, the soul, as a comperntircly 'pnssive' qu,~lit); of discernment, con only he 'lost.' hnd n.hcn tlic soul is losr, the only recourse is to vcrtorc it? to 'find' it, rather in the way that a ~xrspccrir:eur insight is 'found,' and not to constrain or educate it. A soul is not disc~plined."In effect, T ~ e l t a lsouls are not susce~~tible to t1-:1nsformation or domesticatinn; they are a require~ne~it for t l ~ e process of l~ersonalsocialization, but the), tl~emselvescannot he instructed in cultu1.:11 conventions. In fact, ns \\re shall see, this iden is actu;~ll!, crpressed by the E e l e l in one of the nnmcs rhey give to the group of souls: jmlclrik. Fnrnrmed from the verb to/. meaning "to co~ne," its literal ~nenning is "wbat is already given to us," that is, the part of us tl~nt, un.like the body, is inherited. h~lcsoalncricnnc t h n ~ ~ r Ilas : ~ nc\fertl~eless ~~h~ tended to lpl:lcc the soul in a position similar to the oue it occupies in C11risti:ln anrllropology. Fro111 t l ~ e Cllristia~~ point of rrien; tlle aspect in n persol1 thnt r ~ ~ u bc st lnolded 2nd disciplined in order to attain an approprintely moral col~dition is thc soul, which is where ethical substance resides. T h e "path to perfection" is of the soul, and nlrhougl~the body doubtless i~iterveries, it does so only to r l ~ e extent tbnt it enbances or hindcrs n-ll;tt is p.tr excel- , lence the Christian telos: salvation of the soul. A,lnreover, i l l the Chris~ ~

tian vic\v, the soul reprcscnts the essence of individual identity; the tlesh will disnppuar after death, but the "self" will remain in a vertiginous vision, wherher it be hell or everlnsting glory. 111 Indinn rernls, I~o~vescr, morali~y is in thc body, 2nd (0 the extent that \ye may spcakof n innin personnl identity, this is the body; in normal conditions, tbe "I" is tlie body. Perhaps because of itsvolatile linture and bccnuse it is placed within the humnn body, the In(lia11 soul has tcndcd to he defined in iVIcsoa~ncricanstudies as an "essence" or a "co-essence" to the extent th:>r it is shared rvitb other beings. But it is not difficult to slot the Cllrisrinn iden into this first sense, the idea of the soul as the essence of rhc self, defined as rvliat is per1il;lncnt and necessary in the persou. ~ I I C principle of identity, that is, easelice 2s opposed to nppearnnce (Gutiirrez Estivez 2002). From the Indian rie~vpoint,ho\verer, np1x:Irance is thc locus of personal identity and n~orality. O n r is whnt one sho\\.s to others. T l ~ birr11 e of the body is n,l~nt initiares rhe process of diffurcntintion, that is, h u ~ ~ ~ a ~ ~ i z and, atio ulti~~iately, n Iridinriization. T h e body gradunlly takes its slinpe tlirougli nurture alid the development of l)odilygestrrs. If tlie Clirisrian l n o r ~ l i r n l ~ c r ~ t i is a eculci!,ztion of tl~c soul, il~eii thc indigenous imperative is culcivatio~~ of t l ~ e hotly.

The Self as European

'The i n r e r ~ ~distinctior~ nl to tlie person b e t n w o the :~ttifici;~l and the innnte, bet\veen body and soul, translates into a self/otl~crpolarity. T h e indigenous self is per~nancntlysul>ject ro this complement~rp dinlectic, ~vhich,ro tike Psul Rf,oel~ri (1990) foyu12. n>ay be y,pressed as the tensioli bettvcen tbc iil nsontitl/.~nrl thr rr(/n.r "urhrr:" 7 111s~nternnl dinlecciu 1i:ls rwo ~ n a j o r il1lp1ications for the nvn!; tlic T ~ c l r a lthink of the pcrson, which rcprcscnt the m8in ;~spccts of the nrgument of this book. suggested, nn Indian soul is an "other," In the lirst place, if, as I lia\~c wl1:1t sort of "otber" is it? Basically, it is that of a Eutol~enn. It is true that souls f o r n ~ n heterogeneous collrc~ion of beings, like animals of nll ~ x c i c ;ant1 s .~tmospherie nnrl other phenomena. W e sl~ouldfocus, howrircr, on r l ~ e h c t rhilt in reality we are nor rlenling with these b c i ~ ~ g nss such, lhut with tbeir "other" sacred side. A soul thnt is n jagu:lr is not a n ordinary jnguar but t h r ch'lrl version of this :~nim?l, its reverse. i\nd it is prcciscly this other side of existence t i n t is characterized 11) h;lving a European culture. T o the estent that they are foulid in the renlm of the sacred, these anilnals that are Indian souls form collcctivitics with

Thelagbar and Lhc Priest

Introduction 7

'
il

E u b o l x x > characteristics in ~vhichinen~bershehnoe like Curopcn~isi n n similar rein to xvl~athappens to the Indians a41en they slioa their other side" (fol- example, when the). get drunk) and a d o p ~ k:uropean o r plesican attitudes. T h e r e ore cases of certain souls, such as t l ~ o s e of Catholic priests or schoolteachers, for which Europenn identity is very evident; they nre European figures both in a physical and qualitative sense. I-Io\rever, :IS Xve shall see, this happens with both the ant nncl the jagu:lr, lightning bolts and rainbows, sheep and ~ n e r ~ i l a i d s . I 111other words, Indian/Europenn polarity is the privileged figure of dilfcrence. Ani~nals,spirits, the dead, and other forrns of "otherness" tlint make up the nrray of lndian souls a r e subsurned in a more funclamcntnl plnne of difference related to interethnic relations. \\'list is more, thc distinction betmeen 11ody and souls reproduces the contrnst betiveen the Indian nnd the Europenn: if t h e body, s.llich is ol~terrnost, l,ublic, and ordinary, is c u l t u r a l l ~ Amerindian, the hearts (rind souls), which nre its nnrithcsis, are distinguished by their European qualities. <\t this I)oint, I should specify that by "Europenn" I am tmnslating , t h e Tzcltal terlrl,. 111 all,probnbilit); it is :r lonn ii,ord fro111 tlir .~.II,I'IIIN. .... ... . Nahuatl c,rstrlirn~( ~ a s t i l j a n ) ,the term by which tlie N l h u a named the Spw>i:ards i n the sixteenth cciitur)'. Nos,ada),s, both in T ~ e l t n l and in other n4:lyan languages, k//,rIt e has a wide semantic range that describes \ . in the Indian regions and, in more the S p l n i s h - s ~ ~ e n k i n I~opulation g general terms, filexicnns, Guatemalans, and people o l European origin, ar well as products considered to be exotic, such as 1Iln!lts, livestock, and ol~jects of u r b n ~ i or irldustrjal origin. It also nieans "strengtli" as unrlerstood I)? brute force o r uncontrolled sentiments. T h u s , k n r l ~ n ma). be surn~nnrized in the abstract as "stranger" or "non-Indian.': T h e strnngcr is the European, and the European is, pnr excellence, tbe "otlier."' Rcti~rning t o our argument, the second implication o l t h i s dialectic \ritllirl the person is that if the Indians lrnre the Enropc:ln inside thrnl, they also cunt;lin the history of their relationship rvirh Europeans. T h e fmg~nents of the sacred s t l t e that, as n consequence of the iolding of I ~ i r t hi, r e interonlized in the heart, not only have n European c h n c ~ c t e r hut nlso rcl,rodoce the Indian colonial pnst. As we shnll see, included amonp I ~ i d i a n souls are Cltholic priests, sc_ribes of the Crown of C:IS. . t ~ I e ,scl~oolteacl~ers, AIcxican cattle ranchers, ~netallic instri~ments, goats, sheep, and chickens, as well as other beings pertaining to the Old Tile Indian lleart contains, ill i n t h e form of souls, tlie hisrory ..\\'orld. -~ of the relationship between I~rdinns and Europeans from the heginriing of the Spanish Conquest to the prcsent. I n reality, sve could i n ~ a g i n e
(I
~

T~eltnl souls not so mucll as " b e i n g " in themelves but as events, exl)erienccs, institutional processes, financial pnctices, categorical definitio~is of reality. T h e y arc rnther like n rcprcsc~~t/~rion of t h e power repeople Ivere orice lations of E u r o j ~ e a norigin to rvliich tlie indiger~ous subjected-rel~ltions thnt, in the form of ghosts now, give no peace ro Indian I~odies. T h e Tzcltnl carry their birtory inside them, and this is surely at irs most evident i n the lndian experience of illness. T o a large extent, illness is a consequence of the European past, and shamonic treatment of tlie snmc essentially consists of working with history. In the sllamanic songs o f I ? e : ~ l iritunls, l ~ ~ the Europenn rvorld isooiniprese~lt. T h e spirits that inflict illness o r steal one of the souls are also 111diaii souls; D o ~ n i n icnn friars singing morbid liturgical songs. Jesuits uttering lctllal sermons, the king's scrihes n o t i n g d o u n the names of their 1ndiak victims, :and so on. It is not just the diseases that are closely associated with the European past and culture, hut the shninan, too, 1s well as his niedicinnl subsra~icerand supcrnatuml helpers. Each tiine an Indin11 patient is sl~bjecredto a sllal~innichenling ritoal, lle nctively gets involved in a n exercise in historical memory. T h i s quality, a ~ h c r e b y souls nre a11le to function as soci:il memory intern:~lizedin the self, seems to lne to be n p o d example of the Indian inclination to express in the language of tile body and the person those o:irmtires tlint, like history, hare nn cxternnl cllnmcter, so to speak, in the \?'cster~i tmclition. From rhis point of vie\$,, nn etlinograpliy of .l%elt:~I souls s l ~ o i ~also l d he n study on native birtoriri!~. It is x e l l known thnt this field llas nttractctl much nttention over the I;ist fern rlecncles, partly as n result o f the der~eloplnent of "postcolonial stu(lies." In thcse, therc has Ihen a n nttenlpt to both redefine the idea ofwriting an11 at the same time blur the frontiers between this 2nd the or31 tr:ldition, giving priority to the study o f n o n w r i t ~ c nforrns of social mcrnor!. in a n cffoi.t to cou~ltcract thc conventional perspective thnt was oliscuring ihc vcry essence of Indian history. In general terms, this lins focused or1 u-hlt we nlight call the relntirely "olIjective" aspects of history-objective in the sense that rhcy nre outside the person: oral narratire, ~ p ~ ~ l i ritu:~l, lic ~acred geogmlllly, and so on. I-Ioa,ever, consideration of the pnst i s subjectivization, ns the past i n c o ~ ~ o r a t ein d the self (as \v11;1t is ~ ~ r o p e r l "y n i e ~ ~ ~ o r y is " ) ,nn n v n u e that has not yet been ti~lly exl)lored.l I It is vet-!.likely that tllis s~~bjectivization of the pnst is the rnost charncteristic i ~ ~ d i g e n oway l ~ s of recording and esalnining llistor): that is,

B The Ja8uar and thc

Priest

Introduction 9 Chal~tw . i:iims to shon, ho\v tile field of ibclicfs thnt ~.c\~olves aro~tld soiils constiti~tes a broad tnenns of recording and passir~g o n the liisrurical experience assncinted \vith European domination. In it, I attetnpt to the connections bctween certain types ofsouls and tlie hismake visil~lc tory of rclati<insl,et\vcen Indians and Europeans in t h e Chiapas highI:lnds, i111d t o highlight the possible rensons why set events, institutions, an11 forces li1ve bccotne incar~intr in t h e soul iqlcrtoirc of t h e Tzcltal. Chalxer h is 1;irgely concerned with tiarmti\~e and public festivals in C ~ n c u c 14el.c . I sho\v that, on t h e one hand, oral ~iarr:~tiirc is rt~mcwhnt ~ ~ ~ ~ l e r < l e ~ c and lope on d , tlie other halid, public ritu:~l,;~ltlloughvery el:~l>ol-:lte, holcls little significance for the Tzcltal. T h i s circutnstance is linked to the native attitude of silence u,irli regard t o 1u.o areas (tinrmrive :i~ldlluhlic ritual) liis~orically considcred essential by t b c colonial 51,xiisli aotliorities in tlirir [holicy of Cl~ristianizntion. C11apte1-7 c s a n ~ i n c s the nature of the saints found insirle tile church in Cancuc. \4'hat kind o f beings are they? AIy argunlrnt is that t h c saints, like ally other spirit that appears in the ordinary \vorld, are only lnrtially folded, in s ~ i c a l ~way tliar t l ~ e y sliou: again partillly, what for human beings is liiddcn in tlie heart-in other words, souls. Examining tlie saints therefore makes it possible to recognize souls (and, more generally, thc sacred) in t h e way they go around in t h e ordinary state. I4istorical au8areness and experience of illness are intitnately connected spheres in 'Tzeltal. 111 some respects, shanianic tre.ltmcnt of illness pro(li1ces reasoning po\\.er about history: long-term melnory-that which exceeds the individual memory o f those who \\,ere witnesses t o eisents, and that \rhicli fundamentally concerns the l~istorical,relations Ihetwceti natives ;ind Europeans-is stored 2nd futictions in the healing chants thin the shamans recite in t h e presence of patients during tberal~utic rituals. Cliapter 8 presenrs o n e o f these healilig tests, preceded liy a (lescription of t h e ceremotly in \vhich it was delivered, 2nd followcd b!.a c o ~ i ~ t i i e ~ i t n on r ythe text. My intention here is that the relditip o f a healing text \\,ill shed light on the apparent correlation bctween illness, c l x r i e n c e of alterity, and historical awareness.

tlie 112s : ~ n d 111cx11t of their relationship \\,it11 t h e E u r o p e m ~ \rorld. XTiireiros de Castro 4002b) obserrres tlint if \Vestern nlodernity favors at1 olJecti\~isttype o f e])istcmology, in which knowing is tlie equivalent o f objectivizing (or de-sul>jecti\rizing), then t h e ideal in Amerindian kno\\~ledge, especially if this is shamanistic, consiscs of exactly the opposite. Knorving ia based on subjectivizing, converting 3 "son~etlii~ig" into a "someborly," beenuse this is what makes it possible t o adopt the point o f vie\vof that whicli hns to b e known. T h i s is precisely what'F~cltllmemthe history of relatiolls \vith t h e Europe:in ory consists of: [~crsonfiiizg tvorlcl. If tlie forces of colonial and contcuiporary society ill Clli:ll~asarc to bc conip~~chcndetl and handled, they must first be siibjecti\~izcdinto a "sqmebody" from whom a point of \riear can be adopted. T h o s e "somebodies" are rhc souls.
t

.l'hc hook is clividcd into nine uhoptcrs, including this introductir~n2nd 3 chnc1~1sion. Chapter 2 is a description of tlie Tzeltal soul entities :ind forms t h e basis of t h e book. It is predominantly ethnograpl~ic i l l clinracter, atid ill it I attempt to keep my interpretations t o n niininiutii. Although I rarely cite individual names and only occasionally transcribe comments from conversations, in numerous instances in this chapter I have endeavored to reflect t h e concrete v a y things about the souls are sail. Chaprel. 3 is in some ways nn estension o f the preceding one, although \\.it11 a distinct emphasis. iMy interest lierr is in thc locations, circotiistances, and favorable contests in which k n o \ ~ l e d g e of souls is (le\~elol~cd, including t h e dotnestic sphere, interpretation of dreams, t h e subject of g o s ~ i pmid , tlie scrutiny of personal details in i\.liicli signs of a specific soul's presence are sought according to ho\v they manifest in tlic body and t h e person's character. ( T h e other major area mhere I;no\\.ledge of souls is elaborated upon-sliamanic ~.itualsand healing chants-is ad(lressed in Chapter 8.) 'The subsequenr chapters are, generally speaking, o f a inore interprethe ~ body tative character. Chapter 4lesplores the distinction b e t \ \ , c c ~ 2s thc indigenous pole o f t l ~ e pcrson and the soul as the pole of Europe:iii cultore, nn atitithesis tliar fitids partieulnrlp strong crprcssio~iin thc dual notion of f : r e and heart. Ainong other aspects, it deals mith ho\v the rb'iilrol, the mountain of souls, is represented as a modcrtl Mesican or European city \vhcre t h e Indians li\fe a bourgeois lifestyle, and Iioiv the autononiy of t h e souls associated with tlie loss of bodily control-witb drunkenness, folD example-leads to t h e adoption of E u r a peat, urays o f behavior.

Conversations a b o u t Souls At the oursct of 111). research, tlie issue of "souls" \\,as not alnong 1ny nlai~lcoticerns. I liail decided to study itldigcilous religion, so in those early stages I devoted all my attention t o public ccretilonies and formnl narratives. Hut lfter tile first months of fieldwork, as I listened to con-

uo!ssa.ld111! I~C.IJ,\O a111a,\m[ oqc [1!1la?~ X[L~ C aISu!w': I plcatl ,i;u!.!eg ~ n o g l ! ,a,raal ~ ul sn JOJ u o u ~ m o s dp!q se,\r I! 'his!.\ jo slu!orl 12111otuoy aq I ~ S ! Us.na!.\lalu! I a111So!lsa.lalu! la.ra.\\aq 'la,< ,;]sol s! SJ!J<IIS Su!lla~ jo rusrussc.rraqule aql,, Le.u ,illlo a111 r! l c q ~ asncsaq ' ~ o n bJ~ I )l ~ I . I O aql J u! 11a1joisool 'y!B I. Sil!~q01 pcrl sic.slc I 'suo!semo ssaql 110 .(aS!lss~d (s!sos a[11![ s[!clua 'SU!~~~I-S[CI 'SLL![[SI-~~.IOIS . I O ~L ~ ~ ~ s!t{!sl! ~ \la.\\ ~ cc~ ~ s ! 'a% S!I[ jo 3s11csac{),,s~!.Io~s,, .\io11q sdcg~ad puu aseld [)a1)11155s~ U I O S L I ! a.i![ l1[8!111 Ol(.$\ 110Sl~d ,([l"[a JLIIOS 01 l!S!.I C 110 all1 ~ ( l l ~ < ~ l I>(IIIJ.l1 l l ~ ~ ~ l ! u o s ~ SIIIIO,~ ~d ? I 'mr!l 01 5111!1 1110.1,~ 'Ud\Oll)l ale sale] ,aaj 'Su!qcads d[lc~a - ( l a 3 Y V ~ C L I ! Sslc ss~uanbasuos a111lnq ' s l n ~ s o al!soddo 2111 < ( . J I'spua ~ -:a[ '~111.41~1 'SJIFl) a.r!it:.~.~cu jo sar1A1 ILXIO!IUJ,~UO= n1 1~ad53.1 ql!:kj .p[ro.\\ uu!l!lsc3 aql 1[1!,\\ ~ I O ! I ~ ! S O S UL! S ~ XJ,\UOJ 01 pasn s! ','IIO!I -!p1.11,, 10 , , I I I O I ~ J , ,j0 110!1ou a111 Su!~saSZns(~.r//,i~r~so~) rls!ucrI~ LUOJJ p1n.v lleol c :ilsno!.\qo s! 111@1101ll[c 'qs!qn\ 'p.lo~\ lsel log] ol .lam1 uln1a.1 01 a.\eg [INIS a,\\ ,;IIIOIS~S arll 'n\ouq 1,110p a,\\,, 'au/lli!ilroq 31 I,[/>/JII~ ',~!I,u"< u,n : ( [ ~ J I I ! J J ~ S a . 1 0 ~ 10 ,,'I! Su!op ucr4aq s ~ a q l c j - s ~ a ~ I S ~J ~~o u ~ aqi n\oll s! I ~ X Iasnezaq,, I '?.y!,~/u~iiort~ , 3 c ~ /!IJII ~ ~ r 31 ri~~y~(u(pfi<.71 ,l.,ra~~,i,< :loIra1 aulsr a111jo s,il:,\yc I S U L U I son, ~ S~!UOLIIS.ISS j o SU!II!:JILI J ~ ~noclt! I I;uo!lssnb .knjo .<un.m01 la.rrsue a l l 1 . s ~ L I I ~ ~ uc!pu~ I ~ ! ~ Jaql c ~jo ]led aql uo Su!uoacu .I!~LII ju s!saSaxa J O ~ I O ! I I : I ~ . I ~ .SUC I~IU a.r!ds~~! ! IOLI 0 1 1 sc~sa -11 at11 '.nouy UO!S~.I 3 1 1 1jn sa!~!unmmosaql 411ou1cl ) a q . ~ o a.\r:l[ . ~ (~q.\i sl31ldE.lS0~11l~ Sl! IIlN SCIS"'JSl[] ll! l S ~ l ~ l L 3!SlI!lllI! l! I ( C ?.il!I( ,,'LI111!! -[!1s1!3,, 2111 '.~!~JII,I/.TIJ,~ 2 ~ 1 I~:L[J 2 [ ~ ~ I I I.lo] I:J I! ~ ~ C [L!I[TL.L I x[i ' ~ ~ . I I ! ~ I J allloJsq .lac1 11!.\\ II!~II suossa.~JOJ 'UCJ jo J ~ I I D ~I:Us\i .sIs![I!!s~~s .ill J ~ I I ol [ ) ~ I u > ! [ J ' ~ I J OUS ~ [)ue ' s a ~ g j o 's~~a!clo Icnl!l 'sa[)os!da ' S I U ~ U ~ ~j~ .\OLII S ~ I U ! I ~ ! J J S J I ? S11n[113!la111 Is0111 3111 ~u!(ll05al SSIIJSSDJ r\'llClll plll: S q O U l I -alou ~ua.\3~1q!.o 1111 (1511115 I c ~ ~ 111s . j S~JUI:IIIJO a111 JJ~ .JO~!LIUILI ~ 01(.11 Sl~l[c!J2dSI1.111!J II!CIJJJ LIIO-lj St! [15.\\ S t ' s . ~ ~ L ~ I .S C ~ llIJl[I o J J ~11, ~ paled -!J!I.II:~ a.\1:11 oq.u aldoad ~ o o y l[c a,roqo '1uaq1 j o suo!~rl!~ssa[> pa[!elJ() Ll!l:lgO 01 .(SCJ S! I! 'S[U,\!lSaJ SIIO!~![JJ l 0 SClSJY Jql c l ~ l l l ~ 2111 O j .lOj S\:
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a ~ [111oqo l sn [[a] 01 I ~ I I I I Isa,yasulac[l o! a,\cl[ sa!i!,\!ise asalp op 's.,a!lsrl I ..IOU !hnoqc Sos 01 l[>nku pcq 11!1px~ "I 1 n g 1S ~ ! I ! A ! I J ~ J ~ A ~ - . ~ ~ O [ O I ~ I ~ ~ ~ I poc lonl!l s!lqnd ' s p l o . ~ ~aqlo u!-aA!lCJlCU lou sa!uoma.IaJ q q n d lal]I -!au lcql paJu!,ruoJ S[Su!aea~~u! aulcmq I '~[II!, Lq 5[lI!7 '~~1x11 J O UO!I -oz![muloj l o 11o!lolald~alu![cuos~ad c in0 qlont m 8o!.\!lls jo psalslr! ' s a ~ ! l s s ~[e.rnl[ns d I I , , , ~ ,!alp ~ n o q c aldoatl 2111j o suo!u!clu aqr 01 .ma 11c pual 01 p3pllalLI! OSll! 1 '111!1S iil5.\ 3111 UIO.Ij ' J S A ~ ~ \ O I . I '~~\!lC.llClI [ElllJOJ [1111: S~!1101113.1~5 3![(111d 1I! pJlSJl5~11!i([[C!1!11! SCA\ I 'SIIJOJ ~ ! 1 [ 1 [ 1 ! . 1 ~ 0 ~ 1 ~ 1 ~ dul 11! y!qs [anpc~Sat[^ roj uose5~ .ndaap I: scn~alaql sdc1l.lad 111(l

.u!eulol) [elrulns asuap s a1o 01 [I!a.rai 01 ueSaq .(lp!dol ' s l s a l u o ~ 1a1[1o u! prcal[ 1 sl!sla() 1aqlo III!,II Slrolt: 'sno!ssasSu!la~q ay1 II! Su!u~crqsc.n I l e q i n .lro!~>!~j~: agl j o axnos a111I I L ~paSemep ! so.\\ dpoq a111 jo 11cd ~aqar qloq sz!118osa1 pue 'sasouSc!p jo aslnos aqi u! apeul suo!~~u!~s!p aql puaqa~d1un1a o~ l d ~ u a l -11: solos s~l?i11 'sJuos a q p ~l o ~ a l lsa!lroilIalaJ Su![eal[ sq1 puallc ol ilqc scm I ' a a ~ z a p a[qrldamc uc 01 I! qeads pile aSonSuc[ [clla?~,a111 plrcls' ; I S [ J I I ~ ~ [ I I O JI a x 0 . I I ! ~ u~ n x ins![vpxadr ssalll jo auo 01 a~!~ualrldc IUKIJOJU! " 1 : sc y~on\ 01 uaSaq I 'lsn8nv u~ .slnosjo lala!\osa.~ .IILO[U~II'~.> puc !S~U!J![)JL~I U! pau]ea[ arlo 'fieon~.Cor.~od :uc!~!~souSo!p'/!,,/u~!d:q.ro.$\ 1w111a111 jo sa!~oSa]caU!CUI aali11 a111 L~I!PI [cap 0q.a s~s![e!~ads aq~ a~c 1 ( a 1 [YIIU!I ~ S!III lo ~ J O , LISOUI \ a111J I ~ ~ W W J S S I'I C U I B ~ sno!J!~sa.ltl S ISOLII agj. .s[nos .I!aql 01 uo!luallc l s o u ~ Led 11?1]az.~ alp le1lfllaqulssaa 101 6 ~aq~ualcl moy a ~ 'oo!s~anollo: s!lsaluop jo po!lad s!ql Su!lnp s! 11 .s.il:p amj e ~ o1!s!.5 j 01 .SI!.A!I~C u! 11111 a111 jo ~SCI~ILMPC aqel saSsll!,\ . ~ a q ~ ~11o.y o sa,\!la[al u a q ~ aur!] a111 oslw! 11 , ~ U W U ~ I U ! ~ a I Iw I o ~jl o s q s a 01 ple,ell! uJnl p u ~ c : a d ~ s s l x .il/!tl l~[ arli -la.\o 1)a1qt1!1ds'samoq l!aql olil! .\\elpql!.\\ sa!y!ml:s .slauul;q:, pallg -1inu1 01n! ~11111 syied pul! 'a~1n10,\ LI! 11a.\xs S U I C ~ J ~ pill: S s.~a.$!~ ![[~:JLI!~.I ~ n a ~ s ! s ~pul: a r l ~cltlSs.1 x o o r 01 Lt:.s an$ sm.101z liolmns jo anodu.uop .\'.\sag 'ja!.~qa111sc i a l ~ o q aurosaq s sIicp a q .[[!IS[I~ICIS ~ [1:1111!,\e 01 ac11us II.l\02 j0 1211I2s 2111 II! S[Nlj!J s!lqnd pUl! 'pCU[q~o.\\ Jill II! L10!1Sll[15.1 5!111111 -c.rl) c s! a.1a111 ' J ~ I I I L I ~jIo~ L]IUOIII ~S aqi ~UIIO.I\J 'puel jo sll!.lls alelad -11121 s , , < ~ [ [ L Jql \ ll! ISanlCI[ 101 ip62l S! 11105 5111 UJlp\\ 'l~nsll\i J0 [I115 2111 I!lUIl s ~ w " ~ I ( I u s s ~ ~ 13q10 J ~ ~ ql!.\\ 1 ~ 1 [ 1 ~S~!pa5.\\ ~0l J O S1101SS5S S J l I [ l l o o . ~ 11.71[1 l '.(1:5y LI! SLI!CI [enouc alp j o ~cd!1.rsat[] alojac[ .?u!.\\os 'sp[ag all1 u! uo!1cla9sn :(ox JU u m q puc yrals a q ~ IS^ : ~ ~ o j~j s o J~ L ~u I Su!~!nb -al sqsu ~IC.II~I[IIS!.ISC 1[1!,$\ Ipally . ( I u ! ~ ~ q u au1!1 '~sn%n\: 01 p l d y 111o.y '['.'c.elay\i .u!rfi~!!lun!i~ a1[l 01 Su!Suopq s1a[me1[lualajj!p ail1 jo S I L I C I ! ( ~ ~ ~ -LI! a111~aqiaSol Su!~q lcql sa5ucqsxa jo S I ' U ! ~ [ [ w o j aSus ,i;u!qlsnq 3111 al~ro~a Sg I J ~ J C U I'a[!g'\iumjp\' .asold a7m-(snauq j o iu!cs I I O J I I ! ~a[[]) UEII~LIES ' I J I S S "'~c,+!u~s> ~ 'ss~~~~s!~y>-leplta IL!!IrolllalJs [~?> 2111 u! SIC.\ -!~sajs![qnd luel~odurr lso~u a q 'i(c1,y ~ [!lun uaql ruqq saaueiu~oj.~stl pus suo!~e~erla.~d uaa.\rlag .palelluasuoJ s! slalu~eq [cd!au!~da g u! ~ L~!.r!lsc lm~!!.' xlqnd jo Xl!io(om aql q~!qn\u! a [ s i ( ~ [muur a q ~ u! po!~a<I a111jo 31r!1ru!Baq aq] s q ~ o w q~!qn\c ~ a q l l ~ a Ja110 a a s 1 1 ~ u cu! 3 Su!.r!l ocSag I .oo!ssasqo ue OIU! ,\\a19 ~ 1 1 1 ~ luanbasqlls 0 ~ 1 111 qJ!qn\ 'asaql lnoqe S~!so!ln~ an11 I: d&]a.\aI) 0 1 IICS -aq [ '[nos a111 ju S,OJ!A uo Su!~caqaluos ~ , \ B 01 I [ [ I ~ L L ~ IEL[I J ~ S s~uap!xI! sno!.lc.\B1r!p.roSa~s1uam5c.1~ prrc 's[!c~ap 'sloa.\a . ( J ~ I I I I S 111otlusllo!les.ra.\
~sa!l,j arp pue IenSer 241 01

12

The Jaguaiand the Pricrt

Introduction

13

that tiley know Sew narratives. 111 virtually a11 cases, they give a similar reason: "we are only concerned wit11 clay-to-day activities, ~ r i r h xvith survi\fal; f u r t h e r ~ n o r e unlike , the 'Castilians,' n.e have n o writing system and llarc been u > ~ ; ~ b to l erecord anything t l t ; ~ tl~:tpl,cned in t h e lmst." I n r t c d , the i-cplics to m:~nynf my queries referred vaguely but insistently l o soul elements and the world surrounding theni: medical knowledge, curing rituals, dream interpretation, exploration of personal char- , acter, testing for l~hysicalpeculiarities, anrl other cl~lturaltechr~iqnes that will make their appearance in what follo\vs. O f t e n the answer to my ql~estiops took t h e forrn of tlle recitation of a fragment or a s h ; ~ m a n i c healiog prayer or the rccoonting of some happening (an event that happened tu su,neonc or LO onesel0 in whieh "somctlling" nbnormnl plnyerl a role. Indeed, souls al,sorl~ $1 good d~.alof the Tzeltal curiosity, restlessness, and reflection. Undoubtedl!: there are n ~ a n y social and persort:~lrelationships at stake whose threads openly or surreptitiously interneare this tnowle~lge,rtiaking i t a subject of intense attrlction. Yet for that very reason, it is not a n easy topic to address. Hon'eser sure-footedly the s l ~ a m a n smay bq believed to opcratc u , i ~ l l i n it, it docs not constitnte a strictly esoterie l ~ o d p of knon.ledge. Rather, it is a sort of public sccreL, sharcd collcceivcly; everyone kno\vs it, a n d knows that ereryolle else 1i11o\vsit, yet they all nllrst act as if they d o not. T b e utmost discretion is rcqllirecl \vl1e11 tackling these matters, and it must be (lone indi, rectly ;ar~d i~i~plicicly. In fact, whenever there is talk of souls, t b c entire rich repertoire of b ram ma tical particles and rhetorical resources \\.it11 \vl~icll tlle Tzeltal l : ~ n g u a g can soften a statement's force o r a question's e ~ :I l vnaueness violence springs into nction. T h i s !nay Ibe c l ~ ; ~ m e t e r i z :IS (11:1r is e n l ~ a n c e dby T~eltal'spolysemousnrss ;~nrlful-thcl. co~nl,licatcd I>!- the itativcs' regul;~ruse of e u p l ~ e m i s ~ n to s denote t h e ditlerent soul

'

CICIIICII~S. 'I'llere is, of course, no canonical body o f Tzelt;~l knotrlcrlge that (lchncc a.hat :I soul is. For this reason, my inquiry l:~ckedany p ~ ~ c i s e n~etltod. As the kind of ethnographic testimony that I adduce in these 11qes \si!l sl~o\v, what I111n11agedto learn is tbe result of inany inforninl cllats that normally took place under perfectly ordinary circumstances, pttssevi~~ an g attimde, so'to speak, of "going with t h e flow." I :~lso believe that the nature o f kno\vledgr a b o u ~souls l l ; ~ tingccl ~ ihc oreroll tone of this study, which explai~ts why its sclic~neis not aholly articuIxrcd anrl a h y not a l l the rlnts :>re developed in narmri5.e f o r n ~ Akin . to
I

\vhat t h e Tzeltal find interesting in a person, a.11at I d o is not so inuch snpl,ly :I hnished profile (:lit individunl), but to u ~ ~ d e r s c o r pieccs e th:lt may b e coml,ared with other fragments and to sketch points o f agreemeut and analogy. Nevertheless, I was ablc to pursue a more systematic exploration of the held of soul clements by means of rlulnerous recorded one-on-one talks with three people: S u n P'in, A l o ~ l s o K'aal, : ~ n d Lorcnzo Lot. O n the one hand, this procedure not only g;lve me deeper insight but also allo$ve<lrnc to idcntify ~ v h a t ,night bc callcd 2 l o a ~ e r common t dcnominalor o f basic concepts. T h i s server1 as a kind of sieve for capturing and sifting c l ~ r a u g the l ~ [,its of data that I had been recording and that other\vise \vould have finally come to rest in that limbo o f ethnogmphic data n.it11 n o fised abode. T h i s is the minimal framework I abide by ill t h e I . . follo~vi~ ch:lpter ~g 011 cthnogmphic descript~on. On the other Ihnnd, ns I n.as a stranger to t h e net\rork of local interpersortal r e l a t i o ~ ~ and s ignorant of thc propcr way to broach these for us to discuss souls inore freely. As it matters, it seemed pcr~nissible l ~ a l ~ p c nthe s , three individuals mcntionccl :~l>ove \stere not i n f o r ~ n a n t s in the conventional sense of t h e term. T l ~ intcrriecvs-usually c conducted in their homes, in private, and with n lot of time o n o u r hands-becatrle r;,re opportonities for us to talk, to open up, to ponder a cultural clonlain about which they felt genuine curiosit): but a~hicli they rvoulcl have l,eeu u ~ l a b l e t o deal with explicitly under any otltcr circumsr~ncch. T h e olltcolne wns a series of single-sol~ject conversations that CI-catecl, to :I certain cstenr, a novel result. T h c r e is no nccd, t l ~ c n to , insist tlrnt the elctrlc~llals c h e ~ n e that 1 follo\\~ in the nest c l ~ a l ~ r does e r not exist as such. I t is, rather, n virtual script, n cornpromire solution b e t a w n , on the alle l~ancl, my need to find sufficiently firm ground a] n ~ a i n t : ~ i:In level oll~ndcrstandinp,and on the other, \\:hot the three peol,lc with \ r h o n ~ I sustai~le<l discussions were prepared, to differing degrees, to sncrilice for the sake of si~nplificntion.TVithout tlleir I~ighly ra1u:lhle collaboratior~, I n.oulrl 11are heen unable to carry out an etl~nography ofsouls; needless to sa!; I :In1 fully resl~onsiblefar clle resultir~g ecl~r~oi.rapl~),. S u n P'in, t h e shaman (cb'nBiQunr) I worked with, was over lift? ye;lrs old. As :I young man, he had lived for a year o r tcvo in ;In Institute XIcional Indigcnisra hoanling school for Indians in San Cristbl~alcle 11s C ; ~ s a (the s main Spanish-speaking city in the Chiapns highlands region, <inyliilo~neters fro111Cancuc :IS t l ~ crow c flies, ; I I I ~about a nine-hour xalk from there), \vhere he picked up a smattering o f Spanish and also n ~ r ~ ~ a g apparc~ltl!: ed. to learu to read. I-Ie r e ~ n e ~ n b e r e11aving d once

14

The Jaeuar and thc Pricrt

Introduction

15

I I ~ ~ taken II to Snlina Cruz, in t h e rrei;hboring state of Oasaca, so that 11e ~ i i i g h see t the oce:ln, although he was most inipressed I)!; tlie railway there.'C)nce back i n Cancuc, he held some political post until, clue LO :I liout of i.~etio~ral infighting r11:it lie preferred ]rot to discuss (at one point, he was evcn jailed i l l Ouusingo), he had to renounce his aspirations. Sonle years later, and after several crises, including separations fro111 trr-o a-ivcs, hc had a drear11 during the illness of one of liis d:lugliters :lnrl tlius discovered that his true vocation mas to lbe a shawith a n man. I I i s formcr contact with the Alesican rrorlrl imhued l i i ~ n aura of ecce~itricity(further enhanced 11). 111yclose c o l l a b o m t i o ~cri~li ~ him) that lie himself cultivated v i t h care, for esa~nple,in the way lie dressed: he \rare t h e traditional Indian knee-length wllite cotton tunic, c ~ ~ i b r o i ~ l e rn-itli e ( l red wool ynrn, h u t o n top h e used to sport 2 tlirea(lbare wlist-length jacket; also, unlike most men in the conimunit?. he f:tlr-ore<lI : inustfiche 2nd beard. H e was a taciturn cllaracter, and s l ~ e n t n l ~ n o s all t liis tinie in lleali~igacrivities, for rvhicll liis patients payed liirn with corn, money, 01. labor. H e died in 1997. T h e second person is Alonso Kaal. I-Ie must have been some~vliere between fotty or lift): and lie possessed the title kczmilro, \r.liicli is to sax cnl,ilifo, o r head elder, a rank reserved for those ~ v l i o have carried out a ce'tmin series of religious offices, above all tbat of srq.o~.do~no to one of the saints in Canc~rc'schurch, and other posts of a llolitic:ll-ccrcnionial c h a r a c r ~ r Like . Xun P'in, lie, too, rvas "master of his l~ouse," for, in aecnrdancc with the ideal norm, lie lived in tlre same reside~rtialcolnples as his male offspring, their wives, and children. T h i s liigli status a l l o ~ ~ ~ e r l hi111 to talk to me about souls\vithout too ~ n u c h fear. He, too, had gro\rri, altliough ~vitlisollie diflicult): a bit of a mustache and be:rrrl. Over his \vhirc eortonr tunic, he sometimes wore a long black woollen jackct, a garment regarded as an exclusive p r e r o g ~ t i v e ofprincrj,nlcs (community lei~dcrs)like l ~ i i ~ r s eI-Ie l t llad never been to rclluol innd, \\.I1cn sober, rlid not speak :I worrl of Spanish. l'hc thin1 [person, n v s L u ~ r r r z aL o t . IloughIy thirty yenrs old, Ile lir,ed iri liis 11arents' honie ii.itli his wife and four cliildren. For ell l]r:~crical ~ l l r ] ~ o s elit s , llad iiefcr occllpicd ally post, aport from a minor role in t h e celebration o f Carnival, and another of quite a different kind in :I I I ~ W Iloncy procluccrs' cool)cratisc. At that tinw, h e ns:>s intilling over the possibility of affiliating himself wit11 t h e Catholics or a-it11 one of the ex~ngclicnlgroups that 111d begun to spring n p in t h e Cancue 1J:illey some decades earlier. T h a t \soulrl liave saved I i i i ~ lfro111 Ilavi~igto continue to mke p a r t in the liestas around Carnival and tlle collateral

liquor intoxicarioll. H e had completed liis p r i ~ n a r yschool studies in Cancuc and s l ~ o k e and wrote a little Spanish. From my very first ~ n o n t h s in Cancuc, he was my Tzeltal teacher in exchange for writing lessons in Spa11ish. Unlike P'in or ICaal, Loretlzo Lot had scarcely any autllorit), wit11 n,hich to speak of souls. I rememher liir~iglancing ~iervously around us from tinie to time, afraid that solneone or soniething might Ihe listening to o u r conversation; yet he was one of tlie peojlle with whom I could speak most freely about that world, due in ],art to t h e fact that, from early on, I felt conifdrta~lle wlien raising Illy personal douhts and eonjcetures ovcr method u.it11 1ri111.O n e of llis niajor collcriburions in:!). be c o ~ ~ s i d e r cthe d vcry form in which o u r cooversations developed. For t h e t r u t h is that conventional forms of Tzelral co~lr~crsation arc s r ~ ~ o r[Ire i g princi[ial i~irpedinients for all outsider to utiderst;in~l[lie dom:iin of souls and self. Karely are such opinions cx11l-rsscd in tcrms o f opposition, :lnd there is no sueli thing as a discussion constructed o n the basis of linked, ~ n u t u a l l y opposing a r ~ u ~ n c ~ r t s - n o t l l i n t gl ~ a lhears t nny resem1)lancc to any kind of dialectic a r g o ~ n e n t Typically, . it is t h e persorr wit11 tlie most authority ~ I I docs O most of the speaking and answerothers present largely take turns backing up tlie opinion ing, ~aliiler l ~ e cxlxessed, at most adding a finishing touch or some interesting detail, even t h o u g l ~ t h e corroborating evidence occasionally seems t o Ile saying quite tlie corirr:~r-y. Mucli to my d c s p i r , nly questions n l m o t riever received ;I straight answer, a difficulty that also plagued my conversations \ritll S u n P'in and Alonso ICnal. More ofccn rhan not, I was regaled with a longnecount o f s o ~ i i e event, described in ininute detail, at the elid I of which I was left baffled as to i r ~ rel~varice to my initial question. (It t u r n s o u t these stories of events usually d o contain s ~ n a ldetails l that opcrate :IS c111es; b t ~ for t anyone with difficulties in understandi~lg Tzeltal and ignora~rr of its idionlatic resources, finding them is like looking for a neerlle in n haystack.) In contrast, Lorenzo L o t had learned to sustai~i an "accumulative convcrsation," and he always made a great effort to cl:il,or:~re o n \vli:~th e was explaining to me.

The Town of Cancuc

Caiicnc is :I municipality o r local adrninistratirc district \\,it11 roughly ??,000 inhabitants (in 1990), all speakers of Tzcltnl Mayan, a language tliat at [Kcsent has nround 350,000 spe;ikers tlirougliout tlie rcgiur~.It is, conseq~~cntly, a n Indian community (there is no Spanish-speaking

-~aqio~upue JISUIS ~ S auo,,) /!IILUNL-/!II.~ 3 1 11tt/aq1 apnlau! s l p n ~sss3-1 .OI sSoo[aq aq aScao![ qa!r[n\ all!ls isnm .~aqexls aql u ~ g " '111" c cro auoamos o1u! Su!d1nnq dla~aor j! u a ~ a ~ a s ~ ~ c ~ ~ o d ~ ~ ! dlcu!p~oc~~ jo r as! d l ~ a d o ~s ra l q~o qJca Su!iaa~Sr ~ s c ~ u[ ~ u .1s'ala1cI o ~ I Xul: lapun d [ [ e u ~ ~ o j u 10 ! d[[cruloj1laaor uana dnwY q ~ c jao S J ~ L L I ~ L 9111 LI 01) 10" 'suo!1cS!1qo l c n ~ ~ i leaq t u l o u o u ~ m o su! 1111e1 11.~~0 IOU op d s q ~ .suel~ Ira1 l o ang jo slaqmaur aq Xluo ?;om a1aql 'slalmoq isallculs a111 o! 'lana.\\oq !1aluas lod!a!onm a q ~ II! p a ~ u a s a ~ d [ Ia C~ a.1~ suela aql pu1: 'saSeau!l aa.rql 11': j o s ~ a q u r a ~ seq u 1a1111c11 qaca : ~ ~ O I ! J J ~ I pa1!~1!1 s! ~rc[s .loll aSca11![ ~ a q l ! a.s1!1111 ~ ~ I C . I O ~ . I O JIOU ~ . I Cas all^. ~(Sa~~as111a1~1 5uoo1c d!qsuo!~c[a~ [ e a o ~ d ! a alcnba ~ ue .(olua o q n ~ ,,'salsun,, c,/otm4r se slaqmaul SI! put) ,,dno~S,, '@r,rl., se u.+\ouq dldrn!s s! ]!on u c [ ~ a111 puc '(pd/u,r!firr 10 /uwadl,~/~ pa[[c~ ase slaqma1u SI! puc) ,,qaunq e u ~ . ~1cq1 oj sdnolS,, cJlu~/~-/ud-dh~~l~ s! 1as11sqc a q ~ u! l!un a3eauq a q ~ saloua~'I I : ~ I p1o.u [ u l a q , JlIL '515 L t ~ !'/?I/ , ~ 'IIIOSO 'l0.0~ 'aldmnsa ~ o'ucla j lag1 rl! uu!p -UI 1 '3 " JO 3UleUlnS 5 1 1 1 S! l[J!l[A\ ' ~ 1 1 1 6P ~ SCq UelJ 1laC7J ;74l11 f < pUl: 'tl3lJq1 05 '14yij 1s : c , ~ ~.~noj-dlau!~r ~ ~ [ ~ , , OICI! pap!~!pqnsa~n[~!q.+\,.yfi~/l 1111",/1115q1 !qyfi p a ~ ~ r ~ ! ~ r - ~ , s a ! ~10 ~ c'saSca11!1 ~ ~ ~ d , , I B ~ I I ! I ! J I C ~snour~!So~a ~ lo[clcl aalql olu! pa[)!a!p alc solanbna~re3 2 1 1 '(0861 ~ [11xI-[ !696[ slla.3 -!s !L+(,[ sua1!n3) ad,(] cqcu10 a111jo s! ~ u a ~ sd!qsu!q is Jnsut:D a1(.[.

'alels aql j o q l ~ o u at11 01 spuelmol aql u! l o 1sco3 s y p c d aql Suolc s u o ! ~ -clucl[l [I:!~IXULLIOJ a111j o salelsa a111LIO s l a ~ o q SF e~ q10.ji o? p a x o j ss.zlas -~uagi 11unoj "EL[ so~anbnsuc.31antaj l c j 's0s,j[ a111 a ~ u ! s1cr11 luesur scg ~J!LI"\'~1:adu slsan1cq u l o ~ 0.w u!elqo 01 a3cuem d a q ~ alaq.\\ :ia[(cn a111 j o SJLIOZ 1ap1!1~1 3 1 1 1 U! dlll:!~adsa 'a[!]laj S! J I I J U P . ~ jo 1!0s 5 1 1 ~ soj ,(auoq ssnpold os[c ss!l!urq a ~ u .Isanlcq o ~ aql dn dnq puu ' ~ s u c ~ s ! s s leJ!orlJal e auros pue s~uc[cI SunoS a q ap!nosd ~ qs!q.,\ 'sa!aua3l: 1uamu~ano8 ueJ!salq j o dlag agl q~!.us a p c ~ a p aalql .(~L@?IIo.I ~ o u.\\o.rY j uaaq so11 a q j 0 3 .saa.11 i!nlj pue 'S!d l e u o ! s c ~ ~uc o 's.iaq~m pue suaq a.rc a ~ a r l l sasnoll a111 p u n o l y .iuoo[ d e ~ l s q ~ c aql q uo SLI!~IO[J a,\ca.\\ 01 LIOIIOJ atoos p u t ' ~ e S n spaqoos a s n p o ~ d01 a u e ~ ~ c S sill![ ns c LII!.\\ S L I O ' ~s Cq u q ~ a a111 ~!~ 110 u , ~ o . I S ale s ~ a d d a d la j o s p y q lua.rajj!l> 'luauraldmo~ c s\; 1!aq1 jo a [ d c ~ a111 s ~ o l o 01 j sdc.\\ j o apni!l[nm I: ~ r ! pau!qmos pue pascda~d ale qa!qn\ 'sucaq puu UJOJ jo ~ s a . \ . ~ c s q ~ j j .~ca:( o a101[.\i agi l o j a,\!] ~ s n m d a q 'puelqsn~q ~ j o ]old I: Su!n\os puc B u ! ~ c a [ ~ j o u~a~s:(s u~nq-puc-qsc[s [euo!l!pex a q Su!sn ~ sues1 put: UJOJ a \ o ~ S sa![ -!mcj ~~E':(Jc[cs IU~UIUJ~A ues!xajq OS r: 5n!5551 OT[A\ slaq~ca lenSu!l!q ~ jo .raqu~nlr [lams a q tuolj ~ 11cd\r w o ! ~ e d n ~ ~ o j aall1 !i[~ s! Su!.r\o~S clo.13

.so!mo~!a Xl1so111 'au!a!psul 1aq11, I ~ L I L : U!J!~SC 11111: !L~~~:J.IJ pueq !S~U!.IO pa111oq !S~!.I~IIC(I !slgS!l~lse~ !s[o(>I [EIXU .IX[IOI'UCS~IJI/IUIII !SJI[)J~ !U SU!~IO 31UlOJ3[> ~ 01 LIJL:.~ L I ~ [ O O~ .~ I I C 'pcasq~palolos '1r0110~ jo su!aqs a ~ alarll c plos osly 'aajjoJ .([~I:UO!SW~J" pur: c ! [ ~ ~ 'L [J ~I ~ I I O Sncl ~ og.+\ ' s l a ~ p p ~ Su!qeads-qs!urrls d X q plos sa[ql:ls -$an pug qsy pallcs 10 !(sassed Xc.uqS!q e cIJ!qm qSnolq1) s u q s s o m o ~ j soe!po[ .iq plos s l ~ n p o ~ 1u!llsnpcr! d !edc!aua~ oroy sl[ael ,sa!po[ 's!luo~![y ~ n osluaurlinsu! ~j lea!mtu ' o S u o u a ~ 1uoy .(.~allodsc qans 'ru.+\ol (!zloz.~ 11~1: lellaz~ ,(c~s~!s<r .1aq1o uroy suc!pu~.(q pros smal! apcu~pucqalxil" -u! asaqL . p u n o ~ S aql uo ]no p!ol ale spooS a1aq.a p~a!j c u! qaa.\\ L ! asuo [ ~ l a q ' I ~ ~ J Nl!e-uado U a111 II! ~ q S n o qale s[c!lrrassa ~ a q a ~go L .suo!~l:lue[d puc ru>tujuo s~aloqcl lcuoseas se q s o . ~ 3x1s 01 ucqi J ~ L [ I C .q11ou I ~ a q l . ~s ep j u q ~ J ' ILI! I a,$![ 01 sa![!1111:j q a q l a,toul UI laja~d so.ranbn>rn:~ ~ I I I - ~ I ~ S I qs!ualda~ ! 01 a111!1 ,\\o[luj :J"IIII~~IX! s.+i:q IOU ssop qsn1q Bu!u.~nq 111oy Su!~jnsa.~ saqm aql dq psz![!l.~ajpoc Sir! -,nos ~ o paleap j ~saloa j q~ ssrl~aaqX[ISOIII-spuel I I ~ C [ ! C A 110 C aaucaS - u ~ . i: \ q]!.n ~ [ aj [ ja s ~ ! SII!~CIU s! uo!lelndod u! as!^ d ~ o q at[] s us^[.\\ 'nwu us.i7~.spul:l 1a.rood g~!.ti sa!l!lcd!~!unm Su!~oqqS!au1uoy sul:!pu~sq![un

'1aluaJ s q 111o.q ~ q[l:a\ lno1[-au!11 I ! S! XI0 I S J I [ I l C j 3113 !8[6[ 5JU!S P51[S![(lElS3 ii[~l:11~1l!l~ Ji\BI] 111:lll III!S uioy s ~ u c . ~ S ! ~mql u a s ~ a l m c qo n ~ ~ , i ~ s ! sl!qeqo! ~[l' oo!~elndod s,s11sue3 jo la[>u!ums a q ~ .sadols . puno~S a111 a.raclm sasc.11s1 le!zg!llc uo l[!nq 's~uu~!clc~lu! I>UI:S~OL[I any s,rl!qsunto~at11j o samoq a l p ale ' , ~ [ I I !ha.\ ~I pa~al~cs puc s 'czc[d S ! ~ I p u o k ~ 8'sSu!p[!nq J.\!ILXIS!U!UIIIK I I I U I J U ~ U I ! ssal s a q ~ o pcre ' q s ~ n q ar[l ~ a~!soddo[[eq UAYOI ~ u u a ~ ~ u . ~ a a111 , \ o' iSI ~ . r n q ~ st11 dq pamcy a ~ o n b s c jo pasodluo~ s! I! 'da1[en aloqa, a111 j o .us!.\ I: s l y -jo ~ e gY!q q ~ slalalu 005'1 ~ J O I U O W O l ~ ~ ~ c uo ~ Ipapunofl ~ . l (~~ ~ ~~ ~ t ~ ca qluaa~x!sat11 u! sle!y u o ~ ! u ! u r o ~ X q p a ~ c S a l S u oan,!$ ~ ucaqsloj ,so1 -aribnsu1:3 all] alaq*, d!rlsu.uol ,tue!ls!lqg,, a q 01 ~ all luels!p c pue .(I! -~~d!~!11lllll 2111 101 131U55 ~.\!IClIS!U!UIPI?]FSOI 3111 S! 511511C3 l l ~ l l ~ l l ~ ~ 'U!cUlal [[!IS IS510J [~7!d011 j0 ~51131~d JlllUS 'uo!lalsa~ojap an!sualu! a~!dsap'asall,\\ 'slalam 00') I E . I ~ . \ l! ~ a a ~ ~ a111 uc~ p~rc u~olloq ,(a[[ca at11 01 ' s ~ a ~ a u 0 r 0 ~01 ' sas!~ ~ ICI[I tsqeo 11111: sau!d LII!.+\ pa.rano7 ,,'pol:[ p l o ~ ,j,o d!.rls a111 u ~ o q Su!Suc~ 'apn~!l[c o! sasualsjj!p So!saSSc~s L~I!A\ ' s ~ a ~ s l u o ~21 ! q dq slalampl!? 81 'ca11: 11aclorc.r~I: s! 11 .p[1u1~1 sun1 1cq1 d a [ ( c mcl~ouc ~ j o sadols aql pue '~san\-~sca So!~ruo~ '.<al[c,\(Iaa[i 'Sue[ e j o i s e n r s a s s o . ~ XJOI!JJ~I ~ s11 .spleprlcls s[~ue[qS!q scrlc!q3 .iq lia.\a : ( [ [ c ~ o ~ [a,\!lvalasuos n~ dp7u!paa~sa pu1! (rro!~c[ndod
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The Ethnography of Souls 23

CHAPTER 2

The Ethnography of Souls

\\i. slioitld start \\-it11 a discussion of certain basic tcrms. In Cancuc, n ~xrson is composed of n body (Lk'etnf), made up of flesh and lbl~)o(l, and a gro~111 of "souls0 (cb'r~lcl;plural cI~'111elrik)residing \vitliin the Ilenrt of each incli;.idual. T h e term rorrl is nsed here for the sake of convcnlence. T l t e co~i\~cntional translation of the \vord's root (cb'111) in both l i c l t n l and Tzotzil is "lioly" o r "sacred." I-Io\vever, in a strict sense, cl~'111 (letlotes a thing's radical "other." T h u s , it is a purely relati\.e concelIt, and ~vlicn applied to the notion of personhood, rbklcl may be defined as "tlie hotly's othcr." T h i s "ho<i!.'s othel-" (<b'~ilr.l) is, in t u r n , composed of tllrcc classcs of beings. T h e first is a tiny bird, often referred to as the "I11rd of tlie 1-Ieart." T h e second cb'111elis a being usually called 6~l.r'ilcb't1/e/, the "genuine cb'11lr.1," to distinguish it from the more inclusi\.e term. Finally, the third sort of soill is called the 1/16, n comples of m;iny kinds of beings.

The Bird of O u r Heart In tlie l ~ c a r tof each person nests n nrlitil o'mn, literally "bird-1ie:irr" (more often than not, thc plum1 form is used: muril ko'tnarik, "the bird in o u r hearts"). It is a tiny creature that is usually imagined 3s 3 he11 in yolllen 2nd R rooster in men, like the ones bred and catcn in lhomes. O n ' some occasions, it \\>as describkd to n i t as a pigeon @~Io'~,,,I-~I~II~), and once as a grackle (m~rite). T h i s bird is regarded as absolutely essential to life and cannot and must not leave the hcarr, bccausc once it does, the body in~mediately falls ill 2nd dies soon after.' Nc\~erthelcss,it is a highly prizcd trophy for n certain type of Ilc-

ing (the pile, :I species of In/,, i i ~ other \r.ords, another soul entity for lxople of Cancuc, as nre sllall see later), which cotitri\~est o e s t r l c t the tlie bird end car it up. T h e people offered the most gmphic descriptiolts of the 1,dlc and sometimes rcpeated thcln a l n ~ o s t word for word. T h e e lheings sing o r whistle a tune near their victim, and the Bird of the Heart, captivated by the song, escal~esthrough the oictirn's mouth or, in other versions, through tllc crown of tlie head. Once outside the I~od!; it is t r a l ~ p e d by a demon, who tosses it into tlie air four times until it beco~ncstlie normal size of a lien o r a rooster. I4iding it beneath his clothes, he nlnkes offmith it t o the lair he shares with his fello\v beings, in the depths of the forest or in some cave, \\,here rhey make preltmarions t o cook it. T h e r e are tables and chairs there. T h e n , it1 some ver.~luck the bin1 and place it in a metal pot with boiling water, sions, t l ~ e jI serving it on a plate \\.lien cooked. In other versions, water from a porccl:lin bowl is sprinkled directly on the bird. Up to rlint nloment, the person fro111\\*horn thc bird has been taken is not yet dead, nlthougli 11). then lie is \.cry i l l :tnd feels intense pain in his chest, and "lie feels that he is going to die soon, grows sad, begins t o birl faren~ell t o his wife : I I I ~ children." !\t the \.cry moment the demons in the care add salt t o the hird, the person passes away. Even for the best s h a ~ n a nit , is very hard t o recover the stolen Bird of the Ileart, in part hecause thcy harely have time t o act, in part bccausc the pilc usually reject real birds fro111 the yard offered in exchange. For some unknown reason, they prefer to eat the Bird of the Heart. T h e victinl inlay only save hirnself if h e has n Inb capable of defeating the pile and returning the bird to him; even then, i r is 2 difficult process. In those rare cases (usually coinciding with sud(le11, rnl~idl!, debilitaring illnesses o r mortal blows) in \vhich the shaman di:tgnoses "loss of bird," thc prognosis is nlmost always death. Apart from being an i n d i ~ ~ e n s n b life l e spirit, the Bird of t l ~ e Heart docs not seem to be atrributed any other direct role in each individual's cll:lmcter, sensibility, o r conscience. T h e creature responsible for thc hearr's palpitations is jumpy and skittish, and rrlien confronted with danger or bodily exertior~,bcconies agitated and flutters. Outside the body, it is co~npletely defenseless. T h e body is born with it, 11ut no one kno1r.s \vliere it !night come from. M'l~en the body perishes, t l ~ e hird is release(1 into the \varld, where it \\,ill end u p being de\wured 11y demons o r sotile wild animal. O n e event concerning the Bin1 of the I-Ieart (tlie only one that I heard about) \\,as tolrl to me hy Alonso K'anl, \vl~ose mother told him the

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.palca.!l s! u!c11111ou1 2111 u! [nos SI! nioq 110 puadap [I!." p[~o,t\ ,(JI:LI![I -10 aql u! [I[!L[s a111 j o q1[1:a11 at11 'uo uagi 111o.1.3 'u.1011 s! p l ! q ~ at["!!] -un icaddc ~ o [l!ni u 1allc[ a111 l n g '/utl!!"/-' a q ~ u! sll!l:aIa.r raqloul: put In!al[ a111 111 s d e ~ s [nos a q j~ o oo!s~an a u o 'r(por1 s,slllaj a111 11! saYpol IIUC (11110.\1 11!111~11!111 2111 S S I C ~ I S ~ I!~ 'SlSl[l S~ 33110 '5S!.\iY30[3 ~11!11!10.1 ' p ~ a L[lUaa1!ql [ SI! 'llal\~al[ II! iu!od lsa1@!1[ a q l lllolj l[l.lca UI s p i l s ~ s a p IllOS /2//lcqJ 2111 Il!L[I [l!CS S! I! 'pa11.1531103 S! 1 3 ~ d 1SJg ~ e 3111 Sl! .lCJ SY .wnoJ pue p u n o s aSvau![ ,s[~ios a l p OS(C S! I! put: 'O~S!C.I ~ J J~I:JLI!I C q ~ c jo a UJI~~!I[ agi S jo slnos a g ~ a ~u ~ a ~~ ~ cpS ~ i a p ie r !s! q 11 no [ ~ u c l o!1:1 s -nnoiu ~ L I jo I a.lnIl:u a111j o s ~ ~ a d so,%\r l ! i/u,/!!.~l~ "'1"~" UU!K~JJ~ ,Cue " [ 111

sura[qo.rd anlor oq.>\ a s o q ~ salnds!p anlos 01p1 asoql jo all! JlJL(1 101 C lcl[i\l I sa!porl inor( aIoJxl S231!j 11104( &ojal[ SlaqXJ [I'JllIJJlS2 S151\10111 ~1alllJJlSJ au!L["aJj 1110i YO!~CLII ao!qs saia ~ n o A Yu!yem [ ~ . r ! l J e .iaq~ iem] "!I![ IlJISCS 0.Ul sIa.hokl [ ~ J I S I : ~ . + ~ suoaS!d al!q.a scrag al! i1.v srrsq o . ( ~ ~ r r1 ~s sSSa o.r\~ puas 1 1 pIont q q u m q Sru g~!,na u ~ o 1 s
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. . . '(oq a["![ ILL"!<^ ,no,< [I$ JIU![ lpa~adu~cd 1no.i q ~ ! snod aqcm ss!rl ~ ! L 121 I 1,11011 q ~ ! sno,< J ~ I : L L I "!LI la1 i p o p a[lOCIC ll!~182111 U! asnor{ 1l:aLi aql u! .i[[nja~m JIII!LI ,(JICJ lqs!1 Ll'!L[ plOL[ lu!g paj-~s~a.."~ no.( a3110 m!q ~ ~ a [ q nor( ~ n a3110 s Loq a["![ p a ~ a c I u ~ : ino,( d [1!3 aim1 ~ ~ a ~ ~ c l nu.< urcd SpUl!q 1n0z( 101 lj!Y .<Ul l d ~ 3 J ~ laaj nod ~ o1j!2 j ,(111 1rlam1: malp 1da331: 01~ o no,< u qsc I sy!S no,< aa!S 01 [>asscdiaq1 S I J ~ L L I I : ~ p10 [ J a111 u! "1 no,< suioo~ plo aql u! >,,!I no,( isl"ap!s"l~l-1a1~1cj! i~~n~[~!sa~~l-~a~[~u~u! passcrl scq .re![ at11 aqr(c~u passed sell 1ssnJac a111a11Scnr [~onb![ jo] a111oq 1: I J C J L ~1noA r(js!lcs [[!A\ "!'[I ISI!L[I 1noS q ~ u a n b I[!." y ! g ~ dno~S ,.&I aqr jo .IJ~II!J II.~LCUJI aScau![ ,.rl!r/J a q jo ~ mqloor v.ta.(e,>r apoqc ICJJS a111 u! (In pau![ aIc nod asnoq lea18 all1 U! d[~alI.lo aIc nod

umop lpaq2h.\\ 2.11: .(aq~m y . \ \ paJ~J~lL1J aI8 , ( J ~ 5151~.11 I SIJISZUII~~( 2111 (!lun SlJP[J 3111 [!lull /vq!yo.y dul:ur .xoq ,I,/!', '/-' du C Ul '\101[ qlJCJ-Sgl-UO-SJ"0~ d u ~ l l .1101[ l , ~1001s .\\ol[~.i ql!.rt s~!eg .%tol[aA ~ q~!.r\ sSop p a ~ r o ~ - . n o l [ 1[1!.\1 ai SUaqJ!l[J ~ 1 ~ ~ 1 [ 1 ~ j - . \ \ 0 [ [ ~ ~ ' 1 ~ 1 ! ~ \ ~ s a g ~ u a 1l:a~S c ~ 1no.i o o 5[!1SI!3 1110q s ~ ! e 111o;i q ~ 110 [,,~~zr,rqm,, qs!~rl:ds 'm~.ru,;..r~~) slools 11loi110 [,i~,//!,r,, q"uddg: 'I)/!?] s ~ ! c q sno;< 110 apoqu1ca1S u! aSlloL[ 1ca1S U! s ~ a q l e[1a12es j s,aq1ou1 PJlJCS a l e no.( J O [[I!JlJl[.$\ l ~ a ~ a q ua : 2n n o i a~aq.rt ' a]![ '[I!" "!C"'nO"l ['al""a.I a]![ 1[1!,$% Sll!l!lllnOlLI pJ1seS ' ' '
Ira!ld aql pue ~en8er aql

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28

The Jaguar and the Priest

The

Ethnography of Souls

29

T o this end, ceremonies are held a r ask that it be treatetl k~irly,[luring n.llich substances such as liquor, candles, and incense are offerctl and ; ~ ~ ) ~ x c c i a t is i o exl)ressecl. n U~ltilthe Great ~ V o t h c rof the moiintain is s:ltisfietl nit11 the gifts receir~etlin the ceremonies, tlie carnal ~iiother will not begill to protluce milk. T h e root rb'i of the rrrord cll'iibnl inenns "to grojv," l ~ u the t verl) is only applied to the grorvth of l~lants,either coltivate~l o r plants sucli as tol~acco and medicinal herbs, rvhich, thougli they yrorrz in the rr.ild, are tended to a certain extent by the Indians. Like the European term kitidurgnrfen, or "children's garden," the ~nountainevokes a bota~licalimage. It is a sort of greenhouse of souls. In I-itual language, its synonym is kolilnl, meaning "healthy," something that fattens, in the sense that the i~ealth of the nletllbers of thc lineage depends on the ~nounrain.'. I n accordance with rlic kindergarten nature of the lineage, the mountain is orga~rizedin a particular way. O n the top floor is tlre Great &rother, ~ v h o is chosen every four years f r o ~ n among the older illathers, rvho are more responsible as far as childcare is concerned. This job is suhere-at least perior to any of the positions held by nrales, in fact, \\,o~nen in the role of caregirrers-are considered morc important than men. On the nest level, are t11e "mothers-sisters," middle-aged women who look , aker the children. T h e eleventh floor is occupied by those under twenty !.ears old, the "big-small ones," and this is nfliere $11 the young children live together. T h e y are looked after and taken out by their caregivers, the old61 children. T h e Great Mother suckles the cliildren in turns r i t isn't complete milk, only tlie soul of the milk"), and wlien they have finislied, she returns them to the "mothers-sisters," rvho, after batlling and (lsessing them, Ilall(l the111over to the "big-s~nallones," rvliosc job it is to take tlicm,out :lnd keep ~ I I C I I I occupied. Descriptions of life in the n~ountain are imbued with l:ing~lngc th:~t, rvhile maternal, is col~lples in its sentiments. Since each lnounrnin ollly contains the souls of one lineage, and ~vivescontinue to belong to the li~~e:ige, the mothers' souls d o not live in t l ~ e s:llne mountail1 I as those of their children. Infant souls are the responsibility o f the 11~1sband's "sisters," meaning that the women of the ~nountairlare not the of the babies, rvhicli ol)viously creates a delicate sit~larenl "r~~others" tiol~.I-Ionerrer much rlietoric is reiterated on the commit~iientand dedicntion of these rvomen, it is clear to everyone that one of the basic prol~lemsfor survir,al of the child-souls is maternal inconstant): In the ordinary nrorld, children easily succumb to illness, the)' cry n.itliout apparent cause, and infnnt mortality is high. Aceidcnts inevitably hap-

i
11 I

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21

pen. I t may Iiap1)en that the Gre:lt i\.lotller dies and n.liilc a successor is being chosen, the lhabies are effectively left orphaned and untended i s tl~eir "mothc~~s" are unsopervised (in a sense, the Great Mother :~cts like a inother-in-1:irv). So~netimes, tllcy are not cle:~nc(lor fed. :\ c:~regiver may even get drunk and d r o l ~ a baby on the floor (there are n f u r sh:r~nancliants cle~nanding responsil~ilityfor the death of2 child). In certai~ c:ises, ~ the caregivers may be sus])ccted ofacting with evil intent 2nd causing willful harm, ;lthougl~ this is mrcly acknoa.ledged openly. Underlying all o f this i i tlie idea tllat these women are not the true rnotbers becausc their real cliildren live in the mountain ofanother line:~ge,tvitll other ~vomen'incharge who are not their renl mothers either. T h e very title given to them, 7~1e'el-wi.~il (mother-sister), in which w i . ~ ineans "older sister," and, by extension, the titles given to all the oldcr !r#omen of the li~ie:~ge, denotes an ambiguity in their position. As far as I knon; tliis title is nevcr used in tlie ordinary world. T o tell the truth, the role of tliis group of souls is odd in itself: T h e y are women n4lo nre not rvives or, strictly speaking, mothers, thus su[>pressingthe very meaning of \ h a t being an adult atonl:ln is. 111tlie onlinary nsorld, a situ:ition like this only occurs (luring the observance of the Day of the Dead, \\,lien wives are separaterl frorn their children while they give offerings in the crlrnl)si>yof their brothers and sisters. T h e second aspect o f tlie cb'iilnl eniphasizes its role as lineige council. Every four years, the cb'filel elect fro111anlong theniselves their political officers: nlcnldes, regidores, esoiBn~ros, and policemen (cl~njpnrr~unr~erik, "guardinns of the kin group"), who ar? all su1)ordinates of the Great &Tother.' T h e y meet in the upper cliahibers, where, seated on large benches, they hold audience and deliberate. Appareirtly, from tirrle to time, they i t ;around a large ,rectangular rablc, n,here they ~vritcin their record books. There, decisions are tiiade regarding lineage illatters, except for difficult cases that are discussed \vith the authorities of the other tliree rb'iil~nl,with whoni comniunication is est:iblished ":is if Iby telegl-nl)Ii," for the rb'rrlel cannot leave the mountain. In many ways, cl,'iil~~Iorga~iizatio~i is analogous to tlie town council (rtrl,ildo) of C:incuc, I I I I ~ tile cbklcl who fill the positions of authority in tlie cb'iibirl are nor necessaril!; the s;lme as the office holders of Cancuc. Their true identieven ~ ~ to themsclscs (clcspite clailns of knowledge by ties :Ire u n k n o ~ r some u;lien they are drunk); coni~iion scrlse tells us that if they ever did find oot, they ~voul(l still keep tlieir identities n secret to avoid potential vellgeance seeking in Cancuc. T h e council also acts as a court for tlle souls. One soul accuses an-

30 The Jaguar and the Prrest

The Ethnography of Souls 31

other herorc t l ~ e authorities, a trial is held, and, if declaretl g u i l t s the soy] ,is sentence11 ro a certain length of time in jail in the mountain. \\'lint is on [rial is the behavior of the souls in the mountain, not in the ordin:lry world. 111the abserrce of a carn:~l body, souls cannot suffer any corporal damage, so to speak, but the body experiences the imprisonment of thc soul as if it were an Illness, and this may cause its death, in which c;isc the soill disappcnrs from the mountain. In the salllc ! ~ i yas the ri,'~tlrlsoul appears in the mountain mitli birth, it disappears with the dcltli of its hotly. It merges with its double in the ordinary ~vorld, whicli resides in the heart of the body, and is exiled to the nrorld of thc rlend. It seems the authorities in the mountain are aware that n harsh sentence cffectir.ely means condemning a soul to death. It is said that in such cases, agreulnent on tlie rcourt niiing is required betn.een four nuthoriries from different lineages. Descriptions of trials in the mountain can run into quitc a hit of dely of rhe shamans. T h e soul denouncing the offense tail, e ~ p e ~ i n l those ap11cxs ]before the mernbers of the council, who are elderly ~ n e n nith rrhite hair and longn.11ite beards. T h e y sir at a big table on \\,ooden chairs with ar~ilrcsts in a large liall with a vaulted ceiling. O n the table there w e numerous l~ooks and notebooks, and the \rails ;ire c o ~ c r e i\\.it11 l copboards where cnse tiles froin previous trials are kept. T h e accuser puts his cnse before rhc court: I-Ie Inay complain that such-and-such a sc~ul docs nor speak to 11in1with respect, or that he is vain or critical or pokes fun at him. :\ccusations i r e generally related to verbal offenscs and lack of respect, but tlleY sometimes involve physical assault; someone !nay colnplain of har.ing beer1 struck a hiow, or a arotnan may claim she h:ls Iieen raped. Before Ienving, the accuser hands over gifts to oiemllers of the court: liquor, bcer, or tamales filled with meat or vegetables. T h e court will deliberate for s o ~ n e time and \vhatevcr is said \\.ill be minute book by a scribe or typed on a type\!,riter or written clown in t l ~ c of the court will be incomputer. r\lnrost spontaneously, some nien~bers clined to belie\.e the accuscr and others will try and defend the nccuscd, cither noting t h l t they are dealing with an adult person a l i o is respectfnl,.speaks correctly, and is "no ionger a child," o r else maintaining th:rt lie is rain, disresllectful, presumptuous, and disdainful. In some cases, \vitnesses are called or written evidence is presented. If no agreement is reached, the conncillors of tile other three lineages in the mountains :ire consoltcd by phone. Finally, if therc is a guilty verdict, the soul is re~novcdby t l ~ e police and taken to jail, but if a serious crime has been coliimitrcd, the soul is handed over to certain spirits as their prisoner.

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Tl~e monntain is pern~entedby hostilitj: grudges, and vanity, :111d t l ~ i s makes it a licr~nanentsource of illness. Order is not incompatible with conflict; in fact, the former appears to lend i~ievitably to the latter. Nobo(k seelils to believe that c/~'iibnlsouls nre kindhearted beings: "They miglit appear to be good people with kindness in their llearts, hut they aren't really; they're sons of bitclies and they use bad language. T h e young ones in the rl17ibiiIa1-coftell ~nenii-minded; all they risant is for us to give them foorl xnd drink." I t s110uld be emphasized that the rb'iii,/tl ~ n o u ~ ~ t : of ~ i the n s Canci~c lineages :ire to ihe found far beyond the communityh territory, although distant, not :is fnr as rrtigl~tbe desired. Tile rh'iib~//ruustbe ~111ysicnlly l>cc~use if not, there would be too many quarrels; if they \\-ere nearby, it n.ould he f;lr roo easy for the c/~'rtlcl to head off for tile cl~'iil1n1, and the numbel of colnplaints and punishments nould build up and make life iml~ossible. In exchange, Cancuc land hosts the ch'ii1,~rlof other towns. Beside Alonso l<'aal's honse, there is a fissure in the ground, the bottom of n.hic11 cannot lie seen and which is by all accounts the cI~'iib~11 of the people of Tila, a toren located a good t\xSodays' walk away tor\ranl tlie northeast. I n Tila, the residents slieak Chol, a 12Iayni1language related to 'lieltal, liut barely intelligible to the Cancoqueros apart from a fen. n,ords. Once, lC:lal tossed a rotting turkey into the crack and dreamed that night th;it the ~ I J ' N I of ~I thk people front Tiln \yere liawling him our for tlre stencl~the b~rrlgave off. Hoivever, no harm is to he expected from other pei~plekcb'jil~nl. In like manner, other hills arour~dC;lnci~c are suggested as being the cI~'iibn1 of other peoples-:~laaj's Indian gr0111's that are not Tzelt11 speaking. T h e Zinacantccos, 'l'zotzil speakin a liill it,l~ere tllere ers, best kno\vn as salt vendors, have their cl~'iiba1 is a small, depleted salt mine. T h e rh'iibol of tlie people from 7'ulnbalQ, another Chol-speaking town, is found beneath a rocky outcrop near the rive[-, :and when you pass by in the middle of the day or night, you can hear the faint crying of the children. It is not universally clear rvhether there is a ch'iibnl for non-Indian peoples. S u n P'in, for illstance, sl~orvcdan interest ill knorving 11ow many cl~'itbn/formed Spain, what they nrerc like inside, and \ifhat kind of ties there x e r e bct\ueen tl~etnand tile Gcrm;rn ones (his curiosity Isas kinilled by recol!ection of the tinca olmers of Gerinnri origin on the Pacific coast) and the inhabitants of Mexico City. \Yitl~regard to the c11'iihnl of the Spanish-speaking populntiqll of othcr Chinpas highlantl regions, h r guessed that the children gren: up in cornfort there, because

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38 Thc

Jaguar and the Pricsl

The Ethnography of

Souls 39

Death and the ch'ulel

Tlie answers ro the questions of where tlie cbPlcl comes fro111and rvhere it goes once the borly has died are Car froni certain. These questio~is do not seem to be matters of collccrrl to the Tzcltal, p e r h s p ~in part because rhe origin and destiny of the ch'r~lclnrecompletely irrelevalit ro the c i ~ ~ c u ~ n s t a nof c eone's s personal life, and vice versn. Tliere is :I ~ ; i g u c notion thot thc cl,'ltlcl comes l r o ~ nthe last of the thirreen levels of the sky (1,rjibnl Innr cl~l,'lrlrl~nt~, but this is a commonpl:lce expressio~itllqt rloes not allow further clarificltion), dcsccnds ro elrrh, and introduces itself into the fetus during tlie early liiontlis of p r e ~ n a n c y .Its presence is felt once the cliild bcgi~isto move abr~urin i b . iz a kcy momcnt bcc:lusc from then on, there is the tlic ~ v o ~ ~Tllis evel.-lxcsent risk that tlie soul \r.ili part company\\ritli t h e fetus. In the d:iys o r months before the body dics, that is, during the i,otly's s g o n x the rh'l~lclleaves it for the last time and spends a i ~ u m b e r of days (t\vc~ity, forty) \rnudering about ivliat was its honie. Doririg this pw-iod, tlie c11'11h/ [ ~ o w s s o n i danger, c because cince it is al\vays enlotive, it may try to inclucc other r;','slcl it is fond of to join it. I\ prayer may be said tlie s ilccc:~srd's c/,'rt/c/ to rake lcnve of that gently but firri~ly~ ~ e r s u a d e this \vorld once and for all. T h i s come about \\,hen it [~asscs tlirough the \voo(len cross i\.ich rlre srone base in the chl~rcli atrir~rii in C:iricuc (in otl~er versior~s,rlic rb',~lc/slil~s lhehinrl rhc church's illsin altar), thro~rgli ~rliiclitlie rlr'11/1./ of the dead (rb'~rlcln[)cross over to [lie otl~er\vorld. T h i s plgce is c:~lletl6'Rriabnk (literally "\,one burned ro ashes") 2nd is to hc found deep in the heart of the earth. As sunlight never reaclles tlinr spot, it is cold there, and the rl,L/cL warn1 themselves routid id lires ~ii:ltlehorn i~o~~es-o.l~ich arc thcir hte\vood-rlicy Iiave estractcrl little h!. little fro111 l~eneatlithe graves to serve as t l ~ e i r kindling. T h e cli'lrtlcl return to the surface nf tlie e:~rrhjust f o r e day, on rhc lirst day of the I month olpow (in 1990, this \\,as October ?6), to visit tlic cb'trlcl of the living and to collect foot1 from them. T h e y can see each otlicr, I I C I they ~ cannot speak. It \\.is explained to me rhnt n o Ilarln c i n coriie fro111 tlie clc;trl, and tliar offerings are given "out of affection" t o thank the 61thers and grarldfatliers who ceded the land. It ~ l a o gives the members of n j r r n bltil n,nntil n n o p p o r n ~ n i t y to meet and decide \rrhicli plots of ' land arc going to be farmed by each domestic group during the coming season. I{o-~a\\.ever, the sl,'rtldc;~nexpect a fate ratlier different from those who
\\pill

z o to k'ntirlli/rk, depending on the circutnstn~ices of death. I.nrenzo Lot once hcanl his mother say that the cl~'jt/clof those who were murdered o r drowned (71rililctik)find tlieir way iqto the grountl at the prrcisr spot n.here chcy met rheir rie:~th,e r l d i ~ ~ rl,g :IS pcorrs ill the service of tlie Xlou~itai~i Lord. According t o Roniiliko Estul ail11 others, tbc cb'~~lel of niorder victi~iis,suicidra, and those who havc died in citlier of the t\vo wars that can be remembered g o u p to the sky, where they walk side by side with tire sun and the rh'rlrlcl of the saints from churclics lhat \vctc burned to the groontl by Mexican troops during the "second war" (tlie i\lesica~iiler~olution).Tliey niay be tlle stnrs. It is said tlieir bodies are not @\.en the cusrolnary burial chnt others receivc, bur are arbi11.arily thrown into any deel~ish liollo\v (saklqJ in the li~nestone rock of rhe landscape (and in fact, half-buried human bones can be seen scarr c x d in some of these are:is-n disturbing sight for r l ~ e 'fzeltnl). Despite tlie differenr restilly places, tlie final destiny of tlie r/~'rlr/c/ is rcgnrderl as a liiatter of little i~nportancr. Ncvcrthclcss, ~ i v e nthat this kind of cle.irli is always premature, it is n dcith that the Tzeltal a ~ o u l d prefer not LO meet. 1:I"a~ing invisibly somc\rhere hnlfway 11et\\~ee11 the sky and the carth is a d e s t i n a t i o ~ for ~ tile soul that is sol~retirries idclitihcd :IS rqirhn ("sugar ~iiill,"r~n/~l,irl.c in Spanish), ar~rlorlier ti~nua rcrcrrcd to ns rl~a're'(lirerally "nondcn I~reastlnipple").I n :actual fact, it is a sugar mill composed of several \voo(len rollers with teeth (these teeth are called clr~r',"nil~plc" in 'l%elval), likc those used in C:lneuc tn manufacture cooked suyar, although from tlie !yay it is const~.ucred,it bcnrs more r c s e n ~ b l s ~ ~ mc e :I replica of tlie sugar niills fro111 t l ~ e old s u y r ol:~ntations (tho owners of u.hich trill bc discussed i:~ter),l~erouse it lias Illore aricl bigxcr reetli. T h i s "suckling" conttaptio~iis the tlestination of the $'I,/c/ of small chilrlrcii \vho dic \vithout having spoke11 their first \vords, that IS to say, \\,lie have not committed any wrongdoing (IILIIO."liiongdoing" in this case is not u~i(lerstoodas "sin" ill n Chriarian sense of rhc wortl, I,ot i s n debt of reciptocity, of verbal cscliangc, contracted on speaking lor tlie lirsr time.Thcre they spend an indeterminate time suckling and c r y i ~ ~ and g , in onc vcrsion, in tlic guige of (or inside?) black flies (71.7). Tlley i n i t for some \\.onran to become a\.ailable into \\.hose womb the? enter, ejected fro111 the nrill's rollerr. Ncvertl~eless,rhcY will still h m to ~ i ~ horri, e die, feed at rlie s u p r mill, and return tliere four rimes; not until tliey return for a fiftli rime will [bey havc the chance t o gronr norm:illv.

40 The laausr and t'lc

Priest

The Ethnography of Souls 41

The lab Tlle third type ofsoul residing in the heart is known as lnb. I t nlso lends a dual existence akin lo thc rl~'t,lrl.O n rhe one hand, it may be a "real" crenturc (3" animal, for eh-alnple) rhar lives in the outer world. O n the other hand, it also hns a double inside the human hcarr of an individunl, rr41ose profile is identical to the creature living ourside of it, except tlint it arloprs the form of vapor with a sliape?TI~elflb is a very nliseil bag, and it does not conform to any rigorous system of c1nssit;cnrion of it5 types. I-Io\\~e\rer,from descriptions of it, cerroin racir criteria of order, I~aseclon Tl.el.elml couunon sense, may be recognized and are described I)elo\v.
Lab That Are Animals

can be the lnb of 2 person. Tllese Virtually any aniriial (cl1fl~1bfllfl71~crik) iriclu(le insects, birds, rnamxnnls, and even animals as hard to find in Cl~iapns as rvhales and tigers.1 I-Io\vever, in practice, there are certain lilnirations in the designations. Given that knowledge %bout the lnb is I,asicall!~casuistic, the kinds of znirnals that are L b are reduced to those rhar intervene in some kind of incident affecring people, be it in a stare o r in (1 dream. of wikefull~ess 'Therefore, rhc lnl, nnilnnls that intervene tend to belong to a variety of categories. ,Most cases are dominated by the feline family, including the do~nesticcat (7rris), the ocelot (ui~jnl chl,oj), the punla (rboj), 2nd the jaguar (linln~r). Other sorts of L b animals belong ro diverse groups: hirds of carrion; the @ilId71111-1~7it), rvllich even if i ~ s Oody may Ile chopped to bits, it does not die because the pieces put thcrnselres 2,ack togetl~er spin; r!,u l,a\\.k (IibnwnO, who Ilossesses amazing po\rsers of vision; rlie larger eagle (bok nrrrt), capal)le of stealing the silver coins rhar are kept in San Juan's coffer-otherwise known ;IS i,,e'tnk'i,r (rnorl~er-inone!.), perhaps bccnusc it appexrs 3s the nationnl eml)lem on hlexican coins; the lhurnrnin~bird(knzlns t~'r1~1rl11); tlte Op05S11111 (IIC~'), a highly inrelligent animal, \\fhicll perhaps erplnilis ~ . h y rn.o monrhs in the'fieltal calendar bear its nalnc ("little ol,ossum" and "l~ig opossur~i"), and onc that is nlso ahle to breatlie tlirougli its anus; ants of the b ~ fc' i class, \v[lich are the nmlp :int; the fox (fm/irliofl.c); xnd the coati (rojron~). Less often one hears of the woodpecker (ti'), the eoyore (ob'll), the agouri (jinlfli~~)), rrltr. odd species dfspider, t11e squirrel, the weasel (mbrir), certain

c~irrrpill:ir.~ (z!,/?p 21nd bl1111h .sir, rlir 1:lrrer c;lpable of sipping milk from \vomeo's bsc~str), :xnd l~utterflies. There are numerous esa~nplesof happenings, even recent ones, in \rhich the death or injury of an animal is related to or i~nplicntedin the injury or rlenth of a human being. For eexnlple, a person may be discovered to have a wound at rhe exact moment when, sounewhere else, another person may 11avestruck some verrniri wit11 :t machctc for wrecking his cornfield; end the woun~l is located exactly on the satlie part of tlle body as the ar~iliial's. But tliere are tiriles rvlien these incidents are 111ucl1illore elaborate and iltrerrstiri~.A~itonio Lnrnus liennl from h i forrner rvife's brother, rvho lived iri arlotlier village, that his wife was a punla. T h e I~t~sbancl cliscovered it one day wlieri he \\,as walking bnck along the path froln tlrc to\vn of Chenllh6. I-Ir bumped into some fricntls of his, and they began to rlrink liquor by the side of the path, where they emled up completely drunk. h l e a n ~ h i l e his ~ wife \\,as !~aiting'~for him at home, bot lie didn't turn up. So slie \\(aired alid waited, but still he didn't sho\v up. Finally, \vhen hc arrivetl tlie next morning, his mife was so angry that she refused to prep:lre him food. T h e man becnnie angry as nrll, cook his axe, and \vent off into the furrst near I<cremt6n h.lountair1 to c u t solne \vood. There lie was, when all of a sudderi he sarv it, the puma, on top its e dtail. T h e nian thougllt to of a rock, arid lie stared at it as it r ~ ~ o r ~ himself, "It's eliornious! Its tail is I O I I ~ ~than I nly am,!" Then he yclletl ol,sccnities i t the pumn. "Plnrl/e oidn! 1/0tc ~iil~lhr!"(Damned hag! G e t tlie hell out of here!), in Spanish. H e added, "I've got my axe nrith me!" Norliirig iiappe~iedto hini; his wife only mnccd to hcare hinl. UJl~en Iic rcturncrl hornc wirli the wood, hc said to his wife, "You \rfere just trying ro scare me!" Solile inonths later, he was on the \ray to Yochib (the site of I meekly nmrket where liquor is sold 2nd consulued), when he passerl .!,I rllc nn?uth of a cilisc. T h c punla was there again, its eyes shilling brightly. I l c t h r e a a stick at it, i h ~ ir t didn't even Hincli, so he Iiad to run lor lhis life. Ir \CIS then t l ~ a he t let Atltonio La~nllx in on thr secret that liis wife ivns a o l j ~ ~ i and l , rllat he \<:ISunal,lc to do anytliirig to risk 211gcrilig her Ibecausc eacli tirile lie did, he c:iliie :>cross"her po\verXi n liis ])at11(eslxciaII!. rvlien he u,as drunk, tliat is). 'l'lle next year, Antonio s:lu this rilari ajilin. By [his time, his wife ha11 (lied, nnd the \vidower told his version of the event. .kt a certain spot in Pantelha (a neighl~oring village where there :Ire cattle ranches owned by Spanish-speaking people), :I co\~harld ~liscovered a pair of pum:., one inale and one female. I-le tvel~t

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1~1!2 1oj acro . ( S ~ ) ~ ~ ju : L[OUCI) I S I/LII.~II//I~z/!'~ 'SIOU~ daap .rnoj ir! an![ . i x [ ~ -aJe .ial(l flu/ asol[.\\ sllos~1d all1 j o su!al[-[[a.\\ all1 . l a ~ l l o [ ~ l 1 ~ 1 o1 pl .ial[l l 'o~uapo.tdl!a[lj o ~ u ~ ~ ~ s ' J s ScI I uI J o~ isueutnq ~ .taq~oq ,i[[)~l:t[ IN[] s.1111 -I:J.IJ 5u!1!1a.1 a. 11: .ia~[i'IIIC(I L L C OI .~I C ~ \ I .SII!(IOLIL~ s~ua;\a~ [IIIC d s.(a/(c.\ a g i g B n o ~ q laic.\\ i jo aSon!c~pa111 sd[all I! a s y s c[e!syaoa<lst: paplc8a.1 s! .ilbi!~soJ!arp d ~ ~ u a ~ e d ' sdst q ~a q ~ l ~ n .sap!lspuc[ a~ puc su!-a.\a~ Su! -SIICJ plrc saa.11 uniop Sa![[nd (In pl1J .(alp I ! I ~ I I I s.ia,\!.r p l ~ vsuloalls ju squetl a q l St~!po.talo .ieme [!a1 Laqi ii[q!i(la>~acI~~! 1so111[c inq . i [ ~ u ~ s s a ~ -u! as~losarl,,'s~a~oql![,, '7!1q.2211 a l e S ~ J ~ I F a ~s Ja Si [ ~ .a~gunS utolj jlas -~11oA 5tt!l)uajap U J L [ . ~a m lsouuln all1 Jn a1.01 ~ ! I : q1q s c s! 11 :aInlea.ls lJA!l 1 : S! I! ll?111 U!l!lJaJ loll ST I! lllq 'qU/ E SE (1f~l.fUS ' d ~ ,,131[!qS ) 1813111,, 'r~!,.yul Z/.7l.<UX [lJUO!IUJlll LlJAJ JllOJlllOS ',)!I, j O [>U!q S!111 j0 SqllCl 2111 Sll! - ~ ~ a . ~ i s j [ Ia~sU~L!l[!ni J ~ I I J U V - J U! pas11 aq AUILI I C ~ IIU ~ ~ L I I I I IIS EU I! ~L .hie L~ '12ej U I , I . ( u ~ ~ . iXIS . ~ ~L q~ u 5 d ~ ~~ aL s O L ~ I C I ~ - S , J ~ ~ ( IBI V ~I . ~IJIJ.LU/ J ! J ~ )' ( I U S ~ J ~ S [[!l~-~l!lalll) i/ur/, 1070d '(r1.1~Ijl'(1s ' l u a d ~ a ssJoss!JS) ILoi/l nlJIj1 '(ar.lrll11 'CIS c~usd~ .raui~uoll) as rr,,q> o.ior,~l ( ~ t r ~ dalpaau-Su!mas) ~as ~ I ~ ~ > ~ I N I U I I . Y ! ~L(~>!,/ > ' l u a d ~ a asl:qs!d) s nuql oopd '(rl/rld . d '~ l u a d ~ a s[a.%olls)I~UI/J e/ad '(ui/~l?l/ '~uad~a axe) s rrvip a1/3u ~ ( ~ u a d . ?I,?~/~IIII) ~as ILU~I .?I!I/JIIIIL: [ c l [ x ~ "1, 811! -,solloj a111 apnlsu! ~ I I~ / a ~ e asaqL ni .ayeus a q j~ o Spoq at[] s! slpucli a111 !1)"t1 "10 PWlSll! [OOI 1Cl3UI L ! J.\Cl'[ .(all1 ll!l{l U! a[C~K~Jl!llla.l :(lllCl 'Sa!icllS lale,\\qsay d l ~ s o ma l e (,U[/IIII~I/J qu/s) Ja1c.u jo mloaJ at[] jo <lo/ a q ~ .

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,~ca.A lsau at11 [!11111 1118!1u .(a111 11a,i\axj m q l o qsua p!q p1no.u . i a q ~: ( [ l w q .I! ~ o 111!1( j puc pan(e.\ 61q8!1[ aJc sqad Jen8c! asncsaq 'slreulnq ~1:all aJall.\\,ioe 08 01 l u u Su!atl ~ut:l~orlrr~! isoul JLII 'J~!.\PC J O 1!q ppn a111 I! arr!5 I)~IIIJ;N 111:111 p10 3~11r1aq.1, .(,,So[) I: a ~ a , u I! j! re,,) a[!1[n\ E J O ~ .(eld p1nu.a ' i a q ~p ~ t e 'I! a q w l s [IILIO.>\SL['(r<aq~ti> he^) I ~ : J01 SU!L[I~I 1 0 1 113.615p[110.\1111!111[)[oall1 . '[l!.\!.ll~ Sl! 1 1 0 '5S110q S!l[ J1!21! SSOJJ I ! I t ' I I J ~ ! U 11: S.(L!.~\IC 'P.)Sl!jJllS I! [!I - u n s,io.\\aSessed p u n o ~ . 5 ~ s p u p2SJsnoJl n I! sn=ul!> 01 la3 0 . .I!S!.\ ~ c 111111 ,icd ol a w e s I! .lc~;idJ2.m ~ n 'al8un! q a111 u! pa.,!^ 11 ..1m"B!! I: 'O,LIIJ.IO~ ol pau!':[(Ix:, ag sr 'SEA, (al,!~ds x a y qool c[=!lla\ II! [C~II!LII! L I E 'l/IJ/ s!1~[ .!1!93 S,~\OJPo z u a l o y alaqrn 11101j J E 1011 ~ '~UCCII~,\!.I SLII110 ss11011 (pa1~1 -os! I I C u! ' , ~ ~ ! U L UII L , 1[1!411lauo[l: pat![ U U ~ I J ~ 'r/s/ L s!g 111!nm e ~ ! " n u ~ -111OJ 01 1l5S11 011,\\l l C l l l 1 ) 1 0 111: 1)1J ~ O 1 ~0 S 1 O Z l l 2 1 0 7 'IJSI? 5.11!5.( 21IIDS ,;Suo[ a,\![ 01 Ru!oB ],rra.te (a,$\) n0.i '011 o o i J! asuesaq,, 'jlasl! lunq i s m I! asosJarj 'sall3lo.l l o allll!U all1 01 x o [ s ool US oi ~ o I! u 1121 qS!111 U O S J J ~ ~ L [ tI s l d ~ ~ 1r)j ~ ~ :Itl.lal x3

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-1IlCI C S! I ! jfI 'll"W(1 SJAlJSllIJlIl la[ 01 1011 J U 'S[C\lI!lIC JaqlU tll!.a lqSlJ 01 IOU '(as~no:,j o 'sno~o,i!u~es s! lc~11!11c a g j!) ~ S Z I U ! I S ! J I ~lea ~ 0 1 1011 '9uo.1m oS 01 IOU :as!ape s[e1o!ul: a q l ah!S 01 ~ ( I ! ~ I I I I J O ~ a~~~[jo I l) aSc~uen - [ ~ w ~ l " l ~ I o .S~W).ISSOJS ad ~[~uI 1 :!10 s ' ~ J ~ I O J IaU ~~e a I: 'S~r!ldsE ~ . I ~ ! L I I 1c1[1 s a s s o n 11: a o d s alr[osap I]! ~ q S ! u I ! ! [)lrnoj arl oi uaql a.rL. [,:>u!uc ,)u/ .1agls!11 puc 110s~ad a g ' [~ [me jo u q o d s Llp~eq a1cLx11 IUII l J C j a111 j o anl.l!r .iq p u m ~ u a ~ I(JCU!~JOEJISJ a a l e Laqi a s h c ~ a q i11uq ' i ~ a a . n ~ a q 11.jpuc amj L[awa~~.;a a l e Su!uadduq I! j o sascJ ' ~ s e ju~ .JL.JP . i l a ~ ~ l t t a IOU s! s1naJo s!q~ ~ ~ d o l l sqe q 'I! q l ! , ~ d!qspua!~j e (In pl!nrl or sl: J C ~ os S U ! O '~ q U / 1!31[1 S! 1 " l IClU!UC > l J ! s ~ d 2111 ~ U J A 3 1Klq IClU!!"W/U/ J!J1[1 j O sa!sads ~ L [.(po I IOU Ljgoap! ol sSuucor oqa, aldoad a ~ u o s , s ~ aJar[L l: .Jnsus-J 11: ,ipoq alp 01 S!I! -1ajjns :'u!sno~ snql ,,'l~n1[1aB ' 1 1 ~ ' I~ ~ ~ B:ictu ' J Aa1[3 asnl:Jarl,, 'a.\sq ol uad -dill lll8!lll .(iljl (110s lal[IOYE j O 10 1CNI!Yl! ~ll[lal[l3) I/?,/ 2111 104 OSlli 1IlI) /~/N,[/J .1!51[1 [IUE d n o ~ 8 J ! I S J W O ~ all1 j0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 sno!le.\ 1 1 ~ 1 1 all1 1 JO gl[t!al[ at11 poe sdo.ts a111 ~ oXluo j IOU sa!leaJlua aJe a n q l '~ea.(e sam!l a a ~ 1 (J1 O o,\u plo1[asnoq e j o peaq a r l ~ dq p a ~ a j j o u o ! l ~ a ~ o lj d o sla:(e~dJ J K qs!tl.u 's~a.is.ld / U ~ ? / S I aq1 I ~ u1 ,;autq(i 1eluoz!~oq amcs a111 uo,, d!qsao!~o[a.~ I: 'd!l[suo!lu[a~/11fi1d c ~ U ! J E I [ S san[astIlal[l pug '~II/[Ille 11~111 ' ~ I I J I [ Ijo qloq .iq.s s1r!cldsa 1eq1 'snuloy 01 S u ! p ~ o s ~ .6poq y uemn1l a 1 p j o S I J C ~ a113 u! a~ua(cn!nba 111: aaeq 'slaasu! m l u a ~ y j ! p SE s a ~ u e ~ e a d dlll: w l amq1 us.%a :ipoq s,[eul!lrc a q l j o S I J C a111 ~ 01 ua.\!S saulcu a111 11:1[1 s! [ear!ue [luc 111:ul uaa."lag uo!lJaulroJ s!q~ salel!l!aej :jleq.\\ ' I J ~o~ ..(pu~[a111jo I J C ~ snoSolcue ue 1 1 pun ~ 'laqlo a q ,(q ~ L~IIII!ISII! ~ [ as! j sas11a!.tadxa al10 I I ! C ~ all1 !,i[aic![l~ulur!I J C ~ I ~ I U ~ l!aql OJ l~ajjc l[lcap JO 'ssa11)15!s 'SJ!JLI!LI! jo r o ~ oa111 j lr! lseaq 10 UCIU dq PaJafjnS sdecls!m 1118.(oll!ls.f!y) ,,11e!ls!11[3,,; jo q1q a111a l e ,(aqi leql aJr.\\cun a ~ s[cm!ue e aql os 'ale qo/ ~ ! a q oq,,, r puc x':11.i{ "to [ I ' L I ~ 01 aScueco X[~JCJ [ c l [ a z ~ SE ~ s n ! am!^ a111j o l s o ~ y '.11:1!llI!S (ila.\ '[C3!lU~p! I O U J ! ,211: S1!([61[ l!Jl]l Jl!lp\\ 'IL:I!IJCII.I!i)l[l s! w 'amcs a111 s! a ~ u c l e a d d c i!ar[j. .sa!sads ~ ! a qjlo sJaqma1u .12qlo 11101j ~ l i a ~ a j jSue ! [ ~ A[lc!~uassal o o s! aJrucu 1 ! a q L ' a ~ u c [ 9 I S J ~ 1 1 : qsns st. L L ~ ~ L [ I sa!1!11121)! loll1 qr~/ lnoqc a.?lsu!ls!p Su!l[lou s! alalp ' l a . \ a . \ \ o ~ '(,,a[doad,, ~ sueam 1[~!lp ' > I ~ I J S ~IJ[O s !M ~I~ a113 ~ s1110~) J I I I J ~ ~ ~3. / 11: ~ autos JI iilllu :,/I,/ -71~ S[L.LII!LIC .IJL[IO[ ~ L I C 'sutnssodo 'S+~\CL[ 'SCL~III ((I! ~ IOU ' ~ S J I I O J j~ .>as 01 l [ w u j u!l:ld sc.4~ lallncl . I ~ S ~ Ca111 I , V,(q ape1u qseq Jaq u! aloq a 1 l iuu ~ 1118. ' ' .[)o!~ad Jail 10 2Snl:s>C[ ()00[q lIJll111 001 8lI!s0[ 1lIOIj SC.\\ I! I\:l[I Su!.il:s S I U ~ J C ~ 1211 '001 '(>"p aj!,\\ S!I-l 'JX[ pJ11!7 PUq'1"" ' 1 1 1 1 ll! 1211 1011s 1)1lUl(.~\O~l[I" aJa1l.n ' l l o l a a ~ lc VI pa@ alewaj a q l 111q 'adessa 01 pall:uc~u a[eru 2 1 1 . ~ -~us~ .lalje j l ilraa all ual1.1puc % '? l o [ ) 2!g o,ql puo aLC.1 r! 128 01 q2cre.t s!i[ 01

44 The Jaguar and the Pricrt

The Ethnography of Souls 45

Cnncuc lineage (rbejelr. 4kL, ci,r/k: and I J ~ )"beca~lsc , those \rhr> are not relati\;es cannot live rogether." O n e of these pools is a lake located 011 L:a~lcuc land \\-here strong eddies are formed, making s w i l n ~ n i n g unad. vlsable; the others are in rivcrb in unknown parts of the \r,orld. 0 1 1 the e\.e of the rainy season, a great fiesta is held at each pool to cclrbratc the illlminent rise in t h e river level. 'rllc t.o~i/~rl,nri, s~llosc 11eaA is like ;I gont's bur with only r,z~clzom t11;rt gro\vs at its forehend, is also a urater inb. Its body has never been seen, fils it lives in the \v:ltel. and only its head elnerges from t h e sucf:~ccfrom tinw t o time. N o t long ago, sorncone sa\v hoaa o n e such creature saver1 one o f the hanging bridges rhat was threatened by the ri\.er's risillg swell :!]I lifting it up n i t h its horn. Meteor lab
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T h e third distinct group of inb souls are forms that reside in "tllc 1111p e r s p x e , " kn~ffi, in the "atmosphere," lligllcr than any bird can Ax b u ~ ~leifer'so h i g l ~as t o toucll the sky. T h i s group encompasses the bolt of lightning (rznirtznl,~~l); t h e sojob>a light beam that is kindled from :~bovr 2nd \\.hich, \\.hen it settles over a house, is a sign that someone is about to minbow (.r~~krrhnl;,ii11),one of the ends ofn.hich lllocks the die tllerc; t l ~ e ~ n o u t h sof ca\.es to stop more clouds from emerging; the kltirl~i~~,,/ron, "stretched-out yellow stone," which are shooting stars. \\'inds (ikkrik) are /,,/I o f a ruost violcnt disposition. T h e y come fro111 the east; blow for short, intense periods o f gusts and squalls (they are storm winds); and are not to b e confused with the \vest winds, which are .softer n11d rni~r-c cor~sisccnt,ns ~ v c l l as llvr beins "peo[~le,"but only ;~ir in nlotion. T h e lnb n.inds are divided into four lineages, Cancnc's l i ~ ~ e a g ealthough s, they apparently all live in the same place, in the caiSe of a n ~ o u ~ l t (i,rrj/'r,ll) a i ~ ~ 011 1311d belongir~gto t h e E e l t n l t o t v ~of ~ Tennngo, less than a day's walk east of Cancuc. Cheerful after having a big fiesta, tile \vintls emerge from there i n small groups from April on\vard, crossirlg the r-nlley fro111 enst to west t ~ n t i lthe), reach 'tenejnp:~,\vhere they veer arrray t o the south, toward Teopisca, timatenango del \Talle, a11d Comitdn, where they colrle to a virtual standstill, before returni n c L I I I S ~ ~to I I tlleir n ~ o u n t a i n T . h e y are inb only for the people of Callc r ~ co ; tl~cr sillagcs may n ~ l have l /rib winds, but if so, they live in other ~liollntains. Liglltning is rlivided into two clnsses: red (taJni rhnrrk), <vl~ich are ifl6, a11d green O ~ x n ci>nak), l \vhich belong to the Mountain Lords. i\long
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with t h e sreell bolts of lightning, the M o u ~ l t a iLords ~ ~ xlso send up thtoogh the mouths of caves the lo\\. clouds that pour forth t h e most min. In rhis guise, the Mountain Lords are known ns iruci. Curiously, i t is not tlle color but rather t h e effect of the flashes tllnt distinguishes hetn.oen the t\vo classes o f lightning. Red lightning is considered much the time rhat elapses between t h e flash itsclf and more po\verful, ; ~ n d t h e ~.Jnp of r h ~ ~ ~is ~shorter. d e r Frotn r o u 1 $ 1 ! ~ A u g ~ l sr t o .14>rcl>,they remain inactive because the!. arc barred from li\jing in caves (presumably bccnusc the grcen lightning bolts, with \\shich they arc quite incompatil~le, reside tl~erc);s o rlley r e n n i n n s l e e ~ inside plnnts (orchids or rlloss, the latter cnlletl "nrchicl of Castile") that groiv o n the big trees in the rropic:ll lou,lands. During t h e r.~illy season, winds nnd lighrlling fight ag:linst cach other. T h e foriner, in cahoots with the green lightning bolts and the storm clouds, try to wreck cultivated fields by knocking da\rfn the stalks o f corn; ~ncanwhile,the 1:lttcr defend the annu:11 llarvcst by attacking the ;aggressors with s l ~ n t s fro111 their n~uskets.Yet t h e seqococe of the battle seenls highly ceremonial. Shortly beforc tlle rains begin, around h l ; ~ r c holl , the red liShrning bolts assemble (tllcy arc also divided into lineages) at ;I fiesta a.ith gunpo\\,der rockets, liquor, dancing, and music, at the end of n.hich each one receives from t h e "mother of lightning holts" ($,,re' rbartk)-considered the highest authority among liglltniog I~olts and herself some wrn >an's iflb-a red oniform and a musket (7rrichn or rhnJ/~~,j. T h e y are :~lsogrven the season's orders regarding shifts and thc locations \vhcl.e they nre to lie in ambush for the winds. T h o s e Cancuqueros who suspect that thcp r h e ~ u s e l \ ~[nay e s be meteors rccitc standnrd songs urirh rhe specific objective o f c o ~ l v i n c i ~their lg I,lb not to expose themselves to any unnecessary danger. If the inb is a \vlnd, for example, it is reminded not to enter empty tree tronks, as they are easy targets for lightni~lg; and not to seek shclter in rounded stones, but rather in sharp-cclgecl ones that will disperse the shots. An appe;~l is also made for the lightning bolts to stay :>sleep in their orchids, t o forget tile dntc of the allnun1 call t o their general ~ n e e t i n gnot , to check the date of it in their books, even for the ink in nrhich it is \\.ritten to be erased, and so on. T h i s concern is more than justified, :IS a mind h i t by a ll:~sllof lightnillg will a l ~ n o s certainly t die. T h e sanle \\,ill happen t o rile I ' C ~ S O ~ in I C~LICII or Cn , r least pxrt of his body will sllouv sigrls of burning. T h e chances of it llappening are not i s remote as o n e might imagine. T h e ye,tr 1990 was, nccarding to rhe Tzeltal, not especially relnarkable for the amount of red lightning, but \t least five people died from this

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46 The Jaguar and the Priest

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The Ethnography of Soulr 47 :\cti~all\; there are seuer:~lkinds of l~ilc.T h e most c o n i n ~ o ir ~e~tlie "lilack t ~ t l ~ e r (qk'nl s" pile; also kno\\,n :IS rsors' pile, "fntlier-l~at"). T h e i r clotliing is black, and according to some, the)^ arc only active at night. O n tlre otlrer lia~id,tlre "doytiuie father" (L~bnlcIp~iI~) is clotlied in a \vliitc habit and is conipletelg bald except for a t l ~ i c k band above his ears. Sometilr~es h e wears a hood that conceals his 11cad and face. T o help m e get :I goo<! picture of his appearance, L a ~ n u gave s mc as an example the statue of a d:iyti~ne p d c in the city of San Crist6hal-a bust sculpted in commemoration of Fmy Bartolomt de Las Casas, bishop of Chinpas and "Dcfe~idero f the Indiansn-\\,here lie is shown complete with tonsure. T l ~ e leaders of tlie pilc are the mirpn, "bishops" (Sp:~nisliobispos), plurnlxr in appeirance, because they !\!ear several garments, one on top ofanother, each item o f a different color; they also n.ear very shiny black shoes. Mucli rarer is a fourth type of priest: the jesritn, that is to say, "Jesuit" (Sl~auisli jcsr~irir);a c c o r d i ~ ~ to g S u n P'in, h e is a liiore solitary being. I-Ic is also different in appearance. N o one knows what lie writs, but lie is rallcr anrl cstrnordinarily thin, with sunken eyes and a fine long nose.': In all tlieir versions, t l ~ e pile are slaves to an indonlitable desire to e;>tineat. Tliey have a \venkness for foal, especially for tlie Bird of tlic I-le:irt, in otlicr ivords, the soul of e:icli Indian. T h i s makes then1 truly tel-rifying b e i ~ ~ gIt s .may be said that \vliereas felines invariably give rise and nieteors are spoken of \\,it11 a n anibiguous reverence, to Lisci~iation, !\.lien it collies topiilc, it is not unusual for the cliaracteristic self-restraint ill the cooversotion t o be replaced by :In excited, jolnpy tone, not uiilike sonleone descril~ing the species of animal to which lie feels tlic strongest arcrsion. T h e pile 21-e rlic only beings c;ipablc of extracting the Bird of , means of strange songs and ~rliistles. T h e y d o not trliistle tlic H e : ~ r tby like Indians, wit11 n silirple shrill note, but mtlier they compose ;I melody tliat the 11ir1l allinot resist. Earlier we snw hot!, tlie Bird of the l~lenrt is extracted fro111tlie body, converted into larger size, 2nd cooked with hot jriicr, a l~roccdure in \vhich a siniulacrum of the process of Ibaptism can 1perl13psl ~ recogl~ized. e Moreover, thepile inlial~it the r\.oods and the cnvcs of thc colil land; \ratcliful 2nd slippery custome~-s, they ~prcfernot seen (nltliougli, along with tlie other lab, t l ~ e yfreque~itlyappear to l ~ e in dreari~s, \vllcre they t r a r ~ l l l mule, ,~ cart, or motor car). Nonetheless, there : ~ r c n feiv tell-t:de signs rli:~tgive mvny tlieir p ~ u s i r ~ i i t y all : acrid smell of burnt tollacco, for esnnij1le, because they smoke a lot. But thcy 1i:lr-e actually been seen a few ti~iies.An el~lerlytvornnn told ine how, one niglir svlien slic could not sleep, slic liad gone out to tlie patio of her liousc anrl there she came across a far bishop sitting on one oflier stools,

cause. r\ccidents SLICII as sollieone drunk falling into the hearth in 11is liorilc and encling up badly b i ~ r n e d are not uncoliinioo. Dent11 froni o r signs of burns is a frequent s y ~ n p t o m of b e i ~ ~ ag u~ind. Pnrticularl!. wcll r e m e n ~ l ~ e t eis d an event that occurred one June in u.liicli tbree or four men were busying thernselves with the first meerlinp of the corntiFld, \vlien suddenly a violent storm broke out, forcing them t o seek shelter b e n c i t l ~ n tree. At length, one of tliern decided not e to subside and instead set off for lionie. Later, tvlien t o wait for t l ~ storm tlie others retnrncd along tlie path, rhey found him dend, burnetl to n ci~ider. T h e y cnrricd liim home, and he was buried the next morning. Rut \rlicn they liad finished filling in the grave, a myrintl of lightning bolts begnn t o strike the site, bolts Rasliing ill tlie sky 2nd then strikins, I1as1iing and s t r i k i ~ i It ~ . was believed that tlie liglltning bolts \\.ere sl~o\ving tlieir joy at having put a rvind t o death. If there nre n o \vinds, t!le red lightning bolts d o not appear, altliouglr in 1990, \vintls fl:itreiied tlic cornfields \vliile red liglitning did nothing to prevent it. Aprii~cipnl dreamed tliat the niotiier of lightning l ~ a d died tlrnt season r\~itlioot Ilaoi~ig designated all!. successor, tvliich is why the flaslies of lightning a c r e n.andering around rliscoricer~ed; there was also talk of soriie olrl tvoman n.110 1r:rd receritl? died, 1,ilt nb conclusive esplanation \\,as ever reacl~ed. The "Illness-Giver" lab T h e fourtli 2nd last kind of lnb souls are a riiised bag of beir~gs,rlirferenr only i n appearance, since they all s l ~ n r e the condition of being nk' rl,ir~icl,"illness-giver." If tlie &b we have ~nentioned thus far are cnp;ible unrler certain circumstances of barming humans of flesli and blood, t soliieolic grows ill most o f tlie time the risk they imply is passive, t l ~ a is, I~ccause one of his b 6 lhas died or 112s suffered in some \\.:I?. By contrast, tlrese'kilrds oflnh nrc different from the rest in t1i:it the!. actiaely seek to cause illness; tlie!. are liornicidal h6,even if their niotires cannot nI\vays I,e un~lcrstood. -rlic ~iiost o u u m n d i n g of these characters goes by tlic n:lmc of [lilt, from the Spnnish pniir.e cs,u, "fatlier," nlso referred to in ch:int coul~lers as ke18.ir0, "clerSymanv (Spanish clirigo). TIiey arc al,out one rncter tall, chubby, bnlrl, wit11 ankle-length vestments 2nd sl~oes. Tlicre is n o doubt that iliey are Catholic priests, tvitli tvhoni they are explicitly con~pnred. A liran explained t o nie hotv lie had once passed by the village cliurcli of tlie town of O s c l ~ u c where lie cnilgl~t sight of a piilc. It \\,as not, in fiict, 2 lnh a t all, 1,11t n real Cliristinn, praying in tlie ntrium, although he reall!. 'did look liken pile-fat and bald, \\,it11 multicolored clothes.

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(11 lsau Su!Bu!s plrc Su!sucp sen, Su!ql a q iaq ~ I! ~ ~ I I O J I E.asndll ~ ~ M a111 S ~ ! ~ [ s ~S .~ U! ~~l Ir~l~~ L A\US ~ I O,(a111 S 1 1 a i [in11 ~ 1!a1[1 jo uaqsl!q a111 11! sl!., '(I!LIIC~ a111IIIII: . ( ~ a ~ a [ d u 15s ~os 1011 peq [[!IS uns a q L .s!qjo sasuo~u!cnbse a1uos pan[o.tu! pul! aSrll!n ~ a q l o u e [I! ase d yo01 1aq1 I ~ I ~ I ) ! J BN!.MI[ U! -10, at11 s a l l a l p,)i uo ~u!l!lni gl!m '11u/ alp jo asas a q l u ! rnn .[)au.~nqs! I! (qaan\ aql jo pua a q 1 ~ 1 : :sao{[s pue 'nood 'laqsc! 'I.I!~s 'ICI[ I: ~ I I . \paglols \ ale gs!ga 'sanca[ I : L I C I I C ~~ a s s a ~ 1)111: d pa!~p jo ~ I I F I I I s! iiporl $11 .qaa,k~ J ~ I S C Alan3 ~ u n ! ~ l l :s,q~ln11s a111 U! s s o ~ a111 s PLIIIOJC ado^ c 1uo1j Suml s! laql llop (sopno xuznr at11 q~!nr1ua1(1ss11:d1uos 107 oztra.lo7 .~qS!ldnpuels 01 u a q i!m~ad ~ 01 se drat I? qsns o! (In ps1lo.1 ad -ed pnu!lcI 10uall!in\puoq ldasxa Su!qlou g! alaql 'S~r!g101s l!a111 q1ca11 -aq :Xpoq eSu!,\cq IOU u! aq!lc ale q l o a .Su!Lp uaaa 10 TI! Su!llcj ICI[J.LL a ~ u o s11! Yu!llnsa~ Llsno!nqo '121110 qsaa Slr!ll!y jo a[cl~dm31c :<a111 ,laalu op La111 'asurq3 Xq ' u a q s !Soole 1aS ION o p s a q ! [~~ L ~I C slsa!~ ~ J .111!1s!.\ s!q palsalassld ISu!nl:q Inoql!.\\ . ~ l ~ l l a ~ c d 'qooq rle c 11101~ Ipnolt? Su!pual Aq ssaull! pealds 01 p!cs s! a11 ' p a ~ s d ~ u o s!sa[[ 1ooq:n UI clat[3csl -100~1s~ 1 : aq!~ Su!qoo? l , ~ ( . ~ o s ~ . od .s ~d (lor~Jod 10 .~os!r.o.~d) ,,~ossyo~d a111 ,, caq!lssju pu!q 1)ilosas e jo uo!~d!lssap e n!c~qo01 ~lnsyj!p a.lour s! 11 . s a ! ~ -!lo2 [nos 1x110 "q IOU 'L[IJ~.I!PIU!IJ!A s1[q u o s ~ a d a1l1jo .(11011 .i~a.\ aql 'asca s!111 u! '1anantoH ,paulou uoslad a111 U! ssa1111! asnc3 01 l[Sno11a s! a1rolcuo!lsl: s!qi :IS![ r r ~ o 'auleo 1e11az~ 3111 'aulcu a111 SLI!I!.I,~~ ;i[lnja~c~ I N I W I . \ \ ~ ~ J 9u!11!s slojaq ,,iLcpo~ 01 ssaull! 1x1: aa!S 01 Bu!oS I 1111. o1pu 'aas qlal 'l[alki,, 'SACS ~ J H .SUI!IJ!,\ s n j o S S I U ~ L Ia q II.\\OP ~ S~I!I!J,,~ 'iq sssu -I[! s a ~ 1 9 ,,aurcu,, e 'sales!pu! U I J ~ Ia111 s\i .(,'I! uo SU!I!J.\) l[l!.n ~ a d e d ,l,o ,'~adcd~U!I!J,\\,,i , ~ ~ 0 0 q 8 ,((qooq,, 0~,, : 1 1 1 1 4 q00qISol e .1s1[loaql u! ' l J l { l ~ a j c sploq a11 S ~ I U C L s!qjo ~ auo u~ ,,'c~~a~!q,, 'JJJ.I!~/ pslles ley 1 " [I'LIUJ!'[S [NIL! s a q ~ a a ~ qsolq q u! psssalp (jlen\p e oslc s! 11 -(,,Su!q,, '!a1 sc s.raXe~d a111 u! 01 pa.llaja.1 a110 aql se J ~ I J I ! J C ~ slues J a qS ~l u ! e ~ ~ a 1so11i1e) s ,'a1111~1,, I 'J.I~/IL~K rls!ocds a1(1 11101~'ar~dlrrorla111 sapnlsu! 11 'J/!I~ all] 01 J ~ ! U I ! S s;(em :(uem n! s! qu/ j o addl (otruq!.i~r~XIS ,,'aq!l~s,,) otrui/!.~!.yr~ a1[j. waql pue .nou h a n a el[!llol ulos I: 1s11l :ucuS 01 suoq e uan!Y 'L[qel)ums~apun '~;l~\a11 9.11:11uc J ~ L J J I I J ~ 1p111: S la[[" a.1~L[S!LI.~ c ~ Q oUB!PUI p UIOJJ ~ualajj!p ale :(a[[~ leq~ s! ~r!l:l~as s! ~ c g .~I U k ~ ? I u13jo ~.I~ aq1 U! slad sc palq ale 11:1[1 sSop a l j a1qu1as ~ -a1 .i[asu1~ .(s1[1 1eq1 atu 01 S ~ L I ~ > 1 1 S. 3/!l!,J aql X q ma111 01 passol 1.resl I 2111 jo pl!n atp jo sauoq aq] jjo psaj lle~[l 'qsclq :illcuo!s1:sso ll.S~~og~[c 'a~!l[.u.il[m"s~ 'il.~nj pue dmnld 's5op ,(LI!Iale iiarlj- ,001 'i/t,/ us! q ~ ! q . a ' ( , ! I , trzi/ruy) ,,l:op U~![!ISI:-J~, I: .iq pa!l~cdmossc uayo aJe .I/!II/ a1l.L .I!s!a 01 B u y jo p u ~ q s!q~ loj uo!lcl!.\u! ue paiap!suos 51 'amoq alp ap!su! I I F A ~ c ~su!cBedn 111sq1ueal 01 S u ! ~ s a ] S a 11a.\a ~ .lo '~l[S!~~.ra.io 11lo SIOOIS Su!.\cal .(r[.n s! 1 1 : g ~'.~eS!s snoorloua 11s Su!~o1us;;[lnlasuad

50

The Jaguar and the Priest

The Ethnography of Souls 51

iicd zone, n.here another of their cliurches i n s located. In e:lrlier years, these nmsichl interludes coincided rvitli a pletlion of gastrointestinal conlplaints that \\.ere further cornplieated by a measlcs epidelnic, killing se\.eral small children. Earlier still, twenty or thirty years ago, another kind of ln6, the ~~~c'tiktntik (111otlersfaters) appeared, rvbich, with the passage of time, 113s become terribly morbid. T h e y seem to take the shape of old Inen : I I I ~\\.oluen n.ith gmy hair and beards, hnt they are invisible. They 11~11all!. sit on s ~ n a l l chairs around a table in the middle of roads to eat and (lri~ik cliieken, soup, liquor, and coffee. Any passerby runs the risk of inarlaertently knocking over their food, \vhich is invisible as n.ell. In retaliation, the llrc'tiktnti!,, relliose the miscreant's cl1'11lc1,in order to obbiin from the hcaling cerelnonics food that is at least as good. Rominko Extul, for example, had one of thesc niishal)~not long ago. I-Ie n.as rct\~rning home one night, very drunk. N o sooner lhad lhe crossed the stream beside the smlll coffee \\farcliouse than he noticed that somerhing made ]him sto~nblcand fall down. I t \\-as a bunch of ilre'tiktnrik. annoyed l ~ e c a u c he hncl knocked over their food. I-Ie realized that tlicy were holding him back by the ankle, so lie spent tbe \\.llolc night there on the bank of the stream, amid the puddles. As he slel~t, lie "saw" t h ~ t they were demanding t n o liters of liquor from him; at su~irise, once he had mallaged to make it home, he offered up the liquor at his houseliold a l h r . These 1/16 711e'tiktnti$ are III~IL, "earth," but they have nothing to do rr-ith the hlountai~l Lords. In a way, they are manifestations of the earth ill II\IIII:III for111. The lab a s Personal Power U I ) to lnow, we h:lrc looked at the different i~ossiblekinds of lnb. Let us 110n8turn to boa. the Tzeltnl use tliese In6 in inatters of personal power. Everyone has atI least one in4 altl~ougllmost people possess more than one. O n e 111b per person is considered a minimum, \vhile the nlaximum ~i;imberis thirteen, but people osually base "se\~eral,"that is to say "t\vo or three.'' It seems that any combination of In6 types is possible \vithin an individual, for example, a puma, a butterfl!: \\rind, a schoolte:~cher. a n and, and a "mother-father." Even mutually incompatible lnb, such as lightning bolts and \vinds, or priests and scribes, may occur together \vithin the same individual. T h i s notion led me to ask one day :il~out the possibility of one person's conflictive In6 types killing each otlier, llut my query a8asmet \vith bewildyrnlent.

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T h e nomcrical classifier used for In6 is krla."' Such counrcrs refer to a gra~limaticalparticle in Tzeltal that describes the shape or some other qualit!, of tile thing tllat is being counted. Krtn is generally employed to count scparete things chat exist on the salile horizontal plane and ch;it possess some adjoining point of co~n~nunicarion, like the rooms of a house, should it have more thnii one, con~iected through a n opening, \\,licther ;i door\vay or another aperture. For exanlple, if you say in '1'7.eltal that someone has three 1,1b, you rrould sn!. ~IJ ode11 slnb re is1 isinik, :i rough tmnslation of \vIiich would be: "He is/has (ny) three (0.x) things joi~~c(l horizonrally (kr171) that ;ire his lnb (.r/lrli), that being with a human for111 (tnl) that is a hurn:ln being (aiirik)." Ne\*ertheless, I must .idmit the expression is a little forced, formulated as a response to the cle~nands of in!' questions. Broa(1ly speaking, the term 1 1 1 l h ~lesignates sooiething hidden, \.eilcd. :is in the expression slnb kbp, "l;inguage with obscure ineaning." H ( ~ r r e\-er, \vhcn referrills to the soul entity, the word lnb sounds too "strong" In use in c o ~ ~ r . e r s : ~ and t i o ~~~o\\.adays ~, a common recourse is to employ other terms that are lialf synoliyllis, half euphemisms. For instance, the \vorrl llr~kr!/(crcator of illness or the very substance of the disease) is usetl if the lirb is a threat; the word i ~ v c ("angel: l which in fact designates refers to one's o\vn In6 that are protective n ~ i dbeany soul co~nponcnt) nign; sometimes in songs, the se~nnntic parallel to 1/16 is ~L'IIJ, the root of "sleep/~lream."Nonetheless, the \vord enlployed 111ostoften is undouhtedlyyi~cl,equivalent to so~neone's "power," "f;~culty," his or her capacity to affect otllcrs or to be affected. 111p n t , the Inb are "po\ver," due to the 61ct that sonic o f their most characteristic fac~llties(depending on their kind) tilake their presence krlo\rn i l l the body or, more accurately, in the person as a whole. Indi\.id\~nls \\,lioce lnb are jaguars or pulnas tend to be corpl~lcntand s t n ~ ~ l g ; ]~cople rvith ;I hawk 1/16 may have entmonlinal-y eyesight; those who arc n w e r In6 Iiave no fear of s\vimming in rivers; those \vitli wind In6 are stormy by nature; Indians with "mother-father" lnb are said to hare shove-average \\.isdom beeause "they cnn see \\.hat happens beneatll the earth's surface." Additionally, s o ~ ~In6 i c are accorded strengths that \vould never be imagined, judging fro111their outujard appearance. For exaniple, dcspite its delicate appearance, tbc hum~uingbird is coilsidered to be a po\verful lir6, perhaps on nccoulit of its ability to penetrate diverse re;llms-~nainly the earth's interior an11 the sky-realms barred to other lheings. I-Ionvver, as have seen, having one or more I d constitutes a risk

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58

The Jaguar an& the Priest

The Ethnography of Saulr 59

moan, writlie, and roll about on tlie floor, shouting very loudly ns if lie were in great paiii. Tliis \vent on for a few seconds until all of a sudden, silence fell. Sliortly aftcrmartl tlie mother died. T h e talc stopped therc. 'I'here \r.:~sn pause, and then tlie conversation took another turn. I licrer discussed this account with anyone, but it is, I think, easy to interpret: tlie rnother atteinpterl to cede her lnb to her son, but his body did all it eould to reject it, as the lnb \\.as not innate. \?'list, perhaps, the episode leaves hanging in tbe air (very characteristically, it should be said) is \\plietlicr tlie transference was finally successful or not. 111any case, [lie incident speaks eloquently of the concern regarding the l~ossibility of inothers trying to pass on their own lnl, to tlieir sons or claogliters, gmndsons or grahddnughters. It is believed \yomen \vould be "usurping" (~rorlra~el) tlie transniission of lnb on the father's side, \\,hen they slioulcl in fzict restrict rlleir role in making the eonti~iuntionof tlic father's line possible. It is rnken for gtantcd that an equal numl~erand kind of lnb is inaintnined among tlie lineages, but not among the clans composing each. O n tlie other hand, some clans tend to sl~ecializein l~nticular types of1,1/,. For example, a clan in n.Iiich many ~iiembers inlial~it tlie valley slopes fncing\he town of Cancoc is said to possess lnl, of tlie "writer beings" group. Indeed, solne of tliem are specialists ill s\rpim~ninp goods and people across the river. O n the otlier lial~d, since tlie ise limited, its unstable distribution is sul>ject quota of INII ~ e lri n e ; ~ ~ to an'i~ndergroundstrt~ggle to reduce other clans' h b for tlie benefit of one's o\va clan's In11 T h i s is done through the straightfor\varrl process of killing eacli other. world of the Inh, on a~liiclio ~ i c 'I'l~is is tlie only l~l:ine,[lie can note the influence of interclan politics. Apart from the odd, isolated episode, it all seerl'is a bit distant when viewed from tlie lperspecti\~eof ordinary life in Cancuc.'*

sollie points of convergence. Two of these coincidences arc especially revealing. niountains also First of 811, tlie true rh'tllel that rlu.cl1s in the cl~'iil1~11 possesses lnb. Tliis means tlie Lll tliat are to be found duplicated inside a human body are also to be found in his rl~'r11elin ch'iihl. Secondly, the "external" lilb have within then1 a reflection of the silhouette of the fleshl destiny they share ("silliouette," here, for \vhar and-blood T ~ e l t a whose solneone called cl'r~lcl-a very i~nprecise term in any case-and solncone else called tiokcrnl, that is, a "person's shndow"). A new l~ossibility may be inferred from these t\rso explanations: an i~nrnediate relationship exists 1)etn.een the cl'i~lclof the d'iibnland the Lb. If this is so, the relatio~isliipsbetween tlie soul coniponents may be imagined as forming a rl-ia~igle, each corner ofu.hicli-Cancuc, tlie rl,'iilit~lmountaill, the Inbis <luplicaterl i l l tlie other two. Most Tzeltnl only show some interest in two sides of tlie rel:itionsliip, that is, bet%veenCancuc and tlie cl,'iil~nlon Cancuc and the lab on the other. T h e third tlie one hincl, and I~etween side, joining tlie ch'ii1,nl and the la/,, is not \i20rked out so n.ell; but the 01Id clue to its intervention ill everyday life (nay yet be discerned. One possibility, for instance, one tliat not all Tzeltnl are ready to entel.rain, is that tlie cl'iilel givc tlieir consent to some lnb to harm the I I U I I I ~ ~ body I 01-inake i ~ s c of them to mete out punislirne~lt.Another possil~ilit!: orle n.it11 even fe\r.er supporters, is tliat the lab theniselves are sanctioned on the 11:irt of the rl~'iilinl'"

Further Interpretations So f;ir o.e lia\re seen a l l the aspects that exist in rhe general an.araless of tlie l~eoplc, n.hicli are widely known, even tliough they are riot ex:ictly publicly :~ck~ionsledged. 1-Io\vever, private con\~ersatio~is rcvealecl that there were those \rho had worked out otlier relationships in much greater depth, tliough rliey were unable to refer to concrete "e\.entsn to back them up. Tliese relationsl1ips, \\.hen heard independent15 reveal

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qs!r[.\\ ' s d a SI! inq 'a[q!s!A L[lca[s IOU ser\\ I! !IU!I[ jo 1u01j U! pa~eaddc 101 -as0 try -poo[q Su!sol p u t ]sol SEA\ aq '[pjlqS!u ,(a .Isaloj aql u! ql.\\o~Y. -lapun a111 qSno~111 Lu,\\e pa!alnJs Llq~!nba~ .UII~! a q u! ~ m!q papundn\ L1uo a ~ a q s m u aqi LIJ!I+~\ 01 S ~ U B pue ~ I ' q q pas!~dlns1~111 ileal L: s e . ~ 1 1 , ~ a ~ c a111 .\\ SSOJ~WII!~ 7001 1cqi deal snoluloua ue spew aI.1 .pcag s!il 11: 11aur!c s w \ Sa1a1[Jl!lu ,slue[!csse s!q jo auo .nor1 ,\\cs a11 pul: 'uo!leiaSan aql lx~!qsqtuoy lna paqsnl Lsql ' m c a l ~ s at11 SSOJS 01 So1oS sem q sc '3asuns IV .SucS [BA!I at11 jo S J J ~ I U ~ U i(q I paqmqruc st.<\I! rear[.\\ S U O ! I J I ~ asoqi jo auo 01 11aSuolaq per[ a H .ap!se l c ~ ! q d e ~ S o ! q o ~uc n c~ u n o s s c s!q ow! paJnpollu! JL[ 'uoseal l u a ~ a d d c ou ~ o'uaq.i\-0i61 j pun011:s n s o c 3 u! [OJIUOJ az!as OI ldrnalic rle u! s u o ! ~ ~ e UjU J J M I s ~i ~ qSg-~~assau~! per[ .~ 2 1 1 ICY] xu!] u! a i o u i a ~ sluana aaros jo aur Su![[a~su.n 'ic,ne 11!j ~ ! q I: pa.\![ o q . ~ '291: paJucnpc jo uelu y -leuo!ldas?;a s! q u ~ i Su!aq ~ p lnoql!.\\ poc .ilanoauc~uods qu] omo s!q Aj!lusp! pleaq I tu0q.n u o s ~ a d d[uo a111 'iq uaa!S .(uom!~sa~ Su!mo[[oj a q i(qn\ ~ s! l e q L . ~ a ~qsnol c l sluaas clleat[u.no s,aoo jo ,(i!luap! a q S ~u ! p ~ a S auo!lalr![sap ~ rrado uc 'asl:s al!sod~loa q L jjnlq SIIO!JS~~OJ e pa11m aq 01 Su!qse ale d a q ~ luq~ a~\!ssasxaos tuaas r ( ~ :IOJIIIOJ-jlas ~ ~ ~ s,auo a a ~ o a ~ ~ 01 : n~ S a q suo!lnc~ald u :(~as~a,\u! pun dlll:[!or!~.uoseal .<la.\1cq1 ~ o]no j [palnl XI 01 Su!SSaq aq 01 s~uaas I! l e q ~ leuo!luanoos 11111: sno!,tqo us a! u.nooq aplxu s! leqi uS!s aqi s d c q ~ a d .,(~!~uap! umo s,aup a] p.1o9si I[]!." J ~ ~ S J Ulnoqr O ana!latl slsqlo saqear auo icq,\\ "1 ilcd c sdl:[rl uo!~l:la -'\a1 IXIC 1ua~r1casuos lc!lled jo uo!lclnd!ueul ~ m c s ! q ~ sllnpr: usamlac1 'uo!~[sr!jsnofiolaur! ue u1 .slsqlo aql luoq sarlo an11 a q l j o Su!lSuelun arli u! ap!sal unj SI! l ~ u d i l n ~ y j !~p~ I U a Eq S~ pue 'asll:] .ilale~aq!lal~ all! s~aqio inti ~ J I : ssnls aloes ,3! uapp!~f seq oq.it rros.rad alp irl rrair2 'sanls .laqlo l o [l!qla.\ Su!sn puy 01 aneq isal a111 I C ~~sa!qo I (laals a u ~ o s sa[)!q s ~ o e d ! s ! l ~ ~ a111 ! d jo auo q~1q.o11! J~LII!S s,ualp[!~[s c s! a . ~ a q j ,[CI]S.LL > aqi jo Su!q![ a q 01 ~ qsnw lnoqlon\ l e n l s a f [ ~ ~uc u ! 'arueS lo pu!q u sa!ltl - ~ u 'u.\m ! s,auo jo ;(jano~s!pa111 u! Su!pla!d l o 9rr!1s!sa.r sl: lla.\\ s!'slaqio jo sa!l!iuap! pslcasuo~-j[oqaql ole! s~!~!nbu! S u ! q c ~ ~'ssa[aqI.rsna,y r .uo!ss~~SuCc jo 1se ,(LIE '1lelsaloj 01 .lo 'uioy jpsauo p ~ l y a p 01 paau I: jo u~oq s~oaas-~IJ].t!aqi 'Ile aaaqVpnr! /.~/qv l!aq>-slleaq s,aldoa1I .laqlo jr, sa!i!~uap! 2111 II! punolr! S u ! ~ a ~ l a u! j I S J J J I ~ ! ~ ! L [ 'Ia a o i u ~ a r [ ~ . ~ n j z . ~ a ~aan[ ~ t d ?~~ a ,c \ puo,(sq oS iou saop rro!~ -!dsns aql ' d ~ c ~ ~ a uq ou s ~ g .uo!i~a~!p pue .(sua~s!suosu! qioq su!r:9 a.re I a n q l 'am!] qi!m-rslaa as!n puc 'laqloue Lq dn paqscq 9.<lan!~sajja aq 01 s! ssanS aoo j! pnr! dlsno!~as [jc lc uaqc1 aq 01 ale sassan2 j! p a q n b a ~ a ~ c .(~!srs!ds.lsd pun lsalalu! jeoos~ad'isej u~ .asej s,auoaulos u! 1.110 ire %as 'sas a,\\ i[~!q.\\ jo SUWS" '((1 IIO!S!A IS~JEI-~111-LID ual111ns c 1011 s! I! Ille . ~ o j

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66 Tile Jaguar end tlie Prlert

Souls and Signs 67 she had done in rlie last feu, d:iys. I-lad so~>iething srmngc llapl~enednt the spring or thr marker? 14'hat did she ear nr rlie marker the Snnday I~efore? Once breakfast \isasover, everyone went his or her separate wag n.irhour hazarding an explanation for the dream. Later on, intrigued by rile wllole incident, I asked Xun P'in to tell me ~uliarthe dream meant. H e was quite clearly rlie right person, not only because he was the "master of the house," but also because, ns a shaman, his aurhoriry as n drennl inrerprerer was rrell ntrested. Nrverrheless, his answer \\!as that ir was difficult to knoa: 4lar "dreams are hard ro unrlersmnd, strange." If the young ivornali continued ro have s i ~ ~ ~ i dlra er :~~i~s, perhnps they could knoiv a bit more, bur lie would necd more derails of the drelni and lhcr conscious life. a.ords, ro eiroke rhe menni11g o f a dreanl is ;I matter of placIn o t l ~ e r ing it in o \vider context, in ;I way that permits tlre recognition of sonle o C the r;~ther sc:lnt dernils as signilicant (insofiar as they show sonle kinsllip linking t h e o ~ to others). 111 that clse, the question would be s~hicll clerails are signilicnnr, and then what nre they signs of; or is it simply one dreams with no purpose at all? Thus, strictly speaking, the of so 111:11iy hlrr~re does nor appear in dreams, for drenms are riot ~lrcdicrions. Rarhcr, drc:ilns are of interest due to their capncir); to partially uncover overlaps in rlic rcl.lrionhi~1sbetwcen people-d~'ftle/ inreracring rvith other ch'rtlrl or wit11 lt~b.or, less clearly, ltlh interacting irirh r.l~'rrlelor orher l ~ h 111 . n a.:>kingst:lre, rl~ese inreracrio~i.~ pnss by on~ioriced, 111:1skerlby an al)lxrprixe mirude or an impassive face. Therefore, hoa.cver mt~ch rhcir in~crprerarions are oriented toward the future, tlieTzelta1 are conrcnr ro SC:III for si~ii:~Is tllnr reveal x h a t is in the offing for :\ person, in rnl~rli the same way ns at~i~ospheric changcs forercll storms. As \vc c:in see, tllr discovery of the llerson's identir!; as ma~iifesrecl on the sragc of l~hgsic:~l appearance or the ineaning ol drc:lnis, is pervncled wit11 the sanie interl)rccarive attitude. We ]nay proceed n little further in this direction.

going KI hare inan? liens or a good coffee crop, or perliaps he is going to occup!. some religious post or become a shaman. In practice, howe\.er, a dream's meaning is not so easily revealed. A s l ~ c i t i cbut , nor cornpletely exceptional, case will serve to illusrrare this point. 111S u n P'in's house, where I had spent the night, the women got I I before ~ daa.11, as usu:~l,and made rheir way to the kirchcn-an area sheltered by some beams covered with a flat thatched roof, with walls of ban:inn lea\~es 2nd plastic sl~eeting-ro stoke the embers of the fire, start niaking the corn doogl~, and warm up the coffee. \ire men joined them later n~idhoddlerl around the fire to take the edge off tlie cold. Allart from S u n P1in,and his wife, their four sons lived in the house, t\vo of them n.ir11 their wives and children. One of these wi\res, :I very young \\.onian, hall a d r e a ~ n that night and told it to her motl1er-in-law, \vho in turn told it to S u n , :)mid comments ofanother sort, when be came into tlie kitchen. T h e second ~ e r s i o nof the dreani's contents \\.as roughly th:~tshe "11nd been spebking" nith a "Castilian" (knx/1171),r\,l,icl~could be onderstood either as nlenning that she did indeed spenk \\:irh him, or tliat she had sesull intercourse with Ilinl. In fact, the two meanings are not so very different in Cancuc, where a young ivornnri is nor alloued to converse with n male who does not belong to ller own clan, .is I Inter fon~lrl out, this is a drenn~ tllat recurs quite often among \\,omen, s o ~ n e t i ~ i being ~ e s interpreted as foretelling a miscarriage. Nor was it, I g:ithered, the iirst rime rhnt this \r,oman had had such a drennl. IVithout atmchi~ig too much i~nportance to the d r e a ~ nS , u n ]"in still \vantecl to knorv more details. H e asked the young girl to her face ro denllpearance. Had sbe seen llini before? A'o. \i'11:1t scribe the Castilia~i!~ were lhis clothes like? She didn't remember very \\,ell, but he wis s c a r inga shirt. :\[I old shirt? Quite old, but it looked clean. IVas he earl-ying a book or anything else? No. Where did the encounter take ])lace? Slle didn't knorr,. Wear the stream? No, it seemed ro be on a path. r\ big path or a little otie? She thought it \\,as a \vide path. Mras there a cross? Slle (licl~it, recall seeing one. Butwas it so~ne\vIlcrein Cancuc? She rlidn't think so, she didn't recognize the place, but it was all open arm. Did she , have the drenm e : d y or late in the night? Shortly before n-nking up. T h e young girl \!.as giving brief nnswers in an allprol1riarelg g:irI)led li~shion. Then Sr~n's\rife asked her sorr~echir~g rli:~tI could not COIIIpletely un<lerstand;it had to do with wllether she had spoken n-it11 her niorlier about her current hooie. All this went on nt length, inrerao\,en wit11 conversations about kvhat everyone \\.as going to do rh:it day. Tlie husband madefun of his wife's dream, and everyone laughed. h few rni~iutes later. S u n cecommcnced asking questions, this ri111cabout \\.lint

"Comparing, Harmonizing like Voices" T h e Tzclr:ll verbno/) innybc tmnslarerl :IS "to learn," "to o~~dersrand," Iiut its semantic mnge is in fact 1nuc11Sridcr. T h e vocabulary of the 'lieltal Inngoagc cornpiled in rhe sisreenth cc~itury by the Spanish Dominican de ii~x-possihly around 1560 in the Tzelml-spcaking friar D o ~ n i n g o villnge of Copanagu;isrla, \\.here h r a \\,as, with a few interruptions, parish priest for allnost ru'e~ity-seven years (Rur 1986)-si~nulrancously

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I

and the Priest

Souls and Signs 75 my grandchil~lrc~l Icr r11c111,,Dl COIIIC let them nor come nelr the sacred enemies rllc sacrcd gossipers rhe sacrcd pricsr rl~c sacred king [he sacred bjshop thc sacrod gonr \v~tll rho snered dog of Casrile \\,it11 rlle sacred hummingbird of Casrile four lineages, sacred inorher four phmrrics, sacred father four sncred guardians four sacrcd miljor~loa~os [angels of rhe lineage and/or rllc house ports] I give you your "alms" I give you your words visit nlc l~clp mc in a corncr of my housc inn corncr o f m y pen Illy s.1crcd ~11cI0sllre o ! 'r lilc for health Ncrcrthclcss, within rhis hcrmeric space, indir,idual privacy is virtually nonesisrenr. T h e sensarion of r11e n b s e ~ ~ of c e privacy srelns f r o m the fact that rcn 01- fifreen people sleep togerher in rhe same place, exacerbated at nishr lhy c r y i n s childrc~l, barking dogs, undercover com~ersarions,restless sleep, sorrier to urinate, and s o forrh. T h e sreambarh, in facr, is the only place rhar affo~rls I I I Y privacy irirhill the domestic compound, so it is often :I place for a111orous trysrs. Ir should be recalle(l that domestic g r o l ~ p x : ~nor r c rhe c o n r i n u a t i o ~of ~ lineages o r clans on :I smaller scale. In fncr, in 1i1a11yresl~ecrs, they are in open opposirion to them. N o r can they properly ilc mid to 11e unirs of producrion, alrhough [he!; can possess some sorr ofspeci:~lizarion.In reality, it ~ r o u l d be bertcr to describe rlle111ns gossil) unirs." 1 Esl~osing oneself to rhe gaze of orhers, consequenrly making risible traces ofwhar is concealed in rhe hearr, is ro become rhe ol)ject of gossip, and in turn, gossip is primarily, if nor solely, pracriced within the 11o1ne.

trative lbuildings are to be found. T o a cermin degree, paths are also considered public and for women, the springs and h a n k of rivers ~ v h e r erhe!; collect \rparer and d o laundry. In sharp contrast, each dof mestic compound is a nrorld of its own. For rhe most parr, each domestic unir is composed of several buildings-a main room and a kirchon, and s o m e t i ~ n e sR building for each married son-and a fair nmounr of surrounding lanrl. Preferably, each unit nrill b e locared a good dismnce a n a y from rile' nesc, tile farther rlle berrer. I n r h r n 3 e n r rh:lr there is n o enclosins \roll o r fence, everything is arranged-rrees, plants, n.ind'ing parhs-in such a way char srrangers will be unable t o carch even [he slightesr llinr of nrhar is said o r done within. Donlesric l ~ r o t e c r i o ~ l ceremonies-generally conducred rnrice a year, but also n.llen rhere is sorne sense o f foreboding o r someone has been having recurring nigl~rmares-offer a good synrhesis of chis feeling of being cloistered. T h e follou-ins are soule esrracrs mken from a ?JIII~'II/ kri~-/cj/i/-rype p r v e r , b y rueans o f which rhe domesric space is "closed" (ch'ri/ ~ ~ m k ' t c , , rL'slsor~l:"rhe sacred enclospre," "rhe sacred p e ~ ~ " ) :
Ijpt~ r~~~s a.ir11ir1 e l f : ~ I Ienclosure I pur m!;sellrvirhin a pen a hi; lpcrl, now I lhirteell jlcns, 11011. a pcn of sraker a pel1 of wire rvhere I arll l ~ u n ~ b l y r~hcre I lirc Ihu111l11y sacred lord angcl [of thc li icage] J slcrecl 11dya ~ ~ y c l slcred lord sacrrd hrller 1,canle wir11 my l~umble word I conle wit11 IIIY I I U I I I ~ I C hcarr benearl~ your fcxr bcnearh your shoes I ask for my healrh I ask for my life my pcollle m ! ; wife my childrcn In? women (his sons' \vivcs]

:uo!ll!sl.,.lnOs o jo luaru -8c.y e s! s!q= .uo!lo!lqau! dq p a s n x a s! r[s!q,u p11c u! 11cd saqel auo.(.ra -,\a icy1 ame8 r u! 'ssalaqlauou ponlnIajJun lnq u a ~ o r l s u ~~ J~ ,Ci a q ~ lcql 'suo!~du~nssc paa~Se .([l!sc~jo a ~ u a n b a sI! 51: 'Bu!Xcs lirnotuclul:l s! I[J!lI.n ' q u n ~ p s! ~ U O ~ U I Ouaql+\ S dl, auras L[uo dllansn d a q .uouru~osuo ~ aIoru oa,\a ale sald!su!~d [nos 01 sasualajal '~uarrruo~!.\ua s!l11 ap!s1110 .uo os p u g 's8u!uaddcq 'same5 (,lorn (s[cnl!.r Bu!lcall ' s s a u l [ ! j ~ s!sorrSc!p 'I! j o yaa[ 10 asoc~caddc leuos~ad OI oo!1ua111: 'sloea.1pjo I 110u ' - ~ : ~ a . r d . ~a ~ qu~ w ! 11~11s 'sl!qeq X[!cp j o a S u c ~ lc[nSa~.l! lnq a.\!sualra uc jo sotaiu [lalnl.mu s! 11 .saqs!lnoU pne luaulala sl! u! s! pou~~iror.rac~jo, .Su!~rr:aura jo S ~ ! ~ I : JI I ~clasuos lal[azL a g 1et11 ~ ~ s a l u o s!lsaulop s ' p a l l a , ~ o ~ l u s!1[1 ! u! s! I! o~ a111l!~lr.radS[!L!IJIJ 511 .a1111e1rI U ~ I I . I ~ ~ I O IILIC ~ U ! .i~!nS!c[~ri~: sl! II! ,(las!sa.~d 'a[qc1183J<l~l! ~somlc as!.waqlo 2.1: 1eq1 s s ~ a d asoqi s j~x~!gl.lrlj ~JIIIX~ ~plrc I . ~ I ! [ ! ~ ~ C J ! ~ I ~ ~SI! L~I SII!I:Y IIICI 'IIO!ICZ!ICLII~IS,~S ~ 11,S S ~ I ~ ~ ~ I O J I . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .ial[~ j! 51: 'UO!IUL~IJOJU! S ! I S J I U O ~ YU!IS~S.IJIII! jo as.11108 ~ C I L I ~ U I C [ I LI:I I ~ ~ sl! [[I: .IOj ' ~ [ ! S S O111([ ~ '('~[sA!II:[~u PIIC I ~ Jii(lcau!j sassa.1Ro1d 1aql 3x21 ual li1asa.1da.r sa.\!.u pandl.aau ' u o s o ~ aruea ~ aqld1a9~c[ 102 . [ ~ c a a ' a qjo l .iea -]!.I* c 'a[clnlvsa .ioj '01 [>a~edruos uaq,n uu!~::z!~l:~ua~s,is~ ~ ~ I ! L I I !.i.~a,i ( I! a111uo .i[ll:!sadsa ' a ~ c l d s![i[nd aiuos u! s.ials!s .lo n1[lom .1!a1[1on? !'Inllul '1p7nog1[1!) slnos inoql: aSpa[.~\ooq jo ~ s a d s s JIII:III~IS~~ ISOLLI S 2111 a1111!~s .(a111 ira:[h\ J O ( a [ i j c s ! , \ p ~ x G ' ~ ! ~ ~ ~I!S!A a u ~1 o : s 111aq1 ) 5u!iii!cl IIJLI.U jayl!a -1103 [[a.\\ .(MU s1a~il:Jd .I~I[lOlIC 10 ~ [ I o s ! d 11:[n3!111:i~ ~ 5110 jo 1 1 0 ! 1 ~ l a ~ d l ~ ~ 's~ua.rt:(I,!alp jo asnoq a111 u! amoq .1!a1[1JO IIO-S~U!OS al~.\!~cI a111 a5\11.\ -u! all1 u! aa1la%[1anr! JO asn aql poe .(~!~!ltlruo~ . ~ or!ioo.~ j ssq1:lli I! ' t [ s n u ~ -![I . ( ~ ! L I I , ~ ~ ~ U ! ~ ~ I ~ U C I ~ I sic.s[c ! ~ dljeau-sa.\!~e[a~ [cu!ljc ICI[I sa![!t~r~!j X.1a.y ~ i a s o~ S11!.\1:1[ InoIp!.\\ plre 'arn!~auras aql lpuc auo I V .I! S~I~:I!I!J u! [ i c a ~ p ~ u x a ~ d - ~ n ag1 . \ a ~ o sluuossc j apnl!llc s ! q ~ , 3asnoq J a ~ [ l o ll! -19 d[[cnlse lnq 1ro!Ics!unurI1Ios I ~ ~ I I ! LI [ O U S ~ O I (i[cro I 1011 ~ S U ~ ~ S ! S L I O J ~ I ! 110 sso5 loq.u U! sqqnd u! ISaJalu! Luc ,,\oqs '[lw~oq".m 01y i ~ c Ja.\an I s!gl I u [ l u!l:lJas s! I! 'la.\a.\\o~ . s o o ! ~ r ~ a i d ~ Su!S~a.\!p a~u! 61a1a~c111103 o1 c ( a s ! ~ s c ~ u! d .~to[[oj 01 ~ a p i c q qJnm lnq 'lslg ax11 0 1I~!O~I~ILIIIO las!Sol J as!.[ a.i!Y OI .(c*r aull:s a111 (I! I I X I ! I J S ~ I111a.ya ~1111:s 5111 .10/ a[~l!ssocI II~.%J aqq ~ I L I O J J S ! ~ L L u ~a Oo ~~ inoL 111 cro saoS IF~[.U Ino ptry a[cloacI JJL[IO la[ s! I! [~1"suo!lc[1onsse a11II:s a111 2l~:qssi(ert\le 1011 0)) [CIIZJ. a111 'slnos Ja;!ao 'IS.I!~ ,;Su!~!l anu!]uoa 01 a[qe aq ol,, 's! 1eq1 'q![ jo ss1111Se 11r!1[ jo sJJllcu1 ll! .([[c!J~c[s~ ' l C l [ l Joa[xa1!loJaq I! 's.na!a.Ialu! q S n o . ~ l [ ~ , uai!S ,I"'[ . I X ' ( IS!L~ ~ SJ!.\pCJO S S J J ! ~ O A ~aql I a1:r 01 p a ~ e x l a n1;~u ~ 5o1n1.iy
lSJ!ld all& pur irnli'r a q l

9~

The European Within

79

The Magic Mountain

CHAPTER 4

The European,Within

:\n inventory of Tzclml souls reveals a very extensive and detailed erotic

geoxr:iph!., a (liscontinuous map o f places that are alien to the ever!.cla!. life of an 1ndi:in peasant froin t l ~ e Chiapas liighlands region. Souls bclong t o the underrvorlrl, rbe annosphere, the rainforest, the n~ounraintops, iklesican cities. . . . T h e species o r animals of which suuls form a 11wt are t~suallyfound in rlie bot lo~vlanrls,eonsidered by the highland I n d i a n to be insalubrious i n d unsuited to civilized life. But this assorte$ gallery of strange beings is also present in tlie human heart. ro d b e the in~ierinost orgari :I[ rlle core of rllc bod!; T h e heart, c o ~ ~ s i d e r e ltas folded tliis erotic g&ogmpliy in such a way that what lies deep inside oneself fornis a n internal landscape that eaptures and rel~licatesthe outside rr,orl<l.I-leart a ~ i d rvorld are sullerimposed, eaeli int~tually affecti n g the other. 13eta~ee11 the111there is a topologicnl relationsliip through \\~liiclipersonal destiny is linked to outside events; rr,llat l ~ a p ~ ~ e to r l rsl ~ e jaguar in the jungle rvill affect the human body in the rillage. Necertlielcss, souls d o not represent rlie facet of these beings that we s.ould call ordinal-y or natural-animals, meteors, humans-but their otlier side, their reverse, saered clr'vl condition. Wh:it is folded into the hwnan heart is, s o to speak, tlie interior of all rlrese beirlg.~,the "otlier" ' of tlie ordinary world. As a consequence, their behavior, their habits, and tlieir abilities differ in essence from the natural species rliat inhabit tlie heavy, op:ique state ofjfl~tmlnl,the solar world. Evidence for this difference I i e t \ v c e ~ tlie ~ two sides of the being-the ordinar). and tlie sacred stace-is found in inali!r aspeets. Ho\vever, chis chapter is devoted to s h o ~ r i n g \\,hat is probahly tlie common denominator of souls: their "Castilian" character and their association with tlie European or A?exi, c,in modern world.

Indian descriptions of tlie lives of clr'rilelsouls inside tlie lnountain swing bitn.een two extremes. At one extreme, the society of souls lives in a perfectly ordered world-a iphce that is harsh, categorical, authorir:~rian-i\fl~ere there is differentiation betrveen age groups and the sexes, but at the same titiie they are united by n common structure, tlie very edifice that gives them shelter.' T h i s point of view conjures up in the imagination a closed-in, contained space with a n arcliitecture that cuts into it vertically, mtlier like a microtome that leaves the interior architecture of the mountain-levels, compartments, alveoli-on vierip. From rhe ~ ~ e r s p e c t i v of e r11e otlier extreme, horvever, souls inhabit ;in open, unsral~legeog~'aph); as we are about to see, and have an a b u n d ; ~ n c e of in(lustria1 gootls a.itli \vli,icli tllcy lire a life of esrmrrag:lnce and wnstefulness: a nonplace n.lierc social code and bodily ctiquettc are sysrelnarically s i ~ b r e r t e d :~nd \i,liere tlie logic of kinship ultimately disappears. E:~cli of these descriptions of rlie two forms of life lived by the souls usli lies to the li111it what the life of the 'Pzeltal in the ordinary world mainrains in an inter~nediatestare. T h e cb'irbnl m o u n r a i ~is ~ sirnultaneousl!. nor~nality a n d excess, cont:iinrnent and incontine~lce. Bur in both cases, tliis otlier life of the souls is characterized by the adoptio~i of a E ~ ~ r o l l c a on r ~VIexicanculture. T h e political organization of tlie autliorities and tlie repertoire of signs proclaiming their legiti( r a c y are :issnciated \vitli the Castilian world. O n e exariiple is t h e clinirs and henches 011 o.liicli they ;it. T h e significance of t l ~ e s ecan only be understood when contrasted \vitl~those used in tlie Indians' ordin:iry life, wllcre sea& are rougll stools hcrr'll fronl ho~lorved-outtree trunks, or else tiny chairs. liiside the mountain, these have all been transfor~ned into large benches o r heavy high-backed chairs mitli armrests, i n other \rords, into the furniture of the colonial Castilian councils. I n their dealings witli the niounmin, tlie shamans often identify thernselves :IS European lawyers. The), are nor s o rnueli the defense attorneys present in a trial as they are [lie "lawyers" (li<elrcinr(os) u*lio are able to cope witli the intricate labyrinth of I-Iispanic 1eg:il bureaucracy historically closer to the and obkiin a ]prisoner's freedom, s o ~ n e t h i n g Indian experience. T h e r e are some shamans for whom "defense" is no nlore ~ ~ ; I :I I lienling I cerenion!r hefore the altar in the house. Still orhrrs assert that their very sotil visits tlie mountain to deal directly ~ , i t h the authorities. Ar times, it is the authorities of the mountain the~nselves \vlio summon tlie shaman's presence through dreams.

80 Tllc Jaguar and the Priest

The European Within 81

In this c:lse, the rh'iibnl mountain is usually represented as a inodern i\Iesican courtho!lse buil!ling One sliarnan described the rh'iilinl as heit;g like a modern thirt~en-story glass-and-concrete block \\.it11 tlie lineage Rag flying froxi a pole on one of its baleonies. T h e soul of the shaman-the version found in the heart-enters through a re\folving door; a receptionist hands him a ticket \\.it11 thenumber of his turn, and lie .... ..~ goes to sit in the nraiting ro6rn\vhere a great many shamans are niaiting. \\'hen he is called, he takes the elevator. T h e lower levels are occupied by storerooms, archives, garages for cars and small airplanes. O n arrival at a certain floor, he meets a secretary sitting behind a table who consults the case file. If tlie offense committed by the soul is too serious to be resolved, then the shaman soul must return to where he came from; in this case, the most likely outcome is that tlie patient will die. Rut i f the way is cleared for him to proceed, the sharnan will go to the three uppermost le\rels: the "big-small" level, the middle-aged souls' level, and fi,,ally the "motl~ers-f;thersm level. I-Ie will then go to the offices of the Great l\Iother, the president, and the trustees, and finally to tlie councilors' room. In each of these sections lie will ask for a pardon and nrill ~, ~ . . offer liquor, flon.ers, and somctirnes the soul of a chicken, substances offered up on tlie domestic altar that he has brought wit11 liini person:lily. I-Ie n-ill make sure everyone gets a share. T h e idea that everyone receives son~etlling, regardless of their position o r post, is firnd:~nlerlral, I~ecanse if :my vestige of antipatli!~or resentlnent remains, it will be easy for tlie illness to strike again. T h e shaman-lanryer can then argue that 111e:tccuser !!,as only moved to ; ~ cas t he did because he held ;I grudge and tliat what he said about the soul of the patient is not completely true. I-1015-ever, the shaman's visit is not so much a repeat trial as a payment of a rhirlinjclor "fine."This is to satisfy tlie authorities in a friendly manner in order to maintain calm and harmony, the ultimate objective being the granting of the soul's freedom. 'i'l'liat sbrt of justice is this? There is no doubt that the descriptions bear, a resemblance to public trials held by mbildos or councils made up of rhe principal village elders and public officials. Nevertheless, there are some signilicant differences. 111 the first place, tlie most common cases of contention in thc ordinary \vorld involve marital conflicts and clisl~btes over land inheritance and rights to resources such as lvater. But it is clear that in the ~nountainthere are no married couples and there is no domestic o\vnership of resources, since there are no families as such. Instead, trials almost always involve personal aggression, usually consisting ofidisrespectful behavior, generally in the form of verbal
~

offenses. Altliougl~sucli incidents also occur in the world of flesh and I~loocl,it is evident that tlie souls of the mountain revo1r.e alnlost elltirely nround codes of social conduct and personal etiquette. Secondly, it is a very harsh place as far as the meting out of justice is concerned. Unlike the village council, which is always prepared to accept conlpcnsation, hoxever serious the offense, the Indians insist tliat the mountain court often refuses to accept offerings at the altar, and in sucli cases, little can be done for the sick patient. TI:e intention of an Indian court, as Jane Collier (1973) points out, is to beek eonciliatory solutions. In I contrast, the court of the souls revolves around the idea of transcendent justice (althongli, as we have seen, inflexibility is not absolute), in other words, a European idea of justice tliat leans more toward punishment than settle~~ient. Descriptions of the cb'iibnl mountain often portray it as,? city, espe-. cially u4ien it is tlie result of a dream. It is a~llodern Mexican city, complete with a proper street system, traffic lights, sidewalks, one-family houses with yanls (mrher odd in a place where there are no families), Iiigli buildings, shops, bars, gas stations, and banks. It is said that mlien one drean~sof 1\'Iexico City or any other large city-something that seelns to happen with frequency-the dream is not really about the cities rheoiselvcs but about the experiences of the soul inside the mountnin. It is the life of the soul: moving around by car, taking chilrlren to tlle adventure playground, visitil;g the zoo. . . Rut rhe city can also bc a universe in itself, with towns, villages, rivers, ~nonr~tains, ji~nglcs, and oceans, although ir all exists in unstable coordinates of space and time. T h e absence of the snn (there is only elecrl-ic light) generates a heterogeneous and qualitative geogmphy, n rllolridin~er~sional spnee-like in dreams-as immense as it is diminntire, :lnd the souls move around it freely, able to travel great distances in an instant. Instead of the homogeneous and progressive time of the ordinary world, we have a tirlle that is discontinuous and Rexible. Thus, in the mountain, thc present coexists with extensions of tlie past and aspects of the ancicnt past live side by side wit11 advances of the fi~ture; ultmmodern fc:~tures, forn~ing :I kind of collage of times : ~ n d styles. It seems this world is fundarnentally perceived as co-extending to the ordinary u,orld, as i f it were the obverse of esistencc, a parallel but of a Tzeltal friend, this immaterial world. ticcording to the reflectio~~s \r,orld is among us-we are among ourselves-but we do not realize tliis. During the night, however, when there is a blurring of the thin line of shadow that sel~arates the two states, intcrfererlces (!.~~,r~17~ti,i'rl,

82

The Jaguar and the Priert

The European Within 83

"crosses") soriietit~iesoccur ber\veen the trvo petspectir~es.T h e sarne friend s a x at niglitfall, \\,hen lie \\.as awake, a small plane-soul 11iloted by cb'iii~,~lsouls. I~le perceived it as a "good shadoir," that Re\\, i i i silence, lit by a huge light. Some ofliis neighbors also sailr it as it landed in a nearby pasture, but, of course, \\'hen they \vent to look at it at daybreak, it \\,as no longer there, nor ivere there any marks in the grass. If tlierc is anything tliat characterizes the cities from nn lnclinn point of vie\\., i t is the abundance of commotlities. Descriptions of the inside of the mountain emp1i;isize the presence of a multitude of industrial goods. Certciin descriptions corifine thernselves to tlie riientiori ofsiniple ererydtiy objects like thread, worsted yarn, combs, soap, bands to tie the Iiair Iback-items of personal grooming that are bought in sllops in the 1 1110unt"in. Ilut, more often, the Tzeltal take pleasure in enumerating I tlie different types of con~mo<lities tbeir souls enjoy-that they enjoy ( as souls: telephones and cell phones, cassette recorders, television sets, ~. . .. ennleras,' t!~pc\vriters, computers, refrigerators, wasl~ing rnacliines,c$il ing fans, and air conditioning. T l i ~ r e is also a good supply of cars and light aircraft in red, yellow, or green. Groups of souls wili climb intb a car sitiiply for the pleasure o f going for a ride, although so~netirnes tliey are drunk and lia\v accidei~u.Thereis also money, in the form of banknotes, tliat some say is used to buy all these commodities, and ivllicl~is kept in a bank. 'i?'hile it is true that some of these objects, like thread, combs, and shap, have become mundane items in the ordinary world, others are very scarce. E\ten'n.itll the arrival of electricity, fen. homes have television, and only 3 handful of small shops have refrigerators for cold drinks. Otller goods, like waslling machines and fans, simply cannot be found a ~ r ~ l l ronly a ~ e been seen on trips to the city o r in photogmphs. "Non: in the rh'iilrnl tllere is e\crytliing. T h e y have everything, everything those tlie Castilians have; it's all there. T h e y now in the city Itave, e\ferytl~ing know lion. to work these t~~aeliines; they're ready to use tliern. They're images the!. hare, tlii~lgsthey imagine. T h e y \\(ant everything. T h e y buy it. It's like a city." From tlie moment an artifact is m:inufactured in the faraway industrial n.orld to the moment its existence is echoed inside the iiiountiin, a certain time elapses. T h e nrord that expresses this dup1ic;ition is SIIIL~~INIM: "11~1iat comes out of o~ieself."' Tliis is the lvord ;ipplied to the material figure of the saints in the cliutcb and any drawing, illustmtion, or photogmpli. T h e y are "images," and tlie word could perhaps also be translated as "copy" or "reproduction." 111principle, reproducing

o r copying tliese souls does nor entail any difficulty for tlie cl,'~rlrlsolils; these are images, just like tliey are, itnnges estractccl from thc~iiselves. Like tlie European origitial froiii which it is partially copied, rile rb'iilrfll undergoes continuous transformation and moderi~ization.' 111 tlie eyes of the Indian, the very faculty of copying, of using tecllnical I mcans to reproduce images of objects :tnd living lheings, constitutes a11 iriil)ott:uit qudity of tlle European world? T l ~ r11' e 11lr.lare u ~ ~ d e r s t o o to d 11are meatls of reproduction at their disposal, such as lhooks, tyl~e\vriters, cameras, 2nd cassette recor<lers, because i l l the t l ~ o u n r a i tile), ~ ~ imirate not or~ly tlie Europeans but also theit meails of iinitatioi~. Indeed, 111ucl1 of the ui~iverseof souls could be described it1 pl~otograpl~ic lnr~gunge, like the play of light and shade, reflection, refraction, eululsiorl, capture, exposure, der.eloping, and so on.

A Perpetual Fiesta --

For the Tzeltal, the one European feature of tlie mountain that stands out above all tlie rest is that it is a plnce for fun activities. Fiesras rvith dancing and music take place all the time, but these are not ordinary Indiaii festivities or ceremonies, generally dedicated to a saint or to specific political or social activities; the solf purpose of such entertainment is to ensure everyone has a good time And is "happy,"oone of rlie qualities most closely associated rvith "Castilianness." As 1ial)l)ens with the types of goods, tlie fiestas in some dreams are mther teiiipered events. T h e musicians drink liquor as they play rlie guitar, the bnrp, or the violin, and as tliey softly sing a rune, they display en~otior~-riot urilike rvhat happens in the ordinary world, escept for tlie frequency. Nevertheless, it is much more common in these eases for the imagination to be given free rein, and the fiestas then take on tlie cliaracter of urban Mexico. Non~arlaysin the rli'iil~nl,coliiinoli sugarcane liquor is no longer drunk; it has been replaced bg hecr; ron~itrro,a iiiisture of agave sap and sugarcane liquor that landonrnets in tlie region used to drink; and particularly tequila, brandy, and vodka.' T h e iiiusic is mariachi, sortelifl, or "tropicil." Drunken male and female souls dance together noisily, touching and e~nbmcing eacl~ otlier like in a dance liall. Itideed, the ~nountainoften appears in dreams as a huge saloon or an elega~it bar or discorlicque. There is aln.ays a bar where liquor is served and marijuana is sometimes smoked, a rlance floor, 3iid on the f:ir side a jukebos into which the clients put coins to select iiiusic, which is inrari-

84

The Jaguar and the Priest

The European Within 85

ably hicxican folk m~rsicor marinchi. i\t otlier times, the plocc s i ~ r ~ p l y
converts into a brothel ~ v i t l ia number of rooms where souls can have sexual relations. I t goes ~vithoutsaying that tlie Indians of tlle regio~i have nothing like tliis, at least for the time being, O n c friend dreamed the f llowing: r i big fiesta was being celcbmted in rlie il~ountainto nrhicli no less than three musical groups ha11 been invited. T h e first group played nor~ciin,the polka-tyl~emusic from the north ofhIesico and the southern Unitcd States that has b e c o ~ n e popolar e r ~ r y w h c r cT . h e second was a "trollical" band, nrith guitars, electric keyl~oarrl. :III~ n chorus of "dancers" clad only in T-shirts and shorts u~lio 11io!-ecl their Ihilhs to the s o u r ~ d of tlie music, and the third group l ~ l : ~ ~ e d :I kind of rockh'roll. A11 the souls were dancing frenziedly, Whenever one of tlie g~-oups sto~l~le pla)ring, d anotller mould start up so the fiesta never ended. T h e r e is no doubt that this type of dream takes its inspil.:~tion from tlie popular fiestas of the Spanish-speaking villages of Chinpas, especially those of the hot country. I t is true thnr some Indian villages have Ihegun t o adopt these musical events as part of the festivities celebrating their patron saint's day, but tlie difference is that i n I n d h n villages, when [lancing f o r ~ r part ~ s of tlie celehmtion, no one dances. T h e Indian public r e ~ n n i nmotionless for hours, either seated or standing, inen, women, and chilclren deeply ahsorbed in tliis live spectacle from tlie other world. out of their bags to cat in tlie T h e mothers take tortillas and t:~~nales meantime. Only : ~the t end of the evening may tlie younger men be sufficiently drunk to d o n grotesque imitation of the dancers' move~nents or to t r y and jump up onto the stage. I n the ch'iibul mountain, on tlie otllcr I~:ind,the souls d o dance and, to judge from descriptions, they let then~selves g o even more tlian in mex xi can villages. .4notlier Indian drea~ned that in the mountain the). cclehrate soruething similar to what is knon.n,in h.Ieaieo as th%yr!{ncmfie,u that takes place \\,hen young girls reach tlie age o f fifteen and enter in;o&culation as inarringenl~le young ~\~orncn. Each girl nrears a flounced dress and dances a walrz parrnered hy a cbnnrbcl~ffr, o r cscort, as if she were at a Viennese state ball. Nevertheless, froin the point of view of the ordinary \vorld, all this merrymaking hns :I harmful effect, as it leads to numerous illnesses that affect carnal l ~ o d i e s . ' r l ~reason e for this is not quite clear, nlthougli I feel that here we come up agninst that old Meson~nericanequation consisti n g of fiesta, sacrifice, 2nd death. I n a n im~nediate sense, it seems likely tliat tlie souls increase'the number of punishments i n order to obtain at s h a ~ n n n i ceremo~~ies-sools c al\\rays hare the liquor that is excliange~l

n chronic deficit of liquor, despite tlie abondnoce of co~nmoditics.T h i s a.:~y,they are ible t o continue their revelr): as if alcohol h:ld a similar function to lhlood. Also, nt rh'iibnl fiestas, as at any party that ends i n clrunkcnness, tlierc ma). he figl~ts and assaults; souls may get h u r t , and tliis hns repercussions on tlie ordinary rvorld. But there appears to be a more gcneral reason, nltliougli it is difficult to specify e i c t l y rvhat it is. I n Indian lerms, there is a very close association 0ets,ee11 hestis, music, s l i o u t i ~ ~and g , noise in generll on tlie one hand, :rnd illness o n the otlier. 111 tlie Tzeltal language, s h a ~ n a n i c songs dealing with healing o r ~prcr-entionare c ; ~ l l c rl,Zb, ~ l meaning "agreement," "concord," or "calui" l~ct\\.een rlie differcr~t parties, t l i o ~ ~ gthe l i literal m e l n i n g is "silence." 'fhe song cures ill~~eszes by silencing the source of the noise. i\s in many other :\cncrindian Iang,~ages,the term k'ap means "rvord," "Inngoage," :inrl "dialos~~e" :IS \veil as "co~~flict," "dispute." and "war." H e a l t l ~ is silence, a.Iiic11 is Ii;~rmony,orlrhe ol,posite of conflict, ~vllichis noise, the i n c c s a n t noise of the rh'iihnl. rls tlie Tzeltal like to point out, s l i a ~ ~ ~ . i n i c songs are aimed :it "snitching off," as much as is l~ossible,the fiesta inside the mountain. W e linve di~cusseil dancing, e~llbracing, and even sexual relations bctween sol~ls. I t is evident that from the point ofrziew of ordinary morals, rl,i.ibirl customs are quite rcandalous. T o u c l ~ i n g and kissing eacli other c,~ singing, sitting at b:~rs-all this implies l ~ r e a k i n g in l ~ u l ~ l i+ncing, ..;.~ w~th tlie imperative of corporal coi~tinence.But what n ~ a k e st l ~ e ~ parn tieul;~rlyimmoral, :ind therefore deserving of heing dreamed, is their Mexican o r European style. T h e i r libertine clraracter resides precisely i l l their association with the "other." And if lio~nosesualrelatioils are ;lot menrioned in the rb'iiln?l, it is perlinlhs because in tlie~nsclr~es they are than l an erotic, European far less consl1icuous and more c o ~ ~ v e n t i o n a rype of bodily attitude. merrymaking s lies a morc rlelicate At tlle lie,~rtof all this s c a ~ ~ d a l o u l,r.oI~lem.Souls that embrace call each oJier "sister" o r "brother" alllong thcmsel\~es.Even ifcoitus does not acru/illy take place, the very acts of touching o r talking together are considered to be overtly scnual. Kissing on the lips like the Europeai~simplies an excli:~ngcof saliva. As in many cultures, t ; ~ l k i n g together is s).nonymous with Ila\,ing sexual relations (though in the case of the T ~ e l t a l ,pcrliaps not metaplioricaI1~~). I n otlier wonls, are we looking at incestuous relationships? I t was quite l telling tliat my question was not only uncomfortnble for the T ~ e l t a but also rather disco~icerting,inaybe in part because 1,crh:Ips it \\,as tlie first time they were required to think ahout tliis in such a n explicit way. Bot

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92 Tllc

Jaguar and the Priest

T h e European Within

93

fcct of eitl~eris ol~riously not to stin~ulate sensory perception; instead, tliey bring about partial drowsiness. I n fact, drunkenness, \vI~ichis \vcli establisl~ed alnoilg the Indians and can go on for scvcral days, at timer reacl~ir~gertrernrl!~ high dcgrccs of intoricarinn, gives rise to n fildically diffcrc~it motlc ofl~ehnvinr, worthy of further examination. 111a srate of inebriation, there is a consrant alternating bet\veen emotiorla1 estrcnles, s t ~ c h ns laughter :and disconsolate tears. T l ~ i~~dividual c )rlls; sits r l o r v ~ rvith ~ his legs crossed; and even entcrs the doors of Iho~~ses rritl~out:ilir~ouncin~ I~ilnselF from the innndatary distance, banging on the door n-irl? his l i t ; 2nd the like. Drunkenness le:icls one to lose a scrlse o f pro11er r~~odesty. Romnntic love is spoken of, o r arnorotrs dis~ p l ) o i n t ~ n e ~eren ~ r s ,t l ~ o u g l Tzeltal ~ Incks precise r o a ~ b u l a r yto csprcss tl~escfeeli~~ys. H'l~at 111ayIr.ip[~cr~, ss I myself hnvc seen o n o c c a s i o ~ is ~, tllat mcn may sucldcnly lheco~ncaffectionate, trying to toucll, I I L I ~ :irld , even kiss their \rives in llublic, just likc Castilians (rrho, in this respecr at least, rcse~nblei ~ o t l ~ i n Inore g tha~ dogs ~ siliffi~~g each otller). Clothimpeccable white tunics, is dirtied to unheard-of cztrcmcs ing, gc~~erolly dl~e ro frequent falls. It is not unusual for n man to p a s out right in the n~idhlcof a pnt11-not on ;he side, but quite specifically spread-eagled across it."ool~~ctirnes hours go by 11nti1 11e is able or~cc]nore to stand and continue nandering-erratic movelnent sec~nsto ire :In uutstanding fentore-around the paths thar lead from one house to another. It is also easy to lose itcms of clothing during rhe binge and not t o remember tvhere the!, were left after~mard.'~ Perhal>s t o be especred, the ethnic idcntificatio~iof the cl,'~~lcl nlap perl~nl~ hest s be see11 in the speech of drunks. T l ~ c higher tllc olcohol I c o ~ ~ t e iilltl rile l~od!: the more conrrol the lips lose of rpeech, which I~eginsm 11c sl~rinkled with wortls in S p a ~ ~ i s l ~ For . " example, a group o f three rue^^ (orle over fort);, desigi~nted"First pcrso~l" beloiv, and two young I I I ~ I 11110 I ) are, as far as 1 know, completely rr~ondil~gual (in T~eltal) a.liei~sober, are now 111 an advnr~ccdst:lge of drunkenness :,nd are c l ~ a t t i ~ loudly ~ g in nly house: F~vstpeoon:. . .jf~jich,tllr disicrin~ination o f t h e sociality. . . cten~al, nln rs lirrr,,, NIN ~ I .I. . is cllecked. . . . Attention! Left rigllt left right left right. . . I ~ e c ~ uxnter s e is c o ~ n i r ~ down g .,. Scro,dprnorr:'s difficult, tlinth I~aw ir is . . . national comln~ssion. . . o n of bitch. ~irstpc~soir: . . . nlo1.e eternal disicrination, more nntuml disincrinaI is already dying, eigl~ry, tion . . . tliis country, this norld sixty, i.,l.r/nricril: . . .already sixty percent, eighty l~crccntwaterlcvel . . .

T%,itdpcrxorz: Crear, great! A municipality 11o\r.. . . Indian people's hisrory rigllts . . . h'lezico.. . pr~ctices 2nd c u s t o ~ ~ . .~.sit's, thcn .. . 1:;rrrpcr:roa:. . . rnorc natural . . . politic11 watcr . . . Cancuc hisrnry . . . norld-lescl l~istor);republic lcrel . . . it cnnle righr out rbnt f o r e i g ~ ~ debt, no, no, I ; ~ k ... . Does the soul esisr? . . . nrtr snj,ioprii. [we haren't fuunrl out] . . .

There can he IIO doubt t l ~ a the r l>eltal or~derstanrlmore Sl~snisl; words \rhen they are sober than thcy are prepzrctl to admit. :Is o inltter of fact, tllcy are uaposed to Spanish in several rmys. Yonng children hear it ;at school, \shcl.e instruction is bilingual (ill fact, the "left right . . ." c<,,ild he coni~ectcdwith scl~ooldiscipline); adults 11c;lr it in politicnl m e c t i n q of the potvers rhar be, who ;ire usually lbili~~gco~l, a,here tl1el.c is :ln nbl~ndantuse of Sl,anish esprcssions, although tlley don't seem to h;irc ~ r n ~ c to h (lo rvirh anything. It is also heard or] the rndios, ti,l~icll,in 111ehnn.;cs that a c t o a l l ~ have one, are f r e q u c ~ ~ tleft l y on a l l day-nut o f a kind of sonic borl-or ;,~cr~i-and S ~ C I Vout words in Spanish and l u r ~ r l l c ~ n o r ,,orrrfin IIIIIS~C. ;\I the rinle of ~ l l conversation e reproduced above, tile onl!. trvo radio ,tations that could lie picked up in the vnlley hacl bcen broadcnstingerclnsively 2nd uninrerruptedly for days on end the speech give11by the goverllor of tlle stare of Clliapns on the accon~plisllmcnts of the first year o f h i s rerrll of office. For weeks ill Cancuc, t l ~ n speech t kept l e again, pnrts of it fmyed and ~\~ove11 together with cropping up c i ~ ~and in 3 llost of alcollol-inspired monologues. other sourcc inaterii~l, Drunkenness allows for a p r t i n l elllibition of one's freedom from cultural restrictions. But ic is p1ni11 to see rhar there is inorc to it dl311 that. I n inany respects, cultural cui~icntiondoes not eg9nporare, but rathcr subverts itself Tro~nwirhin, so that any gesture, attitude, or action sccms to n.ant t o he takcn for car ti liar^ or, to be rrlore precise, t o a a n t ro concord with the t m i o that coilstirute the Casriliau srcleotype. h'evertheless, there is no element of nlockcry i n the "imitntion"; a drunk's 1,chavior may sometimes vergc on the p:~thetic,but it is never comlc; 2nd generally speaking, amazing consideration and patience is extended to thc inelxiated. In a way, the reason is quite simple: one's self is not responsible for one's alienated self.12 Closely related t o the loss of senses (sleep or drunkenness) is rile loss o f bodily t~priglltness,a factor distinctive enough to 111eritconsideration :IS t11e secolld x i s lround ~vhicll the exposure of the content of the heart occurs. T h e loss of r.erticnlity ma!, be rotal, as \\,lien lying down on one's back, 1141icl1is rnhell tile chblrl or the i ~ gain b conlplcrc autononly from the body and :Ire able to separate themsrlucs from it. But this indepen-

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Animism a$ History

99

CHAPTER 5

Animism as History

of " ~ ~ a t ~ i rnil~nents al" that may afflict [lie Indians. In fact, t h e words that penetrate the lhuman body to produce illness nre precisely t h e words t h ~cto l l ~ c from o r are related to t h e world pcrceiired o f ah European. T h u s , there is a link between illnesses and a propensity for historical time. I n the following, I shall make this c o l ~ n e c t i o lclear ~ by c s a n ~ i r ~ ing the r c l ~ t i o ~ ~t h s :l ~ ~tpossibly i~ ties tllesc souls to the historical circu~iistanccsfrom which they were born. I \vill also slied l i g l ~ on t solne of the possible rcasons why these souls hare ended up assunling s u c l ~ a high, palpable lprohle i n Tzeltal experience. I d o so by tracing tile t l ~ r e a d of ~p~ssil~ itffil~jtics le based o n conjcctures :ind rerrospective l ~ r o b i n a , mrher thnn by adhering to a strictl!, linear, cliro~~ological scheme. I will (le:~l \\it11 different categories of hisrorical significance in a n effort to mnkc conncctions rvitl~this peculiar assortn~enr of illness-giving /<tb.

I t is not difficlllt to recognize the relationship betrveer~certail] Tzeltal souls-in their condoct, their attributes, and their \.cry titles-and the 111rlinn historical past. Characters in this repertory of so111s inclutle livestock froln t h e Old M70rld, tools kno\vn t o be from Europe lhccausc thcy are rnnnofncturecl of metal, Catholic priests, royal officials, Mexican cattle mnchers, schoolteachers, and evangelical m i ~ s i c i a n sarnong ~ others. In uthcr words, there are perceptible c o n c o r d a ~ ~ c e [hat s transf o r ~ the l ~ interior of the heart not only into a discontinuous repetition o f exterior geogmphy, but also into n mirror, so ro spe3k, of the pnsr, n kind of l~istoricnl ltlernory 1,I'e should rec:ill that \,irtually all these "l~is~orical souls" are lab from the "lllnes~-gi!~et" group (flbk~fl?llc~), a category that is unique 1,ecause , its 'common clenolninator is not ecology, as in [he case o f orher sorts of lnh C~ni~iials, meteors, river creatures), bur rather tlie faculry o f l a ~ ~ g u n g e , tllrougl~ y h i c l ~they inflict illness. T h i s type of being, \\sit11 its i ~ ~ t r i n s i cxlly wicked character, seetns t o liarre a long history. For example, in the Naliua tradition prior to t h e Spanish Conquest, tlie horned earl \<,as a c~cature cspccially feared by humans, for it was a nnhonlli into which some indi\+Ju:~lsttansfor~nedthernselres to inflict illness upon others (Lopez Austi~l1980, 87). T h e r c were also sorcerers ivhn rnngically de\~oureclthe rc~olifl,which \yere soul entities that resided in the h e ; ~ r t and trcrc tl.;~nsforniedinto a bird :I[ the i~tdiridunl'sdcath (1980, 756); this ancient soul entity displays featores suggesting a distlnt foreheal. o f totla!.'s pile. I n [he ca e o f the 'lieltal, however, the category uf illncss9 givers seems to have evolvcd to inordinare lengths. Availing tl~cmselves of 1iu111anInngoage, o r o n e sufficiently analogous to give illness, t h e lnb of this group ad(l a co~isiderableerrra burden of suffering to thc mnge

I
Birds of t h e Heart, Livestock. Metal Tools Tlle f rst group is composed of illness-giving lnli [hat are all clearly associated wirh European corn~nodities thnr mere broughr t o the New M'otld to serve [he Spaniards. In addition, elc11 bears on illl~ererlrlynegative signilicance. T h e Bin1 of lhe IIcart may be 2 hen o r n rooster, a grackle, o r a pigeon. In Tzelral, the full name of "lien" is kirsln?~ mc'wtrt (mother bird from Castile), while "rooster" is L~oxlnmrL'clernst (r~lalebird from C:~stile).' Clearly these were animals of Europcan origin introduced at e , "C:~srilinn a iscry early date into Indian conimunities. F u r t h e r l ~ ~ o r the hens" play a prominent role in any list of contributions that tile native j~opi~lation were obligited to give to their parish priest during r l ~ vicer rcyal period, so it is not at all surprising that the Indians attribute a predilection for these birds to tliepilc (the priest b6). After e r a ~ ~ ~ i n how it~g the prilu a r c said to act, n guess n~iglrt cvell, he llnzarded ;IS to rlle Indian i11tcr~xetxiorr of tile sactanlent of baptism.lTheysay that [he Bird o f the I I-Ieart is drawn out hy the priest (in all probnhility, [he song charming rile Bird of the I-leart out is a Catholic liturgical cl~ant),magically enInrgcd, and finally cookcd in boilii~gwater, follo\ving a prncedure that aialiles its litcral embodinlent in the form of t h e priest, as \re11 as its 110st11ulnous i n c ~ r ~ ~ o r ;into ~ t i the o ~ society ~ of the Church. :As for tllc pigeon, different types a t e recognized, all o f sul~icl~ are given ~ l i s t i r ~ II:unes ct i l l Tzeltal. I-lowevet, the Bird o f the H e a r t is spcci6cally clllerl pnld,,ln-?,rer (pnlov~nin Spanish), clearly referring t o t h e (lol~icstic pigeon (Colnt~rbnliuin; I-Iunn 1977, ISS).' 111ttoOucedftoln Eu-

100 The Jaguar

and the Pricst

Animism as History

101

rope, it \?-as oscd as a lnessenger by Spaniards 2nd it can b e seen today in the public squares ofany Mexican town. T h e Tzeltal rcganl it as a rer,olti~~ animal; g in the torrrn of Tenejspn, nn alternate llarlie fot this bird is stim~rs, also a loan word from Spnnish: s,irtint;s, nlenning "Satan." T h e ,gcxkIe is a black bird (11.loiothi.r~~ ,irtinq H u n n 1977, 197), wllore T ~ c l t a l name is a loan rrorcl from the spknisb zirntrru; rllis derivation is inclicnted by the stress the Tzelrnl place on the pcnultimnte syllable, s,~s,irr !\ brief note of clarification on Lnguagc is i n order n t this point, rlltlrougl~the T.r.eltal language has borro\ved many \\fords from S p a ~ ~ i s h , the number of loan words ckyrockets wllen it comes to terms related to souls o r n l l t h ~ is t sacred (ib'iil) in general. \lrh:lt is significailt is thnt in T ~ e l t n l ,all urords are rol~tinclyaccentuated on the last syllal,le. I-Iorve r w s o ~ loan ~ ~ c rr,ords preserve rl~eir identity and thus [nay be recog11ized ns SLICII, th:~nksto the fact that they continue t o be pronouuccd \\.it11 the ;lccellt on other syllables, desp~te the difficulty this represents for the 'keltal. I'or es:~ml~le, fzeltal speakers ilnmediately irlcntif!? the \\.ord)xililc (from pndrc, "filtl~er" or pries^'' i n Spnni311) :ISa C:,stilj:ln loan n.or[l. 111 f x r , rye hnon illi~tthe n-0x1 was being prorlot~ncerlthis n.:,y IJ! rltc /ndigcuous popillation in tlse Clliapas highlanrls since :IS cnrly :IS thc sistccnth century. Therefore, even vocabulary ea11be il~voltedin tlle sc~.rice of the lhistoricnl record. Slieej1 2nd goats nre also considcrerl r e l ~ u g ~ ~ : ~ ~ n~ t :n l o c l o r r Ile:~. ~or, ir~festetl,and nntnr;~llj.i n c o ~ ~ ~ p a t i rvith b l e cor~~ficlds. Surely they rvere introduced ill small quantities ill the Cbiapns highlands during the sisteenth century by Spanish colonizers, and over time they were a(loprcrl 11). sollle inrligenous groups (I'erezgrovas 1991). Cancuqueros do not ~>ossess any of these animnls, a l t l ~ o u g t l~ h~y :,re familiar with thcro I h cause rr,olncn in soine Tzotzil coiru~conitics not \.cry ft1r n\wy raise sn~all flocks. TIlc T z u r ~ i l only nsc thc \vool from sheep, and, significantly, in Ct~ncuc, \ve~l-ing n.ool jackcrs is the esclusioe prerogative of tlle priniipales and rovn hall nuthoritie~, \vho purchase them from the Tzotzil. O n the other hnnd, the Tzorzil do not consurne the meat, n l t l ~ o l ~ g tliere l ~ is a suspiciot~on the part ofcancuqueros that they d o so secretl?. Tile Z e l t a l principle enderlying t l ~ e i r refus:ll to cat these n n i ~ l ~ ais ls quite sin~l~le: the hu1n:ln bod!' literally incarnates \\,Ilat it ingests. Therefore, according to Lorenzo Lot, Indians are essentinlly composed of corn and beans, p111s a pinclr ofchili to give color to thc blood, and a little bit of fruit and greells f r o n ~ tile forest. Lot dcscril>cd ho\v in some chants, to as C I J ' I ~ ~ Ccb'rri ~ U ' b,~k'ctnl , ("sacred breast." "s:lcrerl maize is referred near"), and beans as sc6'~lclpokrkLb ("corn's second arm"), regarded

ns its ornalncntation, bccnusc of rhc mny bean p l n ~ ~turine rs around rhe corn stalk and hccausc o f it? Ilo\scr. It is c o o ~ ~ n o nsupposed ly t11;l't i f one fed on slleel) conrinrznusly, o ~ ~ ebody ' s n,ould bccolne polluted by r11e1r Europe:,n : ~ n i m ; nature ~l and transforln into a E u r o p e n ~ body ~ itself.' Nor sl~ooldwe overlook the contribution of the singular position Itrdian idcnrithese animals occupy in European culture in inllue~~ciny lication of birds and livestock as souls, whethcr tl~roughChristian nnrr:~riveand i c o ~ ~ o g n p l ~ o)r: directly frun, Old Uiorl(l culture and folkrepresencariun of thc Holy Spirit rllay IJC reeogl~ized lore. Per11:lps t l ~ e in the pigeon; in viccrcgal religious art, the dove is :I sta~ldard inllge for the llol!. Spirit entering che bodies of the faithful. hIoreover, it would nor lx out of to recall the metq>hor of the free reception of Gracc ;~od the gifts: "the lnce o f God is poured out by the Holy Spirit in onr hc;~rts. . . ." lncleed, ill tile ~nernpl~orical l;~nguagc cti~(>layed 11y tlie illissionnries, Christi:~n cva~~gelists sought to pour their n1ess:lge into tile henrrs of lndlnns, 1s repeatedl~ reinforcetl in sermons 311d~ o ~ ~ f e s s i o l ~ a l s . l'lle rooster occurs in n similar position as on ele~uent of tile Passion, o r the 1n,11l> i s one of the r ~ ~ n dishes in of Caster supper Tllc goat might hc compnred with the C h r i s t i n ~devil ~ in his guise as n \)illy go:~ti r ~more inforrn:~ldescriptio~~s. In T ~ e l t n l rhc , Soat is called rnitslir,, probably I: nord of Nnhoatl <)rigin_ hut it in:qr, to the Txotzil or Tzcltal ear, overla11 x.itll the Slmnish wort1 te,artrcid,i, or "temptntion." Finally, turning to rnctnl tools, it should be recnlled tl~:ltthey are concei\sed of ;IS the {head of river snake I ~ J .Tocl:~); ~n~ncllctes a r ~ daxes in pxtiicnl:~r for111 part of everyday life and labor in Cnncuc. Ho\\<1 ever, dol.i~lgrile sixteenth century, when met.11 tools repl:lce(l stone ianrl ivooden in~plcn~cnts, they became n perlnnnent sollrce of dcpcndcncc on cor~trolescr-ciscd by Castilthe Castiliarts. T h i s is due to the co~nplete i;111r over rhc rnnnuhcture of nletal ilnl~lcments.After the indigenous nprisinp in 1712, for instnnce, tllc Spanish nuthorities in~poc~nded nil [he Cnncuqucros' lnetal tools, perhnjls in order to avnirl:~ situation in which tl~ey could bc user1 ns weapons, or perhaps as n straightforrvnrd punishnlcnr, rrr- both. Actu3lly, it is inrcrestinp to 11otc that during t l ~ c rel~cllion, sticks, slings, :and the odd stole11 rifle were used, but not 7iiachere~. I n any event. the lack of l n e t ~ l tools t o \votk the ficlds csaccrbated [he c!'clc of famines 2nd epidemics that follo\ved in tile n';~kcof the rebrllion (Viqueira 1907, +OD). T h e role of iniligenous necess to rhcsr ~ u o l in s tl~ein r o ~ n i l ~accelirlrlce al of Christi311ity has yet to bc fully it~vcstignred FIo\vever, it is kno\\.n, for exa~l~ple, that during thc sci~cntccnth cenrury, the Indians from the ]ungle, who \\.ere not subjcct to the Crown, and

102
I

The Jaguarand

the Prier:

Animism as History

103

therefore not Christians, rnade long journeys in order LO trade wild plants and nninlals for salt, sllver coins, 2nd agricultural metal tools Santa Eulnlia, in the Cochurnarbn mountains

Priests
I

T h e disti~lctio~ bet\i.eeri l the diurnal p i l e Id dressed in white and the l~octurllal ones \vBo \\,ear lllnck may simply be the result of :I re~ldericy to discriminate betrvcen categories 011 i h c &rounds of color differcnccs. IIo\vcver, it is also possible that tllc distinction is related to rlie differellce between the \vhite vestments of the Dominicans and tlie black of the lay elerg).. If this is rile case, as I a m inclined t o think it is, therr it is n good indication of tbe level ofdetail achieved ill histurical distinctions dcpasited in t h c hcart. Descrillrions of the bishop If6 highlight their ostentation, their mul, tiplc garlnellts of different colors, and their shiny shoes. It is not diflicult to imagine why. N o t only could bishops he seen in Ciudatl Real (San Cristilbal d c Las Casas), the episcopnl seat since t h e sirteenth century; rhcy also made tours tilroJg11 villages (the viritnr, o r "inspectionsx), trnvelitlg on a litter or, in rugged mountainous regions such as those i^ouncI in tlie C l i ~ a p a s highlands, conveyed about in small a~ernpol cluirs (a chair borne UII i l ~ c back o f a porter, sustained by a turnpline), with the Lishop and his entire retinue carried by Indians. I n the early se\.enteentli century, Englisll traveler T l l o o ~ a s G a g e recounted the follo\ving:
form of large offcrinps rcccircd nnnunlly from the !wain Indian towns, wherc tllcy s o once a yell. to cnnhrm and augment rllc bishop's income, for lie will conlirm no on< !din does not offer at least four ~M/C.T togetller \rich 1 whitc canclle with :I I h o ~ I have seen tlie mcalthiesr [Indians] offer [thc l,isl>ol,l a allitc candlc of n t least sir pountls in weight and a boar rtvo yar(ls Ion: and tirel\.c pennies wide, surroundetl from top to botroln with onc-rcal coins. EVCII tlic poor Indians arc proud to make this offering the chief mastcrpiecc of thcir vanity. ( G g c 1987, 260-261)

s . . . . . hlost of tlie Ibishop's inculnc I:, in thc

According to X u n P'in, tlie Jesuits are an entirely different cnse. IIon.. ever, it appears unlikely that tlie Cancuqueros liad any prolonged contact with them nt any time in their past. For part of the set~entecntli and

eighteenth c e ~ , t u r i r r ,rherc was a Jesuit scl~oolin Ciudad Real, \~rllere the childrerl of Spaniards were taugllt moral tlleologg and g m ~ n n l a r , aral since 19.58, tliere has bee11 a Jesuit ~ ~ ~ i s s in i o tnh e Tzrltal village of Bncllaj611 (hlnurer 1983, 44+) that has extcnded its actir,ities t o other 'Ti.clml villages irl t h e lowlands, although rlle)~llarcnever reached CanCIIC, ns far as 1 Lnorv. 111any case, t h e school existed only a short tirne, :~nd its relationship with the indigenous populatiori nus st have heen minilllal. T l l c rl~issiot~ is too recellt to e s p l a i ~ the ~ precision wit11 nfhich the profile of the Jesuit lnb is delineated. O n tlle otller. Ii;lnd, it is c e r t a i ~ l l y p~~ssibl that e awareness of the n o t entirely good relatio~~sllip betrveen the Order of Drenchers (Don~inicans)and the Company of Jesos (Jesuits) led to t h e Dominican friars therusel\res d e l i ~ ~ c a t i n for g the Indians sueh a precise p o r t n i t . I n genw111, judging hy tlieir pree~ninencein tlie heart of tlle I ~ l d i ans, the Catholic C h u r c h and its priests, of all the colonial institutions, have been the most powerful force that llas affected Cancuc. Since the ~niddle of rlie sisteenrl~ ccntury, when t h e Dominican friars established tlicmsclvcs in Cancuc, until the expulsion of the last priest a t tlie end of the nineteenth century, t h e presence of the clergy has heen o n e of the 111ost p a l l ~ a l ~signs le of indigenous suhonlination t o coloni;~lpower: the alierl in the very lieart of t h e c u o ~ n ~ u n i tD y .u r i n g the three centuries of s u b j u p t i o n to the Spanish Crown, priests were the only Spaniards \vho mere leaally per~nitcedto reside in Indian villages. In fact, tlley actually took u p residence in t h e social center of the community, in a rooln attached to rlie cliorcli building that is still today known as konrento, from the Spanish a.ord corzucirro, referring to "convent" o r "monastery." I n the cyrs of the Cancuqueros, this detail is particularly significant, because as we shall see later, tlie church-along with t h e other buildings around tlie plaza, including tlie town hall-is the oumistakahle I h e ~ r of t lie c o ~ ~ l m u n iand i y is simultaneously a place rcproduci~lg power that is alien to it. T h e central region of Chiapas was finally conquered I>? thc Spanianls in 1528 2nd from that molnellt, the indigenous pol~ulation l~ccsmc tributaries of the Spanish Crown. As n result, indigenous society was gn<luallyworn dowr.n hy disease and the exaction of tribute, but it \\.as n o t radically tmnsforrued (\i'asserstrorn 1983, 24), cscept llcrliaps by t h e swift me:ikening of tli Indian nobility, once it was partly deprived of its former tri1)ure (Rem sal 1088, 1243). I n 1545, t h e first contingent uf Dominican friars arrived in Cliiapns, fresh from Castile, accompany. \\.as the ing t h e lirst i)ishop of Chiapas, Fray Bartolomi d e Las C a s ~ s It

104

Thc Jaguar and lhe Pricit is still fnirhf~~lly rcprocluced. T h e r e is a s ~ n a l plaza l \\.it11 tlie church and o ~ l ~ o siti the r ~ 10\1,11 hall, wirli its jail. I-Iowever, the ~riission;iries left no niark beyond the corilitics o f this rectangular space. Be)*ond it, rlierc arc n o lhlocks nor strecrs, nor any semblance of 2 grid. Tlie houses :xlr as fz~r aj>:lrt from each other 2nd positioned as randomly as in tlic old days o f lie:itlie~iis~~i, Ilemcsal goes on to detail the attempts tliat were tilade ro change habits, especially rhose related to t h e appearance o l rhc body, in reganl to nliicli the f:ithcrs plnyed t h e role of "morhers":

friars, tnking 1.efuge in the mell-kno\vn division bet\veen the "Rel)ublic af Spaninrds" 2nd tlie "Republie of Indiansn-ant1 bearing responsil~ilitg for this second "repoblic"-\\,I10 took upon tliemselves c l ~ etask o f initiating s!vceping chaliges in indigenous society and culture. Fmy Antonio d e Rcniesal, the Dominican clironieler who w o t c about Chinpas in rhe secor~d decade of the seventeentli centurfi 111aking frce use o f tests contemporancoos \\-it11 the events, rccurdcrl t11c follo\virrg description of the first steps taken atid rhe initial i~itrntions.Prior ro the friars' arrival to tlie province, tllc 1ndi;lns liacd in their hc.~tIicndom in rlifferenl villa~cs, wirh diffcrejlt r~arhes, different lords, different go-ar.ernn,cnrs,rliffcrcnt idols, 2nd diffcrenr langoages, 2nd all as diffcrcnt as uilc domain or kingdoni frorlt another; anrl llecausc rhe villages are n u t ; ~ r n n g e dI,y srrccrs ind ncighborliood, as in Europe, there rvas one housc hcre, another onc therc, and gct anorher a distance w a g , with 110 pattern, and for tllis reesoll ! I plncc of live hundrcd or fe\vcr inhabitants, which in those times nns very fen,, occupied one league of h n d , and this is \vhy rhey arc not very sociable among tlicnisclvcs, ;111d earlier tile), were continoally involved in nars, factions, and disputes among thcmrelvcs. (Remcsal 1988, 2:24l) 'Tl~en thc clirunicler descril~eshow the first i.rtl7irrionc.1 n,erc undertaken:

. . . 'I'hus tlicsc lpricsts, in order ro hy hands o n tlre Indians, who tvith

difficulty, seeing tlieni as from the Spanish n;nion, pcrsunded thcmselves to believe that s'l~at the) wcrc doing LO thcm was for the loac rhcy had for them atid for their own good, they act~.das if they rvere tlieir mothers. The!, comber1 and cut tlrcir hair, they clipper1 rllcir nails, iliey~vasliedtlieir Lice and body, rlxy drcsscd rhcm in shirrs, they put llatetl p3ntdonns or brceches on rllenr, thcy fnstened the clothes, they Ihelterl r l ~ c ~they n , taught them io tailor aud sew; nor diil they neglect to tell the111 lioa to dirchar'c their bodily requirements decently, tlley built thern l~ouscs, rlicy drew plnns for r l ~ c ~tn l~ , ey got errer),tlri~~g re~dy for them. (Remcs~l 1988, I:t8t) All tlie ivliile, tlie missionaries did nnt overlook [lie reconstruction of the hclrr, for they wcrc convinced char this rvas ivliere the principal obstacle ro true convcrsion could be found. S o [he fathers:

. . . Tlic pricsls bcgar~m try ro ~ n i t e r i l l a ~ and c s arrange tlicrn in

rlic rnal~ncr o f a sociable republic so that they nfould be niorc quickly nsrumbled at mass and sermon[s], and all tliat was ncccssrry for thcir goi,cl-nment. For this porposc, first theg made a plan, so tliat e~cr).tliing nould bc built the same. First rhe).established the churcll, larger or stusller dcpcnding on the nolnbcr ofinhnbitants. Near to it, thcy placed the lxiest's housc, in front ufrlic church a "cry large plaza, diffcrenr frozlt tlzc cerneter): opposite the liouse of the ,~Sir,lirnto or council, next to rhnt the i.iil, 2nd near that thc inn or bostel, \vl~ere visitors ~vould find lodging. T h e resr of fhe v i l l a ~ e was dividcd by a rope, the srrccts str:iigl,r :lnd wide, [running] north to south, east, west, inn grill. Oncc this \\.as done, tlic most iniportant part remainetl, and rhis a . : ~ making tlle l~idians wanr ro move in. (Rcrncsal 1098,L:Ztl-244) In Caricuc, t l ~ e y finally rnoved into the town, ~ I t l i o ~ I~an) pl~ una\vare of the exact date. Today in tlic center of town, parr o f t h i s oripinal layor~r

. . cntc~cd as if into 3 thick rvootllnntl full of underbrush slid brambles, lo open a trnil :and path therc, to remove the brush, plow it, cultivate it,
;and to rn;~kc the land rhat was so rocky, dry, anrl barren, like the Ihearts of thcsc iniserzble [creatures], beeolne fertile with the preaching of tlie bring fortli a plcnriful harvcst of faith and p o d urorks tliat Gospels : ~ n d \vould bring them to everlasring 1ifc.Thcy were likes few ertre~nely perfect joiners who crirercd ro destroy tliese hard and shapeless hits, ro intrnd~lcc inro tlle~n thc forrnofCliristians;~rid o f courteous lucri :and lxnl>lc li\.ing in republican harmony; and bow well they have :~chieved this end, cspcriencu sho~vcd us many years ago. (Remesal 1988, I:4iZ) Ne\.crtheless, today Cancuqueros still prefer to wear thcir 11.1ir and nails long. Instead of trousers and shirts (except when worn for doing chores o r as tlie garb \tor11 by "captains" o f fesriwls), they dress in tunics, 2nd

106 The Jaguar and the Priest

Animism ar History

107

cotton clothing continues to be woven on tlle pre-Hispnt~icbackstrap IOOIII.' As for the lleart and the success of its "fertilization," Renies:il got ahead of himself, because even two and three centuries later, Cancuc p ~ r i s l priest3 i continried lamenting again and again over the same problem: the bardness of tlie Indian's heart. 'The gradual changes in tlie priests' attitude toi\.ard the Indians (lid not differ substantially froni what occurred in other areas during tlie vieeregal period, a l t l ~ o u g h the tempos are somewhat different. During tlle sisteentll century, the Indians were, in the eyes of the Domirlicansthe majority of n ~ l i o n arrived ~ from Spain and stere strongly influenced I)? Lns Casas-creatures without will, "meek sheep,'' tile passive stage oil a.liicli tlie new episode of tlie age-old strugglc beta.een G o d a~lcl tlie , devil is played out. T h e triumphs of the friars' mission of e v a ~ ~ g e l i z a t i o ~ i were :ill God's doing: "This is tlie finger o f G o d . T h i s is H i s hnnd. T h i s is I-lis porr-er, becaose it is inlpossible that this life be lived without H i s personal aid and this doctrine be imparted \vitllout H i s personal liglit," said ail astonished inspector of the order repeatedly rrdiile o n a tour of Clli;il~:~w verify o progress in evangelization (Reinesal 1988, ]:?I?). In contrast, the devil lurked behind each of the friars' failures: "This was the devil, n ~ o r t a ellclnp l of the liealth of souls and much 111oteso of tliose of tliose Incli:l~ls, n~liom lie had lheld in thrall for so inany ye:lrs, and :I[)pearing to them wliere they were to enter the Church t o p:~rticipatein God's most divine sacraments, it was that of baptism, lle was so successful in ~lefaniing H i m and in placing I-Iim in sucli low repute in tlie c!.Ls of the Indians that tlikre was scarcely anyone who nislicd to receir.~ I-Iinl, : ~ n d they rr.ould sooner have their eyes struck o u t than give over oile of their clrildren to be baptized" (Rernesal 1988, L:488). T l ~ e devil "gl;ew so fo~ld"of his little triumphs that lie rvas inspired to develop new ruses. Among thcoi is an attempt to discredit the friars by making "priests" appear :lr night, rvandering between the Indians' houscs, as tlie co~liplained (Renlesal 1988, 1:494)-an i~rcident that Indians tlie~nselves could be carly evidence of the activity of a pile. I c\fter rouglily 1600, the priests begin to concede grcater initiative on the p ~ l r of t the Indians. I.ittle by little, the province \\.as dotted with tlle ciiscooery ofepisorlcs of idolatry, mainly tlie cult devoted to "idols" hidden in c a m s o r incidents of "nagualisn~."T h e fathers tended t o intcrpret these occurrences not as the result of a continuity in native religious practices, 1)ut mtlier as regtessive lapses, ringed \\pith d e n ~ o n i c relatioils to ivliicli the Indians inclined of their own volition. T h e s e practices, o r ~xrliaps siniply tlie repression of t l i c ~ i ~ increased , in tlie second 11llf of the ser:enteenth century (\%'asscrstrom 1983, 96-98; Arn111oni 1992).

Perhaps in tune rritli the zeal of tlie Iiquisition deployed years before by Bishops Bravo de la Serna and Nui?et. de la Vega, tlie first decade of the eighteenth century saw a new shift in Church-Indian relations in the highlands region. iMiraculous apparitions of images of the Virgin or of Catholic saints began to crop up i n some Indian villages, especially~Tzotril-speaki~lg ones. As a result, cult associations, with varying degrees of formalit); quickly sprang up around these visions. I n most cases, tlie Inrlians tried to obtain ecclesiastical recognition for their nem cult, a,liich was denier1 to them, while parishes dismantled the sites of rrsorsliil,, usually located outside tlie center of the cornnlonity ( S i m i n e z 1031, 2 5 i - 2 8 2 ) . Finally, a new apparition of theVirgin i n l i l 2 in the village of C a i ~ c u c itself, once agnin discredited by church officials, sparked a major Indion rebellion. I will only provide a briefzccount of tlie events liere, given that they Ilnve a l r e : ~ l received ~ considerable attention in the liistoriogmpl~gof C:hi:~pas? \Wth C ~ I I Cas U its C logistical and militarycentet, the re11ellio11 s11re:id to tliirt~zvillages in the province of Cliiapas, including Tzeltal-, Txotzil-, and Chol-spe:lking coni~iiunities,which managed to raise a ~izable army, altliol~gh:I poorly armed one. D u r i n g tlie opening weeks of the conflict, tlie rebels attacked illag ages and haciendas inhabited by some Spa11i:lrds and "castes" (a term referring to a \vide variety of meswho were killed, rvllile a.olnen i\.ere taken c;~ptive. I n f;lct, tizo peol~les), they ended up t:iking almost complete control of the region. Ciudad Real, tlie provincial capital, where the Spaniards llad d u g tlieii~selves in, serious threat, until a liartial defeat of the rcbels at I I u i s t l n came u ~ l d e r hricfly detained their assault on tlie city. At the same time, the 111dians organized theniselves politically. Tlie leaders of the movement, most of n.11ont l ~ a d been Indians associated with tlie Cliurcli-sacrisrins, choir te:ichcrs, priests'ste\vards, and tlic like-some of whom could read and write, adoptcd :I q~lnsi-ecclesiasticdpecking order, undoubterlly reflecting tlie Castilian scheme of political hierarchy they were most familior \vitll. T h e y nanled themselves bishops, with vicars for each village, and ~ierformetlthe proper liturgical duties: nlnsses, coi~fessions,baptisms, marriages. T l i e army, commanded by Indian captains, rvas also org:lnizcd along the lines of the Spanish nod el. T h e \\4iole movement was directed, from Cancnc, by a select group of people connected t o tlie shrine of tlie Virgil) that had appeared. I-Icr messages were interpreter1 Ihy the young wolnan \vho had first discovered her, who ha(l taken to calling herself i\'lnria d e la Candelarin. I-Ion,e\,er, the rehellio~rdid not last long. Roughly four months l f t e r it started, Spanish troops froni Guatcnlala (led in person by the president of tlie Aurlicncia, the Spanish

'

'aBe ~ I U C S S " I F I ~ ~ I ! I W'satrIcu.~ns LI pul: sarucu Jill SLI!I!J,\\ [I! aiels 01 pr!q Jq lll!'I PI01 8 ,<[ll[ "0 [)aA!JJJl X[: i [ d ~ J all= 'p3"0111 01 A\OlI 110 S110!1 -snllsu! l o j qsc 01 lcax 11cpn!3 u! d o g s q aq] 01 am1.n lsa!.ld ar1.L .sa!1!.101[1nc r l y u w ' l ~ a111 iicl pas!1011 -un 0%1)1110,\\ at1 'sqsol SII!,\\OU s!r[ 01 sque111 , a ~ ~ r p <n o s s r ! q eTI! ~ Z[I!I)!~[ 111111 arroS 11~1mw5"y) ppa pcq oe!poI aql 1cr11 lul:aul 'pa.~l:aj ail ' s ! l [ ~ . ( , , o ~ s L !j~ o ISU~I!IIC-I I~ at11 j o J ~ U I I C I L Iar[l rr!,,) 9uol A ~ U J JS I K s!rl ~ la1 111:q s!:[os!~ 1cq1 IIXJ!IOU ["!I[ isa!.rd 2111 'SII!II.~~UIII l)aSa[lc S!I[ a.1ujx1X I I U U I I I alrros .11eI" 11a!11 . ~ ~ ~ C I I I J C I I " 11cq U ' 2 a q s u 5 "IOS!N '115s1:amp at11 1 ~ 1 1 s r ~ o ! ~ ! d s s,ouc!xlad ns . < X J ~~ ~S I I O I I ! l!e~ap[lcrr~s y .I! pug 01 a[q1:1111a.1a.n .<a111l n g . a s d ~ r ~ a111jo s ~ [ J J C X!S L I I I U ~ . I I S I Ilra.st I I \ \ O .i[!~lll:j ~ alo1[.\\ "11 us ' ~ ~ U J U01 U pau1111a.1.IJ.\!J at11 ls.i~:pI C I ~ . \ J S. I J l j l i .ILI~JIIIJ aq] .ill iir!.\\:. ~da.\\s uaaq pcq at[ 'sa,ia ~ , . \ \ c l - ~ ~ ! - ~ s s!q q~o alojaq . ~ q 'rrocIna.lsil.t\ '11! 1paj\!l) 1xrq1,add!11s lpsil a r ~ 'ay.1 "11 LID sc.$\ I ~ A ! J a111 j o ~a.\ala111 ~~Ufnorl~lu [ILIC '.$~cl-u!-.~arl~o~q s!q ql!,\i 1110 uasq pix1 a1.I 'I! SS015 01 S L I ! I ~ ~ ~ al!~[.\\ ~~IIC I~.,!J ag1 u! pauntolp .i~paSa[~c PIXI 1111cqsnqJ X L I J U ~ . I ~ I - ~ a ~ o j > au qr ! ~ uor[s I: 113;110[1!,11 uaaq IIL'LII I C ~ ~ I D I3 ,1 [ L 'I!!31C3 OLIC!J!J~:I ,~FJ,$ '311sr11:3 jo isa!~daqi sas 01 luant 'pa!l~i'1u aq 01 paqs!.a or(.\\ srlc!pu~ 'za11I>s!~ t:sox auo 'ucmoa c puc ucul r '6081 ,(YW j o Su!uu!5aq all1 q .snsllcL) 110 saly 0081 a111 LI! ,,snsuy) j o aSc1[!.1 aq] j o S U C ! ~ I I I ' z a 1 1 b s ~ I:SO>I ~~ j o pucqsnq 'zaq3ugS y ~ o sj o ! qicap ~ J ~ parulynos I se 9n!qc1 a111 no,, asc~ at11 01 ~ y I .ap a ~ ~ a ! q nsuc!pul s per1 ~ s a ! ~ 1!ar11 d r[s!rl~\ 01 cl!r~wo!~ -ela~ jo a d A ~ ag1 salvusn[l! l e a 8 pttpn!3 U! 1"s lcdu~s!da ar11 LII!.\\ a3uap - u o d s a i l o ~qs!~cdu! paploJa1 luap!su! a[qcqlcrnaJnn .ijlua~vddc1 1 ~ ~llll!qAr1c j o Ai!n!lsc L I E ! I ~ ! . I I { ~ -,i[~a,io u u ~ ~ due p a ~ s a ~ a So!,ier[ p j o no!~l!s!pu! 011 ancal slsa!.~daql puc ' s l u a o ~ o ~ alp s c ~jo asuc.\Jastlo ~[ql?uosca.~ I: rln ~ d a q a.~cg01 ~cacldnsoJanbnJuc3 aqi 'ssalaqllaaaN , ; p ~ c 9 a1!aq1 ~ 11! .~\oqs 1 lcaz IIICISLIUS,, at11 01 anp s! I! ',(~![c~om j o aa19ap [EIII!II!III e p[oqd11 01) ;iaqi j! 'SlorUJagllnrI ,,'asod~nrlar[l ~ o asuangrl! j lua!syjns pal.las> rcq ' 1 1 ~ 1a . \ q saSell!.\ a s q i s l a r ~ s r n l~ ua~ajj~ a111 p LIIOJJ 11a4\!asa.1a,\cq iiar[~ au!l<l!ss!p o o J U al11!1 a q puc ~ ' u c a q a ~ o1!ar11 j jo s r r l o l s ~ at11 ~ ~rl! parlaais '11uq auo "11 110'ale d a q ~ asncsaq ~ n ! q. . . Srr!u~e.\i j o qscl .lo] IOU '61![c -21 u! I! .i,ouq 1ou u p ,(arll 'A~a!d 01 13adsa~ r[l!.r asnesaq 'sruolsns J ! I S ~ J J ! J ~ Iu r o ~ ~ j S U L ~IOU X u p Aaql 101 '[B!IOUI~IUIII! aiu!] aJu!s I! pa.\~asa.rcl ancq 'iarll SCS!,,s~auu!qs!~cd s!rl jo ~ I C I S[VIOUI ar11 : i ~ n ~ u a1[1uaa1~19!a s a q l j o pus aql 11: slsa!ld qs!~cds,snsno3 jo auo 01 ? i u ! p ~ o ~ s 'Iloscax y jo a 9 y a111 '11': 121je 's! S ! ~ I1 9 1 ua,\!9 'asuas ~ s a j ~ a saqero d I~I(I 11o!s!.\ c 's~uaulmospalc~adscsapJSnoJl! i(~co!lsqo aso~p\\ ss!lsn.r leuo!~l:i.~! sc pan\a!n atucsaq A a q ~ 'paalsu~; ( ~ n ~ u a qlrlaalnanas s ar[~ u! uaaq par[ X a ~ p

01

sc 's~alelop![nrlap~crl re pap1c9a1 L a q ~ aJa.n .ION .uo!ss!o~ ~ c s ! l d u e . ~ all] jo Su!rrr1!9ag all] le uaaq pcq Aai11 sc 'slaa!qns alqca[lcur ,(l!sca sc pJ,\\J!.\ .1aQu01011 JJJi\\ SUC!PlII J q l '7S11105 J0'po!Jad all] j O slS3!1(1 all1 I jo ~ ~ ) I I I ! I I W Ju! ~ Ia S u c r [ ~ c lcsnal os[e (qluaaiail!~r 2111 jo prla aql 01 d.1n1 -uas rlnrx~~r[Q!a-p!ru 2q1 rrloy alcp L I J ! I ~ j\ o q[nq at11 pue ' X S C ~ s t 1 21) 1Upls!13 lleS j o oucsaJo!a o s ! ~ ? l s ! I ~ 0 ~ ! 1 [ 3 . 'all1 ~ u! [ l a . \ ~ a s a ~.isel d) -ns 711s111:'J aqi put leas lcdoss!da ar[i uaa,\\laq 1paSuc11ssaS I ~ I I JJ I~I J, ,;snc![)u~ snou!~nr~l,, sl: a.xya.lar[l 1XlC llO!l1JClJl 3111 J0 SJOIC~!ISII! SC 110!1clllda~[Xlj l!Jl[l j O 11>[1111CJ all1 Jeaq 01 lpcll so.lanbns11c3 arp '(rro!~elndodou!pal a111Suoruk: il!pol I!IIILI ua.\a) s11:a.i .iueal JOX i ~ n l r l a qluaaIarr!n s J ~ [!IUU I J ~ I I I O"11 jo SJI!!.I~ jo ~ ~ I L I X aql II rl! 1sr:aI 11: : i s c ~ nur!~!l~!oroa ~ c IOU j! 'pall!crual 'Ieajal~ rrc!puI a111 Ylr!.nolloj Ialscs!p s!rr~ouusa Iprrv ~!r[dv~Sorrlal, ar11 .sayl: Su!~soil Brl! -z!laddeun rrv psJap!suos ' ~ n s u c . ~()6 '($61 ~ NIO.IIS.I~SSI:~) .iS1315 .(CI .ill [)s~als!u!iul~c a([ 01 arnc3 saSellpt ~a1110II!LII s e . ~ sar11!1 a111j~ I!.I!~sSLI!Z! - J ~ : I U J ~ W I I Ijo I[nsaJ auo 'ares ,(uo 111 .~a1r[9!1 slucsaq JO pauaq3els sprlc[ -ilS!r~s c d c ! r ~ j a111 U! S ~ ! I ! U ~ I L I ~ I I O LI~![)LII S J ~ A O 1011110s II!U!.IIJOII p 1 1 II!J ~ -!111011 'lIO!112~12..' Jl[I j0 I I I C l U l J I j F 2111 ll! 'J~gl"[.%\ l C J [ S 1011 S! 11 'lalel aas [[cqs a,\$ sc ' p a l [ ~ l q - l cos j 1011 s! I!JII! JSIIC[aqj. jqul uaalJ!ql Sll!.\cq .1!ar11 jo l u a ~ a a111 U I 'r11.1m a111411 axj.nls at11 dn plo~l INII sl~ql!!dm o j ar11 jo auo 01 ~ ~ o d pd na ~~ o~ ~ scsua.\caq a111 q31101rl1 nlaruanoru s ~ ! uo uns JLIId u c d w o ~ ~ 0 c1 ipua .~l:lns!~~ed S!L~ Ar1.n 'qsmqS!!rrl arro 'lna .sxJpca[ pue sa9cn9ur?[.r!arli jo sSpa[n\ooq .1!ar[1 ua,,!B 'sluoruioju! amosaq 1q9!rrr slsagd a q ~ 'pal!" uo!llaqaJ a q j! ~ 1c1l1 s~rr!!l~rr~ a gS ~ u o u c ~ c a I: j A q palaS~!Jluaaq a.\eq ,il:rrr SUO!ISC s!1se.111 r p n s 'pr1n019 ar11 u! alnssy daap c olu! Sunu ~ x r v q ! q a~a.\\ J O '(rlil:ii~ j0 11?~1111 lJ11Un oS[C) SIUJIUCIJIS 3113 ~ U ! ~ J I S ! U ! I U ~ I : anU!lilOJ 01 paJ.lOj alan\ crl~vap jo IeaIqI Japun pa^ laql!a l ( a q ~ 'uo!Sa~a r l ~ u! s~sa!ld qs!~l:r[ 2111 .coj s yY s ~ s,lla.lp[!qs n ~ ~ j0 oqlu!~all1 0111! lsca.1cj j11 aall J ! ~ I c ~ s ! ~ ~ ~ - ~ . I c ~ 111a!sul: agi rl! I[!LLI alp jo uo!1un9ysuu~1[ u p z 1 aql pa~!dsrr!S[~!LLI :i~a.\ asor11 IUII a u n s s e 01 p a q ~ ~ a j - ~ rr~aas e j IOU saop I! 'a.rup.iarl~..~UIIUJY all1 01 11"l.llll\ [ l ~ J % " \ d ~ q l104 'lJclU! S ~ S ~ a llla~lOOA\ ll Sl! ql!.\\ lJ2l SE. R I[!~LI a[Su!s e IOU 'A[locsy!uS!~ m l o j q ~ o n \tre!puI ue A q pauneru 'll!111 .rcSns SI! peq epua!seq r [ ~ c 3 .o9u!soso jo '(allen a1!11aj a111 II! I I ~ I C ~ U [ 's~e!.rj ncs!u!mua a111 01 Zu!Suo[aq scpua!ser[ ar11 qsclm 01 sc.a slaqal aq] j o suo!lsc I S J ~ ail1 j o a1ro 1er11 s! lunosse s ! q ~u! Ino spuels ~ c r l ~ ~ ;(i661 e"an[)!~ ! 0 9 f - 0 [ ~'1f6I ZJU?UI!X)aJllcls!sal ,(uc dn lnd or [~anu!iuos SU!~IUIIOUI aqi [I! a911ja1u a q e ~ peq i c q ~ sdno.13 [palc[oT .XJJ c ,iluo '110 uaqi NIOJ:~ .III~IUJI\OUI aqi 1110 SU!~UIUIS SI~I~ '3n5111:3 I LLIJU~S [)a8crrerrr o s s v q e ~ pus (arrl!l lcr[l l c sa!rlo[oJ arll .nI:sJa.\o I~:I[I [!nunos
isa!~d aqi pue ~en8i.r ail1 8 0 1

110 The

Jaguarand the Priest

!

Animisnl ar History

111

rank and position of all the sul~jects ~vho had anything :lt all to d o with the case (thcrc ivere fifteen of tlletn). I l e was further instructecl to take their statements (in lvriting) one by one, asking tlle~llfor all the details had for their decl:~surrounding the event, as well as the grounds t l ~ e y mtions, and s o o n and so forth, taking special care that Rosa \~;isquet. should not come into contact witll her suitor. O n c e this had been cornpleted, he was to send the results of his i~lquiries to the bishop i s so011 as possiOlc under seal. h y Feliciano [lid as instructed. H e heard lengthy sratetnents, u~hicll, once written down, he read back to the witnesses up ro three times for them to ratify, although they did not sign t h c n ~ as , they did not knoxv lioir to write. Although the testimonies rer.ealed tlt:~tthe rnarriecl couple ~letestcdeach other and that tlic alleged deceased was a strong s\vitnItler, that mas all they revealed. N o further light \bras shed on rhe matter. F r a y Feliciano married the rvonlall on July 21, "but al!vays nit11 rile suspicion that the l~nsbandIlas taken flight." At the heginoing of August, h e received another missive from the bishop declaring the nlarriage unauthorized and telling him h e had to continue with his invcstig;~tions. AIIIOII other ~ tllings, h e was told h e had to find out whether Rosa had tnade any "show o f elnotion, o r of p a i n . . .whether she had complaincrl to the justices, or to other Indians; or, on the conrmry, had, to the admiiation of her neigl~hors, remained quite unmoved by the whole incident; :~nd if :lt the titlte of rile event, she already had a rel:~tionsltipof frierldship xrith the suitor. . . ." Rosai statement was t o be \ritnesscd, and the other 1ndians had to make f r e s l ~ statements. W h a t is more, Rosa would llavc to " l ~ e held in a secure place, under strict supervision of the \rillage justices, as is the custom in cases where there is simil;tr risk of absconding. . . ."Fray Feliciano spent all of Augusr taking down new statements, before sending his findings to Ciudad Real. In September, he received o Ile\rset of questions t o put t o the parries involved: establish the relatiot~. ships of kinship and friendship that b o u ~ t dthem all, and recognize ally sentitnental tics tlicy might have. I n the meantime, Rosa was t o tenlain in the charge of sonle l~ollcst Intlian woman, because uittil the whereahouts of her prcvidus husband could be ascertained, a second wedding rras out of tllc question. As for the suitor who hall sprung up overnight, as it were, the bishop wrote that discretion was to be esercised in the scarcl~for a new \\,oman for him: i r coitld sorely not be hard to find anotller one in thevillage. So the hearings continued, even tl1oug11 it was becoming more :lnd more difficult t o extract ally new information. Twice tnore, correspon-

clence n a s cscl~anged with the bishop. Fmy Feliciano Garcia's final letcer concluded with these xvords: ". . . a t ~ d thus I beg that your piety and l~xience stoop to forgive \vIiatever f:~lultst l ~ e s efindings may l ~ a v c for , I ; I I ~ of s c ; ~ r ~ esperience, t a11d of IIOIIC at all \~IICII it C O I I I ~ Sto paperu,ork, and I a m of the opinion that a trial ad infinitom is much more likely th~n my ever succeeding in completely tidying np the i ~ ~ ~ ~ e s t i g a t i o n s . " 'The plirase, ". . . cases xvhere there is sitnilar risk of absconding," is particolarly revealing in this eseharlge. At tlt:tr r i ~ t ~ tlte e , relationship bct\vcel~priests and the Indians under their sway was n o longer one o f protection, if indeed it everlwas. Far from being a region of refuge, given I I I O ~ Ceasily found in the Spanish cities whcrc one could that haven ~ 5 1 5 IISS u n ~ ~ o t i c eCallcuc d, Ilad become a of confinc~nenr; Indinlls d o not just leaoc Cancoc, they flee from it. T h e sour irony of rile hishop o r his secretary n41o assumed that Rosa's suitor \vould encoullter 110 difficulty in finding other women to marrp is certainly justified, given that \r;onleo greatly o u t ~ ~ u m b e r e men, d because I I I ~ I Ihabitually dimppeared io dodge tax charges, among other reasons. I n 1821, Chiapas won independence from rile Spanish Crown, a n nexing itself shortly aftersvard to Mexico in 1824. T h e s e events d o not seem t o have substantially affected relations between Cancuc's priests and Indians, which rclnained unchanged until the consolidation of liberal po\saer beginning in 1855 and the anticlerical ~lleasuresthat acco~llpanird it (Benja~llin1990, 44). From that t i l ~ i eforward, parish records reflect the rapid and progressive erosion of the priests' authority in Callcuc. I n 1860, after learning from civil authorities that it was no longer obligator): the Indians wit)~heldfrom their pricst any type of s u s t c r ~ n ~ ~ oc re alrns. Shortly after~r'ard,rltey were n o longer taking him seriously, except u h e n they couldltake advantage of hin1 to oppose the district's liberal political authorities. By 1868, the prirrcipnler did not even let t h e priest use tile keys t o the church, whicll led him to write t o the bishop 1)etnoaning the fact t l ~ a n t o one kept I I tlte ~ ohserr:ance of any sacmmcnt and that "they drink and [lance alld light fires insirle the cliurcl~, and i t tills me with dread, because I have bee11 in some preposterous villages, but G o d forbid there be another like this! T h e y d o not believe in thc holy sacrifice of the lass for all the fervor of their 1>nycrs in sound inind ro solne of the i~nages, and no sooner does the celebrant of 111ass al)pear r11a11they rush out as if chased away b)' soflleone, o r they stay and sliou. their back to tbe high altar." h fexv years later, a lay priest Ihecnme tllc last priest in Cancuc, \\.hen be linally inanaged to leave once :~nd for 111, : ~ f t e several t atternl>tsand prolol~gcd absences.

: J J ~ ClI!ellJ3 J~ L ? ll! S.1Eall J u g .s9u!aq / I I , ~p Ia~sss

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114

Tlie Jaguar and the Priest

Animism as

Hislory 115

lion. 111ar1y children you have! secretaries 1:lrvyers deputies sacred scribes, father sacred scribes, lord there, before the sacred president in AIcxico, beseech before his heart i l l i\lcxico, bescech before hi, Ileart
hc who expounds the ivord

lie mho expounds tlie speech may his lips nor rake frighr I ma!, liis l~eart not take fribrlit Thesc arc bricf fragments from an extre~nely long chant of the bik'ml chLB ("shrink," "prostrate") category that Cancuc's pvi~~cipnlrs hmre to perform, to the accompaniment of a lengthy and coniplex series of Inorements, before a deiegltion of them is sent to deal with hleaican political authorities. 'l'lie explicit function of the words uttered is to break the will of the civil servants in the forthcoming talks. They denlonstrate once Inore the intimate rcl:a~ion,l~i~ idnngined bet>vecnthe poa.cr of the state's civil servants and their ability to use writing. It is in this highly cl~nrged field where power and writing arc inextticably interwoven that lilb scribes take on meaning. Both "name" and "Iwofessor" are dcsignnrinns for lab that are linked to the past and present ~ ~ r ~ ~ e e dof u rEurope:~n cs political dominion, thanks to their filculties of v r i t i n ~T . h e appeamnce of "namen-besides using a lhook and a quill, lie mc:lrs black clothes and a biretta on his head-resen~blcs rllat of n Cro\r,ii functionar); an(], as mentioned enrlier, he often goes by the llanie of "king." I-Ie may \\,ell have been inspired by a judge or royal official. I-Iis maliner of inflicting illness by writing d0u.n names iri a register would appear to suit hi~ii.I n fact, throughout the viceregal period, the economy of the Chiapas highlands \vas largely based on trib<Itelcontinuing as such until long after tile roy:~linsritutions \\~ithdrc\v. Under this system, the Indians liad to turn over food (corn, chili, beans, honey), make cotton mantles (the so-called labor dmft, or i.epn,.tin,iesto), arid work periodically on haciendas ond in sugar mills (generally orv~recl by Dominicnns). There were even periods when they werc required to pay in coin, which left them no choice but to find jobs outside their

c o l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ u in n i crchange ties for a wage at certain tiriles of tlie )'ear. Tlie colollial tributary system required a census. Records of contributors (an cxact record of the n u n h e r of Indians, together \sit11 their classification according to age, sex, and civil status) were necessary for the region's economy during ~ h viceregal c pcriod. T o compile these records, certnin Cro\vn officials in charge of assessi~~gand collecting taxes liad 1.0 travel to Indian villages on periodic tours of inspection. T h i s type of funetionary nright very nrell be the one that became fixed as the image of the "nar~xe" lid. T h e concept of an indirirlual "name" and writing it down has even deeper rcsonancc among the Tzeltal. Until the last General Census of the nation in 1980, when the agents began to tour the houses, I was told fathers would hide their children, so~netimestheir wives, too, among the rregct:~tio~~ near the house, tllus helping then1 escape being ~ i a n ~ e d and counted. In fact, widespread fear of having one's name written down still characterizes encounters between Indians aud "Castilians," or any outsiilers for that nlattcr. For their part, "proGsora" appear in Cnncuc's history much later. Follo\ving royal decrees, the first schoolteacher \\!as appoinled in Cancuc i l l 1600 to "teach rcading and urriring. 35 \\,ell as give instruction in the Castilian language in order to perfectly achie\.e teacl~ingand un(1erst;tnding of the Cl~ristinlland Civil Doctrille anions the people" (Archivo Hist6rico Diocesano, Cancuc VII). Ho\irever, throughout the nillettenth century, tlie presence of ele~nentary sclioolteacliers seems to Ii:lve lhee~iilltermittent. In any case, their work most have e~ijoye(l only of a select groop of modest success, becaose noborly, rvith the cxcep~ion 1ndia11"scrilhes," can ever1 write their signature. bi'l~ile they were there, rhe teachers ncterl more as representatives of the liberal a(lminisrmtion (from 1855 n~iward),and consequently as political ndscrsaries to the I~ries[s. Tlre docurrlentary q'vidcnce rnnkes plain t l ~ aCnncuc'sp~irrrip,~Ies t took advantage of this rivalry, litking ihc side of one party or the othcr, clcpending OII the circu~nstancesand tlie relative power of each. T h a t 1ii.storical dimension may explain w11y the lnb scribes have lhren fixed clecp in the memory of the Tzeltal as tire bitterest foes of the pile; if they meet, the). nMy evcn kill each other. 01. perllaps rlle bad blood between then1 has more to (lo with the rivalry het\vcen the clergy and foncrionaries of the C ~ n w n over the extortion of Indian labor. t\roun<l 1950, tile figure of the sclioolteacl~eruriderrvent a drastic tmnsformation. T h e 111stituto Nacional Indigenista promoted a campaign to tmin Indians to be bilingual teachers. After a short period of

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120 The Jaguar and the Priest

s y e m of Catholic coficidi<~~ that wns introduced several cetituries ago in the ctlinographic literature OII Mesoand that 112s conle to be kl~own america as tlie' "fiestas system," which 11ad the blessing of tlic Clii~rcli and continues pror4ding a livelillood for Spanish-spe~kit~g tr:~dersand artisans a-ho are the only suppliers of the indispensable ritual objects for these actir~ries. T h e csser~tial ;~flirriny tli:tt links rllc / ~ b e n t o u m ~ to e s Christian ritu:tl (in tlic two versions, Catholic or evangelical) is established through music. I r s h o ~ ~ lnot r l be overlooked that all tile instrulncnts played collie froiii tlie Old U'orld, in just the same way that the music (which ic rr11at lileases the saints and is, for example, danced to by the \\rornet~) is Castilof the seventeenth and eightcentli centuries, albeit considerian n ~ u s i c ably modified. Yet, tbere is another kind of music, Indian nusic, played on fltlte, d r u m , and, sonletimes, tllrtle sbell, tliat is corrlpletely d j f f e r e ~ ~ t and is not l~erformerl to gladdeli the heart but to indicate certain of tbe ritual's nlovcnlcnts and phases. Ho\vever, unlike the former kind that pertains to tlie heart, this nlusic does not inspire any emotions nor is ir capd~le of causing any i l l ~ ~ e s s .

Animism as History 121

The lab "Mothers-Fathers" a n d Coffee Cultivation T h e 1~11,~i/c'tii,urik(mothers-fathers) are inrbible old folk \\.lie set up theit little tables and chair\ in tlie middle of patbrvays, so that a,he11 a p~sserb!. inadr.ertently knocks over the fond and drink, tlicy lnake off u.it11 his cb'i/lcl. Like the inusicians, they are a recent l~henonienon. 'I'l~ey arc clods of earth, in a way, personifications of the soil, and as s~lcli, perhaps they are n o t s o new after all. If larrly they 11avo tumcd esl~ccially hostile to the Tzeltal, there are son]? reasons to suspect t l ~ a t this change in attitude is r c l ~ t e dto the beginning and rapid expansion of coffee cultivation. I I n the first placv, Cancuc shalnans first identified t l ~ e n i:IS a cornl'letely nerr and certainly very po\verful illness some twenry or thirty years ago, immediately after the introduction of coffee growing in the valley, initially a sloa. and gradual process, undertaken with considerable rcl~~ctance. Today, perhaps more than half the fa~iiilies of Cancuc grow coffeel in large o r small quantities, rvhicl~,along mith honey, is their sole soi~rce of cash. Disorders of the soul that are attributed to the nrr'tiL,tnrit I~ave~ ~ n d e r g o n ae corresponding increase. Secondly, as far as t l ~ e i r for111is conccmcd, the provenance of tllese In6 coincides wit11
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the proven:lnce of coffee, \vhiel~started tolhe cultivated in tlic Tzeltal ~~iunicipnlity of Tel~ejapabefore Cancuc, hut whose actual origin, it is beliered, is the coffee pl~ntationsof the Pacific coast of Chiapas, also sus~~cctw lo l be the place of origin of t l ~ e "mothers-fathers." Tliirdly, encounters wit11 these lob frequently, though not always, take place on 11x11sor ar crossroads near small coffee rvarel~ousesrvliere the crops of different groilps of lia~nlets are stored togetbcr until sold either to indiviclunl Latlino buyers or to Mexican government agencies. 'I'hus, the "n~otliers-fathers"are the dentanditlg counterpart of what, in tlie shape of coffec, is taken out of the earth, at a liigli cost, incirlentally, as only the seed or bean of the fruit is sold (estr:~ctedmith depulping ~ n a c l ~ i n donated es by a governlnent agency), \vIiile the fleshy pulp goes to rrzaste. As a !ratter of fact, coffee is today the only crop of any impnrt:~t~ce in Cnncuc that is not pre-Coluinbian. W h a t is more, 11ot only are its grorvcrs n ~ a d e to depend on tlie liiarket with its fluctuating prices, all too familiar to the Tzeltal, but its cultivation ~ l s o reverses a relationsliip tliat lvad been established i l l the last centur!. whereby the Indialls left to join tlie payroll of the coffee plant:~tiorlson tllc P:tcific coast o r in the loivlands farther north. T h i s sudden turnabout in the rclationsliil~(the substitution of work in an alien land for tlie alienatioli of one's own land) could be tlie csl,lanation of the onusual circumstance that the ~,re'rikurikapliear to be the only 1,ib that live in the very l~amlets of Cancuc (coffee is often grown right beside houses), liter~lly obstructing traflic on the paths joining households to each other.
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Soul History and t h e Body T h e link lletwccn these diverse "illuess-giving" I(ib and Tzeltal history (at least since the Enropean conquest) is plain to see. But w11:1t kind of past are we dealing with? W h a t sort of chance events and states of heing "re "relncmbered" in this kind of internal l>layhnck?As I understand it, the lirb e ~ n h o d ycertain strategies of power-institutiond, political, cultur;tl, tecl~nolo~ical-adopted by Europeans i l l their attempt to transform Indian life and subject it to the col~ditions of the new l,olitical onler. It is a kind of memory that is apparently not so concerned with liigliligl~ting the overt, violent forms ofdomination as it is tlie less easily percc~~tible oncs: reeducating the individual, remaking the conceptiotl of selfhood, altering rhe most imnlediate day-to-day enr~iroliment from ivliich he sustains liitnself.

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122

The Jaguar and the Priest

Animism ar History 123

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0 1 1 tlic orie hand, [lie soul record possesses considerable teriiporll clcpth and a complex system of strata. It includes the old criteria the Spmiards put to use in the sixteenth century to distinguish a barbarinn from someone n,lio lived according to "Christian propriety." For esample, these traits include skills and trades (based on the use of metal tools), Christian ceremonies, European music, urban planning, clothing, and s o forth. But it also ineludes later criteria that are in a way proper to tlie modern nation-state, such as education and niedicine. In this reganl, there are indications that one of tlie next lo6 tliat could be fornlulntcd rnigl~t be a doctor; he is described as 3 "Castilian" lvlio carries a doctor's instrument bag. Although there has been n sniall Mexican Sl~cial Security clinic in the middle of Cancuc for some years, this doctor figure semis more inspired by private dentists, ivho tmvel to Indian Iiainlets, taking out molars o r replacing teeth with pieces of gol(l-plated metal (n toucli of vanity). T h e y are sometiines referred to by the name of vnonr, almost certainly taken from the acronym of the largest university in the country, the Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de MCsico, from ahich sonic of them might have gmduated. 011 [ h e otlier hand, tlie veritable repertoire of tmnsformntion skills called upon by the souls is ns precise as it is subtle. It encompasses activities related to religious practice o r bureai~craticinstitutions, as ivell :ISactivities to irhicli liistoriar~s usually pay much less attention. I n fact, this Indinn soul history seems particularly concerned abour rlie social implications of the choice of cermin technologies. For example, there scerns to be concern about tlie effects the use of cermin tools, crops, o r cattle might have on bodily rnovelnents, food, poptllation dcnsit): o r work; or elsc the crucial role of language (speeclies, texts, s e r ~ i i o ~ i s , loan sronls) in the iniplantntion of thcse forces. I-Ience, p e r l i ; ~ ~ tve s can undcrsrand tlie paramount importance of rvriting, by me:ins of ushicli those who irield it, the "Castilian" lob-priests, scribes, professors, and comp:iiiy-imprint 011 their language a much greater force, and therefore morq illness. At first glance, tlie internalization of this history may seem tlie result of a slon: accuniulntige process of "sedimentation" through tirile. I-Iorvevcr, this image is overly pnssive. It woi~ldbe more accurate to interpret it as :in nctive procedure of folding, whereby, as nre saw before, tlie "otlier" is iriternnlized and distinguished by a painstaking process of hiinure differentiation. Consequently, that Indian/Castilian contrast ~vitliin cach person, which initially appeared to be merely a cultural dis-

tinction, takes on a political colinotation adien consitlered from a historical perspective. It is evidcnt that Spanish hegelnony over tlie Indians was (or should have been) based not only on practices of econoliiic control and institutional dependence but, above all, on the Indians' acceptance of the values, eonventio~ls, classifications, interpretive categories-in sliort, of the culturc (or a version of it)-of the Europeans. Ho\vever, for domination to be colnplete and rlie esercise of power to be truly effective-as Coninroff and Coniaroff (1991, 19-27), followirrg Foucault and D e Certeau, have pointed out-tlie s)~ntbols of,tliat control must beconle to all intents and purposes invisible; tliey n+st permeate tlie daily routine and the conscience of the dominated so deeply tliat tlleir eyes no longer "see" them o r recognize them for what tliey are. W h a t frustrates tlie chances that this suppression might succeed among the Tzeltel is that the symbols of domination, rather than being resisted esternnlly, are transferred to a n internal plane. Locked up rvitliin each persoil's heart, where they are attributed the additional factor of intrigue (for tlieir identity and nunlber are a mystery; it is only kriorsn rh;lt they present ;I threat), those sy~nbols are the object of scrupulous 2nd sustained esa~iiinationby everyone, and this forces tliern ro remain permanently visible. T h e y ]nay be practiced (or perhaps one shoulrl say "imitate(l"), but precisely for that reason, tliey never become li,~birrrs;they can never be accepted ns a group of habits of thought o r nor~nalizedas ordinary, everyday procedores; tliey are al\\.ays kept disas such. tinct, shown ro be alien, made to speak and identify tlie~lisclt~es I n this regnrd, given niusic's avowed capacity for seduction, we may recall iio\\. the soul repertory (levotes considerable energy to exposing Cnsrlliari string nii~sic or the religious songs of the evangelists :is nothing more than strategies of co-optation. T h i s is not to mention liturgical cl~ants, which, for all their beauty, may result in the loss of the Bird of the I-Ieart and the concomitant loss of life at tlie hands of a Cliristian priest. W e might also recall at this point the "s1,eech" of the drunk man that I tratiscribed in Chapter 4, tlie \voids of which arc an iriiitariori (albeit a watered-dourn one reduced to a few fleeting details) ofMenica~i political functionaries and especially speeches concerning the "Indian question." So long as tliey nre copied in this fashion, it will never be possible ro " c o n f ~ ~ s e thnt " vocabulary and style; they will always be recognized not only as nlien but also as a potential danger. And of course, it is edifying to discover thnt the oflicial indigenist disco~irse (itself in

.sue!l!xvjo ' s ~ a g i o jo a101 l!sqi o! s u s ~ p u r ~o ~ 'Xlas!said j a m l o inq 'soo![!lsc3 u1o1j dllsal!p a ~ u ~a.rbu o ~ sassalrll! 11x11s! UO!I~UIIIS -st: 3111 'snrlL .sa,+lasulxll u!ql!,n aaaq icur d s q ~ s1aq10 jo 111:d 1cq1 j o Inq 's1a1[1o j o g ~ n u r or 1011 ~ ~I: aq a ij s n u 11 ,slole!pam sc alol .~!agi[I! ddnmo 'uo!o!do irmo 1!aqr u! 'sue!puI ~ c ,,aooz q ~ J J S ~ I ! ~ic~11 , , sasaqi -1raicc1 u! auljuoJ 01 cqealls 01 os 'alnpasold I: sv ~ s p [o!sos ~ o ut!adoln~ ~ I ! I I S U O ! I ~1sai![1 ~ ~ e jo uo!lsat[al a y qsnm os 1011 s! :'u!u!uicsa
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Narrative. Ritual, Silence 127

CHAPTER 6

Narrative, Ritual, Silence

The Past in Narrative In her e t h n o ~ r a p l ~ of y the Tzotzil people of San Pedro Chenalh6, CaIista Glliteras (1965, 251) wrote: "So inuch emphasis is placed on continuity and equality that it would scem thnt life in the village of San Pedro rvould have gone on forever, more o r less nndisturbed by csents that, as f;ir as is generally believed, forni part of other creations o r pertain t o other people." lily own conversations in Cancuc left me with an impression very similar to the one recorded by Guiteras. T i m e past, whether recent o r remote, is in inoral terms esscntialiy the same ns the present. "Before," the Tzeltal lived neither better nor worse, neither longer nor shorter lives; there was neither less illness nor more rich people; nor, as strange as it may sceni. were things any cheaper. As for the fi~rilrethat a\vaits everyone, there is no reason to suppose it is to be feared o r preferred, becnuse it will not he any different from the past and the prcserlc. For with the past anyone \rersctl in Spanish tradition, in which con~parisons are fertlle grounrl for 111oral judgments, the idea that both time past and time t o conic ap])ear to fornl part of one single and irnniense preaenc continui~rnis al\vnys disconcertins. Ner~ertheless,just because a con]. parntive e s : ~ m i ~ ~ a tof i o past n and present does not provoke tlie formolati011 ofvalue judgments, it need not prevent us from liolding a gcnc~al q~inion :rl~uur both concepts. O n tlie contrary, for theTzeltal, their history-their qarrntive history-is nothing niore than a never-ending list of hardships. Stories about past cvcnts are generally cnlled k'op y n ~ ~ 71rc'el q ~nnnrirlctik. "wotd that exists from the elders." As the title suggests, narra-

rives contained witl~inthis gcnre possess a separate existence, which is thought to he independent of the narrator. T h e y differ from everyday cclnversatioi~in tliat r l ~ e y are coiilposcd not so ~nucli of "spoken" words (words that are spokell back and forth and, rherefore, imlncdiately inrerchnngcd/cscha11ged), but of "given" ("donated") words, ~ o i n g only in orlc clireccio~~, rrl~icligives then^ all ai~thorirarive weight lacking in forinal o r inforlnal convrrsation. Everyday con\.ersatioo all too often loses its thread 1,ecause of rbopol k'op (gossip, niockery, criricisnl, verbal :I[mcts); in otbcr \\fords, it is conilnunication with a hidden agenda, which tries to elicit information and may he d e c e i t f ~ or ~ l deliberately false. I n contrast, those stories included in L'opynyej mc'cI71m711nlctikare considered true, in tile sense that the events to which they refer are decincd real. IVere it othern~ise,their existence would have n o justification. It is useless to explain tliat a story may lay claim t o existence even if it is a piece of fiction dealing with imaglnarp happenings. T h e cvcnts of the 11sr ;ire not remembrred bccause they are true; they are truc because conthey are remembered. T h a t is why a story's narrator will ~isunlly elude his accoulir with the disclairner tliat he llas siinply tr:~~~sniittccl the n.ords as lie hiinself lreard dhmn, no nlore ant1 no less, possibly excusing hi~nselfin tlie process for any oniissiotls, as \veil as making it plain thnt :~ny attenlpt to decipller the donated ivord would he superfluous. T h e narrator's role is lin~itcd, or should be, to opdatlng the word so that the lisrencr \rill, in turn, update it in the future. Tliat may be why so much reliance is l~laced o n a direct style ofspeech. Unlike what happens in the prayer genre, which forllis an admittedly interesting contrast, narrative lacks any consistent classification. SinriIarly, the stories theinselves have no precise titles by tvhiclr they mny be identified. I11 any case, two types of narrative about the past n13): easily l,e ~lisringoishedby their form and the time t l ~ c y refer to. In tlie first type, elderly people recount events that tllcy liavc been able to see in thcir lifetime, or events that they have heanl about from people close to their parents' generation or, more rarely, t o their gmndparents'. T h e defiliing feature is that what is told "has been sccn": either the liarrator has been a n eyewitness of what is being told or he o r she has heard it froin a witness close,to tlie speaker, \vlro will often be named and paraphrased. It is an "ope+"stor!: f o l l o r v i r ~ rhc ~ fornint of n con versa ti or^ in \rfhich the listeners pn~.ticipate,fill in gaps, give a different version. Often biographical details slip in, and tlie whole will last as long as the audience is inrerested. l'l!e subject lnntrcr is fairly broad, but tl~ereis :I tnarked tcndency to inchide the infighting and power strug-

128

The Jaguar and the Priest

1

Narrative. Ritual. Silence 129 unable to suckle them. (This prol~ablyrefers to the mmnlll,oa epidemic of 1860, \r-Ilich cal~sed an enorlnous loss of life in Cancuc, according to d o c u m c ~ ~in t s the Arehim FIistClrico Diocesan0 of Snn Crist6bal dc Las Casas.) -"Wlic~i ash fell" (kblnl~nl inn). Huge quantities of ash blocked dut tbe sun; noon a.1~ as dark as midnight, and the rvhole earth was cor~ered with a white blanket. (This is the eruption of the Santa Maria volcano, around 1903.) -"Wlicn tile hot cough happened" (I~h1nlk'n.r tc k'njk'nl obnl). (This influelm epidemic that spread through is Ixob:ibly the rlc\~nstating h'Ierico in 1918.) -"1Yhcn the wnr returned" (ki~lnli.'nxre kh?ryin milrn). Tlrls was the war betwcc,~Gencrals "Karansa" (Venusdano Carranzn) and "Pinera" (Pincda), a.hcn they enme face-to-face in Cancuc and its vicinity; the latter shot "four hundred" Cancuqueros beside the church. T h e war "colrl~crl down" tvhcn Cnrranzn's troops joined with worncn fronl the 'Tzvltal camlnunity of Altamirnno, thus losing their strength. (This cpisodc refers to clnshes hctwecn rile Mexican revolutionary govcrnlnent's arrnyctnd soldiers of the region\r lsndou,ning o l i g a r c l ~ betnveerl ~ I918 and 1920.) -"Sl:~very" (711osoi1,from the Spanish ~ ~ ~ oor no "ser\f:~nt"). , T h e "Castilians" forced rlie Cancuqueros to work for harely any pay; they were ~xcsscd into transl~orting packs or people along the patIi\r~ays,the latter c;~rried in chairs tied across the bearer's forehead and back. (This 110ssibly refers a, rhc period from 1923 to 1926. "In 1926 Cnncuc's Indians conlplaincd tllat thcir municipal agent made them cnrry loads for lcss money t11:ln they had earned before 1910, that rhcy rvere also forcetl into servitude for their debts, as \dell as the fact that the agent earned his ~no~ic by y selling then liquor. According to tlleni, thc R c v o l u ~ i orc~~'~ forms had 'only e r v c d to inakc our situation worse"' [Chiapes Nistorical r1rchi\.e 1926, S I I , quoted in Benjamin 1990, 236'1.) -"U'llen the locust h:~ppencd"(l~'nli11 h,i~.s re i.'rrl~rb). .A plague of locusrs rlevastatcrl Cancue's crops, and fora year, hungcr rcigncd; they hnd to cat the ~ C I locusts y that destroycd thcir food supply. (Perhaps this rcfcrs 10 an c\.cnt that occurred solne tirne in the 1930s.) T I Ifeatures ~~ of this sequence deserve particular attention: the instigator or source o f thc event and the succinctness with which these ~nolnentous episodes a r c recounted. First of all, the obvious comlilon denolninator o f

gles in Cancuc. T h e limit of memory at the time of illy inter!.ie\\,s \,.as nrbund the I9?Os, tlic oeriod of tlie rer;olutionnry war in Chiapas. It is clearly a kind o f ino\.able frontier in time, the position of ivhich dcpends, among other thiilgs, on the age of the narrator; the elderly push it further back in rime, while younger pcoplc recount, most of all from a stylistic point of view, events o f a few decades ago as if they pertained to a n ancient em. I he second type of story takes 11s back to 3 tirrle hir beyond tile re, cent, f;lmiliar past of li\ped e s\xrience to a succession of outstat~ding events strercliing from the remotest past to the beginning o f this centur!,. T h e serics ofevents are nor ina:lriable, because sornc T ~ e l t a b;lrely l ~ncnrion some occurrences, \vhile others inay add more incidents to the list; nor is thc order i n \vIiich Ithcy appear immutable, as positions in the chronological sequence are sometimes changed, especially clle order of those accounts of the earliest events. T h e following list comprises the stories, which is tllltamount to saying the events, that, as far as I can tell, most adults ~ v o u l d recognize:

?.

-"lArhcn tlir burnin:. 1ispp.ned" (!,~'nIo/kLs re k3ii;k'cl). I\ rain of lirc \ rcduce<l the center of thc carth's surface (the prcscnt site of Cancuc) to asl~es, destroying those ivho lived there. -"ll'l,en the flood happcucd" (k'nlnl i.Zx rcp~~/c,,,nl). 1 1 contimlaus rain floodc~l tile earth's surfacc, drowning its inhabitants. T h e fc\v s o r r i ~ o r s turncd into illonkeys. -"lVhcn the first ivnr happcncd" (I.X/i~/i,i,.rrc i.er,~c). T h e ~ ~ r e s i ~ lof cnr Guatemala attackccl Caocuc in search of treasure, and the Cnocuqucros dcfendcd thelnsclves under the lendership of the hero Juan L i l p ~ 1111 ~. the end, L6pcz wns killed and tlie soldiers conquered the cornmunit).; repression eusocd, and thc location of the church \\.as clizngerl to its Ixcsent sitc. (This is the story of the Indian Rebellion o f 1712.) -"\4'hen the animals calne" (k'nlnlriil re rbm~boliimcrik). Certain manstrnus :,nilnals, who cnmc out of the junglc in the tropic11 regions or so-called hot country ( ~ n x n h , ~and ~ r ) who dcvoured "Christians," threatcncd to invadc Cancuc, but cndcd up turning into stonc. Same of their Iittrilied forms and pnw prints (apparently feline) starnpcrl into the rock can be seen :at a spot on Cancuc's valley floor. -"\Vhcn t l ~ great c srnsllpon happened" (hLlnl k'm rc ~~rrr1~'rr/rlincl). Many died; others becarnc so w e ~ h that they could not tend their cornfieldc nud starvcd to death; children died because their mothers were

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