Book Terminolog 2

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Doina BUTIURC Inga DRU ATTILa IMRE
TERMINOLOGY AND TRANSLATION STUDIES PLURILINGUAL TERMINOLOGY IN THE CONTEXT OF EUROPEAN INTERCULTURAL DIALOGUE
Petru Maior University, Trgu-Mure, The Faculty of Sciences and Letters
The Institute of Philology of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Chiinu
Faculty of Technical and Human Sciences, Trgu-Mure
TERMINOLOGY AND TRANSLATION STUDIES NATIONS AND NATIONAL PLURILINGUAL TERMINOLOGY IN THE CONTEXT OF MINORITIES IN THE EUROPEAN INTERCULTURAL DIALOGUE EUROPEAN UNION
Editors: Doina BUTIURC Inga DRU Edited by BARNA BOD Attila IMRE
MRTON TONK
ScientiaKiad Publishing House Kolozsvr2011 2011 Cluj-Napoca2009
SCIENTIA
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The book was published with the support of: Project Terminologia plurilingv i Dicionarul poliglot de termeni (Code: WE_PN-II-ID-WE-2011-009),IDEI Programme, Exploring Workshops of UEFISCDI, Romania SC.MILKPACT SRL, Trgu-Mure Sapientia Foundation Publisher-in-chief: prof. univ. dr. Zoltn Ksa
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Readers: prof. univ.dr./cercet. t. I. Ioana VINTIL-RDULESCU, Academia Romn, Bucureti prof. univ. dr. Angela BIDU-VRNCEANU, Universitatea Bucureti The studies in this volume express the views of the authors, who are entirely responsible for the content of their work. Series cover: Dnes Miklsi
Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naionale a Romniei BUTIURC, Doina Terminology and translation studies / Doina Butiurc, Inga Dru, Attila Imre. - Cluj-Napoca : Scientia, 2011 Bibliogr. ISBN 978-973-1970-63-9 I. Dru, Inga II. Imre, Attila 81
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TABLE OF CoNteNts
Editorial Note Not editorial A szerkesztk elszava Foreword Cuvnt-nainte
9 11 13 15 17
I. LINGUISTICS AND TERMINOLOGY Bidu-Vrnceanu, Angela Rolul lingvisticii n terminologie Toma, Cristina-Alice Terminologie discursive et termes migrateurs Museanu, Elena Peculiarities of Textual Analysis in the Economic Terminology Bahnaru, Vasile Dimitrie Cantemir, pionier al internaionalizrii terminologiei romneti Dru, Inga Popa, Viorica Dificulti de echivalare a unor termeni n discursul didactic actual Vieru, Lidia Dificulti n utilizarea termenilor cromatici Vlas, Mariana Terminologia n domeniul turismului. Istoric i aplicativitate Butiurc, Doina Levels of Analysis of Metaphor Terminology
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21
37
53
69
85
91
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111
Table of Contens
Cristina, Rusu-Marian Claudia, Rusu-Marian Butiurc, Doina Conceptual Metaphor Model and Mental Construct
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II. TERMINOGRAPHY VS. LEXICOGRAPHY The problem of definition in plurilingual/ bilingual dictionaries Liliana, Alic Dfinition terminographique vs dfinition lexicographique Imre Attila Sztrszerkeszts s terminolgiai adatbzisok Caraiman, Carmen D. Medrea, Nicoleta A Lexicographic Approach to the English-Romanian/ Romanian-English Legal Dictionaries and Glossaries Existing on the Romanian Book Market Spoiu, Camelia Definiiile i rolul lor n terminologia medical Rus, Maria-Laura Annotations on Lexical Innovations
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III. PLURILINGUAL TERMINOLOGY. TRANSLATION AND EQUIVALENCE Enache, Eugenia Traduction et terminologie Bozedean, Corina Les ambiguts terminologiques dans la traduction spcialise: le cas de quelques termes conomiques
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203
Table of Contens
Srosi-Mrdirosz, Krisztina-Mria Limbajul juridic i traducerea Ben, Attila Rcz, Lilla Translation and Modal Meanings
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Imre, Attila A Practical Approach to Translating Modal Verbs. The Case of need 235 Nznean, Adrian Training as a Medical Translator Nznean, Andreea The Role of Translation in Teaching a Foreign Language Gl, Nomi The Effects of the EUs Language Policy on Revitalizing Endangered Languages Nagy, Imola-Katalin Terminology Issues and Guidelines for Teaching English for Specific Purposes Kovcs, Gabriella ESP for Horticulture Needs Analysis and Genre Analysis Nagy, Sndor-Istvn Mai bun dect originalul Jobb, mint az eredeti Balzs, Melinda Explicitation Strategies in the Translation of Emily Bronts Wuthering Heights Nagy-Szilveszter, Orsolya Herztier Aspecte ale traducerii literare
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Chiril, Alina-Elena Carmen Sylva als bersetzerin Im Rahamen Der Fin De Sicle Literatur Han, Bianca-Oana The Culture Specific Element A Mark of the National Feature Szal Rka Drmatechnikk a nyelvoktatsban
Table of Contens
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Abstracts About the authors/ Despre autori/ A szerzkrl Publications in the Workshop Series
361 373 381
Editorial Note
The present volume is the result of a selection of papers presented during an exploring Workshop financed by a national programme (Planul Naional de Cercetare, dezvoltare i inovare 2007-2013, PNII Program IDEI, PN-II-ID-WE-201109) and the First International Symposium of Terminology at Petru Maior University of Trgu-Mure, Romania. The Workshop is the first fundamental action of the Inter-University Research Project entitled Plurilingual Terminology and Polyglot Dictionary of Terms, proposed by Petru Maior University of Trgu-Mure, the Faculty of Sciences and Letters. The Workshop has been carried out in collaboration with the Institute of Philology of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Chiinu (Institutul de Filologie al Academiei de tiine a Moldovei, Centrul de Terminologie, Cooperation Programme Nr. 3785/02.11.2010) and Sapientia University, Faculty of Technical and Human Sciences, Trgu-Mure (Sapientia EMTE, Marosvsrhelyi Mszaki s Humntudomnyok Kar, Cooperation Programme Nr. 720/12.10.2010). Many reserchers, teachers, university lecturers and professors have presented their papers, as well as translators and Ph.D. candidates from prestigious universities in Romania (Bucharest, Iai) and abroad. Outstanding researchers of linguistics and terminology from Bucharest, Braov and Cluj-Napoca have been accompanied by young researchers activating in Belgium, Hungary, France and terminologists from the Centre of Terminology within the Institute of Philology of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Chiinu. We tend to think that the presentations and papers illustrate an exploring interdisciplinary topic, whose complexity is determined by the interference of various linguistic fields, such as lexicology, linguistics and translation studies, combined with terminology, terminography and other sciences (medicine, economy, exact sciences, human sciences) in the context of European plurilinguism.
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Not editorial
Publicm (parial) n volumul de fa comunicrile prezentate n cadrul Workshop-ului exploratoriu ( finanat prin Planul Naional de Cercetare, dezvoltare i inovare 2007-2013, PNII Program IDEI, Subprogram Workshop-uri Exploratorii,Identificator: PN-II-ID-WE-20113) i a Simpozionului cu participare internaional, ediia I. Workshop-ul este prima aciune fundamental a Proiectului de Cercetare interuniversitar, ,,Terminologie plurilingv i Dicionar poliglot de termeni, propus de Universitatea ,,Petru Maiordin Trgu-Mure, Facultatea de tiine i Litere (cf. Protocol de colaborare nr.3785/02.11.2010), i realizat n colaborare cu Institutul de Filologie al Academiei de tiine a Moldovei (Centrul de Terminologie), Chiinu, i cu Universitatea Sapientia, Cluj-Napoca, prin Facultatea de tiine Tehnice i Umaniste, Trgu-Mure (cf. Protocol de Colaborare nr.720/12.10.2010). Au susinut comunicri i prelegeri cercettori, cadre didactice din nvmntul universitar i preuniversitar, traductori, doctoranzi de la Universiti de prestigiu din ar (Bucureti, Iai) i din strintate (Frana). Li s-au alturat personaliti din domeniul lingvisticii i terminologiei (Bucureti), lingviti de prestigiu (Bucureti, Braov, Cluj), tineri cercettori care i desfoar activitatea n alte ri (Belgia, Ungaria, Frana), terminologi din cadrul Centrului de Terminologie al Institutului de Filologie al Academiei de tiine a Molodovei. Comunicrile ilustreaz o tem exploratorie interdisciplinar a crei complexitate este determinat de interferena mai multor domenii lingvistice (lexicologie, lingvistic, traductologie) cu domeniul terminologiei, terminografiei i al diferitelor tiine (tiine exacte, medicin, economie, tiine umaniste) n contextul plurilingvismului european.
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A szerkesztk elszava
Jelen ktet vlogatott mhelytanulmnyokat tartalmaz, melyek a 20072013-as Romn Nemzeti Kutats- Fejleszts s Innovcis Program plyzata keretben (PNII Program IDEI, Workshop-uri Exploratorii alprogram, azonost: PN-II-ID-WE-20113), valamint az els nemzetkzi Terminolgiai Konferencia keretben hangzottak el a marosvsrhelyi Petru-Maior Egyetemen 2011-ben. A Plurilingvlis terminolgia s Tbbnyelv terminolgiai sztr Mhely az egyetemek kztti Kutatsprogram els lpst fmjelzi, melynek kezdemnyezje a marosvsrhelyi Petru-Maior Egyetem Blcssz- s Tudomnyok Kara. Egyttmkdsi szerzdseket rt al mind a kisinyi szkhely Moldovai Tudomnyos Akadmia Filolgiai Intzetvel (Iktatszm: 3785/2010.11.02.), mind pedig a a Sapientia EMTE marosvsrhelyi Mszaki- s Humntudomnyok Karval (Iktatszm: 720/2010.10.12.) Ennek eredmnyeknt eladsokat s bemutatkat tartottak romniai kzp- s felsoktatsi intzmnyek kpviseli, fordtk, elismert romniai s klfldi egyetemek doktoranduszai (Bukarest, Jszvsr, Franciaorszg). Termszetesen jelen voltak tekintlyes nyelvszek, terminolgusok az orszg hres egyetemi kzpontjaibl is (Bukarest, Brass, Kolozsvr), de klfldi intzmnyek fiatal kutati is (Belgium, Franciaorszg, Magyarorszg), valamint a kisinyi Terminolgiai Kzpont kpviseli is (Moldovai Tudomnyos Akadmia Filolgiai Intzete) s a Sapientia EMTE marosvsrhelyi Mszaki s Humntudomnyok Kar tbb oktatja is. A bemutatott tanulmnyok ksrleti interdiszciplinarits jellegek, hiszen tbb nyelvszeti g interferencijrl van sz: lexikolgia, traduktolgia, terminolgia, terminogrfia, de ms tudomnygak is megjelennek az eurpai plurilingvizmus jegyben (egzakt tudomnyok, orvostudomny, vagy akr gazdasgtan). Kellemes s hasznos olvasst kvnunk!
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ForeWord
Europe has become more and more diverse from the cultural point of view. Consequently, the intercultural dialogue plays a growingly important role in promoting European identity and citizenship. The European Chart of Plurilingualism of 2005, elaborated in Paris, is dedicated precisely to this ideal of plurilingualism, and its Romanian translation is considered to be among the official versions. In the chapter from the Chart entitled Plurilingualism, cultural diversity and scientific progress, based around the idea that plurilingualism is an essential element of the scientific innovation, we are made aware of the fact that in the scientific domain, using the lingua franca [] must be limited to the international change []. In parallel, different national languages ought to be preserved as scientific languages, sustained and strongly applied within national scientific activities. Professor Ph.D. Ioana Vintil-Rdulescu Iorgu Iordan Al. Rosetti Institute of Linguistics Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania
The contemporary society represents a multilingual community, in which highly cultural languages have evolved along centuries. Europe intends to value this linguistic and cultural inheritance, since the respect for the linguistic diversity constitutes a fundamental value of the European Union. According to the Lisbon Treaty (2007), the European Union protects its cultural and linguistic diversity and watches over the preservation and development of the European cultural patrimony. An increased attention ought to be given to the development of the linguistic means facilitating specialised communication, mainly terminology. The technological process implies alterations in the forms and means of specialised com mu nication, which are becoming more and more complex and arouse the interest of the economic domain. The cultural dimension of globalisation sets the issue of the relation between culture and economic capitalisation. We can witness a process of democratisation of culture and globalisation of certain culturally marked products. The integration of the elements of
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material and spiritual culture and their competition to the native ones is achieved at both cultural and economic levels. Technical and scientific terminology supports this aspect, contributing to the integration of the national culture to the world structures under the competitive conditions. Considering things from this perspective, we salute the initiative of organising an exploratory workshop and symposium focusing upon pluri lingual terminology and the utility of the present volume is of undoubted value. Professor Ph.D. Hab. Irina CONDREA Head of the Department of Romanian Language State University of Moldavia
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CuvNt-NaiNte
Europa a devenit tot mai divers sub aspect cultural. Ca urmare, dialogul intercultural joac un rol din ce n ce mai important n promovarea identitii i a ceteniei europene. Acest dialog nu poate fi conceput n afara plurilingvismului, cruia i este consacrat Carta european a plurilingvismului, a crei elaborare a fost decis la Paris n anul 2005 i a crei traducere n limba romn se numr printre versiunile ei oficiale. n capitolul din Cart intitulat Plurilingvismul, diversitatea cultural i progresul tiinific, care are la baz ideea c plurilingvismul este un element esenial al inovaiei tiinifice, se arat c n domeniul tiinific, utilizarea unei lingua franca [] trebuie s se limiteze la schimbul internaional []. n paralel, diferitele limbi naionale trebuie pstrate ca limbi tiinifice, ncurajate i, n cadrul activitii tiinifice naionale, aplicate din plin. n aceast direcie, terminologia, n special cea plurilingv, i traductologia au de jucat un rol foarte important. Este meritul excelentei echipe de editori de a fi fcut din volumul de fa expresia unui proiect emblematic la nivel naional n acest sens, aa cum au fost i atelierul explorator i simpozionul ale cror lucrri le reflect. Prof. univ. dr. Ioana Vintil-Rdulescu Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan Al. Rosetti din Bucureti al Academiei Romne
Societatea contemporan reprezint o comunitate multilingv, n care limbi de mare cultur au evoluat de-a lungul secolelor.Europa unit i propune s valorifice aceast motenire lingvistic i cultural, ntruct respectul pentru diversitatea lingvistic constituie o valoare fundamental a Uniunii Europene. Conform Tratatului de la Lisabona (decembrie 2007), Uniunea European protejeaz diversitatea sa cultur i lingvistic i vegheaz asupra conservrii i dezvoltrii patrimoniului cultural european.Dezvoltarea mijloacelor lingvistice care faciliteaz comunicarea specializat, n special a terminologiei, trebuie s benefecieze de o atenie sporit. Progresul tehnologic implic modificri ale formelor i mijloacelor de comunicare
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specializat, care devin tot mai complexe i suscit tot mai mult interesul sferei economice. Dimensiunea cultural a globalizrii pune problema relaiei dintre cultur i rentabilitate economic.Suntem martorii unui proces de democratizare a culturii i de globalizare a anumitor produse marcate cultural.Integrarea elementelor de cultur material i spiritual, dar i competiia lor cu cele autohtone, se realizeaz att n plan cultural, ct i n plan economic.Terminologia tiinific i tehnic constituie un exemplu sub acest aspect, contribuind la integrarea culturii naionale n structuri mondiale n condiiile concurenei. Din aceast perspectiv, este salutar iniiativa organizrii unui workshop exploratoriu, a unor Simpozioane etc ce au n centrul ateniei terminologia plurilingv, iar utilitatea volumului care nglobeaz lucrrile prezentate este indiscutabil. dr. hab. prof. univ. Irina CONDREA, efa Catedrei de limba romn, Universitatea de Stat din Moldova
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I. LINGUISTICS AND TERMINOLOGY
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Rolul lingvisticii n terminologie
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Bidu-Vrnceanu, Angela
Rolul liNgvisticii N termiNologie
0. Observaiile de fa se vor constitui n dou pari. Mai inti ( I ) vom prezenta consideraiile actuale care susin existena unei terminologii ca disciplin tiinific, preocupat att de aspectele cognitive, ct i de cele descriptiv-lingvistice.Vom reine argumentele teoretice care arat rolul lingvisticii i permit ncadrarea terminologiei printre disciplinele lingvistice. n al doilea rnd (II), vom argumenta rolul lingvisticii n terminologie prin semnalarea ctorva aspecte n care lucrrile romneti au obinut rezultate relevante, bazate pe relaia dintre dicionare i texte, urmrit att n sincronie, ct i n diacronie. I 1. Numeroasele lucrri aprute n ultimii ani conduc la impunerea terminologiei ca disciplin n expansiune i n devenire( J.J.Briu 2011: 2). n ciuda acestui fapt, statutul ca disciplin tiinific nu este clar, iar dicionarele generale recente (DEXI, de exemplu) definesc terminologia numai cu sensul concret de ansamblu al termenilor aparinnd unui domeniu specializat (arte, tiine). Delimitarea ca disciplin tiinific nu apare cu claritate nici n dicionarele specializate (cu excepia DSL ). DFN (2009:287) consider c terminologia este o tiin pretendent (subl.n.) la autonomie, preocupat de rezolvarea problemelor comunicrii specializate, scop n care impune convenional termeni-etichet dintr-un anumit domeniu (poziie adoptat i de Tournier DLF 2009:341-342). Se definete astfel numai terminologia cognitiv, clasic, aprut n anii 1930 (prin Wuster i discipolii si) i se neglijeaz numeroasele studii din ultima vreme care dezvolt ( dup 1980 i mai ales n ultimii ani) un alt tip de terminologie . Aceast nou orientare, cu tendine i subtendine destul de diverse (H.Bejoint i Ph.Thoiron 2000:6) adopt, la modul general, descrierea lingvistic a termenilor, fcut de lingvistul-terminolog (F.Gaudin 2005:84; C.Fvre-Pernet 2011:191,196 .a,). Orientarea descriptiv-lingvistic nu mai ia n consideraie caracterul normativ al terminologiei cognitive care impune termeni-etichet i analizeaz termenii ca semne lingvistice n uzaj. Existena a cel puin dou orientri principale n terminologie (M.T.Cabr 1991:55; A.Bidu- Vrnceanu 2007: 20-25 ) a determinat ntrebarea (pus deja de mult vreme de M.T.Cabr 1991:55, 57-58)
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dac vorbim de terminologie sau de terminologii ca discipline tiinifice. Raportul dintre aceste orientri determin caracterul interdisciplinar sau pluridisciplinar al terminologiei. Un argument important n acest sens este faptul c terminologia cognitiv-normativ care stabilete termenii dintr-un anumit domeniu ofer baza de cercetare terminologiei descriptiv-lingvistice. Se susine astfel c elementul-pivot al oricrei terminologii este conceptul (L.Depecker 2005:6,9;id. 2011:18-21), difereniat de semnificat (care adaug proprieti semantice termenului), blocnd interpretarea exclusiv lingvistic, determinat doar de exprimarea printr-o anumit limb (J.J.Briu 2011:3-5). Obiectivele i metodele de lucru distincte delimiteaz ns cele dou orientri, ducnd la existena mai multor terminologii, cu un statut parial neclar, innd de mai multe discipline(C.Roche 2005: 51,61). Posibilitatea i chiar utilitatea de a supune termenul mai multor perspective de analiz duce la ideea unei terminologii dinamice (H.Bjoint i Ph.Thoiron 2000:13-14; J.C. Sager 200:50-52; L.Depecker 2002: 21; I. Desmet 2006:23; A.Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 9,20) Rolul lingvisticii a variat pe parcursul dezvoltrii terminologiei ca disciplin tiinific.n terminologia clasic, cognitiv (a specialitilor pentru specialiti), rolul lingvisticii a fost secundar i limitat la amenajarea lingvistic a termenilor ( internaional sau naional), aspect valabail i n prezent (L.J.Rousseau 2005:93-102).O alt etap a fost reprezentat de lucrrile care promoveaz orientarea descriptiv-lingvistic n terminologie ( M.T. Cabr 1998; F.Gaudin 1993/ 2003 ), preocupat la nceput de exprimarea termenilor prin mprumuturi i neologisme, cu distincii privind originea i rolul elementelor formative (aspect investigat i n prezent (v. de exemplu, S.de Caldas 2011:341-344). Treptat ns, func ionarea termenilor a impus atenia sporit pentru latura semnificat i pentru condiiile reale din uzajul din diferite tipuri de comunicare, aspect lingvistic complex, studiat cu diferite metode lingvistice. Integrarea terminologiei n lingvistic este considerat (L.Depecker 2005:6) o dezbatere deschis, fiind nc greu de precizat dac face parte din aceasta sau e o disciplin aparte(id.). Se reine raportul circular cu filozofia limbajului i lingvistica general, care servesc nu numai ca punct de plecare (prin conceptele i metodele oferite), ci i ca punct de sosire, pentru c terminologia reprezint o intrare privilegiat n limb, o nou posibilitate de analiz a limbilor sau deschiderea de noi ci pentru lingvistic(L.Depecker 2011:28, 30 ; J.J.Briu 2011: 8-9). Dovezi concrete n acest sens sunt lucrrile aprute n ultimii ani (A.BiduVrnceanu 2007; volumele Mots,..2006 i Passeurs..2011).
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Rolul lingvisticii n terminologie ncepe cu interpretarea termenului ca semn lingvistic (viu) (L.Depecker 2002:21) sau ca unitate lingvistic (J.J.Briu 2011:28). Studiul real, efectiv al termenilor n uzaj ntreprins de terminologia descriptiv-lingvistic oblig la relaia dintre lexicul comun (LC) i lexicul specializat (LS), permind descrierea lor din aceeai perspectiv i cu aceleai metode ( M.T. Cabr 1991:21,31 ; A.Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007:25-28 ). Trebuie menionat ca o poziie cu totul aparte interpretarea (A.Rey 2011: 902-903) care consider termenul o etichet, un cod de bare pentru a indica o noiune, independent de o anumit limb, termenii nefiind cuvinte i, implicit, semne lingvistice. Terminologia apare la Rey, ntr-un dicionar din 2011( ntr-un moment de expansiune a studiilor descriptiv-lingvistice de care nu se ine seama) limitat la orientarea wusterian, fiind considerat o fabric de nume pentru obiecte mentale din diferite domenii(id.). Punctele de vedere prezentate arat c terminologia descriptivlingvistic s-a dezvoltat prin numeroase studii, cu evoluii doctrinare importante de-a lungul ultimului deceniu (F.Gaudin 2003:80; v. i vol. Mots..2006; Passeurs..2011, J.J.Briu 2011). Este incontestabil astfel dinamismul terminologiei, n care lingvistica a tiut s se acomodeze foarte bine(G.Petit 2001:77-78), iar ideea unei terminologii dinamice este susinut de numeroi specialiti i este demonstrat prin analize diverse. Admind importana limbilor i fcnd analiza variaiei termenilor n uzaj care nu se poate face dect cu principii lingvistice, terminologia nu mai e interpretat ca un esperanto( F.Gaudin 2005:80,90). Integrarea lingvistic a terminologiei apare astfel n momentul de fa (2011) mult mai categoric, susinut de afirmaii precum lingvistica secolului XX dezvolt domenii autonome, mai nti lexicologia i apoi terminologia ( J.J. Briu 2011: 1-3, 16 ). Se apreciaz c lexicologia aplicativ anticipeaz terminologia, iar n prezent terminologia este la mod i tinde s se substituie lexicologiei i semanticii lexicale(id.).Termenii n uzaj, n texte i contexte determin construcia unui termen s in seama de o problematic clar lingvistic (subl.n.)(ibid.). Cercetarea unui mare numr de texte cu ajutorul lingvisticii corpusului dirijeaz mijloacele informatice pentru reperajul termenilor dup criterii lingvistice (A.Condamines 2005:44). 2. Implicarea mai multor discipline lingvistice n terminologie este o alt modalitate de a demonstra relaia dintre ele. Un loc important, pentru c au determinat evoluii doctrinare n terminologie l au sociolingvistica, lingvistica general, lingvistica corpusului
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( F.Gaudin 2005: 80). Aa cum am artat nainte (v.la 1) teoria i filozofia limbii sau lingvistica general au impus concepte fundamentale n terminologie (de exemplu interpretarea termenului ca semn lingvistic), iar analizele terminologice permit regndirea unor fapte de limb (L.Depecker 2011: 30). Raporturi strnse, justificate n diferite feluri se stabilesc cu lexicologia i semantica, dup unii autori (J.J. Briu 2011: 8-11) mergnd pn la suprapunere. Prin locul central pe care l ocup latura conceptual-semantic n definirea termenului (v. L.Depecker 2002, 2005, 2011), semantica este cel mai evident integrat n terminologie. Abordarea unei perspective semasiologice (difereniat de cea onomasiologic din terminologia cognitiv) a determinat noile orientri i delimitarea terminologiei descriptiv-lingvistice (M.T.Cabr 1998:193;id.2000:210 ) dar, mai ales, se impun pentru analiza sensului terminologic studiile din volumul coordonat de H.Bjoint i Ph.Thoiron( 2000). Analizele semantice explicite care adopt analiza semic (L.Depecker 2002: 45-46; ,id. 2011:28-29; M.Jansen i M.Van Campenhoud 2005:63-69; A.Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007:59-62) susin integrarea terminologiei n tiinele limbii(id.2011.78) permit o terminologie diferenial i comparativ ( J.J.Briu 2011:8-10 ; L.Depecker 2011:28-29) la nivelul unei limbi sau a mai multora. Comparaiile unor termeni i terminologii din diverse limbi susin distincia dintre concept i sens (L.Depecker 2011: 22 ) i arat specificul semantic al limbilor i la nivelul lexicului specializat (v.A.Bidu Vrnceanu i colab.2009, 2010). O contribuie important a semanticii const n determinarea felului i gradului n care diverse terminologii satisfac o condiie ideal pentru eficiena comunicrii specializate-univocitatea semantic a termenilor. Din aceast perspectiv, analiza tipurilor de definiii date n dicionarele generale i specializate sau caracterizarea diferit sub aspectul relaiilor semantice (polisemie, sinonimie, hiponimie) sunt modaliti relevante de caracterizare a diferitelor terminologii(v.A.Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007:71103, 203-240 ; E.Museanu 2011, R.Ciolneanu 2011). Un aspect foarte important corelat cu existena polisemiei n terminologie este reprezentat de mobilitatea denotativ, care, n plan sincronic, este efectul firesc al variaiei terminologice n funcie de texte i contexte (S.Mejri 2006:546549; A.Elimam 2006:118 .a. v. Mots..:5-12; A.Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 147155, id. 2011-a), iar n plan diacronic reprezint o evoluie conceptual fireasc. Analiza sensului n terminologie se face n prezent prin mai multe metode, unele considerate mixte pentru c aparin lingvisticii corpusului( R.M. Frjaville 2011:599-603; v. i o mare parte dintre studiile
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din volumul Passeurs..,2011), dar mai ales, pentru c interdependena paradigmatic/ sintagmatic se reflect n diverse feluri n toate descrierile terminologice. Legat de semantic i, uneori insuficient difereniat, s-a profilat importana pragmaticii i a sociolingvisticii pentru terminologie (M.T.Cabr1998:193-194; id.2000:21. 29-30; F.Gaudin 1993/2003: 80; H.Bejoint i Ph.Thoiron 2000:5-6; L.Depecker 2002 : 29, 66-67; id.2011:29) ducnd la socioterminologie (F.Gaudin 1993/2003; F.Bertaccini i A.Mateucci 2006:317-327 ). Se propune chiar o definiie a termenului din aceast perspectiv: unitate pragmatic (subl.n.) a comunicrii specializate(M.T.Cabr 1998:191). Analizele terminologice arat importana unor concepte fundamentale din pragmatic, precum relaia dintre emitor i receptor, distincii dup cile de comunicare i, mai ales, n funcie de contextele de diferite tipuri. Pe baza unor concepte din pragmatic se pot delimita obiectiv caracteristicile i gradul de specializare al textelor, cele strict specializate presupunnd ca att emitorul, ct i receptorul s fie specialiti care utilizeaz un anumit canal de comunicare. Cnd destinatarul are un caracter neclar sau etero gen se ajunge la nivele de specializare medie sau inferioar. Rezultatele obinute precizeaz contribuia lingvisticii att n ce privete descrierea lexicului specializat, ct i sub aspectul relaiilor acestuia cu lexicul comun (n cadrul vulgarizrii sau popularizrii tiinifice i, n general, prin extinderea unor termeni specializai n comunicarea obinuit (v. A.Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 155-181). Lexicografia are o poziie privilegiat n relaiile cu terminologia, n primul rnd pentru c amndou reprezint ramuri ale lingvisticii aplicate. Dar mai relevant este faptul c majoritatea studiilor de terminologie descriptiv se bazeaz pe dicionare (generale i speciale) i pe definiiile lor. S-a artat c aproximativ 40% din dicionarele generale ale diverselor limbi conin termeni specializai, motiv pentru care relaia dintre dicionare i texte a stat la baza cercetrii diverselor terminologii romneti (v. A.Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007:203-225; id.2010), ca o modalitate de apreciere obiectiv i de stabilire a raporturilor dintre stabilitate i variabilitate. Rolul definiiilor din dicionarele generale n analiza sensului specializat a fost semnalat teoretic (F.Rastier 1995:57,62; F.Gaudin 2003:151-152) i ilustrat practic de analiza diverselor terminologii romneti (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 45-119; id.2010: 37-44; 50-56) . Dintre obiectivele i rezultatele de interes n terminologia descriptivlingvistic se pot reine: precizarea raportului dintre stabilitate i variabilitate la nivelul unei terminologii i identificarea gradului ei
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de specializare, particularitile la nivelul exprimrii termenilor i a sensurilor specializate, actualizarea n texte pentru terminologiile consacrate i reperajul unor termeni-candidai pentru terminologii n formare, selectarea contextelor definitorii, grupate relevant n jurul unui termen. Rezult astfel o interdependen intern n terminologia descriptiv-lingvistic, o dimensiune complex lexical, semantic, discursiv-sintactic i contextual ( J.J.Briu 2011:9; L.Depecker 2011:17) prin care se demonstreaz specificul acestei orientri terminologice. Interaciunea n analiza aceluiai obiect de cercetare poate determina ntrebarea dac e vorba de interdisciplinaritate sau de pluridisciplinaritate (C.Fvre Pernet 2011:192). Pe de alt parte se susine rolul circular al relaiei dintre terminologie i lingvistic: lingvistica furnizeaz modele de descriere a termenilor, dar poate beneficia de rezultatele descrierilor de acest fel, printr-o regndire a faptelor de limb. 3. nc de la primele studii de terminologie descriptiv lingvistic s-a semnalat posibilitatea subdivizrii ei n mai multe direcii. Implicarea mai multor discipline lingvistice susine aceast idee, studiile existente putnd fi grupate n cel puin dou direcii principale: terminologia lexicalist, bazat pe o analiz cu precdere paradigmatic, aplicat mai ales n sincronie, dar cu posibiliti de extindere n diacronie i terminologia textual sau discursiv, care are mai multe posibiliti de abordare. ntre cele dou direcii de cercetare se stabilesc mai multe puncte comune, justificate de faptul c variaia paradigmatic se produce pe axa sintagmatic (S.Mejri 2006:545-549; T.Lino 2006: 512; A.Elimam 2006:118). Ideea interdependenei orientrilor descriptive este susinut teoretic (v.vol. Mots..2006:328,388, 456-457, 509), indicndu-se necesitatea regndirii raportului dintre sintagmatic i paradigmatic (F.Neveu 2006:382, 388 ) Analizele terminologice efective ilustreaz concret aceast interdependen (v. de exemplu, J.J.Briu 2011: 117-131;153-191;191-223; C.FvrePernet 2011:191, 196,198). Un exemplu al interdependenei analizei paradigmatice cu cea sintagmatic este msurarea densitii terminologice a unui text, aspect terminologic paradigmatic care permite aprecierea gradului lui de specializare, innd seama de contexte largi (aspect sintagmatic). Textele cu o densitate ( condensare) terminologic mare (I. Desmet 2006:237-238) se difereniaz de cele cu un numr mai mic de termeni, unde se constat o disoluie a conceptelor n discurs, care determin grade inferioare de specializare (v. S.Mejri 2006:701-702, 707; A.Bertels 2006:371-372, A.Bidu-Vrnceanu 2011).
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O alt direcie bazat pe interdependena dintre paradigmatic i sintagmatic este cea aplicat n investigarea terminologiilor romneti care in seama de relaia dintre dicionare i texte (v. A.Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007;2010). n terminologiile consacrate (lingvistic, matematic, politic, agronomic) este prioritar analiza paradigmatic prin care se identific gradul de specializare prin identificarea gradului de specializare a sensului (univocitatea definirii, absena relaiilor semantice care determin ambiguiti n diferite grade rezultate din definiiile dicionarelor i din actualizrile termenilor n texte. Demersul cercetrii este parial inversat n analiza unor terminologii noi, n formare, precum marketingul economic i politic, polemologia, comerul electronic (de asemenea analizate pentru romn, v. n A.BiduVrnceanu 2010:201-239 ). n terminologiile n formare, punctul de plecare este reprezentat de textele specializate, care impun (sub)domeniul i din care se repereaz termenii specifici, considerai termeni-candidat i din care se selecteaz termenii-prototip (sau termenii-vedet). Se urmrete i recurena termenilor n text, stabilitatea lor referenial i conceptual (G.Petit 2001:67), corelat cu identificarea i gruparea contextelor definitorii pentru un termen (C.Roche 2005:50; F.Neveu 2996: 383, 388 ). Raportarea la dicionare sau alte surse terminografice are, n general, rezultate limitate i variaz ca posibilitate de la o terminologie la alta n funcie de gradul de impunere a domeniului(v. n A.BiduVrnceanu 2010: 203-239 ). Rezult astfel, c n descrierea lingvistic a terminologiilor n formare, interdependena dintre axa paradigmatic i cea sintagmatic este mult mai strns ( C.Roche 2005:53; A.Condamines 2005:43).Vom ilustra aceast interdependen i prioritatea analizei textelor i contextelor prin terminologia din marketingul politic ( v.la II3) Condiionat de interesul prioritar pentru latura conceptualsemantic, analiza paradigmatic este relevant pentru terminologiile care se caracterizeaz prin interdisciplinaritate (corelat adeseori cu hiperspecializarea), mecanism actual dinamic de creare a noi terminologii i de noi sensuri (A.Hermes 2004:14-15; A.Bidu Vrnceanu 2007:181185, 202, 229-239; R.Ciolneanu 2010: 159-179; id. 2011). Sensurile specializate create n acest fel implic o mobilitate denotativ (n diverse grade) foarte important, care poate fi demonstrat riguros de analiza semantic i demonstreaz, implicit, rolul lingvisticii n terminologie. Implicarea evident a textelor i contextelor n identificarea termenilor i sensurilor specializate a dus treptat la delimitarea terminologiei textuale sau discursive, ca alt orientare descriptiv-lingvistic. In toate studiile
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de acest fel, tot mai numeroase n ultima vreme ( M.Slodzian 2000:14; volumele Mots,..2006 i, mai ales Passeurs..2011), analiza termenilor pornete de la texte pentru a repera i identifica fie termenii i contextele definitorii, fie diferite caracteristici ale textelor ( v. vol. Mots..2006: 328, 388; 456-457; :509; 382). n analizele romneti nu s-au aplicat principiile mai complexe ale terminologiei textuale, de cele mai multe ori bazate pe lingvistica corpusului (v. M.Slodzian 2000, G.Petit 2001:71) prin care se creeaz posibilitatea cercetrii unui corpus bogat, alctuit dintr-un mare numr de texte (v.vol.Passeurs..2011). Exist ns aspecte studiate de terminologia textual care au fost aplicate i de terminologia romneasc prin combinarea analizei paradigmatice cu cea sintagmatic, cu diverse obiective: stabilirea specificului unei terminologii (n diverse aspecte) sau construirea unei terminologii pornind de la texte ( A.Condamines 2005:44; A.Bidu-Vrnceanu 2010:229-239 i punctul 4 ). n terminologia textual, domeniul este circumscris prin texte, unde se repereaz termenii (C.Fvre-Pernet 2011: 203, 211), iar acetia din urm se identific nu numai prin domeniu i definiie (v. A.Bidu-Vranceanu 2007 :31-34; 57 ), ci i prin text i context (C. Fvre-Pernet id.). Toate aceste aspecte sunt baza cercetrii n terminologiile n formare (cum este marketingul politic). Analiza gradului de specializare a unui text n funcie de criterii complexe (v. I.Desmet 2006: 237-238,241; S.Mejri 2006:701-702,707: A.Bertels 2006:371-372; A.Toma 2006) este astfel un punct comun ntre cercetarea lexicalist i cea textual, de interes n orice tip de terminologie, pentru c densitatea lor terminologic n text identific gradul i tipul lui de specializare. Cele dou orientri principale din terminologia descriptiv-lingvistic, cu varietatea metodelor utilizate, au fost aplicate mai ales n perspectiva sincronic, primordial n comunicarea specializat, care se face la un moment dat. Perspectiva diacronic n analize efective care aplic criterii terminologice este de dat relativ recent (v. la 5) acestea artnd n mod convingtor rolul important pe care l are lingvistica n terminologia descriptiv. II 1. O prim ilustrare practic a principiilor enunate sub I va fi constituit de rolul unui text tiinifico-didactic care impune ( alturi de alte texte similare) domeniul marketingului politic: Alexandra Bardan, Marketingul politic n romnia nainte i dup 1989, aprut n 2001, editura Tritonic, Bucureti. n acest caz, ntre text i domeniu se stabilete o corelaie strict, primul impunndu-l pe cele de-al doilea. Justificarea
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preliminar a domeniului(indicat de titlul crii) se bazeaz pe date extralingvistice care prezint situaia internaional a domeniului i noutatea lui n spaiul politic romnesc. Aplicnd criteriul recurenei i al stabilitii lor referenial-conceptuale se identific termenii-prototip (specifici): marketing politic, marketing politic electoral, comunicare politic, publicitate politic, pluralism politic, joc democratic, pia de consiliere n marketingul politic, tehnici de marketing politic, actori politici, piaa ntreprinztorilor n comunicarea politic, oferta politic .a. Definirea unitilor terminologice complexe, reprezentative n acest domeniu se face prin suma determinatului (care este din marketingul economic) i a determinantului (cu precdere adjectivul politic), precizate prin contextul care actualizeaz i adapteaz componentele economice. Un asemenea context definitoriu este urmtorul, n care se remarc densitatea terminologic mare, care impune specializarea i interdisciplinaritatea domeniului prin transferul din economie, corelat cu un model politic occidental: Exportul presupune noiunile de ,, patronaj, de sfera de influen i o relaie de clientelism ntre State, bazat pe o logic interactiv ntre o superputere exportatoare i o subputere receptoare. n interiorul acestui sistem interetatic, unde exist un model de organizare economic i politic dominant, numrm, printre produsele exportate:idei, instituii i practici politice, coduri de drept i formule economice(A. Bardan, 2001:22).Termenii economici transferai n textul politic sunt precizai contextual, ceea ce determin valori conceptual-semantice noi i impunerea unui domeniu nou, cu terminologia aferent. 2. O alt modalitate de a demonstra rolul lingvisticii n terminologie este constituit de analizele diacronice. Lucrri de referin n terminologie (M.T. Cabr 1998:73, 80) au afirmat c terminologia este mai curnd (sau aproape exclusiv) sincronic. La modul general-teoretic, ali specialiti (L.Depecker 2005: 3-4 ) arat interesul pentru aspectele diacronice implicate de mobilitatea denotativ i pentru analiza formelor i a gradului de specializare a unui domeniu. Aplicativ, perspectiva diacronic a fost inclus n analizele privind circulaia social-istoric a termenilor (F.Gaudin 1993/2003:11,97-99, 172, 205, 213-217) sau n studierea originii termenilor i a categoriilor de mprumuturi i neologisme (M.T.Cabr 1998. F.Gaudin 2003 ). Interesul pentru diacronia n terminologie este foarte actual. Reinem cteva analize recente, care fac precizri teoretice i aplicative
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(v. A.Kacprzak 2011:355- 365 ) i arat ca relevant dinamica unor terminologii n secolele XIX i XX (neurologie, virusologie) , nregistrnd situaii tipice de evoluie a termenilor, valabile ca interpretare i pentru alte terminologii. Exemplele concrete analizate permit o serie de observaii generale. Denumirile vechi sunt mai transparente i mai motivate, spre deosebire de denumirile recente, care sunt n general savante i neutre (id. ).Alte analize, privind termenul democraie n francez i german (v. J.J.Briu 2011:117-131 ) sau denumirile parlamentului n limbile europene (v.S.Sakhno 2011:153-191) urmresc o evoluie complex, extralingvistic i lingvistic. Unele cercetri actuale limiteaz interpretarea diacronic la cteva decenii (v. vol. Mots..,2006:515-525;599-609). Evoluia propriu-zis ntr-o perioad mai lung de timp (dou secole), att la nivelul expresiei, ct i al coninutului, pe baza unor surse riguroase (dicionare i texte), cu o interpretare care ine seama de criteriile terminologiei descriptivlingvistice s-a fcut recent i limitat ( A.Bidu-Vrnceanu 2010:31-73 ; A.Toma 2010: 73-99; J.J.Briu 2011:117-131;153-191 ). Aspectele investigrii evoluiei termenilor i terminologiilor (exprimare i forme, confruntri de surse i date lingvistice i extralingvistice) impun principii i metode predominant lingvistice. Specializarea terminologiilor determinat extralingvistic are o reflectare lingvistic direct, iar diacronia indic treptele i gradele parcurse, semnalnd decalajele dintre expresie i coninut i modificrile denotative. Pentru a ilustra toate aceste aspecte complexe nu sunt suficiente afirmaii generale sau generalizante, orict de corecte ar fi i vom avea n vedere analizele diacronice efective ale unor terminologii romneti (v. A.Bidu-Vrnceanu i A.Toma 2010: 31-99 ). Astfel, analiza specializrii terminologiilor romneti a urmrit existena domeniilor i a subdomeniilor, relaia dintre ele n secolele XIX i XX (v.A.Bidu-Vrnceanu 2010 : 33-36, 46-47, 49-56;69-70, cu investigarea efectiv a lingvisticii, agronomiei, matematicii,fizicii i geografiei( id. ). n unele cazuri, specializarea s-a fcut dezvoltnd subdomenii de la domeniu (de exemplu gramatic / lingvistic), iar n altele (agronomia) au aprut mai nti subdomeniile, ierarhizarea lor fcndu-se mai trziu (v.A.Bidu-Vrnceanu 2010: 43-44). Dovada acestei evoluii este constituit de analiza efectiv a dicionarelor din secolele XIX-XXI, confruntate cu actualizrile din texte. Termenul GRAMATIC apare n dicionarele din secolul XIX cu o definiie general i simpl: arta (subl.n. cu sensul practic) quare nve
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a vorbi bine i a scrie corectu. Faptul c indic un domeniu rezult din definiia dat de Laurian i Massimu (1871-76), unde se precizeaz care sunt prile gramaticii (adic subdomeniile ei):ortoepia, ortografia, sintaxa, lexicografia! La nceputul secolului XX (Enciclopedia lui Diaconovici, 1902), GRAMATICA se claseaz ca disciplin filologic, cu un obiect specific:se ocup cu cercetarea organizrii limbilor i legile structurrii lor, avnd ca pri principale fonologia, morfologia, sintaxa. Numai n dicionarele din a doua jumtate a secolului XX, GRAMATICA apare ca subdomeniu al LINGVISTICII. . O situaie diferit are domeniul agricol, care, n secolul XIX exista prin subdomenii limitate, desemnate perifrastic:cultivarea plan telor,cultivarea pomilor,creterea animalelor, denumirile actuale fiind impuse n secolul urmtor. Alte subdomenii, precum pedologia sau tiina solurilor se formeaz treptat n secolul XX, pentru ca n a doua jumtate a acestui secol s se divid n continuare n numeroase alte ramuri: pedologie agricol, pedolgie aplicativ, pedologie experimental, ecopedologie. Alte subdomenii recente sunt fitotehnia, geobotanica, biologia solului, geomorfologia. Aceast micare de la subdomenii la domeniu i, ulterior, la alte subdomenii s-a fcut treptat, mai ales n secolul XX, determinnd n prezent caracterul pluridisciplinar desemnat prin sintagma tiine agricole, cu salt evolutiv remarcabil de la situaia din secolul XIX, cnd agronomia era o practic, un meteug. Un alt aspect al specializrii se manifest la nivelul tendinelor specifice: n secolul XIX i n prima jumtate a secolului XX se constat tendina de specializare a sensului unor cuvinte care aparineau, n primul rnd, lexicului comun ( termen, art, tiin, credit (v.A.Bidu-Vrnceanu 2010: 68-69). De exemplu, ART este definit de dicionarele din secolul XIX ca metoda de a face bine un lucru, meteug i numai la sfritul acestui secol se constat o tendin de specializare. Pe de o parte, se stabilete o opoziie ntre ARTA (legat de practic) i TIIN(cu orientare teoretic). Pe de alt parte, se dezvolt o specializare mai evident prin fixarea sintagmelor arte musicale, arte theatrale, din care se dezvolt sensul exprimare prin cuvinte, culori, sunete etc a emoiilor estetice. Analiza evoluiei sensurilor lui ART arat tendina de specializare, n primul rnd prin disitincia dintre teorie i practic i apoi pentru a indica o specializare mai limitat. n etapa actual, mai ales din a doua jumtate a secolului XX se manifest o tendin opus bazat pe o alt relaie ntre lexicul comun i lexicul specializat, care determin extinderea unor termeni specializai
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n comunicarea obinuit, nsoit n general de determinologizarea lor (v.A.Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 161-162 ). De exemplu, A GESTIONA, termen economic, se extinde n comunicarea obinuit n contexte diferite, unele foarte generale (A GESTIONA situaia, relaia,..) Analiza diacronic a terminologiilor din diverse domenii (lingvistic, agronomie,de exemplu) a artat importana mobilitii denotative. Mai ales atunci cnd termenii au pstrat acelai semnificant n secolele XIX-XX, la nivel conceptual semantic se constat diverse forme de evoluie. Un exemplu este ANALIZ, termen tiinific de baz, prezent n numeroase terminologii, cu acelai nucleu dur al sensului specializat.Mobilitatea lui denotativ se constat totui treptat, la nivelul unor sintagme specializate, distincte pe domenii. La sfritul secolului XIX i nceputul secolului XX se nregistreaz numai analiz chemic, analiz spectral, analiz gramatical (Diaconovici 1902). Interpretarea general-filozofic (n relaie cu sintez) este consemnat de DLR ( seria veche,1913), unde se nregistreaz sintagme i pentru alte domenii de aplicare: analiz logic, analiz literar, analiz psihologic. Mobilitatea denotativ remarcabil a acestui termen tiinific fundamental este evident n a doua jumtate a secolului XX i nceputul secolului XXI prin specializarea i hiperspecializarea indicat de sintagme precum: analiz armonic, analiz granulometric, analiz colorimetric, analiz metalografic .a. Mobilitatea denotativ prin specializare pe subdomenii este evident i la nivelul unui singur domeniu-lingvistica, DSL: 48-52 nregistrnd 12 sintagme care desemneaz hiponime: analiz fonologic, analiz n constitueni imediai, analiz semic, analiz contrastiv .a. Mobilitate denotativ se nregistreaz i la nivelul termenilor unui domeniu, precum agronomia, unde neologisme intrate trziu, la sfritul secolului XIX (ca asolament, amendament, sol .a) au o evoluie conceptual-semantic remarcabil la sfritul secolului XX (v. Bidu-Vrnceanu 2010:41-42 ). Analiza conceptual-semantic evolutiv prezint i alte aspecte de interes privind relaiile dintre semnificantul i semnificatul unor termeni. Se constat mai multe situaii n care existena conceptului precede apariia semnificantului sau o modific pe parcursul evoluiei. Este cazul lui MORFOLOGIE, care, n dicionarele din secolul XIX desemneaz numai o disciplin medical. Impunerea termenului morfologie n lingvistic se face la nceputul secolului XX, cu definiia sciina formelor, care mpreun cu fonetica constituie partea etimologic a gramaticii(Diaconovici,1902) sau tiina formelor cuvintelor i a transformrilor lor istorice(n dicionarele din prima jumtate a
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secolului XX). Textele tiinifice din prima jumtate a secolului XX (Sextil Pucariu, de exemplu) impun termenul MORFOLOGIE cu sensul de parte a gramaticii care studiaz modificrile formei cuvintelor n diferite ntrebuinri. Rezult astfel n diacronie modificri denotative importante. Decalajul dintre semnificant i semnificat se constat i n alte forme din evoluia terminologiilor. De multe ori, existena conceptului, anterioar impunerii unui termen este semnalat de o exprimare perifrastic, fr numele specific impus ulterior, cum este cazul unor ramuri din agronomie, insuficient specializate i difereniate n secolul XIX. De exemplu, n secolul XIX nu se nregistreaz termenii sericicultur, pomicultur, viticultur, dar conceptele corespunztoare lor sunt desemnate perifrastic, de exemplu creterea viermilor ( gndacilor) de mtase (pentru sercicultur). Situaii similare se constat i pentru alte (sub)domenii, mai ales dac avem n vedere perioada de nceput a unui terminologii ( de exemplu sfritul secolului XVIII-nceputul secolului XIX). Neglijat mult vreme, perspectiva descriptiv-lingvistic diacronic las loc mai multor direcii de cercetare actuale, relevante pentru specializarea domeniilor, pentru evoluia lor n relaie cu subdomeniile (unele subdivizate, altele ierarhizate mai trziu) i pentru stabilirea specificului unor terminologii determinate sub aspectul exprimrii i caracteristicilor termenilor. 3. Rolul i contribuia lingvisticii n terminologia descriptiv-lingvistic sunt evidente. Rmne ntrebarea dac e o subdiviziune a lingvisticii i, mai precis, a lexicologiei aplicate sau se integreaz n terminologie ca tiin interdisciplinar. Demonstraia fcut privind diversitatea aspectelor lingvistice ale lexicului specializat i investigarea lor cu metode specifice tiinelor umane, ne determin s nclinm pentru prima interpretare. Este, n general, o interpretare pe care o prefer i terminologii, chiar dac admit c rezultatele obinute pe cale desciptivlingvistic i intereseaz i pe specialiti.
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Calberg-Challot, Desmet,I. 2006 M. Variabilit & Roche, C. et variation & Damas,en L. terminologie 2011 Dfinition et langues du terme specialises: vs dfinition discours, dutextes concept: et contextes, pour une diversit n Mots..,p.235-249. langagire et un Durieux, conceptualisation C.2006 - Le contexte: commune, filtre n ou Van membrane, Campenhoudt,M. n Mots.., & p.121-120. Lino,T & Elimam, Costa, E.R.(ed.) 2006 2011, Entrep. prototypisation 567577. et mise en discours: les enjeux Ciolneanu, du sens, R. n 2011 Mots.., Terminologie p.109-121. specializat i interdisciplinaritate n Fvre-Pernet, marketing, C. Editura 2011 Universitii Identification din Bucureti. de termes/ concepts pour une Condamines, application A. pluridisciplinaire: 2005 Linguistique les du apports corpus de et terminologie, la terminologie n textuelle, Depecker, L. n 2005 Terminologie Langages I,p.191-223. 157. La terminologie: nature et enjeux, Frjaville, p. 3648. R.M. 2011 - Le corpus en analyse terminologique de domaines Depecker, composantes L. 2005 et Contribution interdisciplinaire de la ,terminologie n Passeurs.., ap.593-604. la linguistique, n Gaudin, Depecker, F. 2003 L. 2005 Socioterminologie. Langages 157. Une La approche terminologie: sociolinguistique nature et enjeux de la , t p. erminologie 36. , 1 er ed.1993, 2-1 ed.2003, De Boeck i Larcier, Editions Depecker, Duculot, L. Bruxelles. 2002 Entre signe et concept. Elments de terminologie Gaudin, gnrale F. 2005 , Presses La Sorbonne socioterminologie, Nouvelle, n Paris. Langages 157, p.80-93. Jansensen,M. Depecker, L. 2005 ; Van Langages Compenhoud, 157. La M.terminologie: 2005 Terminologie nature et enjeux traductive . Desmet, et representation I. 2006 Variabilit des connaissances: et variation lusage en terminologie des relations et langues hypo nimiques, specialises: n discours, Langages textes nr.157, et p.63-80. contextes, n Blampain D., Thoiron, Hermes, Ph. & A.2004 Van Campenhoudt, Elments de M. sociologie (ed.), 2006, de la p. terminologie 235249. n Caroline Durieux, de Schaetzen(ed.), C.2006 - Le contexte: Terminologie filtre et ousocit, membrane, Paris, n La Blampain Maison D., du Dictionnaire, Thoiron, Ph. & p.9-46. Van Campenhoudt, M. (ed.), 2006, p. 121120. Kacpraazak,A.2011 Elimam, E. 2006 Entre Diversit prototypisation technolectale et mise enen diachronie, discours: les le enjeux cas de quelques du sens, n termes Blampain medicaux D., Thoiron, francais Ph. ,n & Passeurs Van Campenhoudt, ..,p.355-365. M. (ed.), Langages 2006,157p. 109121. 2005 - no- La terminologie: nature et enjeux, ed.L.Depecker. . Fvre-Pernet, Mejri, S. 2006 C. 2011 - La terminologie Identification de de gestion termes/ en contexte. concepts pour termeune ou application mot?n Mots.., pluridisciplinaire: p.699-709. les apports de la terminologie Mots.., textuelle, 2006 Mots, n Briu, termes J.J. (ed.) et 2011 contextes Terminologie , Actes des I: septiemes analyser des Journees termes et scientifique des concepts, du Peter Resau Lang, Lexicologie, Bern, Berlin, terminologie, Frankfurt, New traduction, York, Wien, sous p. la 191223. direction de D.Blampain, Ph.Thoiron, M. Van Campenhoudt, Frjaville, Editions R.M. des 2011 archives Le contemporaines, corpus en analyse Paris. terminologique de domaines Museanu, composantes E. 2011 et interdisciplinaire, Terminologia economic.Nivele n Van Campenhoudt, de utilizare M. i & Lino,T caracteristici & Costa, n romna R.(ed.) actual, 2011, p. Editura 593604. Universitar, Bucureti. Gaudin, Passeurs.., F. 2011 2003 Socioterminologie. Passeurs de mots, Une approche passeurssociolinguistique despoir.Lexicologie, de la t terminologie erminologie, et 1ertraduction ed.1993, 2-1 face ed.au 2003, defi De de Boeck la diversit i Larcier, , actes Editions des Duculot, huitiemes Bruxelles. journes scientifiques du Reseau de chercheurs lexicologie, Gaudin, terminologie, F. 2005 La traduction, socioterminologie, Lisbonne, 2009, n Depecker, sous la direction L. 2005 de Langages M.Van 157. Campenhoudt, La terminologie: T.Lino,R.Costa,Editions nature et enjeux, p. des 8093. archives contempraines, Hermes, Paris,2011. A. 2004 Elments de sociologie de la terminologie n Petit, Caroline G. 2001 de - Schaetzen(ed.), Lintrouvable identit Terminologie du terme et socit, technique, Paris, La nMaison Revue du francaise Dictionnaire, de lingvistique p. 946.appliquee, 2001/2, vol.6,p.63-79.
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Jansensen,M. Rastier, F.1995&Van Le Compenhoud, terme entre ontologie M. 2005 etdiscours, Terminologie n Banques traductive des mots, et representation nr.7,p. 45 .u. des connaissances: lusage des relations Roche, hyponimiques, C. 2005 Terminologie n Depecker, et L. ontologie, 2005 Langages n Langages 157. La ,157,p.48-63. terminologie: Rousseau, nature L.J. et enjeux 2005, p.Terminologie 6380. et amnagement des langues, n Kacpraazak, Langages A. ,157,p.93-193. 2011 Diversit technolectale en diachronie, le cas de Sager,J.C. quelques 2000 termes - Pourmedicaux une approche francais, fonctionnelle n Van de Campenhoudt, la terminologie M. , n & Lino,T Bjoint i & Costa, Thoiron,p.61-85. R.(ed.) 2011, p. 355365. Mejri, Sakhno, S. S.2011 2006 - La Les terminologie dputs du de Parlement gestion en russe contexte. pensent-ils?Autour terme ou mot? n duBlampain concept de D., parlement: Thoiron, Ph.analyse & Van Campenhoudt, en synchronie M. et diachronie (ed.), 2006, de p. 699709. certains termes de langues europeenes, n Terminologie I, p.153-191. Museanu, Slodzian, M. E.2000 2011 - Lmergence Terminologia dune economic. terminologie Nivele textuelle de utilizare et le retour i caracteristici du sens, n Bjoint n romna et Thoiron, actual,p.61-86. Editura Universitar, Bucureti. Petit, Terminologie G. 2001 I 2011 Lintrouvable J.J.Briu(ed.), identit Terminologie du terme I: analyser technique, des n termes Revue et des concepts, francaise de lingvistique Peter Lang,appliquee Berna, Berlin, , 2001/2, Frankfurt,New vol.6, p. 6379. York, Wien. Toma, A.2006 Rastier, F. 1995- Lingvistic Le terme i entre matematic.De ontologie et la discours, terminologia n Banques lexical des la mots, terminologia nr.7, p. discursiv, 45 .u. Editura Universitii din Bucureti. Roche, C. 2005 Terminologie et ontologie, n Depecker, L. 2005 Dicionare Langages 157. La terminologie: nature et enjeux, p. 4863. Rousseau, L.J. 2005 Terminologie et amnagement des langues, n DSLDepecker, - Bidu-Vrnceanu, L. 2005 A.;Clrau, Langages 157. C.;Ionescu-Ruxndoiu, La terminologie: nature L.;et Manca, enjeux, p. M.; 93193. Pan Dindelegan, G.- Dicionar de tiine ale limbii, Editura Sager, Nemira,2005,Bucuresti. J.C. 2000 Pour une approche fonctionnelle de la terminologie, DFN n 2009 Bjoint, Dictionnaire H. & Thoiron, des sciences Ph. 2000, du p.langages 6185. ,Armand Colin, Paris. Sakhno, DN-Tournier S. 2011 2009 -Les Dictionnaire dputs de dulexicologie Parlement francaise, russe pensent-ils? ed.Ellipses,Paris Autour Rey du 2011 concept Dictionnaire de parlement: amoureux analyse des dictionnaires,Plon, en synchronie et Paris. diachronie http://www.realiter.net/spip.php*article de certains termes de langues europeenes, 1762- Bidu-Vrnceanu.A., n Briu, J.J. (ed.) 2011 Toma, A., Terminologie Ciolneanu, I: analyser R., des termes et des concepts, Peter Lang, Bern, Museanu, Berlin,E. Frankfurt, - Terminologia New York, economic Wien, p.internaional-probleme 153191. ale co Slodzian, municrii M. 2000 - Lmergence dune terminologie textuelle et le retour plurilingve du sens, , comunicare n Bjoint, H. la Zilele & Thoiron, Realiter,Milano-2009. Ph. 2000, p. 6186. Toma, A. 2006 Lingvistic i matematic. De la terminologia lexical la terminologia discursiv, Editura Universitii din Bucureti. Van Campenhoudt,M. & Lino,T & Costa, R.(ed.) 2011 Passeurs de mots, passeurs despoir. Lexicologie, terminologie et traduction face au dfi de la diversit,Paris:Editions des archives contemporaines.
Terminologie discursive et termes migrateurs
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Toma, Cristina-Alice
TermiNologie discursive et termes migrateurs
La terminologie classique tudie le terme en tant que concept, tandis que la terminologie linguistique moderne envisage le terme dans une perspective semasiologique, en tant que lexme. Il sen suit la contradiction entre, dune part, le terme univoque du point de vue smantique et mono rfrentiel et, dautre part, la polysmie terminologique. Par notre tude, en prenant lexemple des mathmatiques, nous nous proposons de montrer quil existe une faon de rsoudre le conflit ci-dessus mentionn par lintermdiaire de la terminologie discursive. Celle-ci reprend et critique les rsultats de la terminologie lexicale, en leur donnant une nouvelle interprtation. Le sens est associ la proprit conceptuelle qui rend compte de reprsentations et de structures conceptuelles des concepts scientifiques. Mots-cl: langage mathmatique, terminologie lexicale, terminologie discursive, terme, concept, reprsentation conceptuelle, structure conceptuelle, contexte, migration conceptuelle, interdisciplinarit.
La reprsentation et la structure conceptuelle

Le discours se trouve au croisement du monde dans lequel il sinscrit et du monde dont il parle. Le module rfrentiel doit rendre compte du cadre actionnel du discours, des reprsentations et des structures praxologiques et conceptuelles des actions et des objets (cf. Roulet, 1999 : 52). Sur les reprsentations et les structures praxologiques, nous reviendrons dans le deuxime Chapitre, en nous contentant ici de rappeler quelles renvoient aux actions des sujets parlants. Dans le discours scientifique, les concepts jouent un rle important. Cest pourquoi nous ne proposons ici que lanalyse des objets dont le discours parle. Les reprsentations conceptuelles sont un ensemble de reprsentations schmatiques ou prototypiques que les sujets parlants acquirent et matrisent. Elles ne dpendent pas dune situation
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particulire. Mais, cause de leur tendue trs large, elles ne peuvent tre saisies que dune manire schmatique, ce qui pourrait conduire des conclusions fausses. Par exemple, nous pouvons schmatiser la reprsentation conceptuelle prototypique des mathmatiques ainsi:
Ce schma veut dire que les mathmatiques ont les proprits dtre une science trs difficile, qui prsuppose une vive participation de lesprit pour construire son discours, mais elle offre galement des satisfactions . Nous devons prciser quil sagit dune dfinition subjective, la dfinition des mathmatiques dans la conception dun mathmaticien. Une dfinition objective des mathmatique est la dfinition du dictionnaire (v., par exemple, Petit Robert) ou la dfinition scientifique quon peut trouver dans un dictionnaire de spcialit (Les mathmatiques sont la science qui tudie les nombres, les figures et les relations logico- abstraites entre eux (elles).) Toutes ces dfinitions sont des manires particulires de schmatiser la reprsentation conceptuelles des mathmatiques et donc elles retombent dans la structure conceptuelle de cette notion. tant donn plusieurs dfinitions dun concept, il nous semble que chacune dentre elles peut conduire une structure conceptuelle qui sera, videmment, diffrente lune de lautre. La reprsentation conceptuelle est la somme de toutes les proprits que les sujets parlants attribuent un concept et, par consquent, son schma ne peut tre quune image partielle due la subjectivit de lanalyste (il faut le reconnatre!) et aux contraintes mthodologiques (lespace limit). Selon les trois dfinitions, le concept de mathmatiques a trois reprsentations conceptuelles possibles. Pour les concepts du DM, un rle important joue la notion de domaine qui peut apporter un grand clairage sur la reprsentation et la structure conceptuelle. Mme si lon risque de glisser le problme du plan rfrentiel au plan strictement smantique. On sait bien quil existe
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des mots polismantiques et des mots monosmantiques. Ces derniers sont, dans la majorit des cas, des mots appartenant un certain domaine technique ou scientifique pour ltude desquels on a cr une discipline spciale, la terminologie (le pre fondateur, Wster, avec sa thse de 1931). Le postulat premier tait donc que chaque terme (technique ou scientifique) est mono smantique et univoque ( ou monorfrentiel). Mais, ce postulat nest pas gnralement accept : les opinions des scientifiques sont partages entre ceux qui soutiennent que le terme est toujours mono smantique (v. Wster 1981) et ceux qui considrent quil nexiste pas de terme parfait ds que celui-ci est actualis dans le discours (v. Guilbert 19761). Nous considrons que le terme mathmatique est mono-smantique si la condition que le domaine soit actualis est remplie (v. Vranceanu et al. 2000). Alors nous pouvons dduire que les termes mathmatiques ont une reprsentation conceptuelle quand ils sont utiliss hors du domaine des mathmatiques (v. Toma 2002) et une structure conceptuelle unique, car toute actualisation dun terme mathmatique renvoie ncessairement la mme liste de proprits gnralement connues et acceptes par les mathmaticiens. Dans le DM nous pouvons parler de la combinaison troite entre deux sortes de concepts dune part, les concepts qui tiennent strictement au domaine, les concepts purs mathmatiques (par exemple, loi de composition , lois associatives , cercle etc.), dautre part, les concepts que nous pouvons appeler mta-discursif (en particulier, mtamathmatiques), qui organisent le DM (par exemple, dfinition , exemple, exception, contre-exemple, etc.). Lexistence de ces deux types de concepts nous permets une double dnomination des proprits et, par consquent, deux faons de prsenter les schmas des reprsentations conceptuelles, a savoir, soit en utilisant les dnominations mtamathmatiques des proprits, soit en faisant appel aux proprits
1 Prner lunivocit cest vouloir faire abstraction du fait que lunit terminologique prsente des traits communs avec les noms du vocabulaire gnral dans la mesure o elle ne se comporte pas en simple nom-tiquette . Si le terminologisme correspond lacte de dnomination qui, dans son principe, procde dune volont de monosmie (Guilbert 1976b : 187), cette volont prend corps dans la communication, cette monosmie est donc une tentative toujours rengocie dans linteraction. Par ailleurs, mme si les termes dsignent intentionnellement une certaine entit extralinguistique, ils ne peuvent pas demeurer de purs terminologisme (Guilbert 1976b : 191) dans la mesure o les activits scientifiques et techniques ne sont pas isolables de lensemble de la socit.
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pures mathmatiques. En effet, si nous prenons le cas du concept ensemble, ses proprits peuvent tre dcrites en termes de langage mathmatique ou en termes de mta-langage mathmatique, ce qui engendre les deux schmas suivants de la reprsentation conceptuelle:
Cette double schmatisation est possible pour les concepts math matiques mmes (nous venons de le voir), mais aussi pour les concepts mtamathmatiques. Par exemple, le concept de dfinition peut avoir, part la reprsentation par ses proprits mmes:
une reprsentation en mtalangage:
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Quel que soit le modle de schma de la reprsentation conceptuelle choisi (dans ce qui suit nous prfrons le modle mtamathmatique), nous dcouvrons des connexions systmatiques entre les proprits de diffrents concepts dans les reprsentations conceptuelles du DM qui forment de vritables constellations ou rseaux de concepts relis par au moins une proprit commune. Prenons lexemple des deux concepts mathmatiques, loi de compo sition et lois associative. Elles ont les reprsentations conceptuelles suivantes:
Au niveau mtamathmatique, leur reprsentations conceptuelles sont quasi-identiques (notation, dfinition, exemple), mais au niveau mathmatique, nous observons que loi de composition devient une des proprits des lois associatives. La face mergente de la reprsentation conceptuelle est la structure conceptuelle qui exploite et actualise la reprsentation conceptuelle dans des discours particuliers. Dans le discours les reprsentations prototypiques (par exemple, des concepts de mathmatique et de dfinition) sont combines et exploites dune manire particulire, que nous pouvons schmatiser dans la structure conceptuelle suivante:
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Le discours se construit en passant dune proprit dun concept la mme proprit dun autre concept, concepts qui ont en commun au moins une proprit. Le chemin des concepts dans le discours, indiqu moyennant les nombres des actes, constitue le parcours conceptuel du discours. Aux constellations de reprsentations conceptuelles entre le concept de dfinition et le concept densemble, nous pouvons associer les structures conceptuelles suivantes:
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La reprsentation conceptuelle de l ensemble est ritre pour chaque ensemble de nombres, N, Z, Q, R, C. Cette rptitivit dclenche la reprise des branches de la structure conceptuelle dune manire symtrique. Ainsi, les branches trouves sous N, seront retrouves sous Z, Q, R et C. Analysons maintenant les deux structures conceptuelles suivantes:
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Nous constatons que, pour les deux concepts, loi de compo sition et lois associatives, la structure conceptuelle reprend la reprsentation conceptuelle. En effet, pour loi de composition , les proprits dfinition , notation et exemple sont toutes reprises dans la structure conceptuelle. Pareillement, pour lois associatives, les proprits dfinition, notation, exemple, thorme sont reprises dans la structure conceptuelle. Cette analyse de la structure conceptuelle renforce lhypothse que, pour les termes mathmatiques, les structures conceptuelles sont iden tiques, sauf, ventuellement, lordre dactualisation de certaines proprits. Il est vrai que, dans une dmarche didactique, les exemples peuvent prcder la dfinition dun concept mathmatique. A la rencontre de cette hypothse vient ltude de Manzotti 1992 qui dmontre lquivalence entre deux formulations du thorme de Cauchy dans deux manuels dalgbre de lyce. Pour conclure, ltude des reprsentations et des structures concep tuelles nous permet de dboucher sur le sujet de la monorfrentialit et de lunivocit smantique (cf. Wster 1981, Guilbert 1976) ou de la dnotation du langage mathmatique (cf. Marcus 1970). Sans entrer dans la polmique nous nous contentons de constater pour linstant que les proprits des concepts mathmatiques sont constantes (une seule structure conceptuelle), seul lordre dactualisation des proprits peut tre diffrent dune structure lautre. Nous gardons cette constatation comme hypothse de travail pour les Chapitres venir.
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Linterdisciplinarit du terme FONCTION

La migration des termes mathmatiques vers dautres domaines est facilite par le caractre rigoureux, exact des mathmatiques et par la prcision du langage mathmatique. Le but de chaque science est de bien pouvoir communiquer ses rsultats, sans des malentendus. Or, les mathmatiques assurent une communication sans reste et, de ce fait, elles constituent un possible modle scientifique et une source linguistique pour toutes les sciences et leurs langages, leurs terminologies. Il y a au moins deux faons denvisager et dexpliquer ( la fois!) le transfre des termes mathmatiques dans les autres domaines: la mathmatisation et la propagation conceptuelle. Beaucoup de mthodes mathmatiques de recherche gagnent les autres domaines scientifiques, humaines ou non humaines: la linguistique, la pdagogie, lhistoire, la gographie ou la physique, linformatique, la cyberntique, etc.. La propagation conceptuelle se ralise par le passage dun terme dun domaine lautre, en prenant de nouvelles valences smantiques. La distance par rapport au domaine source est variable. Du point de vue smantique on parle de polysmie si la distance est plus petite (DISTANCE math. et art ; ENSEMBLE math. et ling. etc.) ou dhomonymie si la distance met un cart considrable entre les deux termes qui ne reprsentent plus le mme lexme. Le terme de FONCTION passe dun domaine lautre soit par la mathmatisation, soit par la propagation conceptuelle. Par la voie de la mathmatisation FONCTION arrive en linguistique ( un adverbe est un prdicat monadique sil est quivalent une fonction dun seul argument ) et en logique, tandis que la deuxime voie le entrer en biologie ( les fonctions de lappareil digestif ) et en psychologie (les fonctions de laffectivit).
Lanalyse terminologique discursive

Lanalyse discursive modulaire constitue en mme temps une thorie du discours et un modle danalyse du discours de nimporte quel type: oral ou crit, artistique ou scientifique, monologal ou dialogal (v. Roulet et al. 2001). Ce modle danalyse est efficace par la possibilit de segmenter le discours et de prendre en considration, selon lobjectif vis, un de ses aspects, un module (smantique, syntaxique, textuel, informationnel, rfrentiel).
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Dans une perspective terminologique, comme il faut soccuper principalement des concepts, le module rfrentiel a le rle le plus important. Les concepts constituent la modalit par laquelle le discours reprsente la ralit. En termes de mtalangage terminologique, les concepts sont laspect rfrentiel des termes. Or, cette clarification apport des lments essentiels pour expliquer le conflit qui existe entre la terminologie wsterienne et la terminologie linguistique. Tandis que la terminologie wsterienne est centre sur le concept, qui reoit une tiquette appele terme (dans une dmarche onomasiologique), la terminologie linguistique sintresse au terme en tant quunit de la langue qui incube plusieurs manifestations parmi lesquelles on retrouve le concept scientifique (la dmarche est semasiologique). La contradiction entre les deux terminologies rsultait de lidentification de deux objets dtude sur le mme nom, terme. Il savre quil est mieux de parles de deux entits distincts : le terme -concept, lobjet dtude de la terminologie wsterienne et le terme -lexme, lobjet dtude de la terminologie linguistique lexicale. Le terme -concept ou le concept scientifique constitue lobjet dtude pour lanalyse discursive modulaire, cest--dire, la terminologie discursive. Le concept scientifique a une reprsentation conceptuelle la somme de toutes les proprits que le locuteur attribut au concept. La reprsentation conceptuelle de chaque concept est incarne diffremment ou pas, selon la science, dun texte lautre sous la forme de la structure conceptuelle.
La reprsentation et la structure conceptuelles

Un schma simplifi de toutes les proprits de la reprsentation conceptuelle de la f o n c t i o n est:
La reprsentation conceptuelle de la f o n c t i o n
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La structure conceptuelle de la f o n c t i o n dans un texte mathmatique est la suivante:
La structure conceptuelle de la f o n c t i o n in Mm1X: 61-62 En mathmatique, la f o n c t i o n est un procd dassociation entre les lments de deux ensembles A et B, ainsi que, nimporte quel lment x de A a pour correspondant un lment y de B, o f(x) = y. Il y a plusieurs types de fonction. Chaque fonction a des proprits communes avec toutes les autres. La structure conceptuelle est une sorte de dfinition discursive du concept mathmatique. Or, les proprits conceptuelles mathmatiques sont constantes dun texte lautre, donc il ny a pas de dfinitions alternatives dans une perspective discursive. En dautres termes, le termemot a des dfinitions alternatives, tandis que le terme-concept nen a pas.
La migration conceptuelle interdisciplinaire

Les mathmatiques sont une importante source de concepts pour linterdisciplinarit, mais pas ncessairement de noms de concepts. Le mot associ un concept mathmatique suit le plus souvent le trajet : langue commune langage mathmatique autre langage spcialis (v. plan, facteur, fonction) et non pas langage mathmatique autre langage scientifique (v. EQUATION). Pour identifier le trajet dun concept interdisciplinaire on utilise les reprsentations et les structures conceptuelles, plus prcisment, leurs proprits conceptuelles co mmunes. La structure conceptuelle dun concept dans un certain domaine peut contenir toutes les proprits reprises par les concepts dans diffrents domaines. Ce fait indique la source de la migration scientifique: le concept
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qui a cette structure conceptuelle riche. Par exemple, la f o n c t i o n apparat dans plusieurs domaines(mathmatiques, grammaire, biologie, psychologie etc.), mais ce sont les mathmatiques qui contient toutes les proprits rptes par les autres domaines. La proprit qui reste constante dans toutes les structures concep tuelles de la f o n c t i o n est l association: un texte de linguistique:
La structure conceptuelle de la f o n c t i o n in SGV: 53 La grammaire gnrative- transformationnelle identifie dans le groupe verbal les fonction syntaxiques suivantes : Prdicat, Sujet, Obdir, Obsec, Obind, Obprep, Attributive, Circ1, Cant1, Circ2, Cant2. Les fonctions syntaxiques sont dfinies par lintermdiaire de la relation (NB la proprit dassociation du concept mathmatique), par lintermdiaire de la dominance (dominant et domin) ou par lintermdiaire du voisinage (obligatoire et facultatif, les relations obligatoires tant dfi nitoires pour la dfinition des fonctions syntaxiques). un texte danatomie:
Structure conceptuelle de la fonction in MbiolXI: 23
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Comme toute lactivit du systme nerveux, les fonctions de la moelle pinire se ralisent en tant quacte rflexe. Lacte rflexe est un processus physiologique de rponse (NB association) un stimule qui excite un champ rcepteur. Linterface matriel de ce processus est larc rflexe qui comprend trois lments: voie affrente, centres rflexes et voie dfrente. Les fonctions fondamentales de la moelle pinire sont rflexe et de conduire. un texte de psychologie:
La structure conceptuelle de la f o n c t i o n in MpsihIX: 113 En psychologie, les fonctions sont associes aux divers processus et phnomnes intellectuels et affectifs. Les fonctions de laffectivit sont la fonction de reflter la ralit et la fonction dadaptation et de rglage. La premire fonction explicite la relation (NB association) entre le sujet et lobjet, relation qui prend naissance dans un temps et dans un espace bien dlimits qui constituent une situation de vie (cf. Paul Popescu-Neveanu). Avant cette interprtation des processus affectifs, il y avait des thories qui donnaient des explications internes (je suis gaie parce que je ris). Le concept qui contient les proprits spcifiques dun domaine, proprits que toutes les structures conceptuelles reprennent, peut tre considr le concept source de la migration scientifique. Cest le cas du concept mathmatique f o n c t i o n dans les exemples ci-dessus analyss.
Conclusions
En utilisant une double mthode dans ltude des termes scientifiques, la terminologie lexicale et la terminologie discursive, on arrive une sparation nette entre le terme- lexme et le terme-concept. Le terme-
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lexme est susceptible dune investigation lexicale, il est souvent utilis en langue commune, il accde aux dfinitions alternatives. Le terme FONCTION a des dfinitions alternatives qui correspondent aux niveaux diffrents de scientificit . Mais le terme-concept a des proprits conceptuelles qui sont actualises constamment dans les structures conceptuelles dun certain domaine. Donc la structure conceptuelle dun concept mathmatique est constante dun texte lautre, fait qui bloque lexistence de dfinitions alternatives discursives. En somme, la FONCTION est un terme mathmatique qui a la source lexicale en langue commune et qui est la source conceptuelle pour une large interdisciplinarit. Dans le domaine des mathmatiques il apparat en tant que terme mono- membre, mais il est aussi la tte de nombreux termes- syntagme. Les procdes qui assurent sont interdisciplinarit sont la mathmatisation et la migration conceptuelle qui prsuppose une certaine modification smantique.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/89/1.5/S/62259, Project Applied social, human and political sciences. Postdoctoral training and postdoctoral fellowship in social, human and political sciences cofinanced by the European Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational Program Human Resources Development 2007-2013.
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Bibliographie
Bidu-Vrnceanu, Angela. (coord.), 2000 - Lexic comun, lexic specializat, Bucureti, Editura Universitii din Bucureti. Cuibus, Daiana. 2001 - Exerciii de filosofia limbajului, Editura Biblioteca Bucuretilor. Guilbert, Louis. 1965 - La formation du vocabulaire de laviation, Paris, Librairie Larousse. Losee, Robert M. 1995 - The Development and Migration of Concepts from Donor to Borrower Disciplines: Sublanguage Term Use in Hard & Soft Sciences, in proceeding of the Fifth International Conference on Scientometrics and Informetrics, Chicago, June 1995, pp. 265-274. Manzotti, E. et al. 1992 - Lezioni sul testo: modelli di analisi letteraria per la scuola, Brescia, Ed. La Scuola. Marcus, S. 1994 - Creative Metaphors in the Scientific Language, n Analele Universitii Ovidius din Constana, tom.5, 233-251. P rvu, Ilie. 1984 - Introducere n epistemologie, vol. I, II, Bucureti, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic. Roulet, Eddy ; Filliettaz, Laurent; Grobet, Anne (2001) Un modle et un instrument danalyse de lorganisation du discours, Peter Lang, Editions scientifiques europennes. Schubauer-LeoniI, Maria-Luisa. 1982 - Les chemins de traverse de la mathmatique, in Guignard, Ninon avec la collaboration de Schubauer-Leoni, Maria-Luisa, Service de la recherche pdagogique, 23, Dpartement de linstruction publique, Genve. Schubauer-LeoniI, Maria-Luisa. 1986 - Le contrat didactique dans llaboration dcritures symboliques par des lves de 8-9 ans, in Interactions didactiques, 7, Genve. Toma, Alice.2002 - Termes scientifiques migrateurs, in Actes du GLAT, Evry, GLAT. Wster, Eugen. 1981, Ltude scientifique gnrale de la terminologie, zone frontalire entre la linguistique, la logique, lontologie, linformatique et la science des choses in RONDEAU Guy i FELBER Helmut (ed.), 1981, Textes choisis de terminologie. Vol. I: Fondements thoriques de la terminologie, d. GIRSTERM, Universit Laval, Qubec, 438 p., 57-114.
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Sources Surse lexicographiques DEX - Coteanu, Ion; Seche, Luiza; Seche, Mircea (coord.) 1998: Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, Ediia a II-a, Bucureti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic. DGSL, DL - Bidu Vrnceanu, Angela; Clrau, Cristina; IonescuRuxndoiu, Liliana; Manca, Mihaela; Pan-Dindelegan, Gabriela; Stan, Camelia; Rdulescu, Marina 1997: Dicionar general de tiine ale limbii, Bucureti, Editura tiinific. DMG - Iacob, Caius (coord.); Bobancu, Vasile (elab.) 1974: Dicionar de matematici generale, Bucureti, Editura Enciclopedic Romn. Surse textuelles MgIX - Coa, Augustin ; Rduiu, Mariana ; Rado, Marta ; Vornicescu, Florica1989: Matematic. Geometrie i trigonometrie. Manual pentru clasa a IX-a, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic. Mm1X - Becheanu et al. 2000: Matematic. Manual pentru clasa a X-a, M1, Bucureti, Teora Educaional, p. 15, 61-62, 110-111. MpsihIX - Popescu-Neveanu, Paul (coord.) 1990: Psihologie. Manual pentru licee, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, p. 61-63, 113. Bortolotti, R.; Bernachot, C. (1991) Mathmatique 9 me, Dpartement de linstruction public, Genve, p. 3-6. Bourbaki, Nicolas (1970) Elments de mathmatique. Algbre, Hermann, Paris, p. A I 4 A I 5.
Peculiarities of Textual Analysis in the Economic Terminology
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Museanu, Elena
Peculiarities of Textual ANalysis iN the EcoNomic TermiNology
0. This work is part of a series of research on Romanian terminology conducted in the last decade, which aims at determining the linguistic peculiarities of terms in determined fields, including economics. Using concepts and methods of linguistic analysis, this type of descriptive terminology is based on the data of cognitive terminology (specialists in the field), but takes into account the terms as they are actually used in a certain language, in texts and contexts of various types. In terms of such theoretical position, the concept of variation (variability) becomes fundamental as it can characterize the terms used in effective communication. Thus, the dynamics of terminologies is accepted as fundamental issue in the economic terminology in todays societies, especially if one takes into account extra-linguistic data and different levels of use. This is determined by the economic developments of modern societies and it is highly illustrated in the economic press of wide circulation, required to strictly refer to the current reality. Therefore, our research is based on texts and contexts of economic news of this kind (Ziarul financiar, Sptmna financiar, Capital, etc.) to highlight the current dynamics of the economic terminology and show levels and forms of terms variability. 1. In the following, we will start from some general remarks regarding variation in terminology, as reflected in the volume Blampain et al. (2006), and we will verify and illustrate the peculiarities of the economic terminology in these respects. Variation in terminology is related to a particular orientation of research, increasingly well represented lately, where specialized terms are not considered in isolation, at the level of nomenclatures. The analysis is conducted on their usage in texts and contexts, with theoretical and applicative benefits (see, for example, M.P. Jacque 2006: 299, F. Bertaccini and A. Matteucci 2006: 317) as regards terms beyond their construal as
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labels of concepts. The study of non-linguistic and linguistic contexts has triggered a progress of terminology (P. Lerat 2006: 89) and has show that the existence of textual, discursive variation is the source of variations of all levels of language (I. Desmet 2006: 236, 238). Such analyses show the existence of differences between a lexicalized form (term) and its usage (F. Neveu 2006: 383), such differences representing illustrative aspects for terminology variation. The discursive variation, base of textual terminology, has imposed several distinctions of general nature (I. Desmet 2006: 236), some of which seem important for our analysis. The following are distinguished: the specialized scientific level (texts and academic courses), the level considered as an intermediate one, represented by texts in specialist magazines produced by experts for an initiated audience (I. Desmet 2006: 237) (some considering it semi-vulgarized discourse) and the discourse of scientific vulgarization represented by specialized fields from the general press (id). 2. In the text terminology, an important issue is the composition of the corpus (texts) as a basis for analysis. Hence, the corpus is a central objective in many current terminological analyses (see Blampain et al. 2006) and several important ideas should be highlighted: the corpus must be homogeneous and representative of a given field (e.g. that of management, see S. Mejri 2006: 704-705), and the terms should be selected as per well-defined criteria (I. Desmet 2006: 240). Our analysis of economic terms has grounded its selection based on the terms frequency in the texts from the specialized press and based on their representativeness in the conceptual hierarchy of economics, as indicated by strictly specialized texts. This analysis will consider variation in the corpus compiled for the terms CRISIS/ RECESSION and their relation with equivalent terms: DEFAULT, CRASH, and CESSATION of PAYMENTS). The selection of texts is just the premise of research, which should be continued and detailed under a paradigmatic analysis, either regarding the expression or how neology is involved in the phenomenon of variation, or regarding the content or variations of the terminological meaning, with consequences over certain semantic relations such as hyponymy and synonymy. The syntagmatic analysis, based on the study of contexts, subject to their integration in certain types of texts can reflect the relation between
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the linguistic system and the conceptual system (M. Contente 2006: 457). Current studies on terminology (see volume Blampain et al. 2006) reveal newer, more refined typologies of contexts, summarized by some definitions. In this respect, we can underline the definition directly applicable in our study: all cognitive, circumstantial or inter-textual elements able to intervene in the process of the meanings construction (S. Mosbah 2006: 652). This definition highlights both the importance of the linguistic/extra-linguistic relation, illustrated in economic terminology, and the need for compiling the paradigmatic study with the syntagmatic one in the linguistic analysis of terms. Another general interpretation of the context, which conditions the analysis of the terminological variation concerns specifications on extra-linguistic contexts. A preliminary importance is held by the communication circumstances conditioned by socio-professional groups, which determine circumstantial and use variations, and which can often be represented by mixed circumstances of communication (F. Bertaccini & A.Mateucci 2006: 325326). Such an interpretation is applied to the analysis of economic terms, especially in the economic press of wider circulation, when aspects of scientific discourse are combined with those of regular communication, or when texts are presented heterogeneously (as will be seen in point 3 in the analysis of the term CRISIS. Other typologies of contexts have important applications in the study of terminology. In general extra-linguistic contexts (in the most general meaning) they distinguish themselves from linguistic contexts (which are constant) (R. Costa 2006:79 80), all types of contexts having a function of mediation between the individual and specialized communication (id: 82). Some types of typologies attempt specifications depending on the verbal context it comprises linguistic units based on a corpus, the cognitive context builds up while assimilating the meaning of a discourse or text, and the circumstantial context, including various aspects of communication (R. Temmerman, K. Kerremans, V. Vander Wort 2006: 432). Depending on other types of specialized contexts, contextual variations of terms are determined (I. Desmet 2006: 241), conditioned both paradigmatically and sytagmatically, leading to conceptual and denominative variations (id). The analysis of terms CRISIS and RECESSION to be conducted by us (see on point 3) illustrates this interdependence and leads to discursive synonymy (C. Alexandru and F. Gaudin 2006: 62). The refinement of the contextual analysis concerns collocations, namely linguistic phenomena of co-occurrence, as limited syntagmatic
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associations, being placed between the free syntagm and the fixed one (E. Dubreil i B. Daille 2006: 579 580). The differences of collocations established by a term in different texts (see, for instance CRISIS) compared to RECESSION can be relevant for the terminological variation. 3. In the following we will pursue variation in the economic terminology starting from the aforementioned corpus, with distinctions between scientific texts and those from the specialized press, illustrated in several types of variations. The textual, contextual and conceptual-semantic variation is illustrative of the relation between CRISIS and RECESSION. The application of objective criteria (abovementioned) on the terminological consistency and coherence in texts and contexts will be useful for assessing the degree of discourse specialization. A more complex conditioning of the terminological variation of discursive and contextual factors occurs in the terms RECESSION and CRISIS (economic, financial). The analysis considered the behavior of the two terms in two types of discourses: one (3.1) represented by scientific and/or academic texts (see Sources I) and the second (3.2) represented by the texts form the economic press of wide circulation from the second half of 2010 (see Source II). 3.1. The analysis of the scientific discourse has considered economic treaties occurred at different times: 1997 (N. Dobrot), 2003 (collectively) and 2010 (M. Sorlescu). The first two papers address a more general theoretical approach of the terms RECESSION and CRISIS. The terms have a precise position in a conceptual hierarchy of economic issues, being approached in chapter Macroeconomics, economic fluctuations. The term assigned to designate an economic imbalance is RECESSION and completely isolated appears the phrase CYCLICAL CRISIS, rigorously characterized by strict conditionality by other economic concepts such as: financial tension, imbalances of supply and demand, profit/investment rate, banking operations, inflation, etc. (N. Dobrot 1997: 379-380). The degree of scientific specialization of the text is at maximum, by concentrating specialized terms. In terms of the extra-linguistic/linguistic relation, the results are more interesting in the scientific text from 2010 (M. Sorlescu). The classification of the terms RECESSION and CRISIS occurs here, as well, in the same conceptual hierarchy reported in other texts analyzed: fluctuations of the
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economic cycle in macroeconomics (M. Sorlescu 2010: 150, 156157). It proposes a wavy representation in a graphic (id. 160). However, there is more diversified construal depending on authors and we can notice that one of the four phases of the cycle, unanimously indicated, is designated either by the term RECESSION or by CRISIS (ibid: 158). At this level of the analysis, it becomes evident the synonymy between the two terms. In the following pages, the term CRISIS is preferred, accompanied or not by the economic (M. Sorlescu 2010: 159, 162163). In the work dated 2010, the terms CRISIS and RECESSION are clearly defined in their relation with the conceptual family, with a high terminological diversity. We will take these definitions as illustrative for the scientific level of our analysis, and we will try to determine, based on their comparison, if there are conceptual-semantic differences between the two terms. When the phenomenon of ECONOMIC CRISIS appears with activating elements (stagnation or decrease of production, increase of number of unemployed) it propagates in the entire economic system (M. Sorlescu 2010: 159). In the following, the paper presents the characteristics provided in previous works and the following definition is synthetically resumed: CRISIS is a sudden disturbance, a manifestation of ample disturbances and disorders in the fulfillment of economic activities (id: 161). The definition of the term RECESSION shows that it is a mandatory stage of the economic cycle, having variable characteristics represented by modest stagnations or decreases of the economic activity or ample and long decreases (M. Sorlescu 2010: 160 161). Thus, the characteristics of the term RECESSION appear more general and vaguer, which transform it into a hyperonym related to CRISIS, both designating disturbances of the economic cycle; neglecting the differences between them could lead to synonymy. The status of hyperonym of RECESSION results from the following quote: Today the global economy is suffering a significant CRISIS, deemed as the most severe RECESSION after the Second World War (M. Sorlescu 2010: 163). The phenomena of CRISIS/RECESSION are characterized according to cause (p. 161), term (p. 162) and manifestation period: the Great Depression from 1929 to 1930 (p. 162), The ECONOMIC CRISES of the 70s - 80s (p. 163) and the current CRISIS (p. 163) or this CRISIS (p. 164). The CRISES in the last two periods add more characteristics to the phenomenon: the global or worldwide nature, a result of all of
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NATIONAL CRISES, strongly interdependent (M. Sorlescu 2010: 162 163). In each CRISIS, the periodization continues through designating key moments: the outbreak of ~ compared to termination of CRISIS (id. 160), we are in full crisis (ibid: 164). The severity and effects of the CRISIS and, to a lesser extent, the remedies are designated using strict economic terms: public policy flaws, lack of rules / regulations of the markets etc. (p. 163). The analysis of the text on the terms RECESSION/ CRISIS shows a consistency in the terminology of a conceptual family strictly specific to scientific discourse. The presentation is neutral, without metaphorical expressions, based on objective definitions and characterizations. Quasisynonymy between the two terms appears in several cases, affecting the identification of a term - star (F. Bertaccini and A. Mateucci 2006: 325). This seems to be the term CRISIS, due to the current extra-linguistic circumstances which impose it based on its frequency. 3.2. In the following, we will pursue the update of the terms RECESSION and CRISIS in a different type of discourse, one of the texts from the economic press of relatively wide circulation from 2010 and 2011 (see Sources II). As a general assessment, we can notice a significantly higher frequency of the term CRISIS and implicitly its occurrence in a high variety of contexts (3.2.1). Related to such circumstances, we will analyze to what extent RECESSION appears conceptually and contextually differentiated (3.2.2). 3.2.1. The first remark concerns the identification of the current CRISIS through determinants. For the most part, it appears that updating is done with the help of the definite article, equivalent to the phrase, also common, this CRISIS: some encounter difficulties in understanding the mechanism of CRISIS, Ziarul Financiar, October 2010/15, facing the crisis, most have failed..., Capital, 2010/40, In 2008 when we were just a step to see ATMs without money, small businesses unable to pay employees, schools and hospitals closing their doors for lack of money, it felt as if we had been hit by the CRISIS of the century. Ziarul Financiar 2011/17 May, The world has not learned from past mistakes that have caused the CRASH, he added. If we follow the frequency of such occurrences in the texts of 2011, we notice a decrease, CRISIS occurring accompanied by more precise and more varied determinants.
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Another finding concerning the term CRISIS is the syntagmatic determination of its types in the current stage. The frequency of these syntagms replaces the specialized interpretation of scientific texts, where this results from the contextual coherence provided by other economic terms. Frequent determinants are: financial, economic (and their combination), global: given that Romania was not outside the wave of the economic CRISIS ..., Bursa, 2010/196, immunity to the global economic CRISIS is seen in the issuance from abroad, Capital, 2010/31, both projects had been designed before the global economic CRISIS, Bursa 2010/196, the situation in 2005 ... was different ... when the world financial crisis had not started 2010/83 Capital, the assessment of the role of fiscal policy in combating the economic-financial CRISIS, id, The global economy is heading into a new catastrophe in spite of the lessons given by the most recent financial CRISIS, warned former British Prime Minister Gordon Brown, quoted by The Telegraph, Ziarul Financiar 2011/17 May. We can notice that the syntagms indicating types of crisis are more varied in current texts (summer of 2011). There are syntagms, besides the syntagm GLOBAL CRISIS, which locate it very precisely: the CRISIS from the USA, the CRISIS from the euro zone, the CRISIS from Greece, or differentiate it from different points of view. Thus, the syntagmatic determination of the types of CRISIS is more obvious and more complex, from the economic CRISIS and the financial CRISIS to the CRISIS of public debt, CRISIS of sovereign debts. The terminological analysis of the contexts where CRISIS appears in the economic press of wide circulation highlights again another significant characteristic: the terminological density in wider contexts is high or very high, leading to a specialization over the average means in a wider communication. The examples selected below underline the economic terms in a inter-conceptual relations with CRISIS: the economy of the euro zone and UE is slowing down rapidly, getting close to stagnation (being connected to) the debts of the euro zone and leading to the decline of exchanges, massive sales of bank titles, volatility of capital marketswhich causes concerns regarding an expansion of the CRISIS of DEBTS in Europe (Ziarul Financiar 2011/3211); The financial markets are entirely disconnected from the real economy at this moment. (they are important) Budget deficits erode the trust of investors. Greece, Spain, Italy, the relegation of the USAs rating are the engines of panic. the liquidity issues of banks and increasing public deficits (debts) of
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developed economies. Shares listing worldwide (id). From the CRISIS of DEBTS the CRISIS of LIQUIDITY is reached. Large Greek banks are lurked by a CRISIS of LIQUIDITY (Ziarul Financiar 3220/2011). The diversity of the types of CRISIS referred to in 2011 leads to synonymies, quasi-synonymies and hyponimies which sometimes provide and sometimes expand the use of the term. An article from Ziarul Financiare (2011/3211) notices the presence of the term CRISIS in almost all the titles of the newspaper, the frequency supporting the importance of the concept, determined extra-linguistically. Besides or replacing CRISIS, there are the terms DEFAULT, BANKRUPTCY, CRASH or the quasisynonymic syntagm FAILURE TO PAY. There are several examples for each of the above: Officials intend to speed up the change of bonds to partially reduce the period of DEFAULT for Greece Ziarul Financiar 2011/ 26 July; The speech was seen as warning that Germany would not defend the euro forever and comes at a moment when the investors are worried, not knowing if the USA evade the DEFAULT, Ziarul Financiar 2011/ 29 July; ... the voice of an official of its Central Bank stated that the USA could not go BANKRUPT, Capital 2011/ 25 July; the crisis of failure to pay moves to the USA, id; on Friday, the financial assessment agency Fitch announced that would relegate Greece to restricted DEFAULT, after the leaders of the countries from the euro zone agreed, on Thursday, on a new plan of 109 billion euro aimed at saving Greece from BANKRUPTCY, Capital 2011/ 27 July; Adrian Vasilescu, advisor of the NBR Governor, has declared today that the global economy is not facing a CRASH, but a severe crisis of debts in the USA, which has expanded worldwide on the financial markets, Capital 2011/ 9 August; The symptom restricting the investor from making money on the stock exchange is overrated emotions which make the investor exaggerate, more than usually , the risk of investments on the stock exchange, taking as reference a stock exchange CRASH, whose amplitude was last encountered by investors in the 1930s during the Great Depression from the USA, Ziarul Financiar 2011/ 6 July. In terms of the stock exchange crisis (highly topical in August 2011), we can notice that the term CRAH (crash) is activated (with or without the determinant stock exchange). Its use is strictly correlated to other economic terms, even to CRISIS, which appears as hyperonym (and CRAH (crash) as hyponym), being accompanied by a specialized definition: Under the current market conditions, a decrease of over 30% on the mature markets can be considered as CRASH (crah) (it is unlikely) that the decreases of the last weeks (16%) to transform into a CRASH (crah), even if they remind
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of the crash of 2008 (Ziarul Financiar 2011/3220); Since 1990 there have been six STOCK EXCHANGE CRASHES worldwide (id.); The STOCK EXCHANGE CRASHES have represented in the last decades the main danger for investors, (ibid.). The following contexts are illustrative for the relation between CRAH (crash) and CRISIS; in the following years, we will witness a STOCK EXCHANGE CRASH, even two, maybe there is a price for the economic growth and the price is these CRISES, which come and will keep coming in the future (ibid.); We must learn from CRISES and, mostly, to decide, from the start, on a maximum threshold of losses (for) THE STOCK EXCHANGES CRASHES affecting concomitantly shares on all stock exchanges (ibid). Other hyponymy relations are established between CRISIS and default or with the syntagm CRISIS of DEBTS and FAILURE to PAY): The list of European debtors whose costs to insure the debt against DEFAULT have increased lately given the investors speculations that the DEFAULT chances have increased because of the growth of the CRISIS of DEBTS (Ziarul Financiar 2011/ 3220). The examples above show the complexity and variety of economic data that determine not only inter-conceptuality, but a large terminological density leading to a greater degree of specialization even in the media of wider circulation. Such textual developments represent the combination of types of discourse, as mixed media of communication (F. Bertaccini and A. Matteucci, 2010:326). 3.2.2. The term RECESSION, less frequent than CRISIS, distinguishes itself by means of several peculiarities of use in the economic discourse, which can be considered semi-specialized. The first remark concerns the fact that, in most cases, it occurs in contexts with a high consistency of terminology, where the other conceptually related terms show specific features of the phenomenon and have specific collocations and rather a high terminological density: In conditions of RECESSION, the inflation risk is low because people and companies do not have money for expenses. This means that currencies remain stable or appreciate, burdening the task of the authorities to pay the debts ad to cover deficits Capital, 2010/83; Another important issue today, i.e. the years of RECESSION, is the use of money that central banks put on the market, Capital, 2010/83. In some contexts, the conceptual precision is greater, due to differentiation of CRISIS: the recent FINANCIAL
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CRISIS ... when the U.S. emerged from a deep recession (Ziarul Financiar 2011/3220). The correlation to other related terms: specifying a type of RECESSION brings other conceptual specifications we expect in the best case, a double-dip RECESSION and, in the worst case, a full-fledged DEFLATION (Ziarul Financiar 2011/3211). In terms of a more complex perspective, combining the scientific approach and an approach of wider interest, is the book of Ivan Amar, Les mots de lactualite, Ed.Belin, Paris, 2010, which among other current words, has an article on RECESSION ( p.158-160). The interest in this work consists of a global justification of the relation between RECESSION and CRISIS in a broader communication. Showing that it is a precise economic term, both at the level of the definition in the natural language and in a symbolic language (abscise, ordered, curved). We notice the proposed definition: one speaks of RECESSION when the gross domestic product (GDP) of a country decreases two consecutive trimesters or six months of negative growth (p.159), definition followed by indicating the economic terms it contains. More interesting is the less specialized interpretation and the history of the terms, considering that today RECESSION is a term that frightens, it is mentioned that originally in English, it was a euphemism, designed to avoid terms such as DEPRESSION and the CRISIS of 1929. Subsequently, both RECESSION and CRISIS acquired a negative meaning (id. p.160). Thus, the expanded circulation of the terms has led to an equalization, which neglects economic data, a remark also valid for the current Romanian language (besides English and French). The meaning of economic cycle is obvious in the following contexts, which also have a high terminological density: the Romanian economy underwent RECESSION in the third trimester of 2008 along with the decrease of the GDP in adjusted seasonal terms, compared to the previous three months by 0.1%. Since then, the GDP has been decreasing each trimester, (Ziarul Financiar, 2010/16 August); in the following, there are illustrated the effective economic manifestations, which led to the decrease of the GDP and to RECESSION: the critical decrease of constructions in the first trimester, as well as the negative position of services and agriculture have kept the economy in RECESSION, id. The distinction between RECESSION and CRISIS is explicitly suggested highly isolated (in the economic press of wide circulation). The title of a brief article from Capital 2010/39, CRISIS and RECESSION, resumes a definition of the Governor Isarescu: We should not mistake
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CRISIS for RECESSION. Even if the measures to end the CRISIS throw us back into CRISIS, according to the assumption that, this year, we handle the CRISIS, the structural imbalances and in 2011, the termination of the RECESSION, the growth by investments or in Ziarul Financiar 2011/15 March, Daniel Daianu attempted at making a semantic differentiation between the two terms: A country can experience a CRISIS without RECESSION, while RECESSION without CRISIS is rarely seen. Usually, CRISIS and RECESSION intertwine, strike together and cause severe effects. First, there is CRISIS, then RECESSION at the peak of CRISIS; and after the RECESSION passes, CRISIS still lingers. A year, two or several. However, rather frequently in the economic press of wide circulation, RECESSION is the synonym of CRISIS, being often used in the same context to avoid repetitions: the group of companies that have used the same method to face the RECESSION is much larger the weak financial results achieved in the first year of CRISIS, Capital, 2010/40, While the Romanians are starving because of the CRISIS, the analysts have discovered a beneficial effect of RECESSION and of the devaluation of the national currency on the economy: we work much more efficiently. Or, at least, some of us. Sptmna Financiar 2010/ 5 October. 4. The analysis undertaken hereby shows that a complex linguistic analysis in correlation of paradigmatic and syntagmatic data, faced with specialized information leads to an objective and complex description of the economic terminology. The terminological variation in the current economic texts is primarily conditioned by the evolution of companies, and the economic press of wide circulation is forced to reflect the dynamics of changes, which happen before our eyes, and are not yet reflected in the strictly scientific texts since they develop slower. The strict extra-linguistic determination entails a more rigorous use of the economic terms, with definitions and inter-conceptual relations manifested at the level of terminological density, which are rather high in texts of wider circulation. These specialized features of the analyzed texts enhance their importance for the specialized economic language, precisely because they reflect the economic dynamics in appropriate terms. There are, in the first place the contexts, which do not differ from the scientific ones by the objective characteristics related to new economic realities. There are also natural contexts for the press, which can be interesting for laymen, and which are close to texts of scientific
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vulgarization through the dissolution of specialized terms and use of metaphors. A required remark concerns the heterogeneous nature of texts from the economic press of wide circulation, which cannot be assessed globally as vulgarizing or semi-vulgarizing, and which draw attention to the objective analyses of scientific interest. In some cases, heterogeneity is subject to the importance of mixed communication circumstances as forms of the terminological variation in economy.
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DimitrieCantemir,pionieralinternaionalizriiterminologieiromneti
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Bahnaru, Vasile
Dimitrie CaNtemir, pionier al internaionalizrii terminologiei romneti
Dac secolul al XX-lea era definit ca fiind secolul exploziei termi nologice, atunci secolul al XXI-lea ar urma s fie calificat drept secolul revoluiei informaionale. n prezent, constatm cu stupefacie c omul modern se afl ntr-un proces continuu de globalizare, ntr-o permanent comunicare cu Universul. Individul secolului al XXI-lea a depit spaiul sufocant al barierelor sprirutuale intimiste, dar i pe cele de stat naional i a ieit n lumea mare a culturii (i mai ales a inculturii) universale. Tocmai din aceste considerente, am putea vorbi de constituirea unui om nou homo universalis- dominat de cunoatere, de informaie, dar i de cele mai incredibile, fanteziste chiar idei, concepii sau intenii. Omul de azi are posibilitatea, prin intermediul internetului, s intre n relaii intime directe cu orice persoan din orice punct al mapamondului, si confieze cele mai confideniale sentimente, s se informeze n cele mai variate domenii ale vieii politice, economice, culturale, mondene, tiinifice etc. Mai mult chiar, fcnd uz de capacitile moderne de informare i de comunicare, oamenii politici, att cei pozitivi, ct i cei negativi, pot modifica viaa politic i social sau dirija evoluia evenimentelor (n aceast ordine de idei, este edificator exemplul revo luiei romne din decembrie 1989 prima revoluie din lume condus de pe un post TV). n acest vacarm informaional un loc aparte deine limbajul uman i, mai ales, limbajele speciale, cele terminologice, ntruct fr cunoaterea limbilor de comunicare internaional, inclusiv a terminologiei de specialitate este imposibil contactul dintre indivizi. Acesta este motivul pentru care societatea contemporan este definit ca o societate a informaiei, ntruct informaia este omniprezent n viaa modern i se refer att la creterea volumului, complexitii i diversitii informaiei, ct i la dezvoltarea unor noi tehnologii, deosebit de eficiente, de prelucrare i de difuzare a ei. Utilizarea pe scar larg a instrumentelor informatice, care permit accesul aproape instantaneu
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la informaie, indiferent de localizarea pe glob a emitorului i a receptorului, are drept consecin globalizarea, transformarea societii ntr-un stat universal. n aceste condiii, obstacolele care ar putea incomoda sau chiar bloca n ntregime accesul la informaie ar fi lipsa suportului tehnologic precum i absena competenelor lingvistice i de specialitate necesare. Dac suportul material performant exist, pentru a transmite sau pentru a recepta informaia, trebuie s dispunem de cunotine lingvistice i terminologice. O naiune (i limba ei naio nal) nu poate lua parte la dialogul intercultural dac nu dispune de o terminologie adecvat. Totodat, n virtutea declanrii revoluiei informaionale i n virturea faptului c problemele lingvistice pe care le ridic terminologia tiintific i tehnic sunt pe ct de multiple, pe att de vaste, se impune o activitate prodigios n vederea reglementrii i standardizrii ei, una dintre cele mai complexe fiind problema referitoare la procedeele actuale de formare a termenilor, de evoluie a acestora, i cea referitoare la particularitile terminologiei din fiecare disciplin, la cunoaterea formanilor specifici, precum i a standardelor internaionale de creaie neologic i la impunerea oficial a termenilor (unitilor terminologice) n aa-zisele sisteme terminologice, caracteristice diferitor tiinte. Este cunoscut faptul c n opinia celor mai muli lingviti, termi nologia este un compartiment al lexicologiei, fcnd parte din domeniul lingvisticii aplicate i se ocup cu studiul vocabularului specializat. Conform unei opinii general acceptate, vocabularul unei limbi este constituit dintr-un ansamblu de unitati lexicale care pot fi divizate n doua mari categorii: a) lexicul limbajului comun i b) lexicul limba jelor specializate, numite i profesionale. Prin urmare, din punct de vedere al frecvenei i al valorii de utilizare, lexicul limbii, inclusiv al celei romne, se clasific n vocabular comun, fundamental (de baz) i restul vocabularului sau masa acestuia. Totodat, vocabularul fundamental reprezint, n temei, o structur unitar, fiind reductibil la cteva caracteristici (include uniti absolut necesare procesului de comunicare, evideniindu-se prin vechime, stabilitate deosebit n limb i prin cunoaterea i utilizarea cuvintelor date de toi vorbitorii limbii respective, cuvinte care au o mare capacitate de derivare i multiple valori polisemantice), n timp ce masa vocabularului cuprinde o cantitate practic incalculabil i dificil de ordonat, cuprinznd n ntregime arhaismele, regionalismele, cuvintele livrei, neologismele, termenii tehnicotiinifici, argoul, jargonul i expresiile idiomatice. Cuvintele
Dimitrie Cantemir, pionier al internaionalizrii...
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de specialitate (sau terminologia specializat) sunt, de regul, reunite n subansamblul termeni tehnico-tiinifici, din care considerente atunci cnd ne propunem s studiem grupri de cuvinte, este necesar ca mai nti s delimitm cu strictee materialul terminologic de cercetat. Se tie c mbogirea vocabularului unei limbi se produce pe dou ci principale: 1) cu ajutorul mijloacelor interne derivarea prefixarea, sufixarea i compunerea i 2) cu ajutorul mprumutului unor uniti lexicale din alte limbi. Un procedeu mixt de formare a cuvintelor noi poate fi considerat calcul limgvistic, constnd n reproducerea semanticii unui cuvnt strin cu ajutorul unei forme existente n limb. n baza celor afirmate anterior, putem conchide c n orice limb sunt active i funcioneaz n permanen dou tendine fundamentale, diametral opuse din punct de vedere logic: tendina de internaionalizare a lexicului limbii i tendina de naionalizare a vocabularului acesteia. Evident, aceste dou tendine sunt, n unele limbi, mai productive, iar n altele mai puin productive, acest fapt fiind determinat de structura intern a limbii sau de politica lingvistic a statului respectiv (a se vedea purismul lingvistic din Frana sau din Filanda). Astfel, Mihai Eminescu, pornind de la ideea vechimii limbii romne, ajunge la concluzia c sistemul ei derivativ nu mai produce cuvinte noi de la radicali vechi, ntruct acetia i-au epuizat potenialul lor derivaional, din care considerente limba noastr mprumut unitile lexicale necesare din alte limbi. n acelai timp, urmeaz s reinem c unitile lexicale noi se nscriu, de regul, n sistemul derivaional al limbii romne, dovad elocvent n aceast ordine de idei fiind existena unui mare numr de cuvinte derivate de la unitile lexicale mprumutate. Dat fiind numrul extrem de mare al cuvintelor mprumutate din limbile europene, n special din englez, derivate cu ajutorul unor pseudoafixe greco-latine, unii savani au lansat ideea c aceste cuvinte, avnd de cele mai multe ori caracter internaional (din care cauz au fost numite interonime), ar reprezenta nceputul constituirii unei limbi universale unice. De altfel, n aceast ordine de idei Ferdinand de Saussure meniona c nu exist, cu excepia lingvisticii, un alt domeniu unde am putea atesta attea idei absurde i prejudeci. Tocmai din aceste considerente am putea afirma c niciodat n lingvistic nu a fost lansat o idee att de absurd, chiar o teorie ntreag despre fuziunea tuturor limbilor pe parcursul unei anumite epoci istorice. Activitatea de reglementare i de standardizare a terminologiei tiinifico-tehnice se realizeaz n Republica Moldova n cadrul Centrului
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de terminologie din subordinea Institutului de Filologie al Academiei de tiine a Moldovei. O instituie similar exist i la Bucureti. Cu toate acestea, n procesul de formare a termenilor noi i de standardizare a acestui domeniu atestm nc multe deficiene i lacune reprobabile. Fr a ne declara adepi ai extremei puriste n evoluia limbii credem c este necesar s urmm exemplul lingvitilor din alte ri. Astfel, n Frana i n alte ri mprumutul de termeni strini, mai ales englezi, este controlat cu strictee, inclusiv crearea unor termeni noi cu ajutorul mijloacelor interne ale limbii. Cuvntul decisiv n problema aprobrii termenilor noi (prin publicare n Journal officiel) i revine comisiei gene rale de terminologie i neologie. Concomitent, comisia exercit funcia permanent de nregistrare a necesitilor terminologice ale societii franceze, de studiere a evoluiei terminologiei n general i de analiz a corectitudinii noilor formaii terminologice (mpreun cu o serie de comisii de specialitate care funcioneaz la nivelul ministerelor, cu organismele din rile francofone precum i cu organizaiile internaionale de profil). Mai mult, a devenit evident c dezvoltarea terminologiei unei limbi nu este doar o problem lingvistic, tiinific i cultural, ci i una politic. Limbile marilor culturi au exercitat ntotdeauna o influen deosebit asupra celorlalte. Desigur nu e cazul nici s acceptm fr rezerve i nici s respingem global aceast influen, ci s o folosim n mod inteligent pentru a ne dezvolta propriile mijloace de expreseie fr a le altera identitatea, ntruct conservarea identitii culturale a unui popor se realizeaz i prin cultivarea i dezvoltarea terminologiei. Astfel, n lumea francofon, lupta pentru aprarea limbii naionale se d de muli ani i exist un vast plan de standardizare a termininologiei, fapt ce implic ameliorarea calitii limbii, promovarea folosirii limbii naionale n toate domeniile, modernizarea lexicului i mai ales a terminologiei. Standardizarea terminologic (adaptarea unei terminologii pentru o utilizare anume) are implicaii deosebite n plan social. Este vorba, desigur, de adecvarea instrumentului de comunicare n sfera specializat, dar i de valorizarea unei funcii identitare. n aceast perspectiv, dezvoltarea terminologiei n limba naional capt o importan deosebit. Evident, cercetarea i propagarea tiinei i tehnologiei constituie dou aspecte distincte ale aceluiai proces, aceste aspecte incluznd att creaia ct i propagarea termenilor de specialitate n masa din ce in ce mai larg de vorbitori, pn la o eventual determinologizare, chiar banalizare a lor prin ptrunderea n vocabularul uzual. Pe plan internaional, concurena n plan terminologic nseamn concuren n plan tehnologic
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i comercial, ntruct adoptarea unei anumite terminologii echivaleaz, cel mai adesea, cu adoptarea tehnologiei care a generat-o. Tocmai din aceast perspectiv urmeaz s studiem modalitile de constituire a terminologiei tiinifico-tehnice n perioadele precedente ale limbii romne pentru a identifica i a promova o concepie unitar de formare i evoluie a terminologiei moderne. Ca urmare a analizei lexicului literaturii vechi, inclusiv a celei de la finele secolului XVII nceputul secolului XVIII, am ajuns la ideea c procesul de internaionalizare a limbii romne n genere i a terminologiei romne n parte, a nceput nc n perioada medieval de constituire a limbii noastre. n acest context amintim substantivul comet glosat de Miron Costin cu ajutorul definiiei stea cu coad. ns autorul care a excelat n aceast privin a fost, fr ndoial, Dimitrie Cantemir, crturar enciclopedist, etnograf, geograf, filozof, istoric, lingvist, muzicolog, compozitor, om politic i scriitor romn, care a cunoscut mai multe limbi: greaca, latina, germana, franceza, rusa, polona, turca etc., fiind un reprezentant celebru al umanismului romnesc i un predecesor ilustru al iluminismului nostru. n numeroasele sale scrieri cu tematic foarte variat, Dimitrie Cantemir pune nceputul terminologiei romneti n cele mai diferite domenii. Este suficient s amintim c glosarul Istoriei ieroglifice include 280 de termeni social-politici, filosofici, matematici, militari, diplomatici, arhetectonici, logici, psihilogici, financiari, tehnici, geografici, fizici, astronomici, farmaceutici, zoologici etc. n urma unui examen atent al termenilor utilizai de Dimitrie Cantemir, am constatat c el beneficiaz de toate procedeele existente n limb, de formare a unitilor lexicale, n genere i a celor terminologice, n parte. Astfel, atestm prezena unor termeni formai cu ajutorul afixelor (a argumentui, aticesc, a atici, dropicos, etimologhicesc, fiitor, filosofesc, fizicesc, gheometricesc, a informui, ironicesc, ithic, ithicete, laconete, loghicesc, materiesc, metafizicesc, platonicesc, poeticesc, politicesc, a prezentui, a prognostici, ritoricesc, a ritorisi, a romni, a schizmi, schiz mire, sferesc, sofisticete, a solichismi, theologhicesc, tirnesc, tirnete, a tirni, traghicesc, a trctui, tropicesc, undelemnos, uricariu, ueriu etc.) sau cu ajutorul calcului lingvistic (binefacere (I, 287-288), format dup lat. benefacere, frlege (I, 169, 267, 281, 287, 287-288, 294, 305, 307-308; II, 104), format dup sl. bezakonije; feldein calitate (I, 89), format dup lat. qualis ce fel de; vinars (II, 371), format dup germ. Branntwein etc.). n acelai timp, constatm c lexicul Istoriei ieroglifice a lui Dimitrie Cantemir4 exceleaz n utilizarea unor uniti lexicale neologice, mai ales
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de origine greco-latin sau preluate, n special din limbile neolatine. De altfel, Dimitrie Cantemir chiar n prefaa sa la Istoria ieroglific explic necesitatea mprumuturilor lexicale din alte limbi i mai ales, din limba elen pentru a desemna noiuni i realiti noi: Vii ti, iubitule, c nu pentru cei carii ntr-aceste pomenite limbi pedepsii sint scara acii am supus, ce, pentru ca de mprumutarea cuvintelor streine cei mai nedeprini lovind, vreare-a ca ae a le nlege i n dialectul strein s s deprindz. C ae unul dup altul neprsit urmnd, spre cele mai adnci nvturi, prin hiri limba a noastr a purcede a s ndrzni, cu putin ar fi, precum toate alalte limbi de la cea elineasc nti ndmnndu-s, cu deprinderea ndelung i a limbii sale supiiere i a cuvintelor nsmnare -au agonisit (I, 16) 5, pronunndu-se totodat pentru adaptarea lor la specificul foneticii i morfologiei limbii romne: ntr-acesta chip, spre alalte nvturi grele, trebuitoare numere i cuvinte, dndu-te, a le moldoveni sau a le romni silete, n moldovenie elinizete i n elinie moldovenisete (I, 16). Opinia lui Dimitrie Cantemir n problema mprumuturilor lexicale consun, n linii mare, cu cea a lui Mihai Eminescu, care meniona: Cnd lipsete ideea rsare numaidect un cuvnt nou care nu prea are neles, dar care ine locul ideii 6 Examinnd lexicul neologic al Istoriei ieroglifice a lui Dimitrie Cantemir, am constatat c el a mbogit nu numai lexicul general al limbii, dar i terminologia special. S reinem c cele mai multe uniti lexicale introduse de Dimitrie Cantemir s-au ncetenit n limba romn, n urma unor adaptri fonetice i morfologice ulterioare, fiind i n prezent uzuale. Aadar, pn la Dimitrie Cantemir, terminologia romneasc din diferite domenii era n stare incipient de constituire, fiind n mare, influenat de sistemele terminologice din limba slav veche (desigur, cu mici excepii, ntruct varianta limbii literare din Moldova care a cunoscut o anumit influen din partea limbii latine prin intermediul limbii polone, n timp ce variant limbii literare din Muntenia se afla sub influena limbii bulgare i srbe). Fiind un cunosctor bun al limbilor clasice (greac i latin) i al limbilor moderne, Dimitrie Cantemir a ajuns la concluzia c sursa principal de elaborare a terminologiei tiinifice sunt limbile greac i latin i cele neolatine, n aceast ordine de idei fiind concludente operele lui Istoria ieroglific, Divanul, Hronicul vechimei etc. n cele ce urmeaz prezentm o serie de termeni din Istoria ieroglific, aparinnd celor mai variate domenii terminologice, acetia fiind uzuali n limba romn contemporan.
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Mai nti, se impune numrul mare de uniti lexicale din domeniul social-politic, administrativ i filosofic, mprumutate n special din greac sau latin: aftorcrator autocrat (I, 229), alhimist alchimist (I, 66), anonim necunoscut (I, 90), antifarmac antidot (I, 120), apofthegm maxim, sentin (II, 192), apostrof apostrof (I, 137), argument argument (I, 73, 101, 141, 170, 171, 226; II, 84, 103, 191), a argumentui a argumenta (II, 150), aristotelesc aristotelic (II, 228), armistiie armistiiu (II, 202, 203), articul articol (I, 245; II, 122, 124), atheist ateu (I, 154), atic atic (I, 163), aticesc atic (I, 163), a atici a vorbi dialectul atic (I, 163), avaniie lips de omenie, axiom lege natural (I, 52, II, 37), barbara (n scolastic) figur primului silogism (I, 60, 252II, 169, 211), brehnace vultur care vneaz iepuri(I, 118), cabalist persoan care se ocup cu studiul cabalei iudaice (II, 211), cacum hermin (II, 60), capitul articol, capitol (I, 247, 251), categorie categorie (I, 89, 96-97), comedie spectacol de blci (I, 160), condiie condiie (II, 239), demon demon (I, 64; II, 123-124), elefterie libertate (I, 256-257), fantastic imaginar (II, 58), fantaziefantezie (I, 66, 90, 105, 148; II, 42, 49, 66, 75, 103, 108, 109), filosof filosof (I, 52, 94, 95, 97, 99, 101, 102, 131, 196,), filosofie filosofie (I, 163, 110, 123, 252, ), fortun noroc, succes (II, 42), gheometru geometru (I, 192), ghimnosofist gimnosofist (I, 195), hadmb eunuc (I, 76), himer himer (I, 154), hrisov hrisov (I, 249), idee concept, noiune(I, 40), ipotetic ipotetic (I, 46), materie materie (I, 66, 97, 180; II, 159), monarh monarh ).(I, 229, 255), monarhie monarhie (I, 35-36, 154, 275; II, 121, 143, 167, 217), omofilie homofilie (I, 144), referendariu referendar (I, 249), ritor retor (I, 154), ritoric retoric (I, 66), senator senator (I, 96-97; II, 108, 109), senten sentin (II, 228), sicofandie sicofantie (I, 48), stat stat (II, 166), tiran tiran (I, 25) tiranie tiranie (I, 25), rmonie ceremonie (II, 52) etc. n al doilea rnd se impune numrul mare de termeni din cele mai variate domenii ale tiinei i tehnicii: anatomic referitor la anatomie (I, 99), anadarctic sudic (II, 122), anomalie stare anormal (I, 90), antarctic sudic (I, 181), antidot antidot (I, 158), apothecar farmacist (II, 47), arctic nordic (I, 181, II, 122), astrolav astrolab (II, 188), astrologhicesc astrologic (I, 66), astrologhie astrologie (I, 127), atom atom (II, 159, 162, 167), atomist atomist (II, 110), cataract cascad (I, 194, 195, 196), chentru centru (I, 213, 273; II, 37, 122), chiparos chiparos (II, 60), comitis comet (I, 60-61), cornat cornut (I, 211, 225), crocodil crocodil (II, 116), diafora deosebire (I, 70), dialect dialect, grai (I, 16), dialectic filosof
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scolastic (I, 97, 98), diathesis dispoziie, rnduial(I, 66), diet diet (II, 224), dram dram (I, 34-35, 165, 186; II 47, 52, 116, 119, 176), dropic hidropizie (I, 18; II, 287), dropicos bolnav de dropic (I, 153), dropie dropie (I, 34-35), dulf delfin (I, 219, 220), eclipsis eclips (I, 218; II, 60-61), elcovan pasre maritim cu zbor repede; curier imperial (I, 249), eleghie elegie (I, 123), embrionat ajuns n stare de embrion (II, 44), energhie energie (II, 216), enthilem silogism eliptic (II, 231), epifonem exclamaie retoric cu vare se ncheie un discurs (I, 116), epithimie surescitare cerebral; dorin (I, 173), epitrop epitrop (I, 247, 225), epitropie epitropie (I, 226), etimologhie etimologie (I, 94), etimologhicesc etimologic (I, 91-92), evghenie noblee (I, 47, 61, 307), exighisis exegez (I, 252), experiin experien (I, 71), figur form geometric (II, 148), fil elefant (I, 77), fizic referitor la fizic (I, 95), flegm flegm (II, 222), formform (1, 66, 128; II, 159), gramatic gramatic (I, 66, 94, 92), hameleon cameleon (I, 242), hronic cronic (I, 45), istorie istorie (I, 13, 14-15; II, 202), ithic etic (II, 162), lacherd lacherd (I, 284), lance lance (I, 73), laring laringe (I, 224), lavirinth labirint (I, 163), lectic lectic (II, 208), lexicon lexicon (I, 91-92), loghic logic (I, 96-97, 97), mascara mascara (I, 87), metal metal (I, 66), mihanie main, instrument (I, 98), nard nard (I, 180), ochean ocean (I, 225), organ organ, instrument (I, 92, 287, 300, ), planet planet (I, 181), platan platan (I, 163), pol pol (I, 181), pont punct (I, 251), privileghie privilegiu (I, 52), prob prob (I, 195), proimion cuvnt introductiv (I, 154), prolog prolog (II, 236), pronie pronie (II, 103), recet reet (II, 47), silav silab (I, 92), silogism silogism (I, 61), sofism sofism (I, 98), solichism solecism (I, I71), strataghem stratagem (I, 98), theatru teatru (I, 13, 226, 263), titlu titlu (I, 96-97), trop trop (I, 66, 154) etc. Este impuntor numrul de cuvinte referitoare la cultur i la civilizaie: alfavita alfabet, aromat mirodenie (I, 93-94; II, 121), catalog condic, catalog (I, 70, 247; II, 106, 150), condei condei (I, 13), corespondenie coresponden (II, 252), dascl dascl (I, 111; II, 126, 143), dialog dialog, convorbire (II, 5-6), discurs discurs (I, 14), harmonie armonie (I, 153-154), ieroglific ieroglific (I, 13), ieroglifie ieroglif (I, 94), melodie melodie (II, 118) simfonie simfonie (I, 153-154; II, 118) etc. i denumirile referitoare la diferite stri psihice i aciuni ale oamenilor: agona agonie (I, 66), apelpisie dezndejde (I, 114, 269), discolie dificultate (I, 128), a informui a concepe (I, 98), megalopsihie megalopsihie (II, 103), melanholie melancolie (II, 72); clevet clevetire (I, 48; II, 51, 56, 66,
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85, 99, 124), clevetnic clevetitior (II, 62), clironomie motenire (I, 82), colachie linguire (I, 61, 255; II, 132, 147), darn zadar (II, 34, 146, 215) etc. Unele cuvinte mprumutate sau formate de Dimitrie Cantemir nu s-au ncetenit n limba romn, iar altele fiind derivate n limba contemporan cu ajutorul altor afixe: afrodisu afemeiat (II, p.186), afthadia temeritate (I, 269), ahortasie lcomie (I, 188), ahortatos lacom (I, 186), alofil strin, care nu face parte din aceeai familie sau neam (I, 144), anagheon necesar (II, 163), anagnostis ctitor de biseric (II, 211), anevsplahnos nemilos (I, 186), apofasin hotrt, categoric(II, 236), apofasisticos fr replic, categoric (I, 122), apsifisie dispre (II, 102), atheofovie lips de team fa de Dumnezeu (I, 169170), epihirim iniiativ (II, 189), epiorchie sperjur (I, 169), epiorhie sperjur (II, 212), evdemon nger bun (II, 66), exentru excentru (I, 71), fiitor existent (I, 154, 263), filaftie iubire de sine (I, 85), filosofsc filosofic (I, 66; II, 37), filosofesc filosofic (I, 14), fizicesc fizic (I, 44, 102), a formui a concepe (I, 176), Galactea Calea Lactee (II, 120), gheomandie geromancie (II, 54), gheometricesc geometric (I, 66), ironicesc ironic (I, 208), isimerie echinociu (I, 180), ithicesc etic (II, 163-164), loghicesc logic (I, 14, 66, I71), mathematic matematician (I, 52), micropsihie fric (I, 275; II, 102), necromandie vraj asupra cadavrelor (II, 54), platonicesc platonic (II, 228), public sfat domnesc (II; 167) etc., isr sltele fiind creaii ale autorului: a desficiori a lsa fr pui (I, 268), a desprini a lsa fr prini (I, 268), a se pedestri a se pedestri (I, 143), a ritorisi a vorbi retoric (II, 125), a solichismi a comite solecisme (I, 163), undelemnos unsuros (I, 76) etc. Pentru a atribui concluziilor noastre un caracter ct mai verosimil, n continuare vom prezenta cteva exemple din Istoria ieroglific a lui Dimitrie Cantemir n care am atestat unele mprumuturi introduse n limba romn de savantul enciclopedist: Voroava, dar, le era aceasta: Precum noi mprat, monarh i stpnitoriu, aftocrator s fim avnd, nu numai noi tim, ce toat lumea mrturisete i matca carea ne chivernisete, ne poruncete, ne stpnete i ne otcrmuiete, din toat dihaniia cunoscut i aleas ieste (I, 229); i dup ce de mult cutreierare i mai cu de-adins de peste msur mirare obosit, supt umbra a unor frumoi i umbroi copaci (carii denaintea capitii sdii era) ca puin odihn tuturor mdularelor s-mi dau, acelea, unde ca cei n agona morii dzceam, o Lebd btrn i
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alb lng mine s apropie i, dac bun dzua dup obiceiu mi dede, de unde sint i ce pre acelea locuri caut m ntreb (I, 182); De care lucru, iari alfavita din-ceput a citi i buchele din capt a prociti ncepur, sfaturile nturnar, voroavele rsturnar, gndurile tvlir, chitelele prvlir, drmoiar i cernur, nighina din gru i bobul din madzire s aleag nu putur, grmdir (II, 145); Precum s vede, nu ucinic, ce didascal alhimistilor ieste, crora nici adnc fundul mrei, nici nestrbtut a pmntului grosime, nici pre supt rdcinele munilor i stncilor a metalilor uvite vine, nici deprtarea locului, nici primejdiia mrsului, nici nevoia agiunsului i aei nici iuimea i arsura focului de la acel din fantazie nscut i din crieri prefcut aur i poate opri (I, 66); Adevrat, ntre toate jiganiile nu numai bun i adevrat filosof, ce nc i ispitit, iscusit anatomic Lupul ieste (I, 99); Mute-se Arcticul, strmute-se Andarticul, osiia sfereasc n doa s frng, toat iuorimea n chentru s-mping, stihiile toate tocmirea s-i piardz (II, 122); C pre amnuntul sama de-i vom lua, toat anomaliia i rtcirea firii la dnsa vom afla (I, 204); Aedar, dup socoteala i sfatul acestui nelept i anonim sfetnic, Cum te cheam? pre Struocmil ntrebar (I, 90); Iar n vrful trulii aceii mari chipul boadzii Pleonexiii2 n picioare sta, carea cu mna dreapt despre polul arctic spre polul antarctic, cu degetul ntins, ceasurile arta (I, 181). De duhurile vrsatelor veninuri toi ne-am ameit, dac strigar, i toi antidotul toapscului precum s-l arete pre Papagaie dac rugar (I, 158); A cruia dulce voroav n liman i vrednic laud pre uscat i cdzut mulmit de la ficiori pentru prini, de la prini pentru feciori, prin toate casele i adunrile, nu otrav, m crede numelui, ce tare antifarmac tuturor hulelor ieste (I, 120); Ce precum apelpisia de multe ori mai vrednicii lucreadz, ae afthadia singur cu sabiia sa capul i rteadz (I, 269); ns m tem c, dup apofthegma carea singur mai pomenii, fiina adevrului n lucruri a arta, precum s poci a crede, nicicum pociu (II, 192); Acmu a tuturor voie unindu-s i toi supt argumentul Corbului supuindu-s, cu toii n toate prile s mprtiar i prin toi munii i codrii, unde coarne de bur lepdate ar gsi i cap de taur aruncat ar nemeri, cu toat nevoina cercar i nicicum undeva macar nu s aflar (I, 170);
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n valurile tulburrii, s btea, de vreme ce din gur nencredinarea argumentuia, iar din gnd socotiia c macar vremenic pace ntre dnii de s va cumva aedza, ct de n scurt vreme, din cele nenumrate vicleugurile lor, multe pot s s descopere, pre carile Inorogul n catalogul su pre amruntul nsmnate le avea (II, 150); Deci la acesta lucru nti ca astrologhii s facem s cade, carii cele adevrate fireti i cereti trupuri mai curat vrnd s arete, nite fiine din socoteal i nite trupuri i locuri, carile nici n ceriu, nici n fire s afl, pun (I, 127); Nu mai slobod ieste limba atheistului spre blstm dect tropurile ritorului spre hula sau lauda aninat (I, 154); . Adevrat dar c la acesta lucru dovedele a cderilor vechi aporiia de n-ar dezlega, nu cu puin nduala a tot sufletul filosofiia atomitilor socotelele muritorilor i cu dnsele mpreun lucrurile lumeti ar stpni (II, 110); Dar ai pofti s tiu cu ce privileghie putei strica axioma vechilor filosofi i mathematici, carii dzic (carile sint tot ntr-un chip ctr altul al triilea, tot ntr-un chip sint ntre sine)? (I, 52); Care stihii pre amnuntul, dup meterugul cabalitilor tlmcindus (II, 211); Trii filosofi, ghimnosofiste, pentru ca cataractele Nilului (celea ce dincolo de munii (I, 195); ns, oricum ar fi, prostimei ei iertciune a s da s cade, de vreme ce poate fi c categoriile loghici n-au citit i n crile tiinii nu s-au zbvit (c celor ce multe lumnri n citeala crilor topesc, ochii trupului la videre s tmpsc (I, 89); Comedie ca aceasta i buiguire ntr-acesta chip din gura Papagaii n minile tuturor dihaniilor rvrsindu-s, ca cum i cu trupurile i cu sufletele amurii i amuiii ar fi fost, prin ctva vreme ntre dnsele mare tcere s fcu, i una ntr-ochii aliia ascuit i necltit cutnd, ce ar fi mai de vorovit i ce ar fi mai de pomenit, ca cum a s domiri n-ar putea, ce una pre alt s nceap (I, 160); Inorogul nc, pre o parte, de via primejdioas suprat i sturat fiind, iar pre alt parte, ndemnarea i pofta priietinilor a clca neputnd, pre pomenitele condiii aedzimntul pcii priimi (II, 239); Cu Filul i cu Inorogul cineva din jignii prieteug, cuvnt, corespondenie, veri aievea, veri pre tain, din gur sau din scrisori i n tot alt chipul, macar cum, s nu aib, nici rudenie cu dnii s fac, nici precum rude unul altuia sint s s rspundz (I, 252);
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Aceasta giuruind Inorogul i acmu i dnd, unul din crocodili pr dreapt ca aceasta asupra lui fcnd, adec precum el o dat pre Hameleon vnnd i s-l nghi vrnd, dup mult rugminte cu mari chizii s s fie slobodzit, ns cu aceast tocmal ca alt mai mare vnat s-i aduc, sau 1000 de dramuri de panzehr s-i dea (II, 116); Oare ce audzu adevrat audz, au demonul, ispitindu-m, simirile mi batgiocurete? (II, 123-124); Vii ti, iubitule, c nu pentru cei carii ntr-aceste pomenite limbi pedepsii sint scara acii am supus, ce, pentru ca de mprumutarea cuvintelor streine cei mai nedeprini lovind, vreare-a ca ae a le nlege i n dialectul strein s s deprindz (I, 16). i ae i Vulpea, dialectic, iar nu filosoaf s afl (I, 98). n scurt, la nceptura dialogului ntre dnii sosir i unul de altul pricine vrjbii, carile i pentru ce ar fi fost, a ntreba ncepur, Inorogul ntrebarea ntr-acesta chip nainte puind (II, 5-6); Cci alt mncare a mnca nici pofta m ndemna, nici diieta doftoriilor m lsa (II, 224). Cci n une hotare loghiceti sau filosofeti a limbi streine, elineti, dzic, i ltineti cuvinte i numere, cii i colea, dup asupreala voroavii aruncate vii afla, carile nelegerii discursului nostru nu puin ntunecare pot s aduc (I, 14); De acestea cuvinte Rsul hohotiia, iar Hameleonul fisiia, pre carile unul n rs, altul n vis le tlcuia i, ca cum sfaturi de batgiocur ar fi, le mscriia, de vreme ce bine tiia c cele de multe ori amgele i minciunoase vpsele toat zugrvala i chipul adevrului scrnav au muruit i la cel luminos chip i a adeverinii figur a vini preste putina arurilor a fi dzicea (II, 148); i ae i Vulpea, dialectic, iar nu filosoaf s afl (I, 97); Aijderea, tainic filosofia Lupului n coala dobitoacelor s nu s profesasc, nici ale lui tlcuiri i exighises s se citeasc, ce n locul filosofiii cneti de batgiocur s s aib (I, 252); Cci doa pricini sint carile, uscciunea cuvntului scornindu-le, umedzala tusei i izvorrea flegmei le nmulete (II, 222); Iar ct despre pricina formei, multe i aspre discolii are, pre carea, binior de o vom socoti i n campana socotelii drepte de o vom cumpni, mai mult spre a firii ei cunotin dect alalte ne va agiuta (I, 128);
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Ae el n valurile vicleugurilor tvlindu-s (poate fi rutatea ndoit i ntriit s lucredze fortuna slobodzind), somn fr somn i odihn fr odihn l chinuia (II, 42); Care lucru, macar c de multe ori i de la muli s-au ispitit, ns acmu de curnd, mai curat i mai aievea prob a s face s-au tmplat (I, 195). Ca urmare a analizei lexicului neologic din opera lui Dimitrie Cantemir putem conchide, mpreun cu N.A. Ursu, c cei mai muli termeni tiinifici sunt cuvinte internaionale, folosite aproape n toate limbile moderne, unde au provenit din limba elin sau din latin ori au fost creai pe baza unor elemente din aceste limbi7. Cu toate acestea, n prezent nu se poate vorbi despre existena unei activiti susinute de ordonare i standardizare a terminologiei speciale, ntruct fundamentul tiinific al noii discipline nu s-a constituit ntr-un sistem de norme i principii, cu toate c mai multe studii terminologice au stabilit o teorie general a acestei tiine (procedeele de determinare a termenilor n cadrul unui microsistem, analiza statistic a termenilor la nivelul microsistemului respectiv; modalitile productive de formare a termenilor; identificarea particularitilor morfosintactice ale termenilor; aportul mprumuturilor din alte limbi la formarea termenilor i sistemelor terminologice; raportul dintre limba literar i limbajele specializate; standardizarea lexicului terminologic din diferite domenii)8. i ca urmare n cadrul lexicologiei a luat fiin o nou tiin - terminologia, care joac deja un rol distinct n dezvoltarea societii9. n fine, putem constata cu facilitate c aproape toate elementele terminologice, inclusiv cuvintele de uz general, atestate la Dimitrie Cantemir sunt incluse n dicionarele generale de limb i n cele de neologisme. Aceast lips de consecven este provocat de faptul c n lingvistica romneasc neologisme sunt definite toate cuvintele mprumutate din alte limbi sau derivate n interiorul limbii romne, fr a se identifica o anumit limit temporal de ptrundere a unitii respective n sistemul lexical al limbii noastre. Fr a intra n detalii, suntem de prerea c unitile lexicale mprumutate de cel puin cincizeci de ani urmeaz a fi etichetate ca fiind neologisme, iar restul cuvintelor, nclusiv cele din opera lui Dimitrie Cantemir, necesit a fi considerate ca fiind cuvinte savante sau livreti, aa cum se procedeaz n lingvistica occidental.
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Referine
Jurconi, Ion 2002 -Terminologia i societatea informaional //Analele Universitii din Craiova, an VI Editura Universitar, Craiova . BiduVrnceanu, Angela 1976 - Analiza structural a vocabularului limbii romne contemporane. Numele de culori. Numele de culori, Tipografia Universitii din Bucureti. BiduVrnceanu, Angela 1986- Structura vocabularului limbii romne. Probleme teoretice i aplicaii practice, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti. Brncu, Grigore 1991 - Istoria cuvintelor, Editura Coresi, Bucureti. Brncu, Grigore 1983: Vocabularul autohton al limbii romne, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti. Canarache, Ana, Maneca, Constant, n jurul problemei vocabularului tiinific i tehnic // Limba Romn, Bucureti, nr. 6, 1955, p. 16-24. A se vedea n aceast ordine de idei: Ursu, Tamara 1973 - Limba hroniculuyi lui Dimitrie Cantemir, Editura tiina, Chiinu. Krasnova, Irina 1969 - Gh. Asachi lexicograf, Chiinu. Verebceanu, Galaction 2002 -Viaa lui Bedrtoldo, un vechi manuscris romnesc, Museum,Chiinu. 4 Cantemir, Dimitrie 1998, Istoria ieroglific, vol. I-II Editura Litera, Chiinu. 5 n paranteze se indic volumul i pagina Istoriei ieroglifice la care se face trimitere. 6 Eminescu, Mihai 1882 -Opere, vol. XIII, Timpul, 9, XII. 7 Ursu, N. A. 1962 -Formarea terminologiei tiinifice romneti, Editura tiinific, Bucureti. 8 Ciobanu, Georgeta 1998 - Elemente de terminologie, Editura Mirton, Timioara. Dubuc, Robert 1992- Manuel pratique de terminologie, Editura Linguatech, Quebec. Pavel, Eugeniu, Rucreanu, Constantin 2001 - Introducere n terminologie (noiuni fundamentale), Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti. Rey, Alain, 1979 - La terminologie: noms et notions, Collection Que saisje? Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
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Rondeau, Guy 1981- Introduction la terminologie, Editura Gatan Morin, Montreal. 9 BiduVrnceanu, Angela; Clrau, Cristina; Ionescu-Ruxndoiu, Liliana; Manca, Mihaela; Pan Dindelegan, Gabriela 2001 -Dicionar de tiine ale limbii, Editura Nemir, Bucureti. Busuioc, Ileana; Cucu, Mdlina 2001 - Introducere n terminologie, Editura Credis, Bucureti.
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Bahnaru, Vasile
Dificultideechivalareaunortermenindiscursuldidacticactual
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Dru, Inga Popa, Viorica
Dificulti de echivalare a unor termeNi N discursul didactic actual
Metalimbajul educaional actual se caracterizeaz printr-o serie de concepte noi, verbalizate prin diveri termeni, uneori n competiie. Diversitatea termenilor i utilizarea unor sintagme prea generale, preluate din alte limbaje specializate, genereaz discuii privind oportunitatea acestora n tiinele educaiei. Unii autori semnaleaz chiar ambiguitatea limbajului pedagogic actual, ceea ce ar fi un impediment pentru consolidarea tiinelor educaiei [ cf.: Perpetuarea unor sintagme n noua lege a educaiei [constituie] exemple elocvente de ambiguiti de limbaj pedagogic. Vezi termenii: finalitile nvmntului (educaiei), idealul educaional []. Termenul finalitate este prea general, nesigur, incomplet i prea abstract []. De aceea este necesar clarificarea conceptelor pedagogice, n aceast perioad marcat de schimbri majore n legislaia educaiei.] (Teodorescu). Limbajul didactic actual a preluat din unele limbi de circulaie internaional i din alte limbaje specializate o serie de mprumuturi care i confer un caracter modern, dar care, n faza iniial a prelurii, prezint deseori dificulti de ordin semantic, fonetic i ortografic. Probleme pun n special mprumuturile de origine englez i francez, care, de regul, se scriu altfel dect se pronun (cazuri fericite de tipul lui grant, master sau item se constat mai rar). Unele concepte pedagogice tradiionale i-au schimbat doar vemntul pe unul modern, cf.: program colar curriculum, planificare a leciei proiectare pedagogic/didactic, administrare colar management colar, programare a activitii de predare-nvare strategie didactic .a. Cercetarea noastr se bazeaz pe o lucrare fundamental n domeniu, Didactique fonctionnele. Objectifs, stratgies, valuation de Michel Minder (De Boeck & Larcier, 1999, 8e dition, Paris, Bruxelles), aprut n versiune romneasc la Editura Cartier, Chiinu, n 2003, n colecia Biblioteca Pro Didactica (trad. de Dorin Onofrei), lucrare care a pus n
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circulaie (n spaiul basarabean) conceptele eseniale ale didacticii moderne, n special, ale cognitivismului operant. Traductorul a avut misiunea dificil de a echivala termenii de baz ai didacticii funcionale din francez n romn, misiune de care s-a achitat onorabil. Cu toate acestea, am constatat c, pe parcursul lucrrii, acelai concept a fost redat uneori n romn prin mai muli termeni, probabil, pentru explicitarea mesajului. De exemplu, termenul prrequis a fost echivalat ca pre-achiziii ( p. 21) i cunotine anterioare ( p. 22 - cu alturarea termenului original ntre paranteze n ambele cazuri), achiziii anterioare (p. 24), achiziii preexistente (p. 36, 43), iar n alte lucrri din domeniu circul i sintagma cunotine prealabile. Din perspectiva dezambiguizrii, considerm c cea mai adecvat este sintagma cunotine anterioare, care corespunde rigorilor terminologice, fiind exact, transparent i circumscris domeniului. Termenul achiziii este preluat din limbajul comercial i are un caracter ambiguu, fiind explicit numai ntr-un context relevant. Un alt concept didactic recent este verbalizat, de asemenea, prin mai muli termeni, predominnd curriculum ascuns (p. 23, 24 .u.) vs de curriculum latent. Menionm c termenul n discuie este fluctuant i n original, dovad fiind i citatul inserat de autor n capitolul n care abordeaz acest concept: Diverses appelations curriculum cach, implicite, latent, non intentionnel, non enseign; cursus cach dsignent les processus et les effets qui, bien quabsents des programmes officiels et des politiques ducatives formules, font bel et bien partie de lexprience scolaire. (Diverse denumiri curriculum ascuns, implicit, latent, non-intenionat, non-predat; cursus ascuns desemneaz procesele i efectele care, dei sunt absente n programele oficiale i n politicile educaionale formulate, fac parte ntru totul din experiena colar., p. 24 subl. n.). Totui, autorul prefer termenul curriculum cach, alternndu-l cu curriculum latent, iar n versiunea romneasc, respectiv, apar succesiv doi termeni, curriculum ascuns i curriculum latent. Se pare c uzul prefer prima sintagm, curriculum ascuns (cf. i engl. hidden curriculum). Semnalm i sintagma curriculum subliminal, prezent n cursuri universitare de specialitate i avnd mai multe referine on-line (v. http://facultate.regielive.ro/cursuri/pedagogie/ teoriacurriculumului-84694.html, http://www.scribd.com/doc/ 31450806/50/ Tipurile-de-curriculum .a.). Conceptul modern de secven didactic (p. 65 .u.) este exprimat, n paginile lucrrii menionate, dar i n alte lucrri de referin din domeniu,
Dificulti de echivalare a unor termeni n discursul didactic
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i prin sintagma secven de nvare (p. 10 .u.). Ambele sintagme sunt transparente i sugestive, iar n versiunea francez, de asemenea, atestm doi termeni: squence dapprentissage i squence didactique, ceea ce denot faptul c nici n francez nu s-a optat deocamdat pentru o singur sintagm, mai reprezentativ. Odat cu trecerea timpului, fie se va impune una dintre sintagmele n discuie, fie acestea se vor specializa, secvena didactic desemnnd demersul cadrului didactic, iar secvena de nvare efortul elevului de a asimila un nou coninut sau de a obine o nou competen. Un concept interesant, mai puin obinuit, pus n circulaie de Michel Minder n lucrarea n discuie, este socluri de competene (p. 38, 103). n Belgia francofon, Ministerul Educaiei a publicat, n 1994, un document intitulat Socles de comptences, n care prezint noiunea de soclu astfel: Se dovedete c exigenele referitoare la competene i la cunotine variaz foarte mult de la o coal la alta i chiar de la un profesor la altul n cadrul aceleiai coli. Acesta este motivul care a provocat punerea n eviden a unor socluri de competen, adic a unui ansamblu de referine care determin noiunea de nivel al studiilor i n jurul cruia se articuleaz programele elaborate ori aprobate de autoritatea normatoare i subvenionatoare. Se pare c acest concept a prins i n spaiul de limb romn, deoarece l-am atestat n mai multe documente, inclusiv ntr-un newsletter al Ministerului Educaiei i Cercetrii al Romniei (nr. 20, 1-13 octombrie 2006): soclul comun de cunotine i competene). Semnalm c am reperat sintagma n cauz sub forma socluri de competene, dar i socluri de competen (n Didactica funcional... i n alte lucrri/ documente). Fluctuaia se explic prin noutatea termenului i prin presiunea modelului francez, care determin pluralul competene. ntrun alt subcapitol, Michel Minder vorbete despre comptences-socles, sintagm echivalat n limba romn, n mod firesc, competene-socluri (p. 200). Fluctuaiile terminologice se ncadreaz n teoria lui Ad Hermans despre neologia traductiv (Hermans 1999) i nu putem aduga dect c uzul specialitilor va discerne, cu timpul, ntre sintagmele discutate. O serie de concepte didactice actuale sunt verbalizate prin termeni preluai din alte limbaje specializate, cum ar fi: acroator (cognitiv), ancoraj, ambreiaj de legtur, amorsare, balizare, devoluiune (didactic), elagaj (tiere a ramurilor din partea de jos a tulpinii arborilor), extincie, focar, homeostazie, izomorfism, nrolare, relee intermediare, tabel de concasare .a. (Didactica funcional, op. cit.). Termenii citai sunt integrai n metalimbajul didactic prin metaforizare sau, conform
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unor opinii (Bahnaru 2009: 217 .u.), prin intermediul fenomenului de contiguitate, fiind receptai corect numai n contexte relevante, circumscrise domeniului. Analiznd inventarul terminologic al lucrrii n discuie, am re marcat c o categorie aparte de termeni nu au fost echivalai, ci preluai ca atare: (competene) savoir-dire, savoir-faire, savoir-tre (p. 26 .a.), savoir-devenir (p. 58, 62), dj-l (transpus n romn o singur dat pre-cunotine, p. 44), insight (p. 67 .u.), skill (explicat n paranteze prin abilitate, p. 76), drill (p. 106 .u.), check-list (p. 325) .a. Astfel, trebuie s distingem ntre termenii preluai n original din francez i cei din englez, care figureaz n textul francez n aceast form. Seria savoirdire, savoir-faire, savoir-tre i savoir-devenir este cunoscut specialitilor, fiind prezent i n alte lucrri (cf. Pamfil 2003: 16 .u.). Alina Pamfil utilizeaz termenii preluai din francez n paralel cu variantele romneti: a-ti-s-faci (savoir-faire), a-ti-s-fii (savoir-tre), a-tis-devii (savoir-devenir). Atunci cnd termenii sunt prezentai ntr-un tabel n ambele limbi, romn i francez, dublarea este motivat. ns prezena n text exclusiv a variantelor romneti este nejustificat, cf.: Categoria lui a-ti-s-fii este ns important (p. 38); Comunicarea oral i scris i lectura sunt activiti ce per mit modelarea lui a-ti-sfii (p. 139); Mai mult, lectura literar, prin modelele/antimodelele pe care le aduce aproape, face posibil conturarea lui a-ti-s-devii (p. 139), acestea prnd un corp strin n text. Termenii de origine englez insight, skill, drill, check-list fac parte din categoria elementelor cu caracter internaional, fiind astfel motivai n demersul autorului lucrrii, ca i n cel al traductorului. n aceeai categorie se ncadreaz i termenii brainstorming, clustering, feedback .a. O concluzie fireasc a lucrrii este c diversitatea de termeni generat de traduceri reprezint o caracteristic a limbajului didactic actual specializat, pe de o parte; pe de alt parte, fluctuaiile terminologice constituie i o caracteristic a unui limbaj dinamic, n plin dezvoltare i formare continu. Pentru dezambiguizarea demersului pedagogic modern se impune standardizarea termenilor fundamentali de ctre autoritile din interiorul domeniului.
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Bibliografie selectiv
Bahnaru, V. 2009 - Elemente de semasiologie romn, Editura tiina, Chiinu Gouadec, D, 1990 - ,,Terminologie. Constitution des donnes, Afnor. Hermans 1999 - Nologie traductive, n Terminologies Nouvelles (Nouveaux outils pour la nologie), nr. 20, decembrie. Pamfil, Alina 2003- Alina Pamfil, Limba i literatura romn n gimnaziu. Structuri didactice deschise, Editura Paralela 45, Bucureti. Teodorescu, G. - Ambiguiti n cadrul limbajului i discursului pedagogic, http://gabrielnicolaeteodorescu.wordpress.com/ambiguitati-incadrul-limbajului-si-discursului-pedagogic/.
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Dificulti n utilizarea termenilor cromatici
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Vieru, Lidia
Dificulti n utilizarea termeNilor cromatici
Limba romn este o limb dinamic i deschis oricror schimbri. mprumutul unor cuvinte, preluarea unor sensuri noi, necunoscute, dar, mai ales ..migrarea unor cuvinte din lexicul specializat spre lexicul comun determin supunerea vorbitorilor (instruii n grade diferite) la presiuni lexicale intense i complexe, susine lingvistul Angela BiduVrnceanu n lucrarea Lexic comun, lexic specializat. Limbajele spe cia lizate sunt diverse, individuale i relativ independente. Trebuie s relevm faptul c problema culorilor i-a preocupat ntotdeauna att pe umaniti, ct i pe oamenii de tiin. Marele scriitor i filozof Johann Wolfgang von Goethe n una din cele mai voluminoase, dar i mai controversate lucrri Farbenlehre (Doctrina sau Teoria Culorilor), pe care el nsui o aprecia la cel mai nalt nivel, la sugestia secretarului su, Johann Peter Eckermann, c ar putea s-i par ru c a dedicat atta timp teoriei culorilor, rspunde: ,,Nicidecum, dei i-am dedicat munca unei jumti din viaa mea. A fi scris poate nc o jumtate de duzin de tragedii, asta ar fi fost tot, i se vor gsi dup mine destui s-o fac.Unul dintre savanii moderni care a fost preocupat de terminologia cromatic este francezul Michel Pastoureau. ncepnd cu anii 80 se dedic mai ales istoriei culorilor, devenind unul din cei mai importani specialiti n acest domeniu pe plan internaional. n cartea sa Albastru. Istoria unei culori (Paris, Seul, 2000) afirm, c orice istorie a culorilor nu poate fi dect o istorie social. Anume societatea este cea care face culoarea, o definete i i confer sens, i construiete codurile i valorile, i organizeaz practicile i-i stabilete mizele. Problemele culorii sunt odat i pentru totdeauna probleme sociale, deoarece fiina uman nu triete de una singur, ci n societate. Vorbind despre culori i despre istoricul acestora ar trebui s ncepem de la perioada n care oamenii au realizat primele picturi parietale. Analiza lexicului specializat din domeniul artelor plastice demonstreaz importana termenilor cromatici utilizai i definii n alt manier dect
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n lexicul comun. O atenie foarte mare se acord n ultima perioad simbolisticii culorilor, semnificaia crora este tratat la diverse popoare n mod diferit att n art, literatur ct i n religie. Aceste aspecte ale terminologiei cromatice sunt foarte interesante i captivante, dar vom ncerca s abordm problema dat din alt punct de vedere.Termenii cromatici in nu numai de artele plastice, dar se interfereaz, mai mult sau mai puin, i cu alte domenii: industria textil, industria confeciilor, industria alimentar, horticultura, medicina, construcii etc. Pornind de la cele apte culori ale spectrului solar, actualmente se cunosc nenumrate amestecuri cromatice, nuane redate prin termeni simpli sau compui (sintagme formate din dou sau trei componente), iar ochiul uman poate distinge peste 700 de nuane i fiecare din ele i are numele su. Domeniul terminologiei cromatice este mai puin explorat i desigur c acesta este motivul apariiei diverselor dificulti att de traducere, ct i de ortografiere.Terminologia cromatic este ncadrat din punct de vedere gramatical n clasa adjectivului, constituit din adjective flexibile sau variabile i din adjective neflexibile sau invariabile. Adjectivele invariabile nume de culori sunt mai puin numeroase dect cele variabile. Numrul lor, nensemnat n fondul vechi, este n cretere n limba modern, prin diverse neologisme de circulaie mai larg sau mai restrns. Cele mai mari dificulti apar la utilizarea adjectivelor invariabile ce redau denumiri de culori simple, mixte sau nuanate. Dup structur, se deosebesc: 1. adjective invariabile simple: acaju, azur, bej, bianco, bordo, corai crem, ecarlat,ecru, frez, grej, grena, gri, indigo, izabel, kaki, lila, maro, mov, mutar, oliv, oranj, roz,turcoaz, vernil etc. 2. adjective invariabile compuse scrise prin cratim, cu structuri de tipul: -a djectiv + substantiv: bleu-ghea, bleu-petrol, gri-argint, gri-fer, gri-perle, gri-obolan etc. - adjectiv + adjectiv: grena-lucios, roz-oranj, alb-ecru, alb-negru etc. - adjectiv + adverb (uneori provenit din participiu): mov-deschis, roz-nchis, frez-aprins, verde pal, alb-murdar etc. Pornind de la ideea c adjectivele invariabile au o singur form pentru toate genurile, numerele i cazurile am ncercat s confruntm diferite variante de scriere a acestora, atestate n dicionarele ortografice i n lucrrile de specialitate.Adjectivele simple: acaju, azur, bej, bianco,
Dificulti n utilizarea termenilor cromatici
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bordo, corai, crem, ecarlat, ecru, frez, grena, gri, havan, indigo, ivoar, ivoriu, izabel, kaki, lila, maro, mov, mutar, ocru, oliv, oranj, roz, turcoaz, vernil etc. Conform dicionarelor explicative i ortografice sunt invariabile i deci nu pot primi flective gramaticale. Dar unele dintre adjectivele de mai sus tind s se adapteze, n limba vorbit, la diferite tipuri flexionare. De pild, kaki este folosit i ca adjectiv cu trei forme flexionare -veston kaki, manta kakie ( pantaloni kakii), pe cnd bleumarin, mov i roz (fust bleumarin, rochie mov, fa roz, fee roze) tind s se adapteze la adjectivele variabile cu patru forme flexionare (v.Gramatica limbii romne, V.I, Cuvntul, Academia Romn, Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan-Al. Rosetti, Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 2005). E suficient s privim emisiunile TV, s rsfoim revistele de mod pentru a constata c nu numai adjectivele invariabile citate mai sus sunt supuse flexiunii, ci i etate vernil, saliv vernil, imagine alb-neagr etc. Este o problem care considerm c poate fi soluionat prin respectarea normelor ortografice n vigoare, fr a accepta variantele impuse de limba vorbit, excluznd faptul c unii accept ideea c uzul dicteaz. Un alt semn de ntrebare este provocat de utilizarea adjectivelor compuse n componena crora cel de-al doilea element este un adverb, de multe ori cu nuan de participiu: albastru-deschis, verde-nchis, verde-pal, rou-aprins etc. Din gramaticile clasice tim c aceste adjective compuse se scriu prin cratim, fapt confirmat i de una dintre cele mai noi lucrri academice (v. Gramatica limbii romne, V.I, Cuvntul, Academia Romn, Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan-Al. Rosetti, Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 2005). n Dicionarul ortografic, ortoepic i morfologic al limbii romne (elaborat de Academia Romn, Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu IordanAl. Rosetti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2005, Ediia a II-a revzut i adugat; DOOM) sunt incluse i cteva exemple de adjective compuse. E greu de explicat din ce considerente n cazul adjectivului compus albastru-azuriu ( adj., m., pl ),albatri-azurii( art.), albatrii-azuri ( f.), albastr-azurie ( pl.), albastre-azurii sunt supuse flexiunii ambele elemente de compunere, iar n cadrul compusului alb-glbui (adj. m., f.) alb-glbuie (pl., m. i f.) alb-glbui este supus flexiunii doar al doilea element. Adjectivele compuse din adjectiv + adverb ce exprim nuane de culori se consider invariabile, dar n DOOM este introdus cuvntul albastru-deschis cu flectivele sale gramaticale de plural: albatri-deschis (art.), albatrii-deschis ( f.), albastr-deschis( pl.), albastre-deschis (ar fi
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fost justificat s fie inclus i cuvntul albastru-nchis). S nelegem din acest exemplu c i n cazul de fa DOOM-ul este fidel principiului su de a reduce decalajul, inevitabil, dintre norma academic, mai conservatoare, i uzul real al limbii romne literare actuale..? Principiul este susinut i de noua Gramatic a limbii romne, unde se consider c ar fi normal ca primul termen s primeasc flexiune, iar cel de-al doilea s rmn invariabil. Poate am fi de acord cu aceste norme, dac nu am fi indui n eroare de alte dicionare, mai vechi i mai noi. n NODEX (Noul dicionar explicativ al limbii romne, Litera International, 2002) sunt frecvente cazurile de utilizare a adjectivelor compuse invariabile, n care al doilea element de compunere sau ambele elemente de compunere primesc flective, de exemplu: Care este de culoare albastru-nchis. (corect: albastru/tri//e-nchis) ; Materie colorant cafenie-nchis, (corect: cafeniu/e/ii-nchis); Mamifer nordic, cu blan foarte preioas, de culoare brun-deschis. (corect brun//e/i-nchis); Care are culoarea violet-deschis a florilor de stnjenel. (corect violet/i//e-deschis); folosit pentru fabricarea unei culori roii vii etc. Astfel de in consecvene ntlnim i n dicionarele explicative. Admitem c savanii ar putea gsi explicaii de ordin contextual, semantic, lexical pentru aceste variante i multe altele, utilizate att n literatura de specialitate, ct i n uriaul volum de literatur artistic, didactic i, mai ales, n mass-media. Atunci rmn singuri n faa semnului de ntrebare utilizatorii de dicionare, acetia fiind doar elevi, studeni, profesori, medici etc.
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Bidu-Vrnceanu 2002 - Angela Bidu-Vrnceanu, Lexic comun, lexic specializat, Bucureti. Pastoureau 2006 - Michel Pastoureau, Albastru. Istoria unei culori Chiinu, Cartier. Dicionare *** Dicionarul ortografic, ortoepic i morfologic al limbii romne al Academiei Romne, coord. Ioana Rdulescu-Vintil, Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan-Al. Rosetti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2005, Ediia a II-a revzut i adugat. *** Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 1975. *** Gramatica limbii romne, V.I, Cuvntul, Academia Romn, Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan-Al. Rosetti, Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 2005. *** Noul dicionar explicativ al limbii romne, Litera International, 2002. *** Gramatica pentru toi, Mioara Avram, Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 1986. Albastru. Istoria unei culori , Michel Pastoureau, Chiinu, Cartier, 2006.
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Terminologia n domeniul turismului. Istoric i aplicativitate
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TermiNologia N domeNiul turismului. Istoric i aplicativitate
0.Turismul ca fenomen economic i social nu are o istorie foarte lung. nceputul acestuia se regsete n jurul secolului al XVIII-lea, manifestndu-se iniial prin apariia unui flux de pelerinaje, cltorii la bi i prin aa-numitele perioade de formare n strintate, adoptate n special, de tineri aparinnd claselor sociale nalte. De-a lungul deceniilor care au urmat, turismul a evoluat ntr-o adevrat industrie, impunnduse cu o dezvoltare spectaculoas n epoca contemporan i devenind una din ramurile profitabile ale economiei internaionale, care implic un ansamblu de legturi ntre economiile naionale, realizate prin comerul cu bunuri i servicii. Ca subramur a economiei, creatoare i distribuitoare a bunstrii, turismul, definit ca fiind un fenomen socio-economic, este industria creat pentru obinerea unor satisfacii generate de nevoia uman de cunoatere, recreere i recuperare. n perioada contemporan, modul de administrare a acestei industrii este foarte divers i extensiv, pe msur ce cuprinde tot mai multe domenii de activitate i la fel de multe ntreprinderi, instituii i organizaii din sfera productiv i neproductiv care asigur producia, distribuirea, schimbul i consumul produsului turistic, valorificarea i utilizarea resurselor turistice, precum i crearea bazei tehnico-materiale a turismului. Pornind de la aceste premise, precum i de la faptul c orice fenomen i indic proba de durabilitate i prin ptrunderea sa n limb, inem s amintim c aceast realitate a timpului nostru, care este turismul, i creeaz propriul su limbaj, propriul lexic i propriul su fond principal de cuvinte i e lesne de neles c terminologia care abordeaz turismul la ora actual este foarte divers i foarte extensiv, fiind creat att de cei din domeniile implicate n turism, ct i de cei care lucreaz cu ea n administrarea acesteia. Prin urmare, aa cum n industria turismului se implic mai multe sfere interdependente, la fel i terminologia acestuia are un grad sporit de implicare a noiunilor, din toate domeniile participative. n linii mari, putem meniona:
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1. servicii de organizare a turismului care elaboreaz, promoveaz i comercializeaz produsul turistic: voiaj organizat, zonare turistic, zile de funcionare, transfer, ofer de transfer, reco man dare, rspundere contractual, reconfirmare, birou de informaii turistice, cltorie n circuit etc; 2. servicii de cazare (hoteluri, moteluri, pansioane, case de odih na etc.): hotelier, recepie, recepioner, camer, camer single, cea mai bun disponibil, contingent de locuri, camer familial, pat, pat dublu, bunk, prosop, cearaf, aternut de pat, aspirator, bagajist, liftier, cmin de etap, pensiune complet, nregistrarea sosirii etc; 3. alimentaie public (restaurante, cafenele, baruri etc.): matre dhtel, chelner, osptar, meniu, consumaie, couvert, debara sare, antreu, aperitiv, mic dejun, cin, bain-marie, platou, bol, can, pahar, clete, coacere, friteuz, main de tocat carne, main de tiat felii, frapier, cocotier, fructe de mare, ghea, mas rece, mas cald, not de comand, not de plat etc; 4. transportul public (auto, aerian, ci ferate, maritim, fluvial etc.): numrul cursei, foaie de drum, autocar, auto-service, auto strad, cod rutier, tren personal, bilet de peron, vagon de dormit, vagon bar, ecartament, companie aerian, avion char ter, charter cu limit de timp, compartiment, clas economic, clas turist, coast marin, debarcader, debarcare, vas de croa ziera, tribord, permis de transport gratuit, permis de con ducere, tranzit, tur de ora etc; 5. sfera de producie (suvenire, mobil hotelier, echipament turistic etc.): bijuterii, carte potal, brour, pliant turistic, echipament hotelier, front-desk, rucsac, cort, valiz, bocanci, schiuri etc; 6. sfera comerului: volumul vnzrilor, magazin scutit de taxe vamale, mbuntire, eantion, pre, vnzare direct, vnzare cu plat n numerar etc; 7. economie: leasing, leasing deschis, balan comercial, balan de pli, banc, bancnot, cec, cercetarea pieei, cerere, ofert, cesiune, comision, tax, contract de hotelrie etc; 8. sfere de odihn i agrement (parcuri tematice, cluburi de interese, sli de jocuri etc.): parc de distracie, parc nautic, bar de noapte, club aerian, club de echitaie, discotec-vidiotec, staiune montan, staiune termal, staiune turistic etc;
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9. sport (alpinism, schi, ciclism, nataie, echitaie etc.): crare, escalad, echip de escalad, ascensiune de var, ascensiune de iarn, ascensiune pe structuri artificiale, prtie pentru nceptori, prtie pentru avansai, telecabin, bazin de nataie, piscin, caiac, excursie clare etc;
Lista e puin s fie complet, cci pe msura extinderii proceselor de organizare i administrare a industriei turismului, aceasta implic noi ramuri i noi ntreprinderi ale economiei naionale: servicii bancare, de asigurare, vamale, sanitare, medicale, culturale, telecomunicaii etc. Trebuie s menionm aici c terminologia turismului n limba romn actual presupune o evoluie treptat n plan istoric, consemnndu-se apariia i modificrile de concepte i de termeni, n strns legtur cu dinamica evoluiei acestei activiti. Un termen folosit la un moment dat se modific, actualizndu-se i dezvoltndu-se, determinat de caracteristicile de reprezentativitate ale momentului dat. n aceast idee, facem ncercarea de a prezenta cteva aspecte istorice n evoluia terminologiei turismului.
I. Aspecte istorice
Terminologia unui anumit domeniu de activitate, ca orice parte a lexicului, are o anumit istorie care depinde de numeroi factori, printre care un rol important l are evoluia cunoaterii n domeniul respectiv (v. Guu Romalo 1997: 103-108). Aa cum am menionat mai sus - c nceputul turismului, ca fenomen economic i social se regsete n jurul secolului al XVIII-lea - putem afirma c n spatele terminologiei actuale a turismului au stat realiti, fenomene i fapte de atunci, atenuate n timp de dezvoltarea societii. Bineneles, o surs important n constituirea unui limbaj propriu fenomenului turistic la acea vreme o reprezint att lexicul curent al limbii: pelerinaj, pelerin, toiag de pelerin, cltor, cltorie, cal, cru, vizitiu, birjar, grjdar, trsur, han, crcium etc., ct i termenii specializai creai de cei din domeniile transportului, drumurilor, potei, ca o declanare a perioadei de vrf a transportului cu diligena, cum ar fi: diligen, potalion, cltorie cu diligena, drumuri de pot (v.Scurt istoric al drumurilor din Romnia, http://www.drdp.rdsbv.ro), linie de pot, linie potal pentru scrisori i cltori, staie de pot, trsur potal
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(v. Monitorul de Sibiu, Istoria potei Sibiene, http://www.monitorulsb.ro), constructori de diligene, vnztori de bilete, bilet de loc pe bancheta din spate a diligenei (care era mai ieftin), bancheta vizitiului (alturi de care la nevoie se mai puteau nghesui doi cltori), pielar, curelar, cal de pot, tax de drum pentru cltori [care se practic pn n zilele noastre, n special pe autostrzi, cf.Agenda, Sptmnal de informaii i divertisment, Timioara, http://www.agenda.ro.], macadam [inventat de inginerul J. McAdams care a permis acoperirea drumurilor cu un nveli protector, impermeabil, pe care diligenele alergau ca-n palm ca o msur de ordin tehnic ce a susinut plcerea de a cltori; cf. Teodoru: 1985], etc. Pelerinii, prin faptul c au creat diverse aspecte turistice care exist i n prezent, au contribuit la crearea conceptelor i prin urmare a termenilor suvenire (aduse din locurile vizitate), obinerea de credite la bncile strine, folosirea spaiului disponibil n mijloacele de transport existente [cum ar fi folosirea vapoarelor englezeti pentru transportul vinului, cf. Turism extern, http://www.e-car.ro.] . n secolul al XVII-lea, n Anglia exista o mod, care atinge apogeul n secolul al XVIII-lea, ca fiii nobilimii s fie trimii n Europa pentru o experien educativ complex, pe care o atingeau n timpul unui tur Paris-Geneva-FlorenaPisa-Bologna-Veneia-Roma-Naples-Muntele Vesuviu-Innsbruck-BerlinDresden-Vienna-Potsdam-Munich-Heildelberg-Olanda denumit Grand Tour (v. Turism extern, http://www.e-car.ro). Circulaia spre bile curative a existat dintotdeauna, ns a devenit important doar n secolul al XVIII-lea, implicnd termeni ca baie popular, baie de lux, baie n apa srat de mare. Practica respectiv a motivat ulterior apariia termenului turism curativ. Industrializarea Marii Britanii, prima ar European care a promovat importana timpului de relaxare, mai nti n rndul marilor proprietari i mai apoi al populaiei din clasa mijlocie, formeaz i duce treptat la evoluia noiunii de turism pentru distracie. Originea turismului s-a pstrat n denumirile ulterioare pe care le gsim n diferite puncte ale lumii cum ar fi: Promenade des Anglais la Nice, sau n denumirile multor hoteluri: Hotel Bristol, Hotel Carlton sau Hotel Majestic... Secolul al XIX-lea aduce cteva inovaii eseniale: ghidul turistic, calea ferat, cltoria de grup i mai ales concediul pltit (introdus pentru prima dat n Germania, 1873, pentru slujbaii publici), turis mul n mas, posibil o data cu dezvoltarea tehnologiilor ce au permis
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transportarea unui numr mare de persoane ntr-un timp scurt, ctre locurile de interes turistic i o dat cu creterea interesului persoanelor de a beneficia pentru perioade scurte de timp, de distracie. Pionierul turismului n mas a fost Thomas Cook care, n 1841, a organizat primul program turistic din istorie, care includea transportul pe calea ferat, la 11 mile deprtare, a unui grup de 570 de persoane, oferindu-li-se ntr-un singur pre: transport, hran pe timpul cltoriei i intrarea ntr-un club de distracii (v. Turism extern, http://www.e-car.ro.). Coninutul acestui concept se regsete astzi n termenul inclusive tour. n perioada interbelic a secolului XX, durata concediului scade n toate rile i, concomitent, se contureaz noiunea de turism social, la care se va aduga i cea de timp liber, recreere. Se discut despre contribuia cltorilor la nelegerea ntre popoare i despre tabere de vacan. n 1936, n Constituia Uniunii Sovietice este trecut dreptul la concediu. Anii 60 aduc explozia turismului n mas, concediul devine un bun de consum, iar turitii constituie o adevrat armat care cerceteaz aproape orice colior de lume (v. Turismul ntre economie global, ideologie, libera circulaie i consumism, http://romania.indymedia.org.). Turismul s-a mbogit constant cu noi termeni, dat fiind faptul c apariia continu a noilor noiuni a necesitat gsirea unor termeni corespunztori domeniului i ncadrarea acestora n sistemul terminologic dat, iar exemplele menionate mai sus nu epuizeaz toat complexitatea fenomenului turistic, n planul evoluiei sale terminologice. n linii mari, aceasta a fost calea de afirmare a terminologiei turismului, iar segmentul temporal actual, trebuie s recunoatem, reprezint etapa cea mai prolific de mbogire a domeniului cu noi termeni, marcat evident, de contribuia diferitelor ramuri ale economiei moderne. n cele mai multe limbi contemporane (n special europene), cum afirm academicianul Nicolae Corlteanu, baza de formare a termenilor trebuie cutat n limbile clasice (latin i greac), apoi n limbile de nalt cultur franceza, engleza, mai rar italiana, germana, rusa (Corlteanu2000: 9). Pornind de aici, inem s remarcm c termenul turism, care reprezint cltoriile de agrement (cu ntoarcerea n punctul de plecare). Este un termen general acceptat de majoritatea limbilor moderne europene, implicnd aceeai semnificaie strns legat de cuvintele latine tornare (a se ntoarce) i tornus (micare circular): tourisme la francezi, tourismus la nemi, tourism la englezi, turismo la italieni, la rui i turism la romni (Corlteanu 2000 : 9). Observaiile noastre cu privire la modul de formare a termenului turism
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ne permit s constatm c acesta, dei din punct de vedere etimologic i are originea n limba latin, provine totui din termenul englez tour (cltorie), aa cum i termenul turist a fost folosit pentru prima oar n Anglia, n anul 1800, de ctre Samuel Pegge, n Anecdote ale limbii engleze (A traveller is nowadays called Tour-ist = un cltor astzi este numit turist cf. Cosmescu1998: 24). n Frana, primul care a folosit cuvntul turist a fost Stendhal n Memoriile unui turist din 1838 (Turismul internaional parametri economici i starea de fapt, http://www.scritube.com.). mprumutul i adaptarea termenilor neologici n majoritatea limbilor moderne europene a fost, fr ndoial, facilitat de necesitatea timpului.
II. Definire
Turismul, privit ca un fenomen social-economic creator de beneficii a fost, n timp, obiectul a numeroase studii, muli autori ncercnd s-l defineasc aducnd n discuie aspecte cum sunt scopul cltoriei, distana i durata deplasrii, precum i caracteristicile subiectului cltoriei, respectiv ale turistului. n 1905, R. Guyer-Freuler arta c turismul este un fenomen al timpurilor noastre, bazat pe creterea necesitii de refacere a sntii i schimbare a mediului de via, de cultivare a sentimentului pentru frumuseile naturii [(v.Turism, http://ro.wikipedia.org.); arta de a cl tori pentru propria plcere (M. Peyromarre Debord, apud Turismul, http://facultate.regielive.ro.); activitate din timpul liber care const n a voiaja sau a locui departe de locul de reedin, pentru distracie, odihn, mbogirea experienei i culturii, datorit cunoaterii unor noi aspecte umane i a unor peisaje necunoscute (Jan Medecin, apud Turismul, http://facultate.regielive.ro.); Profesorul elveian W. Hunziker a elaborat n 1940 o definiie a turismului, acceptat pe plan mondial: Turismul este ansamblul de relaii i fenomene care rezult din deplasarea i sejurul persoanelor n afara domiciliului lor, atta timp ct sejurul i deplasarea nu sunt motivate printr-o stabilire permanent i o activitate lucrativ oarecare( v.Turism, http://ro.wikipedia.org.). Dicionarul Enciclopedic Romn propune urmtoarea definiie a turismului: Activitate cu caracter recreativ sau sportiv, constnd din parcurgerea, pe jos sau cu diferite mijloace de transport, a unor distane, pentru vizitarea regiunilor pitoreti, a localitilor, a obiectivelor culturale,
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economice, istorice etc. (Dicionarul Enciclopedic Romn 1962-1966). Conform Dicionarului turistic internaional, turismul desemneaz cl toriile de agrement, ansamblul de msuri puse n aplicare pentru orga nizarea i desfurarea acestui tip de cltorii, precum i industria care concur la satisfacerea nevoilor turitilor (Dicionarului turistic inter naional1980). Definiia propus de autorii dicionarului poliglot explicativ de termeni utilizai n turism, care ne-a servit ca baz terminologic pentru studiul de fa, pleac de la definiiile adoptate de majoritatea statelor i explic turismul ca ansamblu al relaiilor i fenomenelor ce rezult din deplasarea i sejurul persoanelor n afara locului de reedin, atta timp ct acestea nu sunt motivate de o stabilire permanent sau de o activitate lucrativ oarecare (Stnciulescu G.et al., Lexicon de termeni turistici 2002). Cele expuse mai sus vin s confirme faptul c de-a lungul timpului, ncercrile de a descrie i defini n mod corespunztor termenul turism (sau turist) au fost numeroase, dar abia n ultimele decenii ale secolului nostru s-a nregistrat un progres real n ceea ce privete standardizarea terminologiei turistice. Termenul turist i cel de turism sunt folosii ca termeni oficiali pentru prima dat n 1937 de ctre League of Nations. Astfel, turismul este definit ca o cltorie mai lung de 24 de ore (v.Turism extern, http://www.e-car.ro). n anul 1963, Conferina Naiunilor Unite privind Turismul i Cltoriile Internaionale, inut la Roma a adoptat o definiie a turismului bazat pe dou elemente principale: motivul i durata voiajelor, pornind de la ideea c definirea motivului permite standardizarea cltorilor dintr-o localitate sau ar n dou categorii: cei care intr i cei care nu intr n categoria turitilor . Criteriul duratei sejurului permite identificarea altor dou categorii de vizitatori: excursionitii (vizitatori de o zi) i turitii (care rmn ntr-un loc cel puin o noapte, cf. Marketing n turism, http://facultate.regielive.ro). n iulie 1991, Conferina Organizaiei Mondiale de Turism (OMT), de la Ottawa, a redefinit conceptele de baz din turism, asimilnd termenul de turism activitilor care sunt ... angajate de persoane n cursul voiajelor sau sejurului lor n locuri situate n afara mediului rezidenial pentru o perioad de peste 24 de ore sau de cel puin o noapte, fr a depi un an, n vederea petrecerii timpului liber, pentru afaceri ori pentru alte motive, adic n alte scopuri dect prestarea unei activiti remunerate n locul vizitat(v. Marketing n turism, http://facultate.regielive.ro.).
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O sarcin la fel de important a fost i elaborarea terminologiei unitare n domeniul turismului, fiind efectuat de Organizaia Mondiala a Turismului. n consecin, turismul opereaz cu o serie de concepte n concordan cu terminologia elaborat la nivel internaional. Ct privete codificarea terminologiei turismului n versiune romneasc, aceasta a avut loc nemijlocit, prin intermediul primei ediii romneti a dicionarului poliglot de terminologie turistic (Dicionar turistic internaional, Bucureti, 1980), n care - cum afirma n prefaa acestuia Simion Pop, preedintele Comisiei de limb romn a Academiei Internaionale de Turism- echivalentele romneti sunt traduceri fidele ale versiunii franceze, considerat a fi de preferin. Fiind o lucrare informativ util i de larg interes, aceasta a contribuit astfel, la statornicirea unui vocabular turistic ct mai ngrijit i propriu limbii romne. i n dicionarele de terminologie turistic, editate ulterior, echivalentele n limba romn au respectat semnificaia cuvintelor, aa cum sunt acceptate n terminologia internaional, autorii acestora recunoscnd c au fost situaii n care ns au fost preluai termenii ca atare din limba englez sau/i francez pentru c aa sunt ei cunoscui n practica turismului( Gabriela Stnciulescu et al. Dicionar poliglot explicativ de termeni). Terminologia turismului, la nivel internaional se dezvolt rapid i invadeaz viaa cotidian, influennd sub aspect lexical vorbirea curent, cu att mai mult cu ct n zilele noastre fenomenul turistic a devenit de o intensitate fr precedent. n acelai context globalizant, limbajul turistic, la nceput mai ales, imitat dup modele strine, devenind ns tot mai inventiv, tot mai adaptat structurilor limbii romne, acioneaz insistent, cimentnd clieele i tiparele sale. Rapiditatea cu care s-a rspndit i s-a internaionalizat, o dat cu tot mai larga dezvoltare a industriei turismului, ofer o instructiv ilustrare contemporan a schimbrii lingvistice, n care se manifest fenomene generale precum formarea cuvintelor, evoluia sensurilor, mprumutul lexical i calcul sintactic, interferena registrelor etc. Ca i n alte limbi, importul terminologic din englez a ridicat unele probleme de integrare lingvistic i de standardizare. Extinderea industriei turismului i accesul tot mai multor persoane la serviciile acestuia, influeneaz dezvoltarea limbii contemporane nu numai prin adaptarea terminologiei specifice. i situaiile de comunicare nou aprute creeaz formule inedite de interferen ntre limbajul standard (uneori cu elemente tehnice, economice) i registrul familiar. n aceast comunicare vom ncerca s prezentm doar cteva observaii privind aspectul terminologic al fenomenului.
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III.Adaptarea terminologiei
Limbajul turistic apare n mai multe ipostaze. n primul rnd, exist un lexic de specialitate, folosit n traduceri, articole tiinifice, tratate, manuale, dicionare. Nevoia de precizie i de transparen internaional acioneaz inevitabil asupra acestuia. Fiind supus, de obicei unor eforturi terminologice, sunt cutate echivalene etc. Iar n al doilea rnd, exist i o zon de ptrundere a terminologiei n limba comun, cu inevitabile imprecizii [(exemple la nivel neoficial: numr pentru camer de hotel specific pentru Republica Moldova, fiind o traducere inexact din rus ( [nomer]), numr dublu pentru camer dubl, arend (a spaiului de locuit) pentru nchiriere etc.)]. n limba romn contemporan exist termeni turistici al cror statut familiar este limpede: agenie de voiaj, rezervare de bilete, pasager, turist, cltor, paaport colectiv, excursie, popas rutier, plimbare, cazare etc. Alte cuvinte au fost mprumutate recent din limbi n care se produsese deja o extindere a utilizrii lor. Celebrul camping (en. camping) i datoreaz succesul sensului su care a creat o mod (i n francez, spaniol, german de exemplu, dicionarele curente nregistreaz mpru mutul respectiv), tur-operator (en. tour operator, fr. tour oprateur), charter (en. charter plane, fr. charter, it. charter, ru. ), safari, pizzerie (it., fr., es., en., ru.) etc. Cteva observaii despre stadiul actual al limbajului turistic rom nesc se pot face pornind de la Lexiconul de termeni turistici, (Gabriela Stnciulescu, Nicolae Lupu .a., Editura Oscar print, Bucureti, 2002). Unul dintre faptele lingvistice care atrag imediat atenia este seria lexical neologic foarte bogat. Orice limb, n diferite perioade ale existenei sale simte ntr-o msur mai mare sau mai mic efectele influenelor strine. n aceast ordine de idei, e interesant c Dicionarul turistic internaional (aprut la Bucureti, n 1980) se plasa nc sub sfera de influen francez, acordnd statut preferenial termenilor tradui sau preluai din limba francez, adaptai sau neadaptai grafic sau/i fonetic: 1. termeni tradui: tarif turistic (tarif touristique), asisten turistic (assistance touristique), bagaje de mn (bagages main) etc; 2. termeni neadaptai: bain-marie, matre dhtel, mise-en-place, motel etc; 3. termeni adaptai fonetic: hotel (htel [otel]), piolet (piolet [piole]) etc; 4. termeni adaptai grafic: lu (louche), patinoar (patinoire), sezon (saison), sejur (sjour) etc;
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5. termeni adaptai fonetic i grafic: braserie (brasserie), bufet (buffet), buvet (buvette), cocotier (coquetier), flambare (flambage), hublou (hublot), belvedere (belvdre) etc; 6. termeni adaptai parial: meniu la carte (menu la carte), staie air-route (station air-route). Astzi, terminologia turismului simte ntr-o msur mai mare efectele influenei engleze. Muli termeni, fiind de circulaie internaional, sunt simple mprumuturi neadaptate grafic (xenisme), pstrndu-i pro nunia de origine, n ciuda frecvenei cu care sunt folosite: back to back, bristol, brunch, bunk, catering, inclusiv tour, leasing, no show, roomservice, snack-bar, week-end, shaker, slalom, snack-bar, steward, microtel, voucher, charter, low cost, monitor etc. Acetia nu desemnau o realitate, un proces, un fenomen, o funcie turistic existent n spaiul romnesc i au fost preluai n forma lor exact din limba din care provin. S-au impus ca atare, pentru c aa sunt ei cunoscui n practica turismului. Adaptarea anglicismelor n limba romn se produce treptat. De exemplu, bungalou (en. bungalow), care circul i n variant original, n Dicionarul turistic internaional (Bucureti, 1980) este ortografiat bungalov. Cocteil a circulat iniial n varianta neadaptat cocktail. Unii termeni preluai din englez au depit perioada de adaptare: schif (skiff), schi (ski), schilift (ski-lift), seif (safe) etc. Iar, ceea ce ine de evoluia terminologiei turismului se explic prin tendina general de a nlocui cu termeni internaionali vocabularul tradiional i unele traduceri promovate anterior. De exemplu, francezii s-au opus mult timp adoptrii anglicismului week-end, promovnd termenul fin de semaine. Echivalentul romnesc al acestui termen a fost, iniial o traducere fidel a versiunii franceze, considerat a fi de preferin - sfrit de sptmn. n dinamica vocabularului se manifest ns o contradicie ntre norm i uz, astfel nct i n cazul acesta preferina pentru termenul englez week-end, care este mult mai confortabil, a jucat un rol important n integrarea acestuia att n limba francez (week-end), ct i n limba romn (aici modificat grafic weekend). Acelai lucru putem sublinia i cu referire la termenul camping, pentru care anterior se folosea, oficial, n limba romn, echivalentul popas turistic cu csue (Dicionar turistic internaional 1980.) inem s menionm n acest context c terminologia turismului tinde spre formarea unui fond lexical internaional, cu pstrarea aspectului grafic sau fonetic i semantic al unitilor lexicale. n general, se prefer termenii strini, care de multe ori sunt mai concii, mai economi-
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ci dect corespondentele lor din limba romn. Astfel, s-a integrat camping n defavoarea termenului popas turistic cu csue, se prefer no show n locul termenului pasager neprezentat, jacuzzi n loc de hidromasaj, matre dhtel pentru ef de sal. Dar, atta timp ct aceti termeni strini i romneti au valoare egal, circul deopotriv, mai ales n limbajul comun. Dubletele romneti sunt susinute de vorbitorii care se orienteaz dup principiul naional. Pe de alt parte, graie frecvenei de utilizare n turism a unor termeni strini, neadaptai grafic i mai ales fonetic, apar uniti terminologice hibride: bilet de weekend, permis de camping, charter cu limit de timp, contract de time-share, abonament inter-rail, leasing deschis, vacane last minute etc. Urmrind acest spectacol al constituirii terminologiei turismului n limba romn, sursele care ne-au asigurat orientarea n mulimea de termeni ai domeniului ne ajut s formulm concluzia c limbajul turismului n mare parte, are ca baz de formare limbile francez i englez. Sunt limbi care au impus echivalentele romaneti, fie respectndu-se semnificaia cuvintelor, aa cum sunt acceptate n terminologia internaional, fie preluate ca atare, din limbile surs. La acest nivel al discuiei, trebuie s remarcm i faptul c pentru echivalentul romnesc uneori se prefer preluarea termenului din limba englez monitor de schi (ski monitor) i nu din francez instructeur de ski, care este totui mai aproape de modelul limbii romne. Alteori, este preferat termenul preluat din francez: cltorie dus-ntors (voyage aller-retour) i nu din englez (round trip). Fenomenul poate fi explicat pe baza principiului istorismului, porninduse de la vechimea termenilor n limb i sedimentarea acestora n straturi lexicale mai vechi, mai noi i chiar recente. Trebuie s recunoatem ns, c migraia termenilor internaionali nu este lipsit de dificulti inerente, de ordin tehnic care deriv din deosebirile lexicale i morfologice, din neechivalenele i aproximaiile de nenlturat, din recepia improprie i sensurile particulare etc. Caracterul minuios al acestui dificil arbitraj prin care traductorul sau ngrijitorul unui dicionar de termini utilizai n turism soluioneaz probele de echivalene i sensuri n spiritul propriu limbii romne poate fi demonstrat prin exemplul conceptului de tren special pentru turismul automobilistic, format din vagoane de cltori (vagoane de dormit) i platforme, care asigur transportul simultan al pasagerilor i autoturismelor acestora. Autorii Lexiconului de termeni turistici (Bucureti 2002), Gabriela Stnciulescu et al.), promoveaz pentru acest sens termenul autotren, pornind de la auto-train din limba francez,
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sinonim cu train-auto, train autocouchettes care, potrivit dicionarului Larousse, are accepiunea de train spcialis dans le transport simultan des voyageurs et de leurs automobiles (tren specializat n transportul simultan al cltorilor i automobilelor acestora; cf. http://www.larousse. fr/dictionnaires/ francais/auto-train). n limba romn, aceast noutate semantic, promovat de autorii Lexiconului i deruteaz pe vorbitori, ntruct termenul autotren, dei nu se sustrage explicaiei logice, exprim sensul de autovehicul cu una sau mai multe remorci (DEX 1998), ansamblu format dintr-un autovehicul cu una sau mai multe remorci; (mil.) convoi de automobile. (< it. autotreno; cf. MDN 2000).Termenul a devenit foarte activ tocmai cu acest neles. n schimb, sensul de ,,garnitur de tren de transport combinat, st extrem de pasiv n Lexiconul de termeni turistici. Aceast noiune nu desemneaz o realitate, o existen n spaiul lingvistic romnesc (deocamdat), dar, tocmai pentru a se evita confuzia de sens - cauz pentru care autotren cu nelesul discutat nu-i gsete locul n limba romn sau este rar folosit chiar i de cei din administrarea turismului - considerm c ar fi fost mult mai potrivit pentru echivalentul romnesc, tren auto-cuete, lansat de Dicionarul turistic internaional (Bucureti, 1980) - care red ntocmai ideea termenului strin, fiind i mai concis, mai economic dect alte corespondente : tren cu platforme auto, garnitur de tren de transport combinat, tren special pentru turism automobilistic. Cu riscul de a se crea o confuzie de sens, n cazul acestei noiuni s-a preferat totui, pentru echivalentul romnesc, preluarea termenului din limba francez (i nu tocmai termenul normativ, ci unul colocvial) i nu din englez car carrier services. Exemplele de mai sus exprim dovada c viaa termenilor este mult mai agitat dect pare, iar concurena se manifest i aici destul de dur, cu promovri i disponibilizri, cu marginalizri dubioase, dar i cu reabilitri spectaculoase, cu vedete i victime etc.( Grui 2007: 30 ). O situaie interesant, n perspectiva discuiei noastre prezint i fenomenul influenei pe care o exercit limba comun (sau limbajul altui domeniu) asupra celui turistic, prin extindere metaforic. Concludent n aceast ordine de idei poate fi exemplul termenului safari, care iniial s-a folosit n sensul de vntoare (expediie desfurat n Africa) sau ca ramur distinct a vntorii de animale mari din Africa. n prezent, acesta are un neles turistic n sensul vizitrii i fotografierii habitatului natural al animalelor i al psrilor din Africa (Turism internaional, http://www.travelart.ro). Pornind de aici, constatm o mare diversificare
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a terminologiei pentru diferite zone: jungle safari, deert safari sau chiar deltasafari, categorii: wild safari, luxury safari i mijloace de transport: jeep safari, helicopter safari, elephant safari, camel safari. Vorbind despre terminologia turismului, trebuie s amintim c un rol important pentru acest domeniu au i termenii de strict specificitate naional, inexisteni n alte limbi. Aceast component terminologic se deosebete de la ar la ar, fiind lrgit de la sfera activitilor turistice prestate, mai ales n mediul rural. Astfel, putem meniona n general: 1. termeni cu referire la cazare; 2. termeni care denumesc produse gastronomice populare; 3. termeni pentru agrement i animaie, specifici zonelor steti; 4. termeni ce desemneaz mijloacele tradiionale de transport; Aceste cteva aspecte nu epuizeaz toate problemele referitoare la terminologia turismului. Studiul ntreprins reprezint doar un aport la cercetarea terminologiei turismului n ansamblu, iar descrierea oferit asupra lexicului din acest domeniu poate contribui la o mai bun nelegere a problematicii vocabularelor specializate i a importanei acestora pentru dezvoltarea cunoaterii i progresul n limb.
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Corlteanu, N.2000- Termenii de specialitate n procesele de neologizare, n Terminologie i limbaje specializate, ediia a II-a, Chiinu. Cosmescu, I.1998- Turismul fenomen complex contemporan, Editura Economic,Bucureti. Grui, G.2007 - Moda lingvistic: norma, uzul i abuzul, Editura Paralela 45. Guu, Romalo V. 1997 - Termenul unitate a limbii, n LR, nr.1-3, p. 103108, Bucureti. Teodoru, P. 1985 - De la roat, la farfuria zburtoare, Editura Albatros, Bucureti. Stnciulescu et al.2002- Lexicon de termeni turistici, Editura Oscar print, Bucureti. Stnciulescu et al. 1998- Dicionar poliglot explicativ de termeni utilizai n turism, Editura ALL Educaional, Bucureti. Dicionare *** MDN, Bucureti, 2000. *** DEX, Bucureti, 1998. *** Dicionar turistic internaional, Editura Sport-Turism, Bucureti, 1980. *** Dicionarul Enciclopedic Romn, Editura Politic, Bucureti, 19621966.
Levels of Analysis of Metaphor Terminology
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Levels of ANalysis of Metaphor TermiNology
0. The process of terminological metaphorisation follows a logical and objective pattern. It follows an algorithm for selecting a name according to the identity of the object, according to characteristic, to function, etc., between two heterogeneous objects (usually one of concrete material nature, the other of conceptual nature). There are three terms used in this process, the object that is to be named, the object which transfers its own name and the common features of the two objects. Thus the separation of two semantic levels (the separation of the scientific meaning from the usual meaning) occurs. The reconceptualisation of the metaphorical model coincides with the stage of fixation as selected nominal unit and normalised for a new concept. The new unit maintains denotative and stable features, providing the perception and communication of concepts specific to specialised language. I.1. In 1933 K. Bhler identified three functions of language: expressive or emotive (conveyed by the transmitter; expressing their attitude in the communication process), conative (receiver oriented; it denotes imperative and interrogative modalities of communication) and cognitive or referential function (referent oriented). To these functions, R. Jakobson added three other ones: phatic, metalinguistic poetic. Given the six factors the transmitter and the receiver, the message, the context, the contact and the code Jacobson set forth six functions of language: the referential function, the expressive or emotive function (referring to the transmitter), the conative function, the phatic function, the metalinguistic, and the poetic function. Not all language functions set by R. Jakobson are operational in terminology, but neither can they be considered sufficient for the field science. Paul Ricoeur stated that the metaphor bears information because it rediscribes reality [Ricoeur, 1984: 380). The function of the specialised text to inform is a priority Dans des situations spcialises,
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cependant, certaines des fonctions tablies par Jackobson ne sont pas souvent reprsentes. En effet, la fonction principale des langues de spcialises est dìnformer (Cabr 1998:138). On the level of the text, the metaphor has designative value. Due to interdisciplinarity, it acquires a heuristic role supported by argumentative force. In the study conducted in cardiology, Nature et fonctions de la mtaphore dans la terminologie mdicale. tude compare du franais et du portugais, Isabelle Oliveira notes that the terminological metaphor has five functions: La mtaphore terminologique dans le domaine de la cardiologie remplit cinq fonctions: cognitive, heuristique, dnominative, mtalinguistique et didactique (Isabelle Oliveira). In the same context, the author reaffirms the denomination and functional role of the metaphor in the perception and communication of some concepts belonging to the specialised language: La mtaphore est un chemin trs souvent emprunt par les scientifiques qui peuvent apprcier sa capacit produire de la connaissance et dnommer (Isabelle Oliveira 2002). I.2.The semiotic triad of Aristotelian origin: FORM-MEANINGREFERENT is used in linguistics in order to describe the functioning of the linguistic sign. Ferdinand de Saussure, as well as post-Saussurean linguistics, was concerned with the relationship between the signifier and the signified. The signifier is the sine qua non condition of the existence of the signified which it sets. Significance outside it cannot exist (it disappears when only one element the linguistic sign is maintained - Saussure noted. Peirce insists that the representmen, the object or the interpretant do not form signs if taken individually), nor can they be designated as objects outside world. Significance precedes designatation, but it also precedes communication and this fact can support the autonomy of the language in relation to the world of the objects. The signified exists only in relation to the signifier and it has a conceptual nature (on the level of meaning), of social nature (on the level of the langue) and, in part, it becomes individual representation (on the level of the parole). The relationship between the object and its name as the problem of the referent was neglected in Saussurean linguistics. In the study of the term, the referent and its name have a greater significance. The referent is the extralinguistic entity which specialised languages call by a term whether it was formed by analogy or by other processes. The terminological metaphor is a linguistic entity that designates through equivalence a notion, respecting the status of the term and,
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in general, language functions. Considering the above, we could reveal structural elements that distinguish the metaphor from the term: - the term conventionally denotes a concept; - the terminological metaphor denotes a concept of through equivalence. In contrast to the connotative value that traditional rhetoric attributed to the lexical metaphor, the characteristics of terminological metaphor are: the terminological metaphor is a function that can be taken by a language (usually artificial) only under certain conditions: - it is used in professional communication; - the terminological metaphor is a form of representation of a special concept; - it has a general reference on three levels, conditioning one another: a. the gnosiological level (of the theory of knowledge); b. the notional level; c. the semiological level (with features of code and information); Through the denominative, functional and informative value the terminological metaphor reconfirms its status of term. Thus a name is assigned to a referent in the process of scientific denomination: med. phalanx (cf. phalanx, angis/ f. - fighting in a close formation of the Greeks, Macedonians, Gauls and Germans; band; crowd) refers to finger bones and a toxic refers to poisonous substance. In each of the examples considered, the metaphor has the ability to have a referent, a function objectifying a denominative function. Using this function, it becomes the fundamental element of terminological creation. If under denotative aspect the terminological metaphor is a specialised term in all situations, then not any term can be considered a metaphor: med. incision f. n. (fr. incision n, f/ eng. incision) was formed by way of conceptualising the characteristics of meaning of the Latin noun incisio,onis cut (cf. Lat. incido, ere - to cut), but it should not be considered a metaphor. I.3.Terminology takes from linguistics the semiotic triangle, but it uses another type of wording; Drozd suggested the formula SIGNCONCEPT-OBJECT that has established itself as an expression of three subordinate concepts: the class of entities (obeying the laws of nature), the class of concepts (obeying the laws of thought), and the class of the linguistic system (obeying the laws of linguistics). Following the logical
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model, units of thought are used notion/ concept, which replace the signified. The denotation the representative part of the concept (in broad sense, signified, on the level of the word in the tradition of Saussurian linguistics) from the structure of terminological metaphor will be defined by reference to connotation (DSA 2001). Thus, trabecula has in medical language the denotation of fibrous anatomical structure, the gland means organ consisting of a group of cells... (DM 2007: 520), and the term gene carries a cognitive meaning regarding the information... at the level of a cell. Similarly, window and virus represent the purely scientifical, conceptual meanings belonging to computing language. In all the cases, denotation is directly and unmediatedly related to the extralinguistic reality provided by the anatomical structure of the human body. In medical nomenclature, trabecula, gland and gene have a denotative value. In terms of construction, however, these terms were formed by incorporation of thought processes based on the identity of the object and they belong to the medical metaphors class: glans, glandis (n.f.) in Latin meant acorn, bullet whereas genos (cf. - n.n.) was used in Greek with the meaning of birth, origin, the roof beams were known as trabes (high beam) to the Romans and trabeculum. Trabeculum, one component of the Roman house, became the conceptual model under the identity of features the shape of a band or the fascicle of an anatomical structure, consisting of trabeculae (DM). After the analysis of all the contexts strong indications can be derived for the idea that the terminological metaphor has a denotative value. Through denotation the referential function is achieved, followed by the communication function of specialist language. Conceptual metaphors have denotative values, even if the process of formation is linked to equivalence (the objects of the ontological class (DS) are transposed into the specialised field (DT) where they conceptualise the object). In relation to the concept, terminological metaphor is a term, whereas in relation to the object is a denomination, it includes two aspects the conceptual and the linguistic. I.4.The link between concept and its designation is motivated through convention, especially if we think that terminological units were subjected to standardisation. This is due to the consensus of experts. The motivated character derives from a general analysis, from the fact that the terminological metaphor relates to everyday experience, to the
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human body, to the data of the familiar surrounding, to the cultural substratum. They are conceptual models, which give the necessary transparency to knowledge and specialised communication. Comment sont construits les mots du vocabulaire mdico-pharmaceutique? as Pierre Delaveau questioned: Specialement forgs dessein, nombre dèntre eux paraisseent spcifiques de ce domaine, mais une attention prcis fait ressortir souvent le mecanisme de la mtaphore, soit le transfert dùn mot dùn registre du langage dans au autre (Pierre Delaveau, Revue d` histoire de la pharmacie 90, 2002: 498). There are two types of links (theoretical and practical) between the conceptual model and terminological unity: -m ost of the metaphors use the human body, the habitat, the flora and fauna, the universe, etc as a conceptual model - terminological metaphors are motivated. The motivated nature of the terminological metaphor is in a determination relationship with the transparency of conceptualisation: speakers do not only appeal to metaphor for the dynamics of a particular language, but also because of the reason to give transparency to specialised language. The cognitive approach emphasises the funda mental feature of metaphorisation: the relationship between the transparency of conceptualization and efficiency on the level of the cognitive system. Thus, for example, in the field of physics metaphors suggest a link with the contingent world: border, filter, rational number, transcendental number, etc. (Marcus, 1994). For the mathematician, the human body was the measure of all things. Algebra uses a somatic conceptual pattern to name figures: the link between figures and the language of the hand (Popescu 1980; Bobancu V. Iacob 1974) is a logical one and it demonstrates the concentration of intelligence and under standing of the human. The essential character of mathematical language metaphorically comes from the processes of generalization. For example, the transition from rational to irrational numbers, when referring to the measurement of the diagonal length of a square whose side equals its unit was based on searching for a number to be in a similar relationship in which n is opposed to the square of n. The metaphorical process here refers not to a pre-existing entity, but to one that is built by the emergence of that particular process. We are therefore dealing with self-referential metaphors. The metaphor triggered by Pythagoras about the diagonal of the square took 2,000 years to lead to the concept of real
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number and, within it, the concept of irrational number. [] (Solomon Marcus, Speech held in the Hall of the Romanian Academy, April 2008). The shift of the metaphor from the linguistic sphere to that of thought mainly occurs in information fields (artificial intelligence, information theory, cybernetics, computer science, communication theory, etc.), which were based on founding metaphors (Solomon Marcus): structural metaphors and operational metaphors (Lakoff) can be correlated with the design of software. The compilation of programmes around a metaphorical model, the representation of graphical interference with the user in a way to highlight this model - are already classified aspects in the literature. Designation through equivalence is a universal and transtemporal means of completing the terminological inventory, it is not the exclusive creation of the 20th century.Empirical forms of a specialised vocabulary formed by equivalence have always existed. II.1.The metaphor influences both the formation of terminology and the interpretation of it. When we talk about the interpretation of terminological metaphor we refer to the consistency the conceptual model gives to a certain terminology/ domain, etc. In medical language, conceptualisation in terms of metaphor is relatively coherent in the subfields of the medical branch: anatomical nomenclature was developed based on the metaphorical model offered by Greek and Roman house. Man made of his own house an operating rule of the human body. The house is an area commonly used as the source-domain or target-domain for metaphorisation. Metaphors of this type are very numerous, on the one hand, because of the direct relationship that man has with his own habitat, and on the other hand, because of the familiarity with the components of the house. The house is part of the collective memory/ imaginariness. According to the canon, the habitat creates a functional picture of the house, which we find to the smallest detail in the anatomical nomenclature. In this type of metaphor the following string of equi valences can be found: the inside of the house = the inside of the human body, connecting elements between the parts of the house = anatomical components to separate / bind body parts, etc. The metaphoric model the internal parts of the body are equivalent to the internal parts of the house is the first in frequency: in the Roman tradition vestibulum represented the entrance, atrium pl. atria was the waiting area with
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smoked walls (Lat. ater - black) due to the fire burning in the middle of the room; thalamos was the bedroom, the room inside the house. In ancient Greece, the dividing wall of the rooms was called phragma whereas in Latin it was called septum; roof beams were called trabes (high beam) and trabeculum; Roman passages of the house were called fauces, an arcade - fornix. The Greek/ Roman house had all the necessary elements of meta phorical development: -i t was the natural habitat of a citizen; - it was the center of his existence, which generated very strong feelings; - it had a very high potential of knowledge; - it had a well-defined system of interior spaces, annexes. The model has a number of subclasses: Lat. vestibulum, i (n.) with the plural form vestibula designates the vestibulum, the enclosed space between the street and door, the entrance (Gh. Guu 2003: 1415) in the Roman house. The metaphorical model is not voluminous, if analysed according to the number of metaphors included, but it is significant if we judge it by the consistency that it gives to medical language. By vestibule, medicine activates the meaning the entrance area into a cavity or channel (DM 2007: 1153). It is not one of the complex structural metaphors, since it does not generate a large number of concepts, but it is significant in terms of cognitive logics and in terms of holistic functioning: vestibulum oris; vestibulum auris; vestibulum vaginae, vestibule osseux (DM 2007: 1153). The metaphor vestibulum opens the series of structural metaphors belonging to a complex system of interconnected elements, forming a whole and functioning as an independent entity: the human body. The Lat. atrium, ii (n.) was the main room of a Roman house; room, (in anatomical nomenclature: atrium, Fr. oreillette, med.: cardiac atrium, auricular appendix, pulmonary atrium, etc.) and not by accident is the cognitive model related to the physiological structure of the heart. The cavity which provides communication with a different structure (DM 2007: 231) is, in medical language, a metaphorical model of the Roman prechamber. The conceptual metaphor helped ancient physicians to understand an abstract concept in terms of a concrete one. Atrium is originally a conceptual model that migrated from the sphere of the language of the house to the sphere of thinking la mtaphore
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nest pas seulement affaire de language ou question de mots. Ce sont au contraire des processus de pense humaine qui sont en grande partie mtaphoriques. Cest se que nous voulons dire quand nous disons que le systme conceptuel humaine est structur et dfini mtaphoriquement. Les mtaphores dans le language sont possibles parce quil y a des mtaphores dans le systme conceptuel de chacun (Lakoff. & Johnson 1980: 16). The coherent and systematic nature of how medical knowledge is conceptualised is given by a conceptual pattern. II.2.The organisation of the concepts of pneumology is done according to the cosmological model wind, air, breath. The dynamics of the language of microbiology could be achieved on the image-schemata offered by the fauna and flora, just as the notions belonging to the branch physiotherapy (as treatment modality with energy forms in nature) were formed based on conceptual models provided by the mineral world: thalassotherapy, actinotherapy, crenotherapy, etc. All these image-schemata of micro- and macrocosm have become ordering principles of the human thought and behaviour, providing specialised language with the opportunity to develop abstract meanings based on logical equivalences. II.3. An important source of metaphoric conceptualisation is represented by principles. Equivalence between the source-domain and the target-domain is achieved by the principle of functionality - not just by updating the notional identity. In ancient Greece, the wall was called diaphragma, -atos, barrier (dia-through, diaphragma, -atos closing) and its role was to separate one room from another. In anatomy, the term diaphragm is used with a general sense of musculotendinous separating wall [...], which separates the abdominal cavity from the thoracic one (DM 2007: 404). The problem of defining the role of the part in the anatomical system in non-abstract terms was solved by reference to the image of the house as a system. It is a constant cognitive model used in medical terminology. The purpose of the use of the metaphor is to activate, to explain a function in an accessible way. On this cognitive model language grafts with specific tools many other concepts: Fr. diaphragmatique, adj./ Eng.diaphragmatic, etc. In Rome, the separating wall was called saeptum, i (n.). The word is found in phrases like saepta domorum (Lucretius), where it means the walls of houses.
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II.4.The cognitive model: features of the human body parts are similar to traits that the components of a Roman house has, which is particularly productive in anatomical nomenclature. The understanding of the body components goes down to the smallest element, the cell, which in medical language is the basic unit of living organisms (DM 2007:322). Roman doctors attributed the smallest feature resorting to equivalence with the smallest component of the Roman house - cella, ae the room where food was kept; the chamber of the slaves; small room; the closed area of the temple where the statue of the deity stood; sanctuary (Gh. Guu 2003: 191): Lat. cellula, ae / f (dimminutive. from Lat. cella, ae small pantry). From a cognitive perspective, this fact is understandable; every attempt to highlight an abstract feature of something alive is much easier if the doctor referred to a component of the habitat. Not only for the human body is the cell the basic unit. All types of living creatures are organised around this concept. The metaphorical model extended to such a great degree in science that it could not be changed any more. For two thousand years, the reality of the living has been presented as a Roman house, the basic unit of which has remained the cell. On a lexicosemantic level, the term which has become interdisciplinary is very productive. In the Pan Latin medical language and in English there are over 111 implicit metaphors. Attribute equivalence is not limited to the habitat alone, but also to the characteristics of the action or the objects belonging to everyday life other than the house. Plecto, -ere,- plexi, plexum, t. v. had the Latin meaning to weave where plexum indicated the woven feature of an object. Here are the semantic features of the ontological model: - a network of branches (caput plexis redimire coronis adorned the head with woven crowns - Lucretius wrote); - cross elements forming a mesh network; - a network of threads arranged in a certain way. The concepts regarding the terminology of the nervous system, and partially, of the vascular system are based on this conceptual pattern: the human body is a network of nerves and/ or vessels. These are concepts that aggregate situative elements able to materialise a feature or another feature of the given ones: nervous plexus (made up of the crossing of several nerve fibres), brachial plexus (formed by the anastomosis of previous branches...).
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In conclusion, the metaphorical schemata of medical branches form, with the necessary exceptions, a conceptual picture of man - in order to ensure communication/ mutual understanding, regardless of the corner of the world where European medicine is practised and regardless of the natural language of the specialist. The picture is created by metaphors through which the abstract becomes perceptible, noticeable and which is constantly changing, occurring together with the progress of the society.
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Selective bibliography
Assal J.-L. 1995 - La mtaphorisation terminologique n Terminology Update 1995 XXVIII -2. Bidu-Vrnceanu, A. (coord.) 2010 Terminologie i terminologii, EUB, Bucureti. Bidu-Vrnceanu, A. 2000 - Lexic comun, lexic specializat, ebooks. unibuc. ro/ filologie/vranceanu/part12.htm. Bracops, M. 2006 - Introduction la pragmatique, De boeck, Bruxelles. Bral, M 1897- Essai de smantique Paris. Bhler, K. 1983 - Teoria del linguaggio (1934) trad. it. Roma. Cabr, Mara Teresa 2000 -Terminologie et linguistique: la thorie des portes. In Terminologies nouvelle. Terminologie et diversit culturelle, vol. 21. Cabr, Mara Teresa 1999- La Terminologa Representacin y comuni cacin Elementos para una teora de base comunicativa y otros artculos, Barcelona, IULA. Didi Kidiri, M.- La mtaphore comme base culturelle de conceptualisation et source de nologismes terminologiques, http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele= afficheN. Hoek, L.1972 - Description d` un archonte: Preliminaires a une theorie du titre a partir du Nouveau Roman, n Nouveau Roman: hier, aujourd` hui, Paris. Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. 1980 - Metaphors We Live By, University of Chicago. Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. 1980 - Les mtaphores dans la vie quotidienne, Paris, Les Editions Minut. Marcus, S. 1994 - Creative Metaphors in the Scientific Language, n Analele Universitii Ovidius din Constana, tom.5. Oliveira 2002 - Spcificit de la langue de spcialit partir de la mtaphore, in Actes de GLAT, Paris, 35-46. Oliveira 2005- Nature et fonctions de la mtaphore dans la terminologie mdicale. tude compare du franais et du portugais, http://demeter. univ-xsp?base=documents&id=lyon2.2005.oliveira_i-principal. Ricoeur, P. 1984 - Metafora vie, traducere de Irina Mavrodin, n Univers, Bucureti. Soskice & Harris 1995 - Metaphor in Science , in From a Metaphorical Point of Wiew A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Cognitive Content of Metaphor, Editura Radman, Berlin N.Y: W de Gruyter.
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Sources Chean (coord.) et al. 1978 - Dicionar de filozofie, Editura Politic, Bucureti. Ducrot & Schaeffer 1996 - Noul dicionar enciclopedic al tiinelor limbajului, Editura Babel, Bucureti. Guu, Gh.2003- Dicionar latin-romn, ediia a II-a revzut i adugit, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti. Vico, G. 1980 - tiina nou, studiu introductiv, traducere i indici de Nina Faon, note de Fausto Nicolini i Nina Faon, Editura tiinific, Bucureti.
Conceptual Metaphor Model and Mental Construct
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CoNceptual Metaphor Model aNd MeNtal CoNstruct
0. Metaphor has been approached over time, from the point of view of rhetorical, aesthetic, linguistic, logical-semantic, psychological and functional studies. This variety of approaches required different methods of analysis and specific criteria for classification. A foray into theories of metaphor would bring out some relevant researches that can focus on the one hand on the cognitive metaphor in general and on the other hand on the terminology used for the study of metaphors. I.1. Theories of metaphor drawn from a rhetorical perspective, regarding its quality as a figure of speech existed even at the beginnings of European culture. Making a retrospective reading, Aristotle one of the first interpreters , noticed in his oeuvre Poetics (Chapter XXI) that metaphor is the figure of speech, which consists in the application of a foreign term either transferred from the genus and applied to the species or from the species and applied to the genus, or from one species to another or else by analogy. Metaphor is the application of an alien name by transference either from genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or by analogy, that is, proportion. The operating principle of the metaphor is analogy. But in the same context, attention is drawn to another reality: the comparison should not be seen as a primitive form of metaphor, but as a secondary rhetorical process, a syntagmatic development of the metaphor. As a comparison or an analogy with an elliptical structure metaphor is not meant to be explicit.This aspect has been discussed in detail by Paul Ricoeur (1984: 46). Besides this conception, Aristotle gives attention without the necessary deepening to another important aspect of metaphors: the capacity of metaphors of offering clarity to speech. This is a very important feature mainly for the actual orientation towards cognitive linguistics. ... the most important contribution brought by Aristotle to the theory of metaphors remarks Umberto Eco is that he underlined
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its cognitive value (Eco 2009: 89). Metaphor is like an enigma as speaking about something real we intermingle it with something impossible. In nuce, (the theoretical works of the philosopher) we can find two acknowledgements generated by the double operating capacity of the metaphor at the level of the literary discourse and at the level of everyday language. Through the concept of translatio, Quintilian continues the theory of comparison formulated by Aristotle: the metaphor is an abbreviated comparison. On the whole, the metaphor is a short comparison, differing from comparison. In this respect, in one of them, an object is compared with the thing, which we wish to illustrate; in the other, the object is put instead of the thing itself. It is a comparison, when I say that a man has done something like a lion; it is a metaphor, when I say of a man that he is a lion. (Quintilian 1974: 357). Thus the rhetor makes the distinction between metaphors and comparisons: the metaphor is an abbreviated comparison meaning that the name of the object is put instead of the name of the thing itself, while a comparison compares an object to another object or thing. In the Romanian culture, Tudor Vianu makes the distinction between the explicit metaphor and the implicit metaphor, the latter being built of a single word having the value of a suggestion, usually besides a verbal construction. The metaphor is the expressed result of an undercurrent comparison (Vianu 1965: 302), or the transference of an expression based on analogy of two realities to the spirit to which it has been compared to. (Vianu 1965: 359) Giambattista Vico was the first philologist and rhetorist who in his work (The New Science) considered that metaphors are the instruments of the cognitive functions of the conscious: ... all the metaphors are based on the resemblances of different things in order to signify abstract operations of the brain (Vico 1980: 245). Metaphors determine the rational thinking and they play an important role in the formation of conceptual representations. It is the first attempt to define the universal character of the metaphor: all the metaphors must have their origin back in those times when philosophy begins to pass its rudimentary stage. This is proved by the fact that in all languages the necessary words of the arts and of the rational sciences come from rural life (Vico 1980: 245). Through their assumptions and implications, theories regarding the metaphor are antagonistic. Pierre Fontainer, the followers of Saussure, Jean Cohen are the adepts of the theory of substitution considering that
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the metaphor is a trope, a deviation that modifies the initial meaning of a word. Jean Cohen makes the distinction between the concept of semantic irrelevance and the concept of metaphor, the former being a syntagmatic violation of established linguistic codes while the letter being a paradigmatic violation of the established linguistic codes. Emile Benveniste, M. Black, A. Richards are the adepts of the tension theory and they approach the problematics from the point of view of semantics considering that the impact of metaphors has to be researched at the level of the text and not at the level of the lexeme. In 1936, I.A. Richards promotes a new conception that outranks the acceptance limited to the lexical aspects of metaphors. Sustaining the theory of discourse and the theory of thought as a discourse, I. A. Richard constitutes a semantics of metaphors. The operational field is extended to the discourse thus the metaphor becomes a transition between different contexts. The theory of interaction conceives the metaphor as a transition between unequal semantic contents: at one side the usual content and at the other side the content offered by the context. Methodologically and conceptually Black turns his attention towards a word that he calls focus (tenor) and that he isolates from the other words, which do not have the quality of becoming metaphors. According to Ricoeur, the metaphorical use of the tenor is the result of the relationship between the tenor and the frame, between the undivided meaning of the utterance and the focused meaning of the word (1984: 126). Even if the metaphor is created at the level of the utterance, it focuses on a single word. Through his hermeneutics, Ricoeur creates the concept of living metaphor, this outruns the restrictive perspective of the two research directions. Searle defines metaphor as an act of indirect language: the receiver applies decoding semantic rules to understand the speech acts (conventional rules). Selon Searle la mtaphore relve, comme les autres figures , du discours srieux figuratif.Mais la mtaphore est galement un acte de langage indirect: le locuteur qui utilise une mtaphore manifeste son intention de faon indirecte, puisquìldit une chose alors quìl veut en dire une autre. La mtaphore est donc un acte de langage indirect correspondant un acte primaire d assertion littrale doubl d` un acte secondaire dàssertion mtaphorique. Selon que la mtaphore est plus ou moins fige, làcte de langage indirect est conventionnel ou non conventionnel.[....] La mtaphore est une figure qui consiste fournir un terme un nouveau sens en làppliquant

un nouvel objet ou une nouvelle ide: la mtaphore est la figure de la ressemblance. (Bracops 2006: 64-65). As Goodmans Languages of Art is published in 1967, the metaphor is taken out from the series of tropes and is transferred into the category of principles. In this new quality it becomes an organizer principle of reflecting reality by language and it is transformed into the basis of all figures of speech. Metaphor arises for Goodman within the symbolic function of expression. Goodman proposes that we understand expression as meta phorical exemplification. Goodman explains that the reassignment, which constitutes metaphors involves a change of realm. When a single label in a given schema is applied to an object not in the realm sorted by that schema, the result is a metaphorical predication. Significantly for Goodman, the labels migration to an alien realm is always accompanied by the transposition of other labels from the native schema. Therefore, the use of labels of the old schema in the new realm is organized by the traditional use of those labels in their realm of origin (Goodman 1967: 104).
I.2.The Conceptual Metaphor

The interest for the cognitive sciences the aim of which was to study how human brain functions has its roots in the fifties of the past century. The orientation towards cognitive sciences has fundamentally modified the perception of metaphors. The role of the metaphor is to support the process of thinking while getting acquainted with the existent and while generating new concepts. The metaphor becomes an object of study for besides Rhetoric Philosophy and Psychology as well. The studies focus on its role played in thinking and making abstractions. They also focus on the capacity of metaphor to organize the knowledge about the world. The cognitive approach to metaphor becomes an interdisciplinary study which unites the results of psychologists, linguists, semanticists, logicians and men of science as well (e.g. Turner 1987:208). The first thoroughgoing study of the cognitive dimension of metaphor as the modernization of linguistic approach towards metaphors - was made by G. Lakoff and M. Johnson. The essential thrust of Lakoffs work has been the argument that metaphors are primarily a conceptual construction and not a linguistic one, thus being indeed of central importance for the development of thought. The American authors in the work entitled
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Metaphors We Live By study the metaphor taking it out from the series of tropes where classical Rhetoric included it. They study metaphors from the perspective of a conceptual theory. Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. For Lakoff non-metaphorical thought is only possible when we talk about purely physical reality. The greater the level of abstraction the more layers of metaphor are required to express it. People do not notice these metaphors for various reasons. One reason is that some metaphors become dead and we no longer recognize their origin. Another reason is that we just dont see what is going on. The capacity of creating poetical images is just one of the charac teristics of metaphors, its real statute being a completely other one remarks G. Lakoff. Metaphors are detached from the series of figure of speech and the study is oriented towards objectivity. Lakoff and Johnson consider that the metaphor is the fundamental instrument of structuring cognitive systems. The given arguments are based on metaphorical expressions which were transformed by usage into conventional metaphors. Metaphors rebuild a new model of thinking, a conceptual correspondence between two different domains: the source domain and the target domain (SD and TD). This set of correspondences between the metaphorical concepts the mapping becomes the modality of deciphering metaphors. The metaphor is not just a matter of language, but of thought and reason. Language is secondary. The mapping is primary, in that it sanctions the use of source domain language and inference patterns for target domain concepts. The mapping is conventional, that is, it is a fixed part of our conceptual system, one of our conventional ways of conceptualizing relationships (Time is money. Argument is war.). Mapping is the model according to which historical languages and expressions are understood. Lakoff and Johnson name this type of metaphor (that operates on the level of speech) conventional metaphor. Linguists know three types of metaphors: structural metaphors, orien tation metaphors and ontological metaphors. A structural metaphor is a conventional metaphor in which one concept is understood and expressed in terms of another structured, sharply defined concept. This is an example of what it means for a metaphorical concept, namely, ARGUMENT IS WAR, to structure (at least in part) what we do and how we understand what we are doing when we argue. The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another (Lakoff and Johnson 1979: 5).

These are the kind of metaphors that conceptually define a mechanism based on which thinking creates abstract contents pertaining them to quasi-identical structures, to which speakers have direct access by their own experiences. This kind of metaphor does not structure one concept in terms of another, but instead organizes a whole system of concepts with respect to one another. In medical language there are models of the following type: Bacterium is a rod, where the concept of bacterium is understood in the terms of social dignities. While settling the equivalences the features of source domain are taken in consideration and the features of a target domain are accentuated (microbiology). The orientational metaphors organize an entire system of interrelated concepts. But there is another kind of metaphorical concept one that does not structure one concept in terms of another but instead organizes a whole system of concepts with respect to one another. We will call these orientational metaphors, since most of them have to do with spatial orientation: up-down, inout, frontback, on-off, deep-shallow, central-peripheral. These spatial orientations arise from the fact that we have bodies of the sort we have and that they function as they do in our physical environment. Orientational metaphors give a concept a spatial orientation; for example, HAPPY IS UP. The fact that the concept HAPPY is oriented UP leads to English expressions like Im feeling up today. (Lakoff and Johnson1979: 14). Such metaphorical orientations are not arbitrary. They have a basis in our physical and cultural experience. Though the polar oppositions up-down, in-out, etc., are physical in nature, the orientational metaphors based on them vary from culture to culture. These metaphors can be explained by how people perceive the world and they show how people react to external stimuli. An ontological metaphor is a metaphor, in which an abstraction, such as an activity, emotion, or idea, is represented as something concrete, such as an object, substance, container, or person. Virus is poison. From a cognitive point of view, the authors demonstrate that the place of metaphors is the thought and not the language. The metaphor becomes the conventional method of conceptualizing the world, the Cosmos. The cognitive nature of metaphors became the favorite field of study of cognitive sciences (Gibbs 1990; 1999; 1994-2002; Gentner 1990; 2001; D.Ritchie 2003; 2004; 2008; Steen 1999; 2004; Turner 1987; 1995; 1998; etc.). Lakoff and Johnson make the distinction between the conceptual metaphors a cognitive structure composed of two heterogeneous
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concepts and the metaphorical expressions defined as the linguistic actualization of the conceptual metaphors. Starting with the research of cognitive methods the recent studies focus on the functioning of metaphors in the scientific and technical language. The semantic analysis of specialized languages insist on the role of the metaphor as a resource for terminological conceptualizing (Depecker 2000; Martin Soskice, J. & Harris 1995; Marcel Diki-Kidiri; Mara Teresa Cabr 2000, etc.).
I.3. Metaphor and the conceptual model. Theoretic framework.

Conceptual metaphors differ from the common use in the domain of culture and science and cannot be approached without a former theoretical explanation of the relationship between the conceptual model and the cultural substrata and of the vision of world. Metaphors are a matter of thought and not merely of language: thus linguistic organization of contents is realized by a conceptual pattern known through experiences and expressed metaphorically. It is based on general human experience: No metaphor can be understood or or properly represented without the embodied human experiences (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 19). By embodied experiences Lakoff and Johnson mean not only personal experiences but also cultural and social experiences of mankind this latter being more complex and varied than the primary experiences. This idea is not unique. In 1871, Edward B. Tylor issues the concept of culture as the unity between human skills and human knowledge culture means the totality of knowledge, faith, arts, moral principles, laws, practices and all other human skills obtained by men as a member of society. The problematics of the relationship between the experience of the individual and the way of thinking of an entire community was broached by Gibbs (1999: 145-166) from the perspective of human thinking, conceived as a cognitive network, that exceeds individuals and turns into a cultural model. Gibbs doesnt rise a rigid barrier between the mentality of a nation and the cultural picture of the world: the cultural representations of the conceptual metaphors the function of which is evidently cognitive can be found in the language, in common usage. In consequence, the elements of thinking and that of the metaphorical language are parts of the cultural pattern and of our way of thinking.

Language is vitally metaphoric: at each people or nation we meet, for instance, anthropocentric metaphors, whose nature is universal: the leg of the chair, head of the bridge, head of the village, mouth of the bucket, etc. Lakoff and Johnson name these metaphors conceptual metaphors, these are non-literary metaphors and are frequently used in everyday speech. What makes the difference is the linguistic level and the worldview, where one can find the specific fingerprint of each nation. Broadening our field of study we can see that French language represents the idea of being in a bad mood by the expression: Se lever du pied gauche(Etre de mauvaise humeur) (He got out of bed on the wrong side this morning.) The same thing is expressed in Romanian by the expression A se trezi cu dosul n sus (word for word translation: He woke up with his bottom upside.) It is interesting that the same thing is expressed by idioms referring to different parts of the body (leg - French and bottom Romanian). The representations are deeper in the two languages and mirror the cultural substrata (J.Charteris-Black 18(4), 2003: 289-310; A.Deignam 18(4), 2003: 255-271; K. Ahrens i A. Say 1999: 95-102). This became the object of many contrastive studies. Lets stop at another example: the verbal phrase to spare money has different conceptualizations in Romanian and French: en mettre gauche develops the meaning mettre de largent de ct, conomiser, the expression being equivalent with the Romanian a strnge cureaua, a pune deoparte, a pune ban pe ban, a pune la ciorap. Claude Dunetun (La puce loreille 2002) makes an appeal to the French cultural model when explaining the expressions related to the left side: the left side is the part where the sword is worn so that righthanded people may take it out quickly, thus the left side becomes the optimal side that makes money sparing possible. French Encyclopedias mention that in the 17th century people wore inside their waistcoat a small pocket to keep their money away of the thieves. Being kept at the left side it was easy to be accessed by right-handed people. In Romanian language due to the Byzantine influences there is no connection between money sparing and the left side. We can see that the cultural differences determine not only the metaphorical representations of money sparing from one linguistic system to another but the different representations of the material values as well. In the metaphorical expressions the meaning of the utterance is not given by the sum of the meanings of the constitutive element. Etre mari de la main gauche -
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logically speaking, is a false utterance, but the expressions meaning (concubinage), which is a metaphorical one, is perfectly acceptable.
II. Metaphors and the mental construction

The analysis of the terminological metaphor is connected to the problematics of the conceptual model and the relationship of the term with the notion (concept and intension), which is going to be conceptualized in the specialized language. The starting point is not the metaphor itself, but the relevant conceptual feature of the model and the capacity of the term to represent an abstract object. The denomination through metaphors is an intellectual process characteristic to the science , which helps us towards a superior representation of the reality. It is strongly connected to the field of Logics and Linguistics. Based on the equivalences the component parts of the human body received a certain representation through a process of abstraction. In Greek language pyloros (cf.,-) meant guardian, watchman, or doorkeeper. In the terminology of Anatomy the pylorus (gate guard) is defined as the region of the stomach that connects to the duodenum (the beginning of the small intestines) (DM 2007: 812). The noun areola was used in Latin meaning small courtyard, furrow. In medical language, areola (French: arole, diminutive of Latin area, open place) represents a circular area such as the colored skin surrounding the nipple. The conceptual patterns are heterogeneous. Endolymph (French: endolymphe) is one of the metaphors the pattern of which is bookish, lympha is a poetic metaphor used by Lucretius and Vergil meaning clear water of wellsprings and rivers, the metaphor being connected to the representations of Roman mythology in which Lymphae arum meant the nymphs of the waters. We can see that the medical metaphors were formed based on conceptual schemes, matrix and conceptual patterns having universal character. The imperatives of scientific discourse and the necessity of communication made it necessary to overrun at the level of these models the differences of representations especially in the field of NA. The universal character of the patterns of conceptualizing contributed to the approach of different forms of civilization and to the overrunning of the communicative barriers generated by linguistic differences. Even if areola, endolymph and pylorus are symbolically somehow different, both a European and a Vietnamese doctor will know their meanings. Thus

the members of a certain guild will be able to communicate through the cognitive system. Medical metaphors are not only unities of thought but also unities of knowledge and could be grouped in classes based on similar characteristics which are relevant and repetitive. Terminological metaphor is not a method of discourse but the expression of a mental construction: La mtaphore terminologique est loin d` tre une simple faon de parler, elle est essentiellement une manire de penser. Certes, elle este un emprunt imag, mais une fois que cet emprunt est rinvesti dans une pratique sociale, une fois que sa signification est rgle par les acteurs agissant dans le cadre de cette pratique, elle devient l` expression dùn nouveau concept (Assal J.-L,: 1995: 23) (The terminological metaphor is far of being a simple figure of speech, it is an essential method of thinking. It is a borrowed image, but an image reinvested in a social practice and once its meaning is settled it becomes the expression of a new concept.) It respects the conditions of concept formation by some characteristics, as it follows: - the relationship between the conceptual pattern and the term is a relation of independence; - the metaphoric pattern may have a psychic charge; - the term borrows the stable image and it exudes the subjective features of the pattern; - Being undefinable in reality the scientific concepts are created through a process of abstraction and become analyzable out of the context. Le concept existe psychiquement, indpendentamment du terme, et prcde en quelque sorte sa dsignation, contrairement au signifi, qui, comme le dit Saussure, est indissolublement li au signifiant(Cabr 1998: 85). (The concept exists in a physical way being independent of the term and precedes somehow its designate while the signified as Saussure remarks is totally dependent on the signifier.) The metaphoric model precedes the scientific concept.
Conclusions
The formation of scientific notions based on a metaphoric model cannot be separated from the field of Logics. The terminological metaphor has a cognitive function. The selection of the data base used for the transfer respects objective factors which permit a better exploring of the ontological aspects through generalization / abstraction:
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the equivalences, the stability of the relations between the different domains, the dependence of the speaker to the stereotypes of thinking, the tendency of reflecting the phenomenons characteristics in conditions of conceptual transparency. The process of metaphor formation is not a random one, it respects certain patterns. Lets see some of these patterns: - a term representing the corresponding concept of a concrete object is expanded usually from an abstract object: Lat. decoctum,i/ n.(boiling) med. decoct/ decoctum; - the appropriation of the concrete entity can give the name of an abstract object: glaukos meant in Greek blue-green and from this meaning it was developed the medical term: glaucoma. The same pattern can be seen in the expression iodes (cf. gr.,- ), which meant violet and sober, the word giving the name of a chemical element. - the name of a part is extended metonymically to denote the whole - the function / role possessed by the concrete object is taken over by logical extension of the abstract object: in Greece the word (thalamos, ,-) was used to denote dwelling, nuptial bed, bedroom. Galenus uses the term to denote the internal structures of the brain. The anatomical formation means (from Greek = room, chamber) a midline paired symmetrical structure within the brains of vertebrates, including humans. It is situated between the cerebral cortex and midbrain, both in terms of location and neurological connections. The symmetrical structure is associated with PAIR and is conceptualized by the equivalence of the DUALITY the nuptial bed. The term thalamus had not developed contextual variants due to the high degree of abstraction used in Medicine, except from the composed word: thalamotomy, which is a recent creation. - the logical extension is present from the denomination of the recipient (container) to the denomination of the content, and so on. The transfer of the denoting from the SD to the TD is done based on common features (form, color, external characteristics), differences are never used in this scope. As a cognitive unity the metaphor serves a neutral language having stylistic aspect. It respects the main feature of the specialized language in its precision and univalent content.
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Selective bibliography
Aristotle 1965 Aristotel 1965 - Poetica Poetica ,, Editura studiu Academiei introductiv, R.P.R., traducere Bucureti. i comentarii de Assal, D.M.Pippidi, J.-L. 1995 Editura La mtaphorisation Academiei R.P.R., terminologique, Bucureti. in Terminology Assal Update J.-L , 1995 1995,- XXVIII/ La mtaphorisation 2. terminologique n Terminology Bidu-Vrnceanu, Update 1995 XXVIII A.(coord.) -2. 2010 Terminologie i terminologii, EUB, Bidu-Vrnceanu Bucureti. A.(coord.) 2010 Terminologie i terminologii,EUB, Bracops, Bucureti. M. 2006 Introduction la pragmatique, De Boeck, Bruxelles. Bracops Cabr, M.T. M. 2006 1999 - Introduction La Terminologa la pragmatique Representacin , De boeck, y comunicacin Bruxelles. Cabr, Elementos Mara Teresa para una 1999 teora - La Terminologa de base comunicativa Representacin y otros artculos, y comu nicacin Barcelona, IULA. Elementos para una teora de base comunicativa y otros Didi-Kidiri, artculos, M. Barcelona, La mtaphore IULA. comme base culturelle de conceptualisation Didiet Kidiri M.La mtaphore comme base culturelle de conceptualisation source de nologismes terminologiques , http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele= et source de nologismes terminologiques, http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele= afficheN. afficheN. Duneton, C. 2002 La puce loreille, Editeur Li Livre de Poche nouvelle Duneton C 2002puce originale loreille,1990, Editeur Li Livre Ldp de Poche nouvelle dition 2002 - La Edition Collection numro 5516, dition 2002 - Edition originale 1990, Collection Ldp numro 5516, Paris. de pages, Format 11, cm x 18 cm, ISBN 2253027049, Eco,Nombre U. 2009 pages De la 506 arbore spre labirint traducere de tefania Mincu, Paris. Polirom, Iai. Eco U.2009 - De laFigurile arbore limbajului spre labirint , traducere de tefania Mincu, Fontanier, P. 1977 , Editura Univers, Bucureti. Polirom, Iai. Languages of Art, Indianapolis. Goodman, N.1967 Fontanier, 1977 -M. Figurile , Univers, Bucureti. Lakoff, G. Pierre & Johnson, 1980 limbajului Metaphors We Live By, University of Goodman N.1967Chicago Press. Goodman N, Languages of Art, Indianapolis. Lakoff M. Lakoff, G.& Johnson M Metaphors We Live By, Lakoff,& G. & Johnson, Johnson,1980 M. 1980 Les mtaphores dans la vie quotidienne University of Chicago. Paris, Les Editions Minut. Lakoff & S. Johnson - Les Metaphors mtaphoresin dans vie quotidienne , Paris, Marcus, 1994 1980 Creative the la Scientific Language, in Les Editions Minut. Ovidius din Constana, Vol. 5. Analele Universitii Marcus S. 1974 1994 -Arta Creative Metaphors inMinerva, the Scientific Language, n Quintilian oratoric 3, Editura Bucureti. Analele Universitii Ovidius din Constana, tom.5. Editura Univers, Ricoeur, P. 1984 Metafora vie, trad. de Irina Mavrodin, Quintilian 1974 - Arta oratoric 3, Editura Minerva, Bucureti. Bucureti. Ricoeur P. 1984 Metafora vie, traducere de Irina Mavrodin, Univers, Searle, J.R. 1991- Metaphor // Pragmatics, New York: Oxfordn University Bucureti. Press. Serle J.R. - Metaphor // Pragmatics. New York: Oxford University Soskice & 1991 Harris 1995 Metaphor in Science, in From a Metaphorical Press. Point of View A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Cognitive Content Soskice & Harris 1995 - Metaphor in Science , M. n From a Metaphorical of Metaphor , Editura Radman, Berlin N.Y.: de Gruyter. Point of Wiew A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Cognitive Content Turner, M. 1987 Death is the Mother of Beauty: Mind, Metaphor, Criticism , of Metaphor , Edituraof Radman, Chicago, University ChicagoBerlin Press. N.Y: W de Gruyter.
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Vianu, 1987 Turner T. 1965 - Turner Despre M, Death stil i art is the literar Mother , ediie of Beauty: ngrijit Mind, i prefa Metaphor, de Criticism Marin Bucur, , Chicago, Editura University Tineretului, of Chicago Bucureti. Press. Vianu, T 1965- Despre stil i art literar, ediie ngrijit i prefa de Sources Marin Bucur, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti. Chean Sources et al. (ed.) 1978 Dicionar de filozofie, Editura Politic, Bucureti. Ducrot, O. & Schaeffer, J.M. 1996 Noul dicionar enciclopedic al tiinelor Chean limbajului (coord.) , Editura et al. Babel, 1978 Bucureti. Dicionar de filozofie, Editura Politic, Vico, Bucureti. G. 1980 tiina nou, studiu introductiv, traducere i indici de Ducrot Nina &Faon, Schaeffer note de 1996 Fausto - Noul Nicolini dicionar i Nina enciclopedic Faon, Editura al tiinific, tiinelor Bucureti. limbajului, Editura Babel, Bucureti. Vico G. 1980 - tiina nou, studiu introductiv, traducere i indici de Nina Faon, note de Fausto Nicolini i Nina Faon, Editura tiinific, Bucureti.
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II. TERMINOGRAPHY VS. LEXICOGRAPHY The problem of definition in plurilingual/ bilingual dictionaries
Dfinition terminographique vs dfinition lexicographique
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DfiNitioN termiNographiQue vs dfiNitioN lexicographiQue
1. Introduction
Terminologie et terminographie, voil deux termes qui dsignent deux domaines relativement nouveaux de la linguistique. La terminologie se concentre, dans les grandes lignes, autour de lidentification des notions et leur dnomination, tandis que la terminographie rsout la tche de recenser les notions dans des glossaires terminologiques dun domaine. Cest justement l quintervient la pricipale distinction entre termino logie et terminographie, dune part, et lexicologie et lexicographie, de lautre. Il est vrai que la lexicologie et la lexicographie sont antrieures en date la terminologie et la terminographie. Voil bien longtemps depuis que les gens recensent les mots de la langue dans des dictionnaires, selon une technique et une mthodologie qui essayent de se tenir dans les limites dune interprtation smantique du terme. Nempche que la technique lexicographique ne cesse de senrichir, en incorporant les acquis les plus rcents des sciences de la langue pour mieux servir aux utilisateurs, pour mieux satisfaire leurs besoins. De ce qui a t dit dans les lignes prcdentes, il ressort une premire distinction entre la terminographie et la lexicographie : lunit dont soccuppe la terminographie est bien la notion, tandis que la lexicographie recense des units linguistiques appeles termes.
2. Dmarche lexicographique
Lunit lexicographique que les lexicographes applent unit de traitement ou plus communment, entre de dictionnaire, est le mot: ... le mot graphique, arbitrairement dlimit selon une tradition culturelle solide, du moins en franais, constitue une unit commode, sinon fonctionnelle (Alain Rey, 2008: 115).
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Evidemment, il y a des problmes de diffrents genres quant la place de lunit de traitement lintrieur du lexique: le problme de la polysmie, celui de lhomonymie, le problme des limites de la description du terme, les limites de ltendue de la prsentation du terme dun point de vue fonctionnel. ce quon peut constater, les lmentsmmes qui auraient contribu amliorer la description du terme se constituent parfois en obstacles. Les lexicographes et les dictionnaires peuvent enregistrer de lgres distinctions dans les marques graphiques employes pour illustrer le fait quun terme est polysmantique. Cest le cas, par exemple, du terme camp pour lequel le Nouveau Petit Robert (2010) a enregistr trois sens, identifis dans trois grands domaines, dont chacun est marqu par un chiffre romain: camp: I. zone militaire; II. zone de loisirs; III. groupe de personnes. La mme remarque peut tre faite pour le terme campagne, pour lequel Le Nouveau Petit Robert enregistre toujours trois sens, dans trois domaines diffrents, catgoriss comme il suit: campagne: I. zone rurale; II. contexte militaire, III. contexte civil. Le Dictionnaire du franais contemporain (1974) enregistre pour camp le mme nombre dentres, trois, dans les trois domaines mentionns par le Nouveau Petit Robert; en revanche, il nenregistre pour campagne que deux entres, appartenant aux catgories suivantes: I. tendue de terre; II. activit; la deuxime catgorie (activit) runit les activites dployes dans le domaine militaire, dans celui de la propagande politique ou publicitaire. Pour ce qui est de lhomonymie, que nous allons illustrer par le terme grve, le plus couramment cit par les spcialistes (Mariana Tuescu, 1979, Teodora Cristea 2001), avec les deux sens recouverts par une seule unit lexicale et deux entres de dictionnaire, on constate facilement que les entres sont hirarchises selon un point de vue chronologique. Dans le cas de grve, le premier sens connu est celui de terrain plat (form de sables, graviers) situ au bord de la mer ou dun cours deau, terme enregistr en 1140 et qui provient du bas latin.Le sens de cessation volontaire et collective du travail est le deuxime terme, car, dun point de vue chronologique, ce sens est apparu beaucoup plus tard dans la langue, plus exactement en 1805, et il sest form par un processus mtonymique, cest--dire par contigut de lieu: les ouvriers se tenaient sur la place de la Grve en attandant de louvrage (Nouveau Petit Robert, 2010). La ralisation des dictionnaires est diffrentes selon le public auquel ils sadressent est selon les buts pour lequels ils ont t conus.
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Ils peuvent sadresser un public dit cultiv qui a une trs bonne connaissance de la langue dcrite par le dictionnaire, qui peut ou non avoir comme langue maternelle la langue du dictionnaire et qui cherche plutt des informations, fonctionnelles ou non fonctionnelles comme cest le cas du Nouveau Petit Robert ou du Trsor de la Langue Franaise. Dautres dictionnaires sadressent un public, disons moins inform, avec des comptences imparfaites et pour lequel le dictionnaire peut servir de point de repre quant la correctitude ou des informations de fonctionnement, origine, usage de nature combler ses lacunes (Alain Rey, 2008: 125). Cest le cas de dictionnaires comme Larousse, Hachette, Micro-Robert.
3. Dmarche terminographique
La dmarche terminographique diffre de la dmarche lexico graphique en plus dun point. Cette dmarche, celle du terminographe, a comme but principal lidentification, la description des notions dans les dictionnaires spcialiss ou les banques de teminologie (MarieClaude LHomme, 2004 : 21). la diffrence des dictionnaires, les glossaires terminologiques ou les banques de donnes sadressent aux spcialistes, aux traducteurs et aux rdacteurs de documents dans un domaine spcialis. Le terminographe est celui qui recense toutes les notions relatives au domaine vis et les fait entrer dans des glossaires terminologiques, monolingues, bilingues ou multilingues. Le travail du terminographe est dune importance vitale pour la circulation des connaissances relatives un domaine, surtout dans le contexte actuel de la mondialisation. La libre circulation des spcialistes, de la main duvre, laccs libre linformation et le besoin permanent de technique de haut niveau rend indispensable le travail du terminographe, mais aussi celle du traducteur spcialis. Le traducteur spcialis est celui qui peut apprcier le travail du terminographe car les listes de notions recenses par celui-ci constituent la principale source dinformation concernant un domaine de spcialit. Lchange dinformation entre les diffrents auteurs de glossaires savre trs prcieux pour les spcialistes, car les exigences des utilisateurs sont varies, elles peuvent tre orientes vers des aspects diffrents dun mme domaine. videmment, la tche de celui qui rdige un glossaire bilingue ou multilingue devient un peu plus complique, car
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elle exige en plus une excellente comnnaissance dune ou de plusieurs langues trangres. En vue de la ralisation dun glossaire terminologique utile, le terminographe doit puiser les informations partout o il en trouve de fiables : dans les documents trouvs dans les bibliothques, dans les textes runis par les centres de documentation, dans les publications scientifiques, techniques ou de pure spcialit, dans les recommandations terminologiques des organismes spcialiss (comme cest le cas des Commisions spcialises de terminologie et de nologie en France). Quelle quen soit la source, elle doit tre mentionne dans le glossaire terminologique. De plus, les notions introduites dans le glossaire, doivent avoir la validation dun spcialiste. Les connaissances runies dans un glossaire terminologique peuvent navoir quun caractre ephmre, vu le progrs incessant de la science et de la technique. Par consquent, les comptences du terminographe seront toujours en demande sur le march et son travail est ou devrait constamment tre remis jour.
4. Dfinition de lunit lexicale

4.1. Dfinition du terme de dictionnaire Un dictionnaire de langue est lensemble des mots dune langue, runis par ordre alphabtique ou thmatique et dfinis dune manire plus ou moins ample. La description se rapporte lorthographe, la prononciation, ltymologie, la catgorie grammaticale, la dfinition donne selon des modles linguistiques variables, aux valences combinatoires, aux contextes demploi, aux synonymes ou aux antonymes (J. Dubois et alii, 1963: 151). Les dictionnaires rassemblent des termes, des mots, des units monolexicales. Pour dfinir ces units, les lexicographes ont une approche smasiologique, en partant du signifiant vers le signifi. Gnralement parlant, les dictionnaires se proposent dtudier le sens des termes enregistrs, et cela se fait conformment la smantique des dictionnaires: La smantique des dictionnaires est un fait doublement analytique : dune part, la dfinition correspond une tentative danalyse smique; et tend dgager pour chaque signification des traits pertinents ou smes; dautre part, les units lexicales les plus frquentes sont dcrites selon une
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rpartitiondu matriel linguistique et des noncs (dfinitions, marques stylistiques, etc.) que lon dsigne habituellement par plan des articles du dictionnaire (Alain Rey, 2002: 19). La dmarche smasiologique gouverne toute tentative de dfinition dune entre de dictionnaire de langue. Par exemple, si on se propose de dfinir le violon, on devra tout dabord penser intgrer le violon dans la classe des instruments de musique, ce qui nous fera dcouvrir dautres instruments comme : laccordon, le piano, la flte, la harpe, la guitare, la trompette, le haut-bois, etc. Vol donc quon est parti du concept pour dcouvrir le terme, ou si lon veut, la dmarche a consist daller du signifiant vers le signifi. Cest la dmarche propre tout dictionnaire, quil soit purement linguistique ou simplement encyclopdique (Christian Touratier, 2004: 14-26). Par exemple, si lon cherche savoir ce que cest le soleil, on trouvera, dans le dictionnaire Nouveau Petit Robert (2010) qui sadresse aux spcialistes, que le soleil est: astre qui donne lumire et chaleur la Terre, et rhytme la vie sa surface. La trs attendue numration des contextes demploi concerne lastre mentionn antrieurement: le disque du soleil, la course du soleil, le lever du soleil, lEmpire du Soleil levant, se lever avec le soleil, soleil au znith, midi, un coucher du soleil, un rayon de soleil, la lumire du soleil, le soleil brille. La mme dmarche smasiologique peut tre identifie dans un dictionnaire connu comme encyclopdique, Le Larousse (http://www. larousse.fr/dictionnaires): le soleil est une toile et son rle est de graviter autour de la Terre. Le Larousse, sadressant des personnes moins informes, donne une indication pour Terre, dans ce sens que, dans le cas ou le terme Terre se rapporte la plante, le mot prend une majuscule. La dmarche smasiologique est l, mais ds le dbut, le soleil est inclus dans une catgorie sous-ordonne la catgorie astre, considre comme trop scientifique et trop gnrique pour tre connue par tout un chacun.. la place de cette catgorie, Le Larousse a choisi un hyponyme du terme astre, il sagit du terme toile, beaucoup plus rpandu dans lusage quotidien de la langue et beaucoup plus connu. Chaque individu peroit les corps clestes plutt comme des toiles que des astres , ce dernier terme tant rserv lusage scientifique. Pour linformation des usagers du Larousse il y a ensuite quelques contextes demploi du terme avec le sens qui se dgage de cette unit lexicale, sens qui est complt par les diffrentes combinaisons
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ralises sur laxe syntagmatique, combinaisons ralises grce aux valences combinatoires du mot. videmment, ces valences combinatoires ne sont pas mentionnes par le Larousse, dictionnaire dont le seul but est de fournir des informations gnrales, caractre de connaissance encyclopdique, dans le sens que les sciences cognitives donnent ce terme (Jean-Franois Le Ny, 1979, 1989). Les informations concernent lemploi du terme soleil dans diffrents domaines: Lumire, rayonnement, chaleur du Soleil. Lieu expos aux rayons du Soleil. Littraire.Symbole de ce qui brille, de la bienfaisance ou du pouvoir clatant, de linfluence rayonnante. Botanique Autre nom du tournesol. Hraldique Figure hraldique forme dun disque dor entour gnralement de seize rayons et prsentant des traits humains. Liturgie Ostensoir dont la partie suprieure sirradie en forme de soleil. Pyrotechnie Artifice constitu par des lances fixes sur une roue qui tourne dans un plan vertical. Sports En gymnastique, la barre fixe, rotation arrire complte, mains en pronation. tant un dictionnaire caractre trs gnral, les contextes demploi et les domaines dans lesquels le terme soleil est employ sarrtent l, car les auteurs de ce dictionnaire caractre encyclopdique ont considr quils avaient donn lide de base en ce qui concerne les caractristiques du corps cleste, laspect extrieur, lactivit de lastre et les rsultats de cette activit. Quil sagisse dun dictionnaire ou de lautre, la dfinition du terme est donne sur la base du principe dinclusion : le terme plus gnral astre inclut le terme soleil , ou bien le terme hirarchiquement infrieur soleil est inclus dans le terme hirarchiquement suprieur toile . La relation logique dinclusion se trouve la base de la dfinition du terme de dictionnaire, ou, autrement dit, la dfinition est construite selon le principe qui gouverne la relation entre hypronyme et
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hyponyme. Ainsi, astre reprsente un hypronyme pour soleil qui en est son hyponyme et a comme co-hyponymes astrode, comte, plante , toile , satellite . Lhypronyme contient les traits gnriques: /corps cleste/, /naturel/, /visible/, tandis que lhyponyme soleil retient dans sa structure smique les traits spcifiques: /donne de la lumire la Terre/, /donne de la chaleur la Terre/, /rhytme la vie sur cette plante/. Dans la dfinition du terme soleil fournie par un dictionnaire encyclopdique, les informations sont diffrentes par rapport aux informations dun dictionnaire de langue. On apprend ainsi que le soleil est une toile, ce qui pour le commun des mortels signifie quil donne de la lumire, quil tourne autour de la Terre, et par consquent il est suppos organiser chronologiquement la vie sur cette plante. Les contextes demploi offerts par le mme dictionnaire nous apprennent quil donne de la chaleur. Les informations sont donc peu prs les mmes que celles du dictionnaire linguistique, mais formules dune manire plus accessible des gens ayant un niveau moyen de culture. Les smes gnriques, aussi bien que les smes spcifiques sont de nature illustrer laspect et le fonctionnement du soleil, tandis que les informations fournies ont un caractre plutt pratique. Les syntagmes lumire du Soleil, rayonnement du Soleit, chaleur du Soleil sont l moins pour illustrer les possibilits combinatoires du nom propre Soleil mais pour mieux renseigner les utilisateurs du dictionnaire quant lactivit de cette toile et quant aux consquences de cette activit. Ce sont des informations caractre encyclopdique qui nintresseront pas un linguiste, soucieux dapprendre un autre genre dinformations que seul un dictionnaire linguistique (comme Le Nouveau Petit Robert) peut lui donner, par exemple: ltymologie du terme (le latin populaire, soliculus), la catgorie grammaticale laquelle le terme appartient (nom), le genre (masculin), le nombre (toujours singulier), les valences combinatoires du terme: soleil couchant, bain de soleil, coup de soleil, en plein soleil. Pour rsumer, nous pouvons dire que, dans la dfinition dun terme de dictionnaire la dmarche en est une smasiologique, mais la manire dont la dfinition est construite diffre dun type de dictionnaire lautre: pendant que les dictionnaires de langue oprent avec des informations linguistiques, les dictionnaires encyclopdiques oprent avec de linfor mation pratique.
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4.2. La notion dans les glossaires terminologiques
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Les glossaires terminologiques reprsentent des inventaires de notions spcifiques un domaine de spcialit. Pour ce qui est de la notion, il y a beaucoup de choses dire, car cela a proccup les terminologues depuis de bonnes dcennies. Pendant une longue priode de temps, lpoque o la linguistique tait traverse, entre autres, par une tendance mentaliste, la notion tait perue (Allal Assal, 1994) comme une construction mentale ayant le rang dunit employe pour classer des objets individuels de la ralit extralinguistique, sur la base de caractristiques communes un ensemble dobjets (Alain Rey, cit dans Allal Assal, 1994). Cette position mentaliste et cette dfinition ont t par la suite critiques par leurs auteurs mmes, mais les principes seront repris par les cognitivistes pour la dfinition de la catgorie. Lemploi de la catgorisation est devenu lun des principes de base de la dfinition des termes et des notions, ainsi que lnumration des proprits, mme les plus dtailles, appeles attributs et valeurs dattributs (Jean-Franois Le Ny, 1979, 1989). La catgorie devient cette reprsentation mentale, conceptuelle, dune connaissance dtenue par lagent humain concernant un ensemble dobjets du monde rel. Pour les cognitivistes, lhomme, le pricipal agent de la perception des traits inhrents ou des attributs communs un ensemble dobjets, est celui qui identifie les catgories et en fait une classification. Voil donc la classification revenue en force au niveau de la structuration de la connaissance humaine. En fait, les glossaires terminologiques sont des manires de structu ration de la connaissance humaine et ils regroupent des notions ou des concepts, considrs comme synonymes par les terminologues. Les thoriciens de la terminologie considrent que les notions sont des uni versaux de la pense humaine, quelles ne sont pas influences par le systme de la langue et quelles se matrialisent linguistiquement dans des termes. Tout dpend du niveau de connaissances humaines qui existent au moment de la cration du terme, ce qui explique le fait quun terme est susceptible de changer si la notion et son rfrent changent, dvoluer si la notion et son rfrent voluent ou de disparatre si la notion ou son rfrent disparat. Les notions ou les concepts se matrialisent dans des termes, qui sont des units linguistiques monolexicales ou plurilexicales. Ces units monolexicales ou plurilexicales qui dsignent des rfrents rels dun
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domaine de spcialit doivent tre dfinies , ce qui reprsente lessence de lactivit du terminographe. 4. 3. La dfinition de la notion La dfinition de la notion est, en fait, la description de celle-ci ou plutt la description de son sens. De ce point de vue, le mcanisme de la dfinition dune notion rejoint le mcanisme de la dfinition du mot, car les deux recourent des concepts emprunts la logique, savoir la comprhension et lextension. La dfinition par comprhension consiste, en smantique et en terminologie, dans lnumration des proprits communes tous les objets de la classe respective, en partant des proprits gnriques les plus proches de la notion et en dfinissant les caractristiques propres celleci, caractristiques ou proprits qui la distinguent des autres notions qui sont situes au mme niveau (CST-Recommandations relatives la terminologie, (termdat@bk.admin.ch). Par exemple, si on veut dfinir les antimtiques, on dira quils sont des ...mdicaments qui empchent les nauses et les vomissements ou les affaiblissements. Ils sont surtout utiliss dans le traitement des effets indsirables de la chimiothrapie et de la radiothrapie (http://www.myeloma-euronet.org/fr/multiple-myeloma/glossary.php) Dans cette dfinition, les antimtiques sont nomms par le genre le plus proche ils sont des mdicaments, ensuite il y a les caractres distinctifs: 1. ils sont employs pour empcher la nause et les vomissements ou les affaiblissements; 2. ils sont surtout employs dans le traitement des effets indsirables de la chimiothrapie et de la radio thrapie. videmment, les antimtiques portent des noms diffrents, selon lorigine, la fabricant, le pays, mais ils ont en commun, quel que soit leur nom, les proprits dcrites dans la dfinition. La deuxime possibilit de dfinir une notion est la dfinition par extension, qui consiste, tout comme en logique et en smantique, numrer les lments qui constituent la classe respective, les reprsentants de la classe ou les parties constitutives du reprsentant considr. De toute faon, la dfinition reprsente une somme, le rsultat dune addition, comme le prconise la logique, la science qui est lorigine de la procdure. Par exemple : les combustibles fossiles sont dfinis comme : des combustibles qui proviennent de la dcomposition des plantes et
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danimaux trs anciens. Le charbon, le ptrole et le gaz naturel sont des combustibles fossiles. Ils sont enterrs trs profondment dans la terre et leur formation a pris des millions dannes (www.science.org). Pour dcrire les combustibles fossiles, lauteur du glossaire a numr tous les autres types de combustibles fossiles: le charbon, le ptrole, le gaz naturel. Ce quils ont en commun cest lendroit o ils peuvent tre trouvs et la manire semblable de formation. Il faut prciser que les recommandations pour une bonne dfinition ne manquent pas et, le plus souvent, elles font rfrence deux exigences: la prsence de certaines qualits de la dfinition (concision, rfrence au systme de notions, rfrences au domaine, utilisation des termes dfinis cest--dire considrs comme connus, mention du secteur dapplication dune dfinition) et labsence de certains dfauts (dfinir une notion de manire circulaire ou dfinir une notion par la ngation dune caractristique) (termdat@bk.admin.ch).
5. La polylexicalit de lunit terminographique

Les glossaires terminologiques regrouppent des notions exprimes par des units lexicales qui sont, dans la plupart des cas, polylexicales. Quand on parle dextraction des termes, qui est lactivit principale en terminologie, on doit prendre en considration le fait que les termes sont, dune manire prpondrante, polylexicaux. Pour dnommer cette unit polylexicale on emploie le terme de collocation ou unit phrasologique, car ltude de ces units complexes et trs peu homognes (Mojca Pecman, 2004) est ralise par la phrasologie. La classification des units phrasologiques pose beaucoup de problmes justement cause de la complexit de leur structure, qui rend impossible une classification base sur la structure morphologique, la structure syntaxique ou selon le sens, plus ou moins opaque. Dans les langues de spcialit on identifie, lintrieur de la collocation, un mot-cl qui dtermine le sens de la collocation. Lidentification de ce mot-cl dpend de quelques principes qui doivent tre respects (Maryvonne Holzem, 1999: 116-124): le principe du rejet des ambiguts, le principe du choix du juste milieu et celui de lappauvrissement smantique. En ce qui concerne le rejet de lambigut, le danger est reprsent par la polysmie des termes et par la synonymie. La solution propose
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pour lever l ambigut est le choix de deux descripteurs, employs dans un sens trs gnrique : Un descripteur est cens concentrer les sens, de ses quasi-synonymes rejets, des descripteurs plus spcifiques et des antonymes (Maryvonne Holzem, 1999: 120). Pour ce qui est du juste milieu, il a trait la hirarchisation, au classement et la catgorisation de lunit phrasologique en question. Le terme polylexical dont on donne la dfinition doit tre inclu dans une catgorie qui naille pas trop loin quant lhypronyme, car le sens peut devenir obscur. Le dernier principe, celui de lapauvrissement smantique, se rapporte surtout la diffrence entre les termes dont parle la terminologie et les mots de la langue courante. Les mots de la langue courante ont une connotation, tandis que les termes nen ont pas; les termes ignorent les rgles de grammaire, tandis que les mots les respectent; les termes sont vus dun point de vue synchronique, tandis que les mots de la langue courante ont une tymologie, donc ils connaissent galement une approche diachronique. Compte tenu de ces trois diffrences, les termes doivent definir des concepts (Maryvonne Holzem, 1999:124). Les ouvrages de spcialit de la terminologie et de la terminographie insistent sur le caractre monosmique des termes, ce qui favoriserait une bonne dfinition. En plus de cela, le contexte demploi du terme reprsente une condition essentielle pour lactualisation du sens, qui quand mme peut varier selon le domaine. Les termes peuvent fort bien appartenir la langue naturelle, mais leur sens change dans une langue de spcialit. Leur sens peut changer dune langue de spcialit lautre. Cela nous ramne un autre lment important pour la dfinition dune collocation, savoir le corpus. Le corpus doit tre compos de textes de spcialit du mme domaine pris des sources sres, fiables et autorises: les organisations professionnelles, les fabricants des produits, les articles publis dans des revues de spcialit du domaine, des textes rdigs par les spcialistes lintention des autres spcialistes. Ainsi on pourra donner une dfinition ou une description correcte cette unit polylexicale, centre parfois autour dun mot-cl substantif ou adjectif ou verbe, dautres fois ayant des dimensions plus tendues jusquau niveau de la phrase. videmment, lavis dun spcialiste pour la validation des termes identifis et dfinis reprsentent la fin du parcours dans la ralisation dun glossaire terminologique.
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Conclusion
Les sciences du langage recouvrent un vantail extrmement large, allant de la structure au fonctionnement des langues naturelles, embrassant le point de vue synchronique ou diachronique, dcrivant la langue selon un modle thorique ou un autre. Ce qui compte la fin cest que tout acquis dun domaine peut tre employ au profit dun autre domaine, les recherches dans la linguistique des langues naturelles peut tre employes avec succs dans ltude des langues de spcialit. Les langues de spcialit reprsentent des structures lexicales, syntaxiques, smantiques, pragmatiques qui sont employes par une communaut plus ou moins restreinte dutilisateurs et qui manifestent un degr plus ou moins leve de stabilit. Lapparition des langues de spcialit est une chose incontrlable, car les recherches dans le domaine de la science et de la technique voluent non ncessairement dans les directions voulues. Quelque soit la direction, lhomme ressent le besoin de contrler le domaine lintrieur duquel il fait des recherches et lun des moyens de contrle est reprsent par le langage. Lhomme veut nommer, assigner un signe linguistique, un signe graphique et un sens tout ce quil connat ou tout ce quil dcouvre. Les dcouvertes humaines ont connu un dveloppement incessant, ce qui sest manifest dans le langage, manifestation de la connaissance humaine. Ltroite relation entre les connaissances et le langage ont t mises en relief par des domaines comme la lexicologie, la smantique, le cognitivisme, tous ces domaines ont pu tre tendus et exploits la ralisation des dictionnaires. A un certain moment du dveloppement de la science et de lhumanit, les dictionnaires de langue ont t doubls par des glossaires terminologiques spcifiques un domaine. On pourrait dire que plus les glossaires terminologiques se multiplient, plus la connaissance humaine slargit et senrichit. Par consquent, la science de la rdaction de ces glossaires terminologiques progresse et facilite laccs la connaissance. La mthodologie de la rdaction de tels glossaires permet de parfaire la mthodologie de ralisation des dfinitions des termes, sans pour autant rattraper la science de la rdaction des dictionnaires. Vu que les deux domaines, la lexicographie et la terminographie sadressent des collectivits humaines diffrentes, chaque communaut russira obtenir la perfection ncessaire et voulue.
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Bibliographie
Assal, Allal (1994) La notion de notion en terminologie, Meta: journal des traducteurs/Meta:Translators Journal vol.39, no 3, 1994 http:// id.erudit.org/iderudit/001912ar. Cristea, Teodora (2001)- Structures signifiantes et relations smantiques, Editura Fundatiei Romnia de mine, Bucuresti. Dubois, Jean et alii (1973) Dictionnaire de linguistique, Larousse, Paris. Hermans, Adrien 1989 La dfinition des termes scientifiques, Meta : journal des traducteurs/Meta:Translators Journal vol.34, no.3, 1989, http://id.erudit.org/iderudit/003064ar. Holzem, Maryvonne 1999 - Terminologie et documentattion. Pour une meilleure circulation des savoirs, ADBS Editions. LHomme, Marie-Claude 2004 - La terminologie: principes et techniques, Les Presses universitaires de Montral, Montral. Le Ny, Jean-Franois (1979) La Smantique psychologique, PUF, Paris. Le Ny, Jean-Franois (1989) - Sciences cognitives et comprhension du langage, PUF, Paris. Pecman, Mojca 2007 Lenjeu de la classification en phrasologie, www.initerm.net/public/.../l_enjeu_de_la_classification_en_phras_ ologie... Rey, Alain 2002- De lartisanat des dictionnaires une science du mot. Images et modles, Armand Colin, Paris. Touratier, Christian, 2004 - La Smantique, Armand Colin, Paris. Tuescu, Mariana 1979 Prcis de smantique franaise, Editura didactic i pedagogic, Bucureti. Le Larousse http://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaire. CST-Recommandations relatives la terminologie termdat@bk.admin.ch http://www.myeloma-euronet.org/fr/multiple-myeloma/glossary.php www.science.org
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Sztrszerkeszts s terminolgiai adatbzisok
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SZtrsZerKesZts s termiNolgiai adatbZisoK
Bevezets
A digitalizld 21. szzadi globlis falu-ban nem knny meghatrozni a nyomtatott kiadvnyok helyt s szerept. Jelen cikk ksrletet tesz arra, hogy rvilgtson a terminolgiai adatbzisok fontossgra, hasznossgra s minsgre egy olyan korban, amelyben szinte brmi azonnal letlthet az internetrl. Napjainkban mr tbbekben felmerlt a krds, hogy digitalizld vilgunkban szksg van-e mg nyomtatott (sajt)kiadvnyokra, knyvekre. Tl vagyunk mr Vrsmarty gondolatbreszt krdsn, miszerint ment-e a knyvek ltal a vilg elbb, de gy tnik, hogy jra kell rtelmeznnk magt a knyv fogalmt a 21. szzadban. Tbbfajta szvegolvas hardver s szoftver megjelense lehetv tette, hogy emberek millii knnyebben jussanak hozz kedvenc kiadvnyok tmkeleghez (pl. pdf-olvas), br a kezdeti rdeklds hullma mr valamelyest csitult. Tbb knyvkiad mondott csdt az elmlt vekben, illetve zsugorodott ssze kiadvnyai pldnyszmt tekintve, s ez nem csak a krzis veivel fgg ssze, hanem az elektronikus knyvllomnyok, knyvtrak ltrejttvel is. Szakemberek szerint a szakknyvek fleg a technikai jellegek elavultt vlnak mire nyomdafestket ltnak, ezrt teht tbben gy tekintik, hogy ezek paprra nyomtatsa flsleges. Mindezek ellenre nem felttlenl lehet igazuk, ha megvizsgljuk a msik oldalt is. A hagyomnyos knyvet forgatk tbora mg meglehetsen nagy. A digitlis kiadvnyok nem ptolhatjk a lapforgats rmt, sem pedig az olvass milyensgt. Nyomtatott kiadvnyokat egyszeren mskppen tudunk olvasni s megkzelteni mint az elektronikusokat. A halads hvei taln tlsgosan hamar kondtottk meg a harangokat a nyomtatott kiadvnyok fltt, belertve a napisajtt is, merthogy ezek (br cskkentett pldnyszmban) tovbbra is naponta megjelennek, megvan az olvastboruk. A knyvekkel, sztrakkal, enciklopdikkal sincs ez
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mskpp, br tagadhatatlanul modernizldtak: javult a nyomtatvny sznminsge, figyelembe vesznek krnyezetkml megoldsokat (jrahasznostott papr), gyakran tartalmaznak tovbbi informcikat trol weboldalcmeket, internetrl letlthet video- s hanganyag-lelhelyeket. Roppant npszerek azon sztrkiadvnyok, amelyekhez csatoljk a teljes sztr anyagt CD-n vagy DVD-n (http://akkrt.hu/326/szotar/angol/ nagyszotar/magyar_angol_klasszikus_nagyszotar_cd_vel_net_tel), de olyan verzi is ltezik, amelyet a felhasznl tovbb is tud bvteni. Az angol nyelv npszersge kvetkeztben a tbbnyelv sztrak kzl legalbbis az Eurpai Uni vonzskrzetben a leggyakoribb a ktnyelv sztr, amely nyelvpr kzl az egyik az angol. Termszetesen a tematikus sztrak is szp szmban jelennek meg, igyekezve lefedni egy/tbb szakterletet: informatika, krnyezetvdelem, jog, kereskedelem, stb., hiszen a globlis faluban mindezekre egyre nagyobb szksg van a kommunikci sorn. Itt szeretnnk megjegyezni, hogy a viszonylag knny s olcs knyvkiadsnak is megvannak a htrnyai, hiszen gyakorlatilag brki meg tud jelentetni brmilyen jelleg kiadvnyt, ha erre elssorban anyagi fedezete van. Minsget az n. akkreditlt kiadk nyjtanak, amelyek megfelel referensekkel, szaklektorokkal, nyelvi lektorokkal s trdelszerkesztkkel rendelkeznek.
Online terminolgiai adatbzisok

EuroTermBank Napjaink sikeres szoftverei kz azok szmthatnak, amelyeknek megfelel vzzal rendelkeznek, amelyre utlag tbb jrulkos programocskt lehet csatlakoztatni (add-in, plugin). Erre j plda a Microsoft Office 2003-as kiadstl kezdden az EuroTermBank (ETB) program, amely tulajdonkppen egy tbbnyelv terminolgiai adatbzis az Eurpai Uniban hasznlatos nyelveken (27 nyelv), s tbb szakgazatot is magba foglal (mezgazdasg, politika, jog, stb., http://www.eurotermbank. com). Online elrhet, ingyenesen letlthet s futtathat; a Microsoft Office 2003/2007 Word programjba telepti magt, s a Ctrl+Shift+I billentykombincival aktivlhat. Ez tbb mint 600.000 bejegyzst s tbb mint 1.500.000 fogalmat tartalmaz; a keress lehet mind ltalnos, mind valamely szakterlethez kthet; forrs- s clnyelvknt brmelyik hasznlhat a 27 eurpai nyelv kzl:
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Figure 1. ETB add-in in MSO Word 2007 Az ETB olyannyira sikeresnek bizonyult, hogy a MemoQ fordti krnyezet is lehetv tette beplst plugin-knt (http://memoq.helpmax. net /en/reference-guide/eurotermbank-options). A MemoQ napjaink taln legdinamikusabban fejld fordti krnyezete (2011-ben a legjobb fordti szoftver djat nyerte el az Egyeslt Kirlysgokban, l. http://kilgray. com/press-release/memoq-won-itis-2011-best-translation-softwareaward), amely egyre komolyabb vetlytrsa a korbbi fordti krnyezeteknek, mint pl. az SDL Trados Studio 2009, Dj Vu, stb. A MemoQ Tools, Options rdigombok lenyomsval knnyen leellenrizhetjk, ha az ETB teleptve van. Telepts utn a Ctrl+P billentykombinci egy ablakot jelent meg, amely lehetv teszi, hogy vagy a MemoQ sajt terminolgiai adatbzisban, vagy pedig az ETB online adatbzisban bngssznk. Ami kimondottan a MemoQ erssge, hogy a fordts kezdetekor kivlasztott nyelvprt a terminolgiai adatbzisban val keresskor knnyen megvltoztathatjuk ms forrs- s clnyelvre (itt mr nem 27, hanem 62 opci jelenik meg!):
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Figure 2. MemoQ ETB sample Kvetkeztetskpp elmondhat, hogy az ETB az egyik legfontosabb ingyenes, online terminolgiai adatbzis, s folyamatosan bvl. Ennek ellenre termszetesen elfordul, hogy a keresett sz/kifejezs nem tallhat a minket rdekl nyelveken. Egyb terminolgiai adatbzisok Nyilvnval, hogy ms jelleg terminolgiai adatbzisok is lteznek, amelyek knyv, pdf vagy online formban rhetk el. Klasszikusnak minslnek azok, amelyek nem bvlnek tovbb, s ezrt a teljes llomny elrhet. Az Angol-magyar elektronikus informatikai sztr 2007-ben jelent meg a Tinta Kiad gondozsban (fszerk. Ivnyi Antal), s igencsak hasznosnak bizonyul a szakterleten, hiszen tbb mint 900 oldalt tartalmaz, 20 szerkeszt, 20 szakmai lektor, s 12 nyelvi lektor dolgozott rajta. 2002-es kiads a Fazakas Emese szerkesztsben megjelent Romnmagyar kzigazgatsi sztr az Anyanyelvpolk Erdlyi Szvetsgnek kiadsban, melynek magyarromn vltozata 2004-ben jelent meg ugyanott; a Ben Attila s munkatrsai ltal szerkesztett sztr mind szerkesztsi elveiben, mind a lexikai anyag kezelsben a romnmagyar sztri prjt kveti. Szerkesztsi tekintetben mindssze abban klnbzik eldjtl, hogy az orszgos s nemzetkzi intzmnyek neveit kln
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rszben kzli a sztr vgn. A szerkesztk az tmutatban jelzik, hogy a sztrban nemcsak szaknyelvi szavak s jelentsek szerepelnek, hanem kznyelviek is, ppen abbl a meggondolsbl, hogy a kiadvny gyakorlati hasznt ezzel is segtsk, lvn, hogy a szaknyelvek hatra, klnsen a sztri anyag vlogatsban inkbb tgabban rtelmezend, mintsem szkebben. Mindkt munka romn nyelven is kzli a tartalomjegyzket, az elszt s a hasznlati tmutatt, s ezltal a magyarul kevsbtud romn dominns beszlkis knnyen hasznlhatjk. Egy msik jelents ktnyelv szaksztr a 2005-ben a Romniai Magyar Kzgazdsz Trsasg ltal kiadott Fazakas Emese szerkesztette Romnmagyar gazdasgi sztr. Amint az elszban Somai Jzsef megjegyzi, ez szlesebb krhz szl. Magyarromn prja 2008-ban jelent meg Fazakas Emese s Somai Jzsef szerkesztsben, szintn a Romniai Magyar Kzgazdsz Trsasg gondozsban (Magyarromn gazdasgi sztr). 2008 nyarn jelent meg kis pldnyszmban a Ben Attila s SrosiMrdrosz Krisztina ltal szerkesztett Romnmagyar oktats-terminolgiaisztr az Anyanyelvpolk Erdlyi Szvetsgnek kiadsban. Teljesen jfajta sztrnak minsl az kulturlis sztr (ksznet Ben Attilnak, aki felhvta erre figyelmnket). Magyarorszgon Bart Istvn jelentetett meg angolmagyar, illetve amerikaimagyar kulturlis sztrt. Romniban az Anyanyelvpolk Erdlyi Szvetsge jelentetett meg romnmagyar kulturlis sztrt (Ben Attila szerkesztsben), de tallhatunk ugyancsak Ben Attila ltal szerkesztett romniai llami intzmnyneveket magyarra fordt jegyzket is (http://www.sztanyi.ro/download/ magyar_intezmenynevek.pdf), mely pdf-formtumban ingyenesen letlthet, a Szab T. Attila Nyelvi Intzet kiadvnya. Az ilyen jelleg kiadvnyok jelzik, hogy szksg van terminolgiai jegyzkekre, s ez az igny csak fokozdott a globalizci terjedsvel s az Eurpai Uni megalakulsval. A Fordtsi Figazgatsg 2010ben tbb mint 2000 fordtssal foglalkoz szemlynek adott munkt (http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/whoweare/index_en.htm), s ez vente tbb mint ktmilli lefordtott oldalt eredmnyez (http://www. translationconference.com/2009_eload/JancsiB_HU.pdf , Imre 2010). A Google Translate megjelense sok vitt indtott el, hiszen a szakfordtk tbbnyire ellenzik, a nem szakemberek viszont rlnek neki. Tny, hogy az illet idegen nyelvet nem beszlk szmra alapvet informcit nyjthat pl. weboldalak tartalmrl, s az is nyilvnval, hogy a papr
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s a ceruza alap fordts ideje lejrt (Pym 2002, Imre 2011); Gouadec (2007) is objektven felsorolja a gpi fordts elnyeit meg htrnyait, de elfogadja, hogy bizonyos esetekben (a minsg rovsra) vannak elnyei. 2011-ben 64 nyelvbl/nyelvre lehet prblkozni a fordtssal a Google Translate segtsgvel.
Kvetkeztetsek
A korbban elmondottak alapjn nehz killni a hagyomnyos, nyomtatott sztrak mellett. Ennek ellenre szletnek plyzatok, munkacsoportok hagyomnyos szaksztr kiadsra, amely akkor lehet minsgi, ha a trzsanyag a legjabb, interneten is megtallhat, felkutathat szakszavakat is tartalmazza. Ha nem is lesz idtll annyira, mint a korbbi sztrak, meggyzdsnk, hogy biztos alapot nyjtanak a minsghez, azt a sztrak szerkeszti nevkkel kell garantljk. A gpi fordtsok szinte soha nem adnak meg alternatvkat, szinonimkat, hiszen mkdsi elvk tallatmennyisgi alapokon nyugszik. Nyomtatott kiadvnyok viszont kpesek rnyalni a jelentst, amely minsgi terminolgihoz elengedhetetlen. Ezen rvek alapjn gondoljuk hasznosnak nyomtatott sztrak megjelentetst, fleg ha nem csupn ktnyelv, hanem tbbnyelv. Erre tesz ksrletet kutatcsoportunk is, amely romn, angol, nmet, francia, orosz s magyar nyelven kszl megjelentetni egy (kz)gazdasgi sztrt, figyelembe vve korbbi hasonl jelleg kiadvnyokat (pl. Briota 2001) is. Mindez termszetesen azt is felttelezi, hogy igny van ilyen jelleg mvekre, de ezt mindenkppen altmasztja a jelenkori fordtstudomny s fordtstechnika fejldse, illetve az a tny, hogy az elmlt 10 vben egyetemi szinten mennyire megntt a fordt- s tolmcsszakok indtsa, valamint a fordtirodk virgzsa.
Ksznetnyilvnts
Jelen cikk a Sapientia Alaptvny Kutatsi Programok Intzete tmogatsval kszlt, szerzds szma: 34/7/2011.03.22.
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Bart, I. 2002. Angol-magyar kulturlis sztr, Budapest: Corvina Kiad. Bart, I. 2000. Amerikai-magyar kulturlis sztr, Budapest: Corvina Kiad. Ben A. n.n. Magyar neve? Romniai llami intzmnynevek magyarul. http://www.sztanyi.ro/download/magyar_intezmenynevek.pdf, 2010.12.18. Ben A. s tsai. 2004. Magyarromn kzigazgatsi sztr. Sepsi szentgyrgy/ Sfntu-Gheorghe: Anyanyelvpolk Erdlyi Szvetsge. Ben A. Srosi-Mrdrosz K. 2008. Romnmagyar oktats-termino lgiaisztr, Anyanyelvpolk Erdlyi Szvetsgnek kiadsban. Ben A. 2009. Romnmagyar kulturlis sztr. Sepsiszentgyrgy/ SfntuGheorghe: Anyanyelvpolk Erdlyi Szvetsge. Briota, L. Zs. 2001. Dicionar economic romnenglezmaghiar, SfntuGheorghe: Medium. Fazakas E. (szerk.) 2002.Romn-magyar kzigazgatsi sztr, Anyanyelv polk Erdlyi Szvetsge Kiadja, Sepsiszentgyrgy. Fazakas E. 2005. Romn-magyar gazdasgi sztr. Romniai Magyar Kzgazdsz Trsasg. Fazakas E. Somai J. 2008. Magyar-romn gazdasgi sztr. Romniai Magyar Kzgazdsz Trsasg. Gouadec, D. 2007. Translation as a Profession, Vol. I-II, Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Imre A. 2010. Translating Subtitles with Translation Environment, in Language, Culture and Change, Higher Education between Tradition and Innovation, Iai: Editura Universitii Al.I. Cuza. Imre, A. 2011. Possibilities for should in Translation Environments, in Studia Universitatis Petru Maior Philologica 10, Trgu-Mure. Ivnyi Antal (fszerk.). 2007. Angol-magyar elektronikus sztr, Budapest: Tinta Kiad. Orszgh L. Futsz D. Kvecses Z. 2008. Magyarangol klasszikus nagysztr, Budapest: Akadmiai Kiad. Pym, A. 2002. Translation Studies as Social Problem-Solving. Paper for the conference Translating in the 21st Century: Trends and Prospects, Thessaloniki, Greece.
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Internetes forrsok http://193.231.13.17/vufind/Record/BCU01000571762, 2011.09.22. http://akkrt.hu/326/szotar/angol/nagyszotar/magyar_angol_klasszikus_ nagyszotar_cd_vel_net_tel, 2011.09.22. http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/whoweare/index_en.htm, 2010.04.13. http://kilgray.com/press-release/memoq-won-itis-2011-best-translationsoftware-award, 2011.09.22. http://memoq.helpmax.net/en/reference-guide/eurotermbank-options/, 2011.09.01. http://www.eurotermbank.com/products_download.aspx, 2010.06.18. http://www.libri.hu/konyv/amerikai-magyar-kulturalis-szotar.html, 2011.09.22. http://www.libri.hu/konyv/angol-magyar-kulturalis-szotar.html, 2011.09.22 http://www.tinet.cat/~apym/on-line/research_methods/thessaloniki.pdf on 10th April 2010 http://www.translationconference.com/2009_eload/JancsiB_HU.pdf, 2010. 03.12.
A Lexic o graphic A ppr o ach t o the E ng l i s h R o manian R /o manian E ng l i s h Lega D licti o narie s and G l o s s arie s E xi s ting On the R o manian B o o k M arket
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Caraiman, Carmen D. Medrea, Nicoleta
A Lexicographic Approach to the English-Romanian/Romanian-English Legal DictioNaries aNd Glossaries ExistiNg ON the RomaNiaN BooK MarKet
Within the globalization process it is commonly accepted that English has become the universal language of communication for most citizens of different nationalities, and consequently more and more books for English learning and teaching have been published to satisfy the demands of their users (pupils, teachers, students, academics, research workers, vocational workers and so on). Apart from the use of English as a communicational language for general purposes, the necessity of specialized vocabulary has emerged as a result of the learners needs, either students or specialists practising in specific fields. Accordingly, English for specific purposes or ESP (for a proper definition of ESP, see: Tony Dudely-Evans, Maggie Jo St John 1998; John Flowerdew, Matthew Peacock 2001; Tom Hutchinson, Alan Waters 2006) has developed considerably in the last decades. Besides books and textbooks, dictionaries and glossaries have been seen as indispensable tools for specialists and non-specialists who use English in specific areas of activity or simply study in this language. The need of such dictionaries and glossaries is self-evident within the context of globalization and particularly as part of European Union enlargement which requires certain uniformity in different areas, among which the legal framework seems to be the most challenging one. One may ask the question What is the difference between the ESP and General English to justify the need of such books, dictionaries or glossaries? This question must be formulated by a person who does not use English in his/her job because as Hutchinson and Waters answer in their book: in theory nothing, in practice a great deal (Tom Hutchinson & Alan Waters 1987). Starting from this premise of the great need of specialized vocabulary, our aim is to investigate the E-R and R-E legal dictionaries and glossaries which are available on the Romanian book market (including the specialized glossaries: English-Romanian, Romanian-English Glossary
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of the European Convention on the Human Rights, Human Rights Cooperation and Awareness Division Directorate General of Human Rights Council of Europe, Council of Europe, 2006; Laura Ana-Maria Vrabie (ed.), Elena Bodea, Ctlina Cristina Ana Constantin, Ana-Maria Georgescu, Maria-Carolina Georgescu, Gabriela Adriana Rusu, Violeta tefnescu, Anca Voicu (coauthors), Glosar juridic, Institutul European din Romnia, Direcia coordonare traduceri, 2007) in order to point out what types of legal dictionaries/glossaries exist, what selection criteria were used for the included headwords, and in what way the entries are structured. We pay particular attention to entry structure, synonymy (the question whether the author/authors select(s) a single Romanian translated term or offer(s) several possible Romanian versions for a single English word/ phrase etc.), contextualization (the inclusion of the translated terms into specific contexts of use), source(s) used for selecting the headwords, the inclusion of quotations in the analyzed books and morphological information regarding the selected entries. When faced with the situation of translating in the field of law, the problem of correctly identifying the English equivalent of the Romanian legal term and vice versa is often a difficult attempt. In fact, the idea of writing this paper is a consequence of our working with students in law and our trying to guide them in the process of correctly assimilating accurate legal terminology. The first tool that one resorts to when trying to identify the best translation is the dictionary; in the field of law, dictionaries and glossaries have often proved to be only suggestive and have not provided the accurate translation required for the specialized field of law, which in its turn is multiplied into several areas of law (public, private; criminal, civil; etc.). On the other hand, it is widely accepted that these dictionaries or glossaries are perceived as authoritative records of how people ought to use language, and they are regularly invoked for guidance on correct usage. They are seen, in other words, as prescriptive texts (B.T. Atkinis and Michael Rundell 2008: 2). In consequence, accuracy should be the major characteristic of any dictionary. However, in order to provide accuracy, contextualization must be indicated in order to avoid disambiguation. At the same time, citations are sometimes used in dictionaries to help the reader better understand the translated term: A citation is a short extract from a text which provides evidence for a word, phrase, usage or meaning in authentic use (B.T. Atkinis and Michael Rundell 2008: 48).
A Lexicographic Approach to the English-Romanian...
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We have already mentioned the fact that in our paper we analyze both legal dictionaries and glossaries. The basic similarities and differences which exist between the two linguistic instruments are according to the OUP dictionary (http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/glossary) the following ones: a glossary is an alphabetical list of words relating to a specific subject, text, or dialect, with explanations; a brief dictionary, while a dictionary is: 1. a book that lists the words of a language in alphabetical order and gives their meaning, or that gives the equivalent words in a different language; 2. a reference book on any subject, the items of which are arranged in alphabetical order: a dictionary of quotations. Since our paper deals with legal dictionaries and glossaries, we shall notice that glossaries are field oriented (they are specialized on a specific branch of law), while dictionaries provide a selection of terms from different law branches, which makes them be perceived as too general in content and sometimes as slightly inefficient by their users. Of course, in practice, the legal translator should make use of both dictionaries and glossaries, for both legal glossaries and dictionaries include specialized vocabulary. In order to understand the work that lays behind the creation of a dictionary/glossary, one should start with defining lexicography, which is commonly seen as the activity or occupation of compiling dictionaries (http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/glossary). However, the work of a lexicographer is more complex than compiling entries in a book on the basis of special criteria which are meant to organize the included information: The lexicographer, according to Green (1996: 13), is quite simply, the compiler of a dictionary. But things are never quite so simple /.../. Landau (1984) entitles his textbook Dictionaries. The Art and Craft of Lexicography, while Svensn, in his book on Practical Lexicography (1993: 1), defines lexicography as a branch of applied linguistics which consists in observing, collecting, selecting and describing units from the stock of words and word combinations in one or more languages and adds that it also includes the development and description of the theories and methods which are to be the basis of this activity (R. Apud, R. K. Hartmann 2001:11). In the following pages we are going to point out the methodology used by lexicographers for conceiving their dictionaries, as well as the structure of several entries which we regard as illustrative for their manner of work. The first dictionary we want to make reference to is Cecilia Voiculescu, Dictionar juridic E-R, R-E, Editura Niculescu, Bucharest,
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2005. In the Foreword to Cecilia Voiculescus dictionary, Ph.D. Professor Gheorghe Oprescu wrote: This dictionary basically contains terms used in antitrust legislation and practice (the legislation and practice meant to protect competition), as it is known in America. (Voiculescu 2005: 5). In the Introduction to her dictionary, Cecilia Voiculescu explains that: The English-Romanian/Romanian-English dictionary includes legal and economic, finance and banking, as well as administrative terms which are mainly used in antitrust law, also covering the consumers protection, microeconomics and business activities in general. This dictionary is an editorial novelty in Romania since it includes English-American legal terms which have never been included in any Romanian terminology so far. These are identified, explained and confirmed by competent sources and included in a lexicographic work. The most difficult and rare terms are defined and accompanied by quotations from American jurisprudence, as well as by excerpts from EU official sites (Voiculescu 2005: 8). The author also emphasizes the idea that she has basically selected the specialized meanings and not the general ones: ... in the present paper you are not going to find the most known meaning of a legal or economic term but especially the specialized one (Voiculescu 2005: 9). I have always tried to suggest one translation first, adding then the already usual form, in a regressive order as to its common use (Voiculescu 2005: 10). On the other hand, the dictionary does not offer phonetic script for the included headwords and contexts of use for the selected headwords are rarely indicated; translated terms are not included in the given examples and the various translations provided makes it difficult for the reader to select the exact translation he/she needs for a specific context. In the following lines, we have selected a few entries to point out the observations we have made above: charge1 s. acuzaie, nvinuire; tarif; tax; (la serviciile utilitare) pre, cost; charge2 v. a acuza, a nvinui, a imputa; a impozita, a percepe; a practica; charter1 s. statut (al unei societi); charter2 v. a autoriza. (Voiculescu 2005: 43). However, for a better understanding of the American term certiorari (SUA) - audiere n faa instanei supreme (pentru revizuire judiciar) (Voiculescu 2005: 42), the author includes a quotation in which the headword is used in a specialized context: The judgment and decree of
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the court shall be final, except that the same shall be subject to review by the Supreme Court upon certiorari. (Voiculescu 2005: 42) All in all, we appreciate that Cecilia Voiculescus dictionary is a useful instrument of work thanks to its well-defined purpose: to cover terms that are commonly used in antitrust law. In the Foreword to her dictionary, Onorina Grecu Dicionar juridic E-R, R-E, Editura C.H. Beck, Bucuresti, 2008, the author explains that: The dictionary, which includes 6,000 entries, is rich in explanations and usual expressions of specialized terminology.(our translation) (O. Grecu 2008: 1). For drawing up this dictionary, we have used Romanian and English legal explanatory dictionaries, as well as bilingual dictionaries and legal English courses that were published in our country and abroad (our translation) (O. Grecu 2008: 1). For the analysis of this dictionary we have selected the following entries: a aboli vb. tr. abate, abrogate, annihilate, annul, call off, cancel, dissolve, extinguish, invalidate, nullify, obliterate, overthrow, overturn, prohibit, quash, repeal, remove; dispute I. s. disput, dezbatere. Trade ~ conflict de munc. ~ concerning the validity of the appointment contestaie referitoare la validitatea mandatului; ~ settlement soluionare a litigiilor; ~ on voting contestare a votului; II. vb. tr. a dezbate, a combate, a pune n discuie. (O. Grecu 2008: 231); faculty s. 1. facultate, aptitudine, nzestrare. 2. permisiune, autorizare. 3. libertate de a face, drept subiectiv. (O. Grecu 2008: 244). We can easily notice the fact that the dictionary offers a wide range of synonyms for one headword. The occasional lack of examples and contextualization can puzzle the reader who may find it difficult to choose the right term (see the above given example for a aboli). On the other hand, the examples and contextualization given for dispute make it easy for the reader to differentiate among the various possible translations that the entry gives. The dictionary written by Vladimir Hanga, and Rodica Calciu, Dictionar juridic E-R, R-E does not give information as to the criteria used by its authors for selecting the included entries, as the other quoted dictionaries did (in the Foreword pages). However, by consulting it, the reader can easily notice that it includes various legal terms from different fields (civil, criminal, constitutional, administrative, etc.).
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If we analyze the examples selected below, we can draw a few conclusions: give v. a da; a face dreptate cuiva; a transmite; a publica; a adjudeca; a acorda (despagubiri); a judeca; a pronunta o sentinta; a trada (pe cineva); a emite; a denunta; a preda; a ceda; a da cu imprumut; to ~ the case for the dependant, a da o hotarare in favoarea paratului; under certain n conditions, in anumite conditii date; to ~ evidence, a face o depozitie; to ~ forth, a emite, a publica (o stire), a pronunta o hotarare; to ~ in, a ceda; to ~ off, a emite; to ~ out, a emite, a proclama, a publica; to ~ a promise, a face o promisiune; to ~ smb.his due, a da cuiva ceea ce i se cuvine; to ~ up, a ceda, a denunta, a preda (in mainile justitiei); to ~ way, a ceda, a face concesii. (V. Hanga and R. Calciu 1998: 282); embezzle (embezzlement) s. abuz de ncredere. (V. Hanga and R. Calciu 1998: 261); prevailing a. dominant. ~ party parte ctigtoare ntr-un proces. (V. Hanga and R. Calciu 1998: 350); moot a. discutabil; controversat. (V. Hanga and R. Calciu 1998: 325) suspenda v. to suspend. a ~ o sedinta, to suspend a meeting; a ~ o lege, to suspend the application of a law; a ~ platile, to stop payment. (V. Hanga and R. Calciu 1998: 147). It is true that the dictionary has the advantage of offering many examples and contextualization for the selected entries and that they contain morphological information. Yet there are no phonetic transcripts, some words do not include all their specialized meanings- in the moot entry, the authors do not indicate the commonly used meaning proces simulat for this term, a quite surprising lacuna. For the translation of embezzlement the very common legal meanings of delapidare and deturnare de fonduriare missing. The word drept has a wide variety of translations yet some important phrases are missing such as drept obiectiv (law), drept subiectiv (right), or drept de proprietate (ownership right). The translation for the phrase a suspenda o sedinta includes the not so common to suspend a meeting and the more common to adjourn a meeting is included as an entry only in the E-R dictionary. Finally, the two glossaries mentioned at the beginning of our paper, English-Romanian, Romanian-English Glossary of the European Convention on the Human Rights and Laura Ana-Maria Vrabie (ed.), Elena Bodea, Ctlina Cristina Ana Constantin, Ana-Maria Georgescu, Maria-Carolina Georgescu, Gabriela Adriana Rusu, Violeta tefnescu,
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Anca Voicu (coauthors), Glosar juridic do not offer any contextualization, morphological or phonetic information regarding the included headwords, yet the fact that they include only one translation (very rarely two) for each entry leaves no room for ambiguities. This lack of ambiguity is reached due to their very specialized character. As its title indicates, English-Romanian, Romanian-English Glossary of the European Convention on the Human Rights includes terms used in the field of human rights. To quote only a few: bailiff- executor judectoresc; conditional release- eliberare condiionat; null and void- nul, lovit de nulitate; acuzaie n materie penal- criminal charge; jurispruden, practica judiciar- case law. The same straightforward translation can be found in the Legal Glossary published by the European Institute of Romania and the introduction to the glossary reveals how this has been reached: This publication contains a collection of terms mainly compiled from a series of cornerstone acts of the case-law of the European Court of Justice. Although the terms have been carefully checked, in some cases they may be subject to amendment as the process of authentication of the caselaw translated into Romanian is in progress at the Court of Justice of the European Communities.(L. A. Vrabie, coord. 2007:1). In our opinion, this publication reveals the best methodology for creating a legal glossary. First of all, we should mention the fact that it is a French-English-Romanian legal glossary and the source language presents a context for each word or phrase. To exemplify: FR acte rglementaire Context: Il rsulte de la jurisprudence susmentionne de la Cour que, dans lhypothse o le principe de la responsabilit de la Communaut du fait dun acte licite devrait tre reconnu en droit communautaire, une telle responsabilit ne saurait tre engage que si le prjudice invoqu, le supposer n et actuel, affecte une catgorie particulire doprateurs conomiques dune faon disproportionne par rapport aux autres oprateurs (prjudice anormal) et dpasse les limites des risques conomiques inhrents aux activits dans le secteur concern (prjudice spcial), sans que lacte rglementaire se trouvant lorigine du dommage invoqu soit justifi par un intrt conomique gnral (arrts De Boer Buizen/Conseil et Commission, Compagnie dapprovisionnement et grand moulins de Paris/Commission, et Biovilac/CEE, prcits).
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Source: 61995A0184, considerentul 80 EN legislative measure RO act normativ Source: 61995A0184, considerentul 80 As we can see, the reader does not only find out the translation of the phrase, but he/she is also given the context in which the word appears and, also, the source of the document in which this headword appears. Furthermore, the reader can find the right translation of the same term in both French and English. It is true that the glossary does not include phonetic and morphological information. Still, the fact that it offers a clear translation, a context and the source of the European document, makes this lexicographic instrument not only a useful book, but also a professional one. To conclude, we consider that, in the future, the legal dictionaries should adopt this strict and foreword reference made to the selected entries. Of course, it is the authors/authors duty to decide whether phonetic script and morphological information is useful. In our opinion, all the information (especially contextualization) referring to the selected headwords is useful in a glossary or dictionary in order to be considered a reliable and a real instrument for professionals working in any field.
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Bibliography
Atkinis, B.T.; Rundell, M. 2008- The Oxford Guide to Practical Lexicography, OUP, Oxford. Dudely-Evans, T.; Maggie Jo St J. 1998 - Developments in English for Specific Purposes. A Multi-disciplinary Approach, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Flowerdew, J.; Peacock, M. 2001- Research Perspectives on English for Academic Purposes, University Press, Cambridge. Hanga, V.; Calciu, R. 1998- Dictionar juridic E-R, R-E, Editura Lumina Lex, Bucureti. Hartmann, R. R. K. 2001- Teaching and Researching Lexicography, Pearson Education Ltd, Essex. Hutchinson, T. Waters, A. 2006- English for Specific Purposes, University Press, Cambridge. Hutchinson, T., Waters, A. 1987- English for Specific Purposes: A learnercentered approach. Cambridge University Press (http://www.antlab. sci.waseda.ac.jp/abstracts/ESParticle.html) Pucheanu, M.-L.1999- Dictionar juridic E-R, Editura All Beck, Bucuresti. Voiculescu, C. 2005- Dictionar juridic E-R, R-E, Editura Niculescu, Bucureti. Vrabie, L.A., (ed.), Bodea, E. C. C.; Constantin, A.; Georgescu, A-M.; Ionescu, M.C. ; Rusu, G.A.; Stefanescu, V.; Voicu, A. 2007- Glosar juridic: R-E-F, Institutul European din Romania, Bucureti. http://ebooks.unibuc.ro/filologie/vranceanu/part13.htm. http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/glossary
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Definiiile i rolul lor n terminologia medical
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I.1. Precizri preliminare. Definiia are o importan major n orice fel de terminologie, deoarece este procedeul general prin care se expliciteaz valoarea unui concept (DSL 2001:155) sau modalitatea convenional prin care se conectez conceptul cu cuvntul sau cu termenul care l reprezint (Sager 2000:VII), impunndu-l ntr-un anumit domeniu. Alte studii surprind, n definirea acestui concept, caracterul interdisciplinar al definiiei, dat de coexistena mai multor planuri: planul cunoaterii (referitor la faptul c prin definiie se urmrete identificarea referentului), cel lingvistic (mesajele se construiesc cu ajutorul limbajului) i cel sociopedagogic (alctuirea textului definiiei trebuie s aib n vedere categoriile socioprofesionale crora li se adreseaz). Prin urmare, definiia este o analiz sau o descriere a sensului unei uniti pe baza creia s i se poat identifica referentul i care s permit construirea unor mesaje lingvistice corecte (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007:49). n cazul lexicului specializat din dicionarele generale i, n mod implicit, n cazul termenilor medicali, se constat utilizarea acestora att ca termeni specializai, ct i ca elemente ale limbajului uzual. Se poate vorbi, astfel, de dou sensuri ale aceluiai cuvnt: un sens tiinific i un sens pretiinific sau uzual (Vasiliu 1986:87-88) i de existena unor definiii alternative, cnd articolele de dicionar nsumeaz mai multe tipuri de definiii (tiinifice i uzuale) (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 50). I.2. Dac n lingvistica tradiional conceptul de hiponimie este delimitat i definit din perspective semantice, n lingvistica modern hiponimia este privit i din perspectiva implicaiilor sale concrete n diverse domenii, cum ar fi lexicografia, terminologia, semantica. Din perspectiva terminologiei, hiponimia, ca relaie ierarhic, este important pentru motivul c terminologia este un ansamblu structurat de noiuni tiinifice i tehnice. Pe de alt parte, hiponimia, respectiv raporturile hiponimice, sunt exploatate n definiii lexicografice. Se apreciaz c
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perspectiva ierarhic face ca hiponimia s fie important pentru orice tip de definiie, terminologic sau lexicografic (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 138). Astfel, n definirea termenilor medicali n dicionarele generale, hiponimia reprezint principala manier lexicografic pornind de la ideea c hiponimia, ca relaie paradigmatic, leag cuvntul-titlu de secvena definitorie. n cele ce urmeaz, vom prezenta unele clasificri ale definiiei, anume definiii alternative n lexicul specializat, preluate din studiul Angelei Bidu-Vrnceanu (2007), studiu raportat la o bibliografie foarte actual i care conine o clasificare extrem de riguroas a definiiilor, precum i abordarea problematicii referitoare la rolul dicionarelor generale n relaia dintre lexicul specializat i limba comun. Aceste clasificri, de interes pentru terminologia medical, vor fi completate cu exemple proprii pentru a ilustra tipuri de definiii ale termenilor medicali din DEX. De asemenea, vom evidenia cum, dintre relaiile semantice capabile s precizeze sensurile specializate, hiponimia are implicaii n construirea discursului lexicografic, putnd fi definit ca un instrument de punere n relaie a unei forme cuvnt cu un sistem de redare a sensului, rezultat al unei ierarhii conceptuale (Collinot 1990: 60).
II. Definiii alternative n lexicul specializat

n lingvistica romneasc, premisele acestei categorii de definiii au fost constituite de ideea susinut de E. Vasiliu 1980, referitoare la faptul c orice definiie lexicografic este aproximativ. Aceast idee este aplicat lexicului specializat sub numele de definiie alternativ de ctre A. Bidu-Vrnceanu (2000: 19, 72; 2007: 62-71), acest concept fiind corelat cu concepia terminologic, referitoare la faptul c unele definiii impun sensul specializat, iar altele asigur accesul nespecialistului la sensul specializat. Se apreciaz c aproximarea definiiei unui termen poate s apar la dou nivele: cel al definirii (fcut de terminograf i /sau lexicograf) i cel al interpretrii (date de vorbitorul nespecialist) (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 63). Aproximarea interpretrii sensului specializat de ctre nespecialist trebuie admis, dar ea depinde de factori eterogeni. Intereseaz, deci, aproximarea n definiia dat de lexicograf. S-a constatat c unele definiii lexicografice le reproduc ntru totul pe cele terminografice, dei o definiie strict tiinific, este, n majoritatea cazurilor, inaccesibil
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nespecialistului chiar pentru o transcodare aproximativ a sensului specializat (id.). Prin urmare, dicionarele generale ar trebui s ofere definiii mai accesibile, mai uor decodabile dect cele terminografice, definiii numite pretiinifice sau uzuale (Vasiliu 1980: 86-88). Definiiile pretiinifice (uzuale) impun atenie n ce privete gradul inferior admis n aproximarea sensului specializat, n sensul c acesta nu trebuie s afecteze nodul dur sau media semantic, fundamentale pentru identificarea termenului (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 64). Din perspectiva utilizrii corecte a unui termen specializat n limba comun intereseaz n ce msur poate reiei grila unei interpretri medii ntre definiia tiinific i cea pretiinific. Se apreciaz c dicionarul general (DEX) pe baza cruia se face interpretarea ar trebui s adopte definiii unitare n ce privete lexicul specializat (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 64). n urma diverselor analize ntreprinse, s-a constatat, ns, c definiiile termenilor specializai din DEX sunt inegale sub aspectul raportului definiie tiinific/ definiie uzual. Pentru termenii din medicin, de exemplu, definiiile sunt preponderent tiinifice, i, prin urmare, greu de decodat de ctre nespecialist. Diversele studii efectuate au condus la constatarea c DEX-ul practic definiii diferite (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 66): existena unor definiii strict tiinifice; definiii exclusiv pretiinifice (uzuale); definiii mixte, rezultate din diverse combinaii ale informaiilor; definiii mixte n care se combin n grade diferite definiia tiinific cu cea uzual; definiii mixte rezultnd din combinarea mai multor metalimbaje (natural i simbolic); definiii mixte condiionate de apartenena la mai multe terminologii sau la lexicul tiinific interdisciplinar. Prelum clasificarea definiiilor propus de Bidu-Vrnceanu, precum i exemplele analizate de autoare, pe care le completm cu exemple pentru domeniul medicinei.
II.1. Definiii strict tiinifice

Din punct de vedere cantitativ, definiiile tiinifice sunt foarte bine reprezentate n dicionarele generale pentru termeni din chimie, cum ar fi AMILODEXTRIN, ACETOFENON, ETEN, la termeni din fizic PIEZOMETRU, MANOGRAF, la termeni din medicin BRONHOPNEUMONIE, PILOPLASTIE (id.). Prin exemplul definiiei termenului ETEN - hidrocarbur saturat cu o dubl legtur n
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molecul, se arat c elementele care fac raportarea ierarhic tiinific sunt total inaccesibile nespecialistului, acest lucru fcnd ca att clasarea, ct i diferenierea s nu fie posibile. Pentru acest exemplu, se precizeaz c este parial decodabil semul funcional, materie prim important pentru producerea polietilenei, alcoolului etilic, a cauciucului sintetic. n cazul definiiei termenului PIEZOMETRU se constat c indicarea explicit a domeniului prin marca diastratic (fizic) i prin genul proxim accesibil aparat se asigur o cunoatere ordinar parial i pasiv. n schimb, sunt total inaccesibile, prin stricta specialitate, datele reprezentnd diferena specific: cu care se msoar gradul de comprimare a lichidelor sau se determin presiunea static a fluidelor. Pentru medicin, se exemplific definiia termenului PILOPASTIE, integral codificat: intervenie chirurgical de lrgire a sfincterului piloric prin secionarea longitudinal i prin suturarea transversal a pilorului (ibid.). Referitor la aceast definiie tiinific, apreciem c repartizarea termenului medical PILOPASTIE n domeniul medicinii este asigurat prin clasarea intervenie chirurgical, n care determinantul chirurgical, indic un subdomeniu al medicinei, anume chirurgia, sugernd, prin urmare, hiperonimul imediat inferior pe scar ierarhic, dup hiperonimul general MEDICIN. Diferenele specifice, de tipul semelor funcionale, aparin, ns, unui cod nchis, fiind inaccesibile vorbitorului obinuit. Completm sfera exemplelor care ilustreaz definiia tiinific i prin care se arat cum codul nchis al acestora face imposibil accesul nespecialistului la sensul termenului definit, cu cteva exemple extrase din DEX: (a) HIPOFOLICULINISM (med) disfuncie hormonal cu scderea foliculinei.; (b) MEZODERMOZ (med) denumire generic pentru virozele care au afinitate pentru esuturile i organele provenite din mezoderm.; (c) SIMPATICOTONIE stare de dezechilibru a funciunii sistemului nervos vegetativ cauzat de exagerarea activitii sistemului nervos simpatic.; (d) SIMPATICOTOMIE intervenie chirurgical constnd n secionarea i ndeprtarea unei pri a lanului ganglionar simpatic. n definiiile nregistrate sub (a) i sub (b), clasarea termenilor definii, HIPOFOLICULINISM, respectiv MEZODERMOZ, se face prin marca diastratic (med), ce indic hiperonimul cel mai general cruia i se subordoneaz termenii medicali definii. Acest lucru, ns, nu asigur i accesul la sensul termenilor. Clasarea disfuncie hormonal, n definiia termenului HIPOFOLICULINISM, aparine codului nchis al medicinei,
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iar diferena specific de tipul semelor funcionale, dei ar trebui s faciliteze nelegerea sensului, deoarece indic un aspect concret al manifestrii acestui tip de afeciune, se nscrie i ea n acelai limbaj inaccesibil nespecialistului, ca i clasarea. Clasarea denumire generic, corelat cu un cvasisinonim al termenului definit, MEZODERMOZ, nu este lmuritoare pentru nespecialist, iar diferenele specifice, de tipul semelor perceptibile, care au afinitate pentru esuturile i organele provenite din mezoderm, conin date strict specializate. n definiiile nregistrate sub (c) i sub (d), termenii definii, SIMPATICOTONIE i SIMPATICOTOMIE, nu sunt clasai prin marc diastratic. Pentru SIMPATICOTONIE, clasarea stare de dezechilibru este foarte general, iar diferenele specifice sunt extrem de specializate: a funciunii sistemului nervos vegetativ, cauzat de exagerarea activitii sistemului nervos simpatic, rmnnd inaccesibile vorbitorului obinuit, chiar dac, cel puin semele funcionale sunt extrem de utile i de necesare nespecialistului. Definiia termenului SIMPATICOTOMIE este integral codificat. n ciuda determinantului chirurgical din clasarea intervenie chirurgical, care asigur repartizarea termenului definit n domeniul medicinei, restul definiiei lexicografice, dei conin informaii descriptive referitoare la manopera medical, adic constnd n secionarea i ndeprtarea unei pri a lanului ganglionar simpatic, pstreaz nchis accesul la sensul termenului definit.
II.2. Definiii pretiinifice (uzuale)

n ceea ce privete accesul la sensul termenilor tiinifici, n general, i a termenilor medicali, n special, la polul opus, se situeaz definiiile pretiinifice (uzuale). Se apreciaz, ns, c ponderea lor n DEX este limitat, chiar izolat. Bidu-Vrnceanu (2007: 67) ilustreaz aceast situaie prin definiiile uzuale ale unor termeni din medicin ca: BRONIT (boal a cilor respiratorii + care se manifest prin tuse), exemplu izolat n terminologia medical (pentru care se dau mai ales definiii tiinifice). Numeroi termeni din tiinele naturii au definiii accesibile, n unele cazuri, cum ar fi NURC, datele descriptive conducnd la o definiie uzual. DEX-ul definete NURCA astfel: mic mamifer semiacvatic cu blan de culoare cafenie-rocat, deas, mtsoas, foarte apreciat, cu botul ascuit i cu degtele unite prin membrane nottoare. Singura informaie tiinific este denumirea latin savant (luteola luteola),
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important pentru raportarea conceptual ierarhic din tiinele naturii, dar secundar n poziia definiiei lexicografice. Revenind la termenii medicali explicai n DEX prin definiii pretiinifice (uzuale), se constat c aceste situaii sunt puine, ceea ce presupune c definiiile termenilor medicali din DEX sunt greu accesibilile vorbitorului obinuit. Analiza definiiilor pretiinifice (uzuale) ale termenilor medicali n DEX conduce la observaia c acestea sunt mai mult sau mai puin apropiate de definiia tiinific. Tranziia gradual de la pretiinific la tiinific (Vasiliu 1986: 89) poate fi evideniat prin analiza unor exemple: (a) Sensul pretiinific (uzual) al termenului medical, n gradul 0 de ncifrare a sensului se poate ilustra prin: ONICOMALACIE (med) consisten anormal de moale a unghiilor. n definiia termenului medical ONICOMALACIE, clasarea se face prin marca diastratic (med), ceea ce asigur repartizarea cuvntului definit n domeniul medicinei. Marca (med) funcioneaz ca hiperonim al termenului definit, de altfel, singurul hiperonim, deoarece sintagma consisten [...] moale este un cvasisinonim al lui ONICOMALACIE, i nu o clasare. Adverbul anormal atrage atenia asupra faptului c termenul definit reprezint o afeciune. (b) Alte definiii pretiinifice i pstreaz caracterul accesibil pentru nespecialist, ns utilizeaz, alturi de marca diastratic (med) clasri cu caracter foarte general, ca n: ONICOMICOZ (med) boal a unghiilor cauzat de unele ciuperci parazite. Ca i n exemplul anterior, i aici clasarea se face prin marca diastratic (med), care asigur repartizarea termenului medical ONICOMICOZ n domeniul medicinei. Marca diastratic (med) nu este, ns, singurul hiperonim al termenului definit, deoarece se identific n nceputul definiiei clasarea BOAL, un hiperonim inferior pe scar ierarhic lui MEDICIN. Utilizarea hiperonimului BOAL i diferenele specifice de tipul semelor funcionale, care indic agentul ce provoac afeciunea (cauzat de unele ciuperci parazite), fac ca definiia termenului ONICOMICOZ s se afle, gradual, pe o poziie superioar prin comparaie cu definiia termenului ONICOMALACIE, n raport cu tranziia de la pretiinific la tiinific.Accesul nespecialistului la sensul termenului definit este asigurat n definiia termenului ONICOMICOZ, chiar dac identificm elemente ce in de limbajul specializat i de cunoaterea tiinific. Prin urmare, definiia termenului ONICOMICOZ este una pretiinific, cu mai multe elemente tiinifice.
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(c) Alte definiii uzuale conin sintagme cu rol de clasare care pot pune n dificultate nespecialistul n demersul su de a decodifica sensul, ca n: PANFOBIE (med) stare de anxietate extrem fa de tot ceea ce se petrece n jur, deseori, nsoit de dezorientare.Ca i n exemplele anterioare, marca diastratic (med) asigur repartizarea termenului medical PANFOBIE n domeniul medicinei i funcioneaz ca hiperonim al termenului definit. Exist, ns, n nceputul definiiei o sintagm clasificatoare, stare de anxietate, care apropie definiia de sensul tiinific, deoarece aceasta conine un termen medical, anume ANXIETATE. Diferenele specifice sunt accesibile nespecialistului: fa de tot ceea ce se petrece n jur i nsoit de dezorientare. Avnd n vedere c singura informaie strict tiinific din definiia termenului PANFOBIE este termenul ANXIETATE, se poate consider c accesul la sens al profanului este asigurat, iar definiia n discuie este pretiinific (uzual), n msura n care termenul ANXIETATE este interpretat ca neologism i nu ca termen specializat, iar vorbitorul obinuit cunoate acest neologism.
II.3. Definiii mixte, rezultate din diverse combinaii ale informaiilor

Se arat (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 68) c numeroase definiii mixte din DEX combin n acelai articol elemente din definiia tiinific cu altele din definiia uzual. Autoarea exemplific aceste situaii prin exemple de definiii ale unor termeni din chimie, unde clasarea apare riguros tiinific (ACAUSTOBIOLIT roc organic, FURFUROL aldehid provenit din furan, CORINDON oxid natural de aluminiu), iar diferenele specifice dau, n general, informaii funcionale accesibile: ACAUSTOBIOLIT utilizat n industria coloranilor i n farmacie, FURFUROL folosit ca solvent pentru rafinarea uleiurilor sau pentru insecticide, CORINDON folosit ca piatr preioas sau ca abraziv. Completm aceste exemple cu definiii mixte ale unor termeni medicali din DEX, n care se combin elemente din definiia tiinific cu altele din definiia uzual: PANARIIU inflamaie de natur infecioas, localizat la degetele de la mini sau de la picioare.; CONJUNCTIVIT inflamaie a conjunctivei, care se manifest prin roea mncrime i secreie abundent.; ACONDROPLAZIE Boal congenital caracterizat prin oprirea creterii oaselor membrelor, n contrast cu dezvoltarea normal a corpului i ale trunchiului.
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n toate cele trei exemple extrase din DEX ale termenilor medicali clasarea se face riguros tiinific: PANARIIU inflamaie de natur infecioas; CONJUNCTIVIT inflamaie a conjunctivei, ACONDROPLAZIE Boal congenital. Acest tip de clasare asigur la repartizarea termenilor definii n domeniul medicinii, dar nu ajut la decodificarea, dect parial sau/ i aleatorie (intervenind nivelul de cultur al vorbitorului) a sensului specializat de ctre vorbitorul obinuit. Diferenele specifice ofer informaii accesibile, de tipul semelor refereniale (pentru PANARIIU localizat la degetele de la mini sau de la picioare) sau funcionale (pentru CONJUNCTIVIT care se manifest prin roea mncrime i secreie abundent, pentru ACONDROPLAZIE caracterizat prin oprirea creterii oaselor membrelor, n contrast cu dezvoltarea normal a corpului i ale trunchiului ). Apreciem c n acest tip de definiii mixte, rezultate din diverse combinaii ale informaiilor, mai precis din alturarea unei clasri strict specializate cu diferene specifice foarte accesibile, accesul vorbitorului la sensul termenului definit este cu att mai facil, cu ct diferenele specifice sunt mai explicite.
II.4. Definiii mixte n care se combin n grade diferite definiia tiinific cu cea uzual
Se semnaleaz c, n destul de multe situaii, DEX-ul d paralel, explicit o definiie tiinific i una uzual, ceea ce ar reprenzenta un tip de definiii alternative (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 68). Aceast situaie este ilustrat prin exemplul substantivului SAFIR, care este definit att ca varietate de corindon, ceea ce reprezint clasificarea din mineralogie, ct i ca piatr preioas de culoare albastr transparent, aceast a doua informaie constituind o definiie pretiinific uzual (id.). De asemenea, este nregistrat i exempul culorilor spectrale, care dispun att de o definiie tiinific din fizic, ce indic poziia n spectru i aproximativ lungimea de und: GALBEN - una din culorile fundamentale ale luminii, situat n marginea acestuia, dinspre lungimile de und mari. Alturi de definiia tiinific se noteaz i una uzual, ostensiv, concret: GALBEN de culoarea aurului, lmii, etc. sau ROU - de culoarea sngelui (ibid).
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Vom arta n cele ce urmeaz modul cum se combin n grade diferite definiia tiinific cu definiia pretiinific n cteva definiii alternative ale unor termeni medicali n DEX: (a) ANEURIE slbire a funciilor nervoase; anevroz.; (b) CAROTID fiecare dintre cele dou artere principale, ramuri ale aortei, situate de o parte i de alta a gtului, care transport sngele de la inim la cap, arter cefalic.; (c) ALEXIE incapacitate de a citi, cecitate verbal provocat de unele leziuni n centri nervoi. (a) n definiia termenului ANEURIE, definiia tiinific este realizat prin sinonimia cu un alt termen specializat din domeniul medicinei: anevroz, dar i prin slbire a funciilor nervoase , aceast a doua informaie constituind o definiie pretiinific uzual, extrem de accesibil vorbitorului nespecialist. (b) Pentru termenul medical CAROTID, definiia tiinific i cea pretinific se mbin n alte proporii n comparaie cu situaia nregistrat sub (a). Astfel, definiia tiinific este realizat prin sinonimia cu o sintagma specializat pentru domeniul medicinei: arter cefalic. n ce privete definiia pretiinific, aceasta ncepe cu o clasare fiecare dintre cele dou artere principale, ramuri ale aortei, ce asigur repartizarea termenului definit n domeniul medicinii, urmat de diferene specifice: seme de tip referenial situate de o parte i de alta a gtului i de tip funcional care transport sngele de la inim la cap. (c) n alte situaii, definiia tiinific este mai complex dect cea uzual. n definiia termenului medical ALEXIE, se identific o definiie uzual extrem de accesibil nespecialistului incapacitate de a citi, dar foarte vag, nefiind precizat cauza ce produce acest tip de afeciune. Definiia tiinific ncepe cu o clasare cecitate verbal, continuat de diferena specific provocat de unele leziuni n centri nervoi, ce arat cauza producerii acestei boli. Considerm c definiiile alternative, n care se combin n grade diferite definiia tiinific cu cea uzual reprezint una dintre cele mai potrivite modaliti de abordat n definirea termenilor medicali, deoarece prin clasrile extrem de specializate se asigur repartizarea imediat a termenului definit n domeniul medicinei, iar prin sensul uzual se faciliteaz interpretarea adecvat, corect a sensului specializat de ctre nespecialist.
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II.5. Definiii mixte rezultnd din combinarea mai multor metalimbaje (natural i simbolic)
Se arat c unele definiii mixte ale termenilor specializai rezult din combinarea mai multor metalimbaje i c anumite tiine, mai ales cele tari, precum matematica, chimia, mineralogia, dispun de definiii date att n limbaj natural, ct i prin simboluri i prin relaiile dintre ele (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 68). Definirea prin sisteme simbolice este preferat n textele strict specializate pentru precizia i univocitatea sensului tiinific exprimat astfel, dar rmne n general inaccesibil nespecialistului. Din acest motiv, dicionarele generale nu o utilizeaz, prefernd soluii eterogene n desemnarea sensului tiinific (id.). Utilizarea simbolurilor se nregistreaz pentru domenii precum chimia i mineralogia, la nivel strict tiinific, formulele reprezentnd definiii tiinifice. Un exemplu analizat (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 69) este termenul AMETIST, ce are formula SiO2, corespunztoare prii tiinifice din definiia lexicografic varietate de cuar i bioxid natural de siliciu (v. i A. Bidu-Vrnceanu coord. 2001: 241-256). Se constat c formulele apar n definiiile din dicionarele generale transpuse n limbaj natural (de pild, bioxid natural de siliciu), indicarea elementelor chimice rmnnd opac pentru nespecialist, care nu nelege dect global trimiterea la chimie i la o manier riguroas de interpretare (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 69). Combinarea de metalimbaje, interpretate ca definiie alternativ, mixt prin combinarea denumirilor savante exprimate n latin cu definiii tiinifice i/sau pretiinifice n acelai articol de dicionar al unor termeni medicali apare n cazul termenilor aparinnd tiinelor naturii (botanic, zoologie). Astfel, n definiiile plantelor i animalelor, DEX-ul indic la sfrit nume latineti aparinnd unui cod tiinific nchis, interpretat strict ierarhic i univoc de specialiti (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 69). Se apreciaz c vorbitorii nespecializai au acces parial, limitat la unele denumiri clasificatoare mai ales utilizate n limba comun, cum ar fi mamifer, din familia felidelor, ierbivor, familia rozaceelor etc. Bidu-Vrnceanu (id.) arat c n definiia substantivului PISIC exist o clasificare n termeni tiinifici: (mamifer domestic) din familia felidelor, urmat de descrierea animalului i de indicaia carnivor, ceea ce constituie o definiie pretiinific. Finalul definiiei este reprezentat de numele latinesc Felis domestica. Alte exemple analizate de autoare sunt: definiia substantivului OVZ i cea a substabtivului PIERSIC. Definiia lui OVZ este format
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din clasarea plant erbacee din familia gramineelor definiie tiinific, urmat de descrierea plantelor cu paiul drept i infolorescena ramificat, de sensul funcional de nutre i de numele lat. avena. Definiia din DEX pentru PIERSIC are o clasificare tiinific din familia rozaceelor i una uzual pom fructifer, urmat de o parte descriptiv, integral accesibil, dar nu neaprat util pentru identificarea referentului cu flori trandafirii albe i cu fructe mari, sferice, iar la sfrit se d denumirea latin Persica vulgaris (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 70). n ceea ce privete termenii medicali din DEX, n definiiile acestora din dicionarele generale nu se identific combinarea mai multor metalimbaje, medicina neopernd cu simboluri.
II.6. Definiii mixte condiionate de apartenena la mai multe terminologii sau la lexicul tiinific interdisciplinar
Se apreciaz c definiiile unor termeni aparinnd lexicului tiinific interdisciplinar (LSI) ar putea fi considerate alternative mai ales atunci cnd se stabililete o relaie ntre sensurile aparinnd unor domenii diferite. Utilizarea n mai multe tiine a unui termen specializat este un fenomen curent n epoca actual i determin sensuri ale cror definiii au asemnri i diferene n msur mai mare sau mai mic, interesnd pstrarea nodului dur al sensului specializat i al altor elemente comune (id.). Autoarea enumer termeni interdisciplinari, artnd domeniile crora termenul le aparine, cum ar fi: VALEN (chimice, lingvistic), CUAR (chimie, mineralogie), CON (matematic, fizic, geografie), GAM (muzic, pictur), PUNCT (matematic, lingvistic, fizic, chimie, tehnic, arte plastice). Se consider c interpretarea ca alternative a definiiilor termenilor tiinifici interdisciplinari trebuie facut cu pruden. Ca exemplu convingtor, dar i clar, Bidu-Vrnceanu (2007: 70) analizeaz definiia termenului/cuvntului AP, consinderdu-se alternativ definiia din limbajul comun lichid incolor, inodor, potabil, alturi de diversele definiii tiinifice: n chimie - combinaia dintre hidrogen i oxigen H2O; n fizic definirea n funcie de punctele de fierbere i de nghe. Se arat c situaiile mai puin clare ca definiii alternative sunt cele n care termenii utilizai n domenii diferite au n comun numai nucleul dur al sensului specializat, ca de exemplu, termenului VALEN, ce are nucleul dur, capacitate (cu sensul de disponibiltate)
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de combinare (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 70). Diferenele specifice vizeaz elementele care se schimb, altele n funcie de domenii: n chimie atomi, n lingvistic - cuvinte. DEX-ul nregistreaz situaii diverse ale unor termeni a cror interdisciplinaritate presupune apartenena lor la diverse domenii, printre care i domeniul medicinii, cum ar fi ACEFALIE, APICAL, CRCEL. Din punctul de vedere al posibilitii de a interpreta ca definiii alternative definiiile termenilor medicali interdisciplinari din DEX, se pot identifica trei situaii: (a) termen interdisciplinar ale crui sensuri sunt elucidate prin definiii alternative (ACEFALIE); (b) situaii care nu permit n mod clar interpretarea ca definiie alternativ (APICAL); (c) termen interdisciplinar definit prin definiii paralele, corespunztoare domeniilor crora termenul le aparine (CRCEL). (a) Termenul ACEFALIE aparine zoologiei i medicinei: ACEFALIE 1.(zool) Lips a capului, specific unor animale inferioare. 2.(med) Monstruozitate congenital (incompatibil cu viaa) care const n lipsa capului la ft. Ambele sensuri, i cel specializat pentru domeiul medicinei i cel specializat pentru domeniul zoologiei, pstreaz nucleul dur lips a capului. Pentru primul sens nregistrat, cel zoologic, lips a capului reprezint clasarea, urmat de diferena specific de tipul semelor referniale specific unor animale inferioare. Pentru sensul medical, clasarea este reprezentat de o sintagm n care ambii termeni aparin domeniului medicinei: monstruozitate congenital, urmat de dou diferene specifice: incompatibil cu viaa i care const n lipsa capului la ft. Ultima diferen specific este reprezentat de nodul dur al sensului specializat al termenului interdisciplinar. Considerm c acest exemplu constituie o situaie clar de definiii alternative, deoarece, chiar dac pentru zoologie termenul ACEFALIE descrie un stadiu n evoluia animalelor inferioare, iar n medicin un tip de defect genetic, nucleul dur lips a capului reprezint informaia esenial pentru dezambiguizarea sensului pentru fiecare dintre cele dou domenii. (b) Situaiile mai puin clare ca definiii alternative sunt cele n care termenii utilizai n domenii diferite au n comun numai nucleul dur al sensului specializat (vezi VALEN) (id.). Ilustrm acest tip de situaie prin definiia termenului APICAL: APICAL, - 1. ( anat. med.) Care este situat la vrful, la extremitatea unui organ. 2. (despre consoane) Articulat prin apropierea vrfului limbii de dini, de alveole, de bolta palatului.
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n analiza acestui exemplu, trebuie precizat pentru nceput c interdisciplinaritatea termenului definit, APICAL, se realizeaz sub dou aspecte. Termenul APICAL aparine domeniilor medicin, anatomie i fonetic. Pentru primele dou domenii, termenul are acelai neles, sensul 1 al termenului APICAL fiind clasat prin dou mrci diastratice, corespunztoare celor dou domenii, medicin, respectiv, anatomie (anat. med.) Care este situat la vrful, la extremitatea unui organ. Al doilea sens, cel corespunztor foneticii, nu beneficiaz de o marc diastratic pentru a indica domeniul, dei DEX-ul opereaz cu marca (fon), pentru a indica domeiul fonetic, respectiv, fonologie. n absena acesteia, paranteza explicativ, (despre consoane), asigur repartizarea termenului APICAL n domeniul foneticii, alturi de termenii specializai, referitori la aparatul fonator dini, alveole, bolta palatului. Pentru cele dou sensuri, primul, corespunztor medicinei i anatomiei, i al doilea, corespunztor foneticii, se pstreaz nucleul dur al sensului situat la vrful [...] unui organ, respectiv prin apropierea vrfului limbii , ceea ce asigur parial interpretarea ca definiii alternative. (c) n alte exemple, nu se poate identifica nodul dur al sensurilor, inconvenien la care se adaug i inconsecvena n utilizarea mrcilor diastratice ce indic diverse domenii, ca n: CRCEL 1. (med) Contracie brusc i involuntar a muchilor de la extremiti, nsoit de obicei de senzaii dureroase. 2. Organ vegetal care are aspectul unui fir rsucit n spiral, cu ajutorul cruia planta se aga de corpurile din jurul ei. 3. (zool) Cpu. Pentru sensurile nregistrate sub 1 i 3 ale termenului CRCEL sunt utilizate mrcile diastratice (med), pentru domeniul medicinei, respectiv (zool) pentru domeniul zoologiei. Pentru al doilea sens nu se utilizeaz nicio marc diastratic, repartizarea sensului n domeniul botanicii fcndu-se prin clasarea organ vegetal, n care determninatul, vegetal, este termen specializat pentru botanic. Deoarece ntre cele trei sensuri, corespunztoare domeniilor medicin, botanic, zoologie, nu se poate stabili niciun tip de relaie i nu se pstreaz nodul dur al sensului, apreciem c definiia termenului CRCEL nu reprezint un exemplu de definiie alternativ. Apreciem c n privina termenilor interdisciplinari care denumesc noiuni abstracte situaiile sunt mai puin clare n interpretarea definiiilor ca alternative. n ceea ce privete termenii interdisciplinari care denumesc noiuni concrete, cum ar fi unele substane (vezi exemplul AP, Bidu-
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Vrnceanu 2007: 70) sau unele anomalii (ACEFALIE) este evident pstrarea nodului dur n explicarea sensurilor, condiie esenial pentru definiiile alternative.
3. Concluzii
Din analiza ntreprins rezult c terminologia medical reprezint un cod nchis, bazat pe o interconceptualitate strict, care creeaz probleme reale definirii i decodrii, iar anumite tipuri de definiii sunt de preferat n dicionarele generale. Dicionarele generale ar trebui s ofere definiii mai accesibile, mai uor decodabile dect cele terminografice, adic definiii pretiinifice sau uzuale. Pentru termenii din medicin definiiile sunt preponderent tiinifice, i, prin urmare, greu de decodat de ctre nespecialist. Codul nchis al acestora face imposibil accesul nespecialistului la sensul termenului definit. Definiiile alternative, n care se combin n grade diferite definiia tiinific cu cea uzual, reprezint cea mai potrivit modalitte de abordat n definirea termenilor medicali, deoarece clasrile extrem de specializate asigur repartizarea imediat a termenului definit n domeniul medicinei, iar sensul uzual faciliteaz interpretarea adecvat, corect a sensului specializat de ctre nespecialist. Cercetarea legat de tipuri definiii alternative, avnd la baz unei anumite terminologii, cea medical aa cum apare ea n dicionarele generale ale limbii romne, pune n eviden aspecte de interes ale hiponimiei att pentru taxonomia tiinific, ct i n definirea lexicografic, iar interpretarea corect a hiperonimelor n relaie cu hiponimele lor trebuie s asigure mcar parial nucleul sensului specializat, ceea ce justific utilitatea analizei definiiilor lexicografice ale termenilor medicali.
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Bibliografie
Bidu-Vrnceanu 2000 - A. Bidu-Vrnceanu coord, Lexic comun, lexic specializat, Editura Universitii din Bucureti. Bidu-Vrnceanu 2001 - A. Bidu-Vrnceanu coord, Lexic tiinific inter disciplinar, Editura Universitii din Bucureti. Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007 - A. Bidu-Vrnceanu, Lexicul specializat n micare. De la dicionare la texte, Editura Universitii din Bucureti. Bidu-Vrnceanu 2010 - A. Bidu-Vrnceanu coord, Terminologie i termi nologii, Editura Universitii din Bucureti. Collinot 1990 - Lhyponymie dans un discours lexicographique in Langages, nr. 98, Paris. Lerat P. 1990 - Lhyperonymie dans la structuration des terminologies in Langages, nr. 98, Paris. Sager, J. C. 2000 - Essays on Definition, Amsterdam, John Benjamins B. V. Vasiliu, Em. 1980 - Sens i definiie lexicografic, in Studii i cercetri lingvistice, XXXI, nr. 5. Vasiliu, 1986 - Em. Vasiliu, Definiia sensului sau definiia obiectului?, in Studii i cercetri lingvistice, XXXVII, 2. Surse [DEX 1998] Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, ediia a II-a, coord. Ion Coteanu, Luiza Seche i Mircea Seche, Bucureti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic. [DSL] Dicionar de tiine ale limbii, BIDU-VRNCEANU,A., CLRAU, C., IONESCU-RUXNDOIU, G., MANCA, M., PAN DINDELEGAN, G., Dicionar de tiine ale limbii, Bucureti, Editura Nemira, 2001. [DM] Dicionar de medicin, Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2006.
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Annotations on Lexical Innovations
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ANNotatioNs oN Lexical INNovatioNs
The vocabulary of any language is the domain subdued to the most rapid changes. One can discuss about changes that take place in language or linguistic changes only after spreading or embracing some innovations, new linguistic facts. Eugen Coseriu talks about these facts in the following terms: Everything that, in one speakers words, is getting far in a linguistic manner from the existent patterns in the language in which conversation takes place, is called innovation. And the acceptance from the part of the listener of an innovation, as a pattern for the next expressions, can be called endorsement. [] A linguistic change (a change inside the language) represents the spreading or generalization of an innovation, namely it necessarily implies a series of successive endorsements. This means that, ultimately, every change is an endorsement at the outset. (Coseriu 1997:70). Therefore vocabulary changes to the extent to which some lexical innovations generalize. A lexical innovation can imply the use of a new lexical unit, the modification of the root or of the semantic structure of a word in a language. Emphasizing such an innovation is a process that compares different stages in the development of a language, and because of its generalization, the innovation that we discuss about becomes a historical category. The above fact can be illustrated through an example from the Romanian language. The word vedet (leading actor), having its origin in the French vedette signifies the actor or actress that has the main role in a show, especially in a movie (and he/she has a great popularity), according to DEX 1998. The same meaning as the above is rendered by another Romanian term, recently appeared in the language, and this is star, a word with English origin. The two terms are in a competition, but the recent borrowed word (star) began to be more powerful than its French rival. Thus, the use of star beside vedet represents an innovation, as well as the use of vedet as a unique word for the above meaning at the time it appeared in language represented a lexical innovation for that time.
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Lexical changes take place in time and it comes out that two terms can be in a competition at a given time because they have the same meaning and thus the selection of innovation must take place. This kind of situation happened to rzbel (old name for war) and rzboi (war). The first one, a form remade from a Slavonic term in accordance to the Latin bellum (armed conflict between two or more groups, social categories or states, for some economic and political interests) was used in the 19th century, probably, in order to make the difference between it and its Slavonic homonym which signified household instrument used for weaving. At that time rzbel represented the Latinists lexical innovation, but nowadays it is already obsolete (it appears only in the dictionaries or it is used with a humorous meaning). The reverse situation happened to the synonym terms rtund and rotund (rounded). Only the second one became established and survived and that was another innovation belonging to the Latinists (Hristea: 1968: 343-347). Nowadays rtund, from the Latin retundus, is a dialectal variant. What one can notice from the above examples is the fact that the fate of every lexical innovation is decided by certain chances to compel recognition or not in one aspect or another of the language. Some innovations have their starting point in different mistakes, infringements from the linguistic standards. These facts generalize and become correct forms, therefore representing innovations. For instance, if we consider the adjective nou (new), we must say that the feminine plural nou has been replaced by noi in order to avoid confusion with its homonym, the numeral nou (nine) (One can also see Iorgu Iordan: 1962: 170). Undoubtedly, these mistakes have their role in the linguistic development, since they can eventually become correct forms, replacing the previous ones. It is the case of the variant foarfec (scissors), which replaced foarfece; frecie (massage), which replaced fricie, but is still in competition with friciune, although the last one is not so often used. Lexical innovations have at the outset different linguistic causes that the speakers are not aware of, but they affect their speech. In this category there are the following phenomena that we are going to speak about: analogy, contamination, popular etymology and hypercorrectness. Analogy consists in achieving new aspects, variants, meanings, new words, on the basis of pre-existent patterns that exert an assimilating action for several reasons. This linguistic phenomenon has an important role in word formation.
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An illustrative example of analogy is the verb a picta (to paint). Until the end of the 19th century, there was one verb of Latin origin that was used together with the nouns pictor and pictur, namely the verb a zugrvi (neo-Greek origin). Once the lexical family sculptor, sculptur, sculpta began to gain ground in the domain of fine arts, then spreading in current use too, the verb a picta imposed itself, beside the nouns in its lexical family, following the pattern a sculpta. A picta resulted from these nouns by back formation. The verb a ofa (to drive a car) appeared in the same manner, this time from the noun ofer (driver), of French origin, according to the pattern oma, omer. Analogy is the process through which words of different origins have been assimilated by Romanian language. A series of nouns in the vocabulary of old Romanian language, ending in ar (zidar, templar, cojocar, cizmar, dogar, crciumar bricklayer, carpenter, furrier, shoemaker, cooper, publican) represented an analogical pattern for assimilating new borrowings from different languages, especially French, Italian, German. Thus, we have terms as: vestiar (cloakroom), from the French vestiaire, veterinar (vet), from the French vtrinaire, marinar (sailor), from the French marinier and the German Mariner, etc. There is another important fact to be emphasized regarding semantic analogy: this phenomenon affects both the content and the form of a word. Thus, as a consequence of an analogical influence (the series perfect, perfeciune), the term defeciune (flaw), from the French dfection, the Latin defectio, -onis (abandoning one cause, deserting a party; the fact of not being there where one is waited for) became synonym with defectare (out of order), having the meaning trouble, fault that stops good functioning of a machine, a device, a mechanism, the normal progress of an action, etc. Through synonymic word formation, semantic analogy has an important stylistic role, developing figurative meanings of words. For instance, the metaphorical meaning of the noun bostan (= cap) pumpkin (=head) determined, by analogy, the use of the nouns dovleac (synonym of pumpkin) and trtcu (gourd) with the same meaning. Contamination or lexical crossing represents the process through which two synonym terms with the same frequency in communication overlap in speakers conscience, the result being some hybrid forms, accepted in language as variants or even proper lexical units. It is a spontaneous phenomenon, since the speaker does not have any stylistic intention.
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One of the most common examples in this way is probably the verb a vroi, appeared as a consequence of a contamination between the verb a voi with the verb a vrea (to want). Contamination also gave proper lexical units such as cocostrc (cocor + strc), a azvrli (a arunca + a zvrli), rotocol (roat + ocol) stork (crane + heron), to fling (to throw + to hurl), wreath (round + detour), etc. For the stylistic intention of the speaker, one can also see the variant of lexical derailment suggested by Al. Graur in one of his works published in 1970, namely Scrieri de ieri i de azi (1970: 160-167). Hypercorrectness names the process through which the speakers change the initial form of some words for fear of not mistaking them. Even though in many cases there are non-literary variants that appear as a consequence of this phenomenon, there are also situations when those variants succeed in making their way to the literary language. We have, for instance, the variant delapida (embezzle), from the French dilapider, the Latin dilapidare. Another linguistic phenomenon that we discuss about is known under the name of popular etymology and it represents the false analysis and the etymological interpretation of some words that are less used/ known by speakers or of some obscure words in point of motivation. This phenomenon is mainly based on what Charles Bally calls etymological instinct, on the basis of which speakers create a motivation that lacks scientific basis for those terms that have an indistinct meaning or an unusual form. Popular etymology is equally based on resemblance between ideas or on some formal similarities such as homonymy and synonymy. Based on these facts, those speakers associate, for instance, the term patrul (patrol) to the numeral patru (four) or the term ezlong (lounge chair) to the verb a edea (to sit down). But patrul is actually a term of German origin (Patrulle), meaning military sub-unit that fulfils a research mission, guard, control and the word ezlong is from the French compound noun chaise-longue (long chair). Because of the paronimy, words like acolad (brace) or filigran (filigree) came to be used incorrectly as arcolad and filigram, according to arc (bow, arc) and gram (gram). In fact, the term filigran has nothing to do with gram, because it is a word of French origin (filigrane) and this one too is from the Latin filum (thread) and granum (wheat); meanwhile arcolad has a clear semantic motivation, acolada representing a graphic sign in the shape of an arc reuniting words, numbers, paragraphs, etc. However, acolad comes from the French accolade, which belongs to the
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lexical family of the word col (neck), because, initially, it referred to the action of embracing someones neck, as greeting and only later it came to designate the graphic sign. The above incorrect forms are motivated for those relatively cultivated speakers. The phenomenon of popular etymology operates in modifying the meanings of some terms, but not necessarily their form. The content is thus affected, a term that is more often used and known having an influence over a less known and less used term. An illustrative example in this case is the term babalc (old fogy) that initially showed politeness, curtsey towards an important person. In the long run, the first part of the word was connected to the term bab, especially to the pejorative connotations of it; therefore, the term began to mean old and helpless person. Popular etymology is noticed at some compound nouns as omnivor (omnivore). Wrongly connecting this term to the noun om (man) from the Latin homo + vorare (to eat, to swallow) gave the term the meaning that eat people, synonym to cannibal (cannibal ). In fact, omnivor comes from French (omnivore) and in its composition one can identify the Latin omnis (everything) and vor from the Latin verb vorare (to eat), justifying the correct meaning: that eat vegetal and animal food. Meaning and form transformation too is noticed in the word crdie (collusion). At the beginning the form of the word was crdie, but under the influence of crd, it changed into the variant we know and accept today. The meaning of crdie, derived from carda (brother, mate) was tovrie (comradeliness, partnership), but changing the form brought the undervaluing of initial meaning, upholded by the existence of some idioms where the term crd has the meaning of coterie, gang (a intra n crd/crdie cu cineva). Nowadays the term crdie has a negative meaning: joining for objectionable purposes. The difference between the above linguistic phenomena resides in the reasons which make them appear. Analogy appears because of a simple formal resemblance between words, hypercorrectness is the consequence of the awareness of the right/wrong opposition in language, contamination has its starting point in a semantic resemblance and popular etymology implies a false analysis and etymological interpretation. However, we have to underline the fact that such linguistic phenomena give rise to variants of some words that represent, in fact, innovations in relation to form and meaning. If a variant is eventually generalized and established, that is something required by the language use.
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Bibliography
Coeriu, E.1997 - Sincronie, diacronie i istorie, Editura Enciclopedic, Bucureti. Graur, Al.1970 - Scrieri de ieri i de azi, Editura tiinific,Bucureti. Guu Romalo V.2005 - Aspecte ale evoluiei limbii romne, Editura Humanitas Educaional, Bucureti. Hristea Th.1968 - Probleme de etimologie. Studii. Articole. Note, Editura tiinific, Bucureti. Iordan I.1962 - Lingvistic romanic: evoluie, curente, metode, Editura Academiei, Bucureti. Stoichioiu-Ichim 2001- Vocabularul limbii romne actuale. Dinamic, influene, creativitate, Editura All Educational, Bucureti erban, Evseev 1978 - Vasile, erban; Ivan Evseev, Vocabularul romnesc contemporan.Schi de sistem, Editura Facla, Timioara. DEX 1998 - Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, ediia a II-a, Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti. DOOM 2005- Dicionarul ortografic, ortoepic i morfologic al limbii romne, ediia a II-a revzut i adugit, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti.
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III. PLURILINGUAL TERMINOLOGY. TRANSLATION AND EQUIVALENCE
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Rus, Maria-Laura
Traduction et terminologie
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Enache, Eugenia
TraductioN et termiNologie
Mme si, premire vue, la traduction et la terminologie appartiennent des domaines diffrents puisque la traduction porte sur le langage en situation tandis que la terminologie porte sur le langage comme systme conceptuel, elles sont insparables pour celui qui pratique le mtier de traducteur.
I.Traduction vs terminologie ou traducteur vs terminologue

La terminologie est vue comme une discipline qui propose des modles, des rgles, des standards, des normes. La terminologie sattache prcisment dcrire dans les langues les units spcialises qui sont plus ou moins extensives et substitutives et qui ont la particularit dtre utilises dans des secteurs techniques ou scientifique. Le travail du terminologue se droule, donc, dans lintralinguistique sil a extraire des units terminologiques dunits linguistiques partir de textes dune mme langue. Sil a dcrire des objets, il doit se transporter dans lextralinguistique et observer ce quil en est de leurs proprits pour dfinir et nommer des objets adquatement. Si le terminologue exerce dans le champ de la traduction, il doit faire correspondre lanalyse effectue dans une langue avec celles ncessaires pour la traduction dans dautres langues, travaillant ainsi dans linterlinguistique. Si pour les terminologues la distinction terminologie interne et terminologie externe jalonne en quelque sorte leur travail de recherche, on pourrait considrer le traducteur comme un terminologue spcialiste des terminologies externes, puisquil envisage lutilisation adquate du sens spcialis, et, galement, comme un bnficiaire des travaux du domaine de la terminologie interne qui envisage lutilisation adquate du sens spcialis, mme sil y a continuum entre langue commune et langue spcialise. Le traducteur se sert du travail du terminologue qui lui fournit une matire premire dcisive et cruciale et, de plus en
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plus, du matriau primaire valid ; la matrise des terminologies, en phase de comprhension comme en phase dexpression, est lindice de la comptence technique ou spcialise et, globalement, lindice de la capacit traduire correctement. La terminologie oriente vers la traduction viserait tablir, dans les diffrentes langues, des quivalences terminologiques qui sont utiles au traducteur et qui contribuent la qualit du texte traduit. Le traducteur devrait savoir non seulement choisir entre plusieurs dnominations concurrentes, mais aussi dtecter les cas o les deux langues ne font pas la mme dlimitation des concepts, afin de rsoudre correctement les lacunes de dnomination en langue cible. Dans cette perspective le traducteur a besoin de la terminologie comme soutien technique dans les domaines spcialiss pour connatre la terminologie utilise effectivement par les spcialistes, ainsi que la structuration conceptuelle gnrale des domaines de rfrence de ses textes, pour connatre la valeur pragmatique de cette terminologie (degr de normalisation, frquence, niveau de spcialisation), ainsi que la manire dont elle est utilise en langue cible: les collocations typiques, les units phrasologiques o elle sinscrit. Le traducteur doit aussi sintresser aux valeurs conceptuelles et aux dsignations des termes, mais galement aux interrelations (bidirectionnelles) et conditions dexploitation de ces termes. Ce qui intresse le traducteur, ce nest pas tant la comprhension du sens des units linguistiques que les diffrentes manires de les traduire, les quivalences dusage pour un mot ou une expression dans diffrents contextes verbaux. Afin de sassurer quils emploient les bons termes, les traducteurs ont besoin non seulement dquivalents justes, mais galement de contextes dutilisation, dinformation sur la combinatoire des termes ainsi que, si possible, des informations factuelles sur les concepts. Lquivalence terminologique est la cl de la terminologie multilingue puisque les quivalences de termes sont primordiales pour la traduction spcialise; mais leur collecte est longue et fastidieuse, un vraie travail de Sisyphe pour le terminologue et pour le traducteur, en raison du nombre considrable de documents produits et de la crativit lexicale dans certains domaines dactivit. La terminologie fournit, travers ses analyses, lune des cls de comprhension des mcanismes de transfert et interlinguistique ou, plus prcisment, des conditions de convergence/divergence entre univers et systmes de filtres instituant les reprsentations de ces univers. Les units spcialises que les terminologues appellent units terminologiques plutt que termes correspondrait, du point de vue du
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traducteur, aux units traduire/units traduites/units smantiques, ces entits double face dont les deux codes, celui de la langue source et celui de la langue cible sont runis par une relation interlinguale qui merge la suite de deux exgses intralinguales. son tour le traducteur travaille, lui aussi, dans lintralinguistique sil doit rflchir tous les sens dun terme en vue de trouver le mot juste pour sa traduction; et, ce moment-l, il se trouve dans linterlinguistique. Il est noter que le concept unit de traduction dsigne, la fois, un acte dinterprtation et un acte de conceptualisation. Si lon se propose dtablir un rapport entre la structuration des units mises en correspondance, en raison de la varit et de la complexit des formants linguistiques entrant dans leur composition, on peut surprendre de nombreuses redistributions dinformations dans le passage de la langue source la langue cible. Ainsi, linformation porte dans la langue source par une seule unit peut tre repartie dans la langue cible sur plusieurs units ou, au contraire, une information vhicule par plusieurs units peut tre concentre sur un nombre plus rduit de squences.
II.Traduction et terminologie ou traducteur et terminologue

La communication aurait pu, tout aussi bien, avoir comme titre, Traducteur et terminologue car, en fait la relation entre le traducteur et le terminologue est constitue, en premier lieu, par le fait que les deux sont des fournisseurs de services spcialiss. Dans un monde en plein bouleversement, conomique, politique, social, environnemental, sous lemprise des mdias et de lexplosion de nouveaux moyens de communication dont les enjeux et le fonctionnement ne sont pas encore clairement identifis, on peut se demander comment grer ce niveau les relations avec les fournisseurs de services linguistiques, en loccurrence, le traducteur, qui soccupe des services de traduction, et le terminologue dont lactivit consiste collecter, standardiser les termes, organiser et laborer des terminologies. Le traducteur a souvent recours la terminologie lorsquil cherche le sens prcis dun terme ou dune unit spcialise du langage, ou bien lorsquil hsite entre diffrents termes que ce soit dans la phase de comprhension ou de reformulation et lorsquil veut crer un nologisme ou une paraphrase dans la langue cible. Dans lopinion des chercheurs/
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professionnels (Guidre 2010 :138), traducteurs ou terminologues, il appartient au traducteur de rsoudre, par lexploitation de ressources dintrt gnral, les ventuels problmes lis la comprhension des valeurs conceptuelles (dans loriginal) et/ou la mise en uvre de leurs reprsentations (dans la traduction). Et pourtant, les spcialistes (Guidre 2010: 137) saccordent dire que le lien entre traduction et terminologie est problmatique parce que les traducteurs utilisent la terminologie de faon occasionnelle et instrumentale ; de leur point de vue, la terminologie est un ensemble dunits de communication, utiles et pratiques, qui doivent tre values en fonction de critres dconomie, de prcision et dadquation de lexpression. La terminologie nest vraiment utile quaux traducteurs que pour certains types de textes uniquement (textes spcialiss, techniques et scientifiques) ; envisage comme un outil indispensable et complmentaire, la terminologie est un lment fondamental de la communication spcialisecar elle donne des garanties ses utilisateurs sur la prcision et lefficacit de la communication. La terminologie, est destine satisfaire des besoins sociaux lis soit une communication optimale entre spcialistes et professionnels, avec ou sans laide de la traduction, soit au processus de normalisation dune langue. Le terminologue et, aussi bien, le traducteur ne sont que les maillons sur toute la chane de la communication; mais celui qui use plutt de la terminologie pour dvelopper son rle dagent de communication et dintermdiaire de la terminologie cest le traducteur. Selon les spcialistes (Gouadec 2005), la terminographie traductive, en tant que production et diffusion de ressources destines faciliter laccomplissement des tches de traduction, pourrait tre une rponse de ncessit aux besoins des traducteurs. La ncessit de traduire, ne de lexistence de dsquilibres entre cultures et langues, sest vite double de la ncessit de produire et de diffuser lune des matires premires vitales des traducteurs : les terminologies; ce qui est dune trs grande importance cest lharmonisation terminologique, cest ltablissement de relations dquivalence entre deux termes de langues diffrentes mais qui dsignent le mme concept, aussi bien que lharmonisation conceptuelle qui rside tablir des relations de correspondance entre deux ou plusieurs concepts, troitement lis mais qui prsentent de lgres diffrences dordre technique, scientifique ou culturel. Car lintrt majeur pour eux est de raliser lanalyse conceptuelle-culturelle et la mise en place des filtres dinterprtation, de slectionner lquivalent
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conceptuel et culturel et de contrler et de valider des conditions demploi de lquivalent. Le travail du traducteur et du terminographe trouve son point de force dans ralisation de la traduction, ou bien dans la rdaction du dictionnaire, la terminologie faisant partie intgrante du produit gnr ou cr au terme de la prestation du traducteur. Les auteurs des dictionnaires techniques bilingues ou multilingues partent souvent du principe que les terminologies refltent les structures objectives de la ralit. Cependant, la structuration de la ralit dune langue de spcialit peut ne pas concider dans les deux langues, surtout dans les domaines peu structurs comme dans les sciences humaines ou sociales. Un dictionnaire se fonde sur la pertinence de la slection du matriel, des entres et lexplicitation des informations Les explications seront de structure simple et assez brves, tout en offrant un maximum dinformation ; les renvois seront faits de manire reprer aussi les mots entrants dans la composition dun terme. Concevoir un rpertoire terminologique adapt aux besoins des traducteurs cest poser la question des points dentres qui sont consults et choisis par le traducteur interroge partir de son problme terminologique. Un des critres de la slection serait celui de la frquence, donc, des termes considrs comme les plus utiles aux futurs utilisateurs du dictionnaire. Outre lquivalent terminologique, les entres fourniront des informations sur la ralit technique/scientifique diffrente dun pays lautre, particulirement sensible dans le lexique. Toute dmarche mthodologique(et elle ressemble celle du terminographe) viserait dans un premier temps le choix du corpus textuel en franais et en roumain pour en extraire les termes les plus frquents et le contexte. Ltude des documents aurait comme but de trouver lquivalent roumain pour chaque terme franais, de comparer les contextes franais et roumains o lon a parl du mme concept, de prciser ltymologie, le genre et la valeur grammaticale des mots et des expressions et puis de dfinir les termes dans les deux langues. La dfinition qui accompagne le terme saccordera avec la manire de percevoir la ralit professionnelle par les spcialistes, qui ne concide pas avec celle du locuteur commun. Dans la terminologie la dfinition a les fonctions suivantes : elle prcise et fixe le concept en lisolant en mme temps des autres concepts proches. Le corpus des mots et des expressions serait rpertori dans des contextes discursifs de plusieurs documents et textes de spcialit aussi bien roumains que franais qui posent des problmes au traducteur roumain.
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Il sagirait de fournir des contextes, plutt que des exemples, qui ont le mrite dtre des utilisations authentiques. Le contexte est important car il fournit aussi des informations sur le comportement syntaxique du terme (place dans la phrase, articles et prpositions utilises) et sur les combinaisons du type verbe+complment ou prposition + nom. La question qui se pose est celle du type de dictionnaire quil faut dvelopper pour aider le traducteur dans son travail, vu que le rle des dictionnaires ou des rpertoires bilingues est dtablir des quivalences conceptuelles et inter-culturelles. Et dans ce sens, il faudrait faire la distinction, parmi les dictionnaires bilingues, entres ceux qui sont destins aux spcialistes non-traducteurs et ceux qui sont destins aux traducteurs de textes de spcialit, eux-mmes non spcialistes. Mais quel que soit le type de dictionnaire, il devrait faciliter lacquisition de certaines notions de spcialit, des comptences de communication professionnelle, cohrente et pertinente, dans le domaine dune spcialit, scientifique ou technique.
En guise de conclusion
Le travail du terminologue est de bien prciser les termes et celui du traducteur est de bien les utiliser dans la langue cible afin dexprimer rigoureusement la pense dans le but commun de dvelopper une comptence de communication multilingue qui ne soit pas seulement fonde sur des connaissances linguistiques; elle doit galement intgrer la dimension culturelle et conceptuelle du langage. Si les spcialistes sont par dfinition les utilisateurs de la terminologie, les traducteurs et les interprtes doivent tre galement considrs comme des utilisateurs prioritaires, dans la mesure o ils facilitent la communication entre spcialistes. Pour les traducteurs, la terminologie facilite la traduction dun contenu dune langue une autre. Ce processus sous-entend la comprhension du texte initial, et de ce fait, la connaissance des units terminologiques de la langue de dpart, car cest avant tout par le truchement des termes que les textes spcialiss vhiculent des connaissances. Il sensuit que le traducteur technique doit avoir une certaine connaissance du contenu de la discipline des textes quil traduit. Il doit galement bien matriser la langue darrive, dont la terminologie du domaine concern. Une bonne traduction ne doit pas seulement exprimer le mme contenu que le texte de dpart, elle doit aussi le faire
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en utilisant les mmes formes quemploierait un locuteur natif. Dans le cas de la traduction spcialise, ce locuteur serait un spcialiste du domaine. Par consquent, un bon traducteur technique doit se spcialiser dans le domaine o il souhaite travailler afin dacqurir un minimum de comptence pour sassurer de bien traduire.
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Bibliographie
Cabr, M.T. 1998 - La terminologie: thorie, mthode et application, Armand Colin et Presses de lUniversit dOttawa. Challe, Odile (dir.) 2007 -Langue franaise spcialise en Droit, Paris. Guidre, Mathieu 2010 - Introduction la traductologie, De Boeck Universit, coll.Traducto , Bruxelles. Houbert, Frdric 2005- Guide pratique de la traduction juridique anglais/ franais, La Maison du dictionnaire, Paris. LHomme,M.-Claude 2004- La terminologie: principes et techniques, Les Presses de lUniversit de Montral. Bidu-Vrnceanu, A. (coord.)2010 - Terminologie i terminologii (coord. Angela Bidu-Vranceanu), Editura Universitii din Bucureti. Bibliographie lctronique Daniel Guadec, Terminologie, traduction et rdaction spcialise, in Langages n 157 (1/2005) : http://www.cairn.info/revue-langages2005-1-page-14.htm .
Le s ambigu t s termin o l o gique s dan s l a traducti o n s pcia l i s e l :e ca s de que l que s terme s c o n o mique s
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Les ambiguts termiNologiQues daNs la traductioN spcialise: le cas de QuelQues termes coNomiQues
0. Si la mondialisation en tant que processus social tend une uniformisation des terminologies spcifiques, la question des ambiguts reste loin dtre rsolue. Pour ce qui est de la terminologie conomique en particulier, Daniela Stanciu et Liana tefan signalent le fait quen Roumanieil ny ait pas effectivement de volont officielle de standardisation: Ni lAcadmie Roumaine, ni un autre organisme ne sen occupe, comme en France, de la normalisation et de lunification linguistique. Les conomistes utilisent le terme tranger tel quils lont rencontr dans les tudes de spcialit ou dans les relations directes de leur profession ( Stanciu et tefan, 2010: 115). La complexit du lexique, constitu, comme le rappelle Georges Mounin, la confluence du sens, de la vision du monde et de la civilisation (Mounin, 2008), fait quune unit lexicale peut avoir plusieurs correspondants dans une autre langue. Les termes comportent des nuances si subtiles, que lon est souvent dans lembarras lorsquil sagit de trouver un quivalent employer dans la traduction. Dailleurs, cest dj un axiome que traduire signifie avant tout comprendre le sens global du texte, prendre en considration les contextes demploi des diffrents termes et les structures qui les englobent, mais aussi tenir compte de toute dimension interlinguistique. Ainsi, la traduction dun texte conomique, comme dailleurs de tout langage spcialis, exige, telle que Corina Cilianu-Lascu le rappelle (Cilianu-Lascu,2010 : 48) la fois une bonne formation linguistique et terminologique, ainsi quune bonne comprhension du domaine de rfrence. I.1.Cest ce que se propose de montrer aussi la rflexion propose par cette communication, qui na pas une porte thorique, mais tient de la pratique de traduction et du travail avec les tudiants lors dun sminaire en traduction spcialise. Elle ne se propose pas de donner une rponse
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dfinitive aux questions poses, mais se veut plutt une base de rflexion pour des claircissements terminologiques ultrieurs. Une approche des textes conomiques franais, mme superficielle, soulve du coup des ambiguts terminologiques, une des plus rcurrentes tant celles des termes frais , charges , dpenses , qui ont un mme quivalent en roumain, cheltuieli. Notre interrogation sur ces termes a commenc il y a un an peu prs, lorsquune tudiante de la spcialit LMA de lUPM a travaill l-dessus pour la session scientifique des tudiants (Moldovan 2010, http://www.upm.ro/evenimente/Pdf/ 2010/ Sesiune_stiintifica_studenteasca_2010.pdf). Les rponses partielles trouves ce moment-l dans la direction de ce travail, nous ont amene poursuivre les recherches loccasion de ce colloque. Alors que les lignes de ce travail taient dj traces, nous sommes tombe sur le travail de Corina Cilianu-Lascu, Pour une formation interdisciplinaire du traducteur en conomie: entre domaine de rfrence, linguistique et terminologie (Cilianu-Lascu, 2010), qui interroge par ailleurs le sens des mots frais , charges , dpenses . Corina Cilianu-Lascu met en vidence limportance des connaissances dans le domaine ou sous-domaine de spcialit, du contexte situationnel, ainsi que du contexte linguistique au niveau des collocations et de la phrasologie dans la dfinition du contexte dans linterprtation de ces mots polysmiques (Cilianu-Lascu, 2010 : 49). La chercheuse montre aussi que les diffrents sous-domaines conomiques emploient des synapsies diffrentes et que seulement une bonne comprhension des ralits extra-linguistiques lies au domaine de rfrence peut orienter linterprtation en vue du choix correct de lquivalent. Elle conclut propos des termes charges et dpenses que la charge serait lengagement, tandis que la dpense est lexcution proprement-dite et quune charge et la dpense correspondante peuvent tre trs loignes lune de lautre dans le temps. Tout en tenant compte de cette distinction, qui dans la dmonstration de larticle apparat trs pertinente, nous nous proposons de prolonger le questionnement, afin de trouver des repres qui orientent plus prcisment le choix terminologique. I.2. Pour un traducteur non-spcialiste du domaine, le recours aux ressources de recherche devient fondamental: les dictionnaires bilingues, monolingues et spcialiss, ainsi quaux textes authentiques roumains et franais, qui relvent par ailleurs une ralit conomique roumaine diffrente de celle franaise, sont autant des outils ncessaires au choix
Les ambiguts terminologiques dans la traduction spcialise
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de la variante correcte pour rendre dans la langue cible le mme sens que dans la langue source. Sy ajoute aussi une ncessaire collaboration avec ceux qui travaillent dans le domaine concern, qui peuvent fournir des renseignements fondamentaux pour les questions souleves. Dans la tentative dclairer le sens des termes mentionns ci-dessus, nous avons fait recours tout dabord des dictionnaires bilingues, mais ils ont t loin de se montrer un outil suffisant. Dans Dicionar romnfrancez administrativ, comercial, economic, financiar-bancar, juridic, Vasile Savin et Christine-Anca Savin (Savin et Savin, 2001) proposent pour le terme cheltuial trois correspondants, dpense, charge, frais, sans donner des explications sur leur emploi. Ils se limitent indiquer une liste dexemples, qui ne fait quaugmenter lembarras du choix du traducteur. Ainsi, on peut trouver par exemple cheltuieli bugetare = dpenses budgtaires cheltuieli de expediere = frais dexpedition , cheltuieli de exploatare = charges dexploitation . A son tour, la version franais-roumain du mme dictionnaire ne rend pas le sens plus claire, au contraire, il donne comme quivalents pour frais les mots cheltuieli (prevzute de lege / legale) et tax, qui ne correspond pas la version roumain-franais du dictionnaire, o les quivalents proposs pour le terme tax sont taxe et droit. Le dictionnaire polyglotte de termes conomiques, Dicionar de termeni economici romn, englez, francez, spaniol, paru chez Polirom en 2008, nest pas plus explicite cet gard. Il propose pour le mot cheltuieli les termes dpenses et frais et une srie dexemples, qui ne peuvent pas eux seuls clairer la logique de leur emploi. Labsence de rversibilit entre les quivalences de la langue source la langue cible dans lorganisation des termes et de leurs quivalents, repre dans le cas du premier dictionnaire, ainsi que labsence dexplications propos des termes ou des units terminologiques, induit souvent des ambiguts dans la pratique de la traduction. I.3. Certes, lunique emploi des dictionnaires spcialiss bilingues nest pas suffisant pour une bonne traduction, il est ncessaire de faire recours un dictionnaire monolingue spcialis dans un domaine, qui contienne aussi bien des connaissances linguistiques et rfrentielles. Il serait idal que les vocabulaires spcialiss sarrtent sur les problmes poss par la traduction et quils indiquent le contexte dutilisation de tel ou tel terme, car, comme lindique Loc Depecker, le signifi dun terme dans une langue [] ne correspond souvent quimparfaitement au signifi dun terme dune autre
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langue (Depecker, 2002: 58). Il est important que le vocabulaire oriente le choix de lquivalence correcte par des explications sur lemploi spcifique de chaque terme, comme cest le cas au moins pour les termes qui nous occupent du Dictionnaire dapprentissage du franais des affaires, paru chez Didier en 2000, qui sest montr un excellent outil terminologique pour la pratique de la traduction. Les auteurs de ce dictionnaire expliquent que les frais reprsentent une somme dargent quun agent conomique (un particulier, une entreprise) est oblig de donner ou de verser un autre agent conomique (un particulier, une entreprise, un organisme ) en change de fournitures livrees, de travaux executs, de services rendus ou davantages accords. En indiquant le terme dpense comme synonyme de frais, les auteurs du dictionnaire apportent dimportants claircissements sur leur smantisme. Ils prcisent que si lon est contraint de faire effectuer des travaux ou de faire appel des services, cest le terme frais quon doit employer, car il indique des dpenses occasionnes. Le terme dpense peut sappliquer un contexte plus large, comme par exemple dans le syntagme les dpenses publiques . Il y a des contextes o lon peut utiliser la fois frais ou dpenses, quand on indique une catgorie de dpenses, comme par exemple frais / dpenses professionnel(le)es. Les auteurs du dictionnaire prcisent galement que dans cette situation, le mot frais est utilis plus frquemment. Le mot dpenses a un sens large, il englobe la notion de charges et de frais, et ne dsigne pas explicitement lorigine et la destination des fonds. Ces prcisions terminologiques visant dsambiguseur le sens, assurent la comprhension exacte du concept, comme nous avons pu le vrifier dans une lecture du Projet de budget gnral de lUE pour lexercice 2012, dont nous allons reporter ci-dessous quelques fragments: Les frais de dmnagement et les cots connexes devraient slever 153 000 EUR. Pendant trois mois, la Cour devra en outre chauffer, clairer et entretenir les btiments existants, ainsi que le nouveau btiment K3. Les frais supplmentaires qui en rsulteront sont estims 149 000 EUR (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/budget/data/DB2012/FR/SEC00.pdf) Cheltuielile de mutare i costurile conexe se vor ridica, conform estimrilor, la 153 000 EUR. n plus, pentru o perioad de trei luni, Curtea va trebui s asigure nclzirea, iluminatul i ntreinerea att a cldirilor nchiriate, ct i a noii cldiri K3. Cheltuielile suplimentare astfel generate sunt estimate la 149 000 EUR. (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/budget/data/DB2012/RO/SEC00.pdf)
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Dans ce fragment, la premire occurrence du mot frais indique les dpenses occasionnes par le dmnagement, tandis que la deuxime, ayant une rfrence moins spcifique, est remplaable notre sens par le terme dpenses. A lappui de cette remarque, on pourrait citer deux fragments tirs de la lgislation franaise sur limposition, qui emploie avec la mme valeur les termes frais supplmentaires et dpenses supplmentaires: Votre activit vous oblige prendre certains repas hors de chez vous ? Vous pouvez dduire les frais supplmentaires que vous engagez par rapport au prix dun repas pris domicile. Les salaris qui optent pour la dduction des frais rels sont autoriss faire tat des dpenses supplmentaires sur les repas pris sur leur lieu de travail lorsquils ne peuvent rentrer les prendre chez eux en raison de leurs horaires de travail ou de lloignement de leur domicile. (http://www.impots.gouv.fr/portal/dgi/public/popup;jsessionid=KQC E5KEGRFEJJQFIEIPSFFA?espId=&typePage=cpr02&docOid=document standard_571&temNvlPopUp=true) Pour ce qui est du terme charge , il est, selon les auteurs du Dictionnaire dapprentissage du franais des affaires, spcifique la comptabilit, et dsigne uneperte de richesse ( somme dargent ou valeur) quun agent conomique (un particulier, une entreprise) subit pour la production ou lachat de biens ou de services rendus. Ils prcisent en outre que les charges reprsentent lensemble des dpenses, mais le contraire nest pas vrai; il y a des charges qui ne donnent pas lieu des dpenses, comme par exemple les amortissements ou les rductions de valeur. Ainsi, le terme charge relve des bilans comptables, et concerne, comme lindiquent Joseph Antoine et Jean-Paul Cornil lensemble des cots des actifs consomms (Antoine et Cornil,2002 : 75-78). En effet, on peut lire dans le texte du Projet du budget gnral de lUE pour lexercice 2012 lemploi du terme charges dans un contexte relatif ltablissement du crdit prvisionnel, dsignant une somme dbiter du budget disponible, traduit dans la version roumaine du mme texte par cheltuieli : 231. Charges financires 231. Cheltuieli financiare
Le terme charges dsigne un ensemble de cots supporter de lensemble du budget, une sortie dargent, considre dans sa dimension
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comptable. A partir de l, on pourrait nuancer lexplication de Corina Cilianu-Lascu: si la charge est lengagement et la dpense est lexcution, la charge reprsente pratiquement toute somme, paye ou dductible, capital et intrts, elles reprsente les dpenses effectives et les dettes attaches; une dpense est une sortie dargent, alors quune charge peut ne pas ltre. Ces exemples montrent, commelindique aussi Corina Cilianu-Lascu, que lunit de traduction ne peut pas tre le mot seul, mais des ensembles conceptuels articuls dlments quivalents (Cilianu-Lascu,2010 : 51). Le choix de lquivalent doit passer ncessairement par les connaissances du domaine de rfrence. Dans le cas de la terminologie conomique, les connaissances terminologiques doivent tre ddoubles par la comprhension des mcanismes conomiques. A cet gard, il suffit de rappeler le cas des termes tax et taxe; si dans les deux langues ces termes reprsentent unesomme dargent perue par ladministration ou par une personne prive, en echange dune autorisation, en franais le terme taxe dsigne aussi une somme prleve par lEtat titre dimposition. En France, la taxe a souvent la valeur dun impt indirect, comme cest le cas de la taxe dhabitation, paye titre dimposition pour la maison ou lappartement dans lequel on habite ou bien de la taxe foncire sur la surface du terrain dont on dispose. Ajoutons aussi la Taxe sur la Valeur Ajoute (TVA), terme traduit littralement en roumain (taxa pe valoare adugat), et qui du point de vue terminologique ne correspond pas au sens du mot tax , qui en roumain dsigne une somme perue par le bnficiaire dune prestation. Cest dailleurs la valeur dimpt indirect attribu la taxe qui explique lemploi du terme impozite pour taxes dans la version roumaine du Projet gnral de budget de lUE pour 2012, et qui pourrait sembler tonnante une approche parallle des textes en franais et en roumain: 4.0 TAXES ET RETENUES DIVERSES 4.0 IMPOZITE I REINERI DIVERSE
Qui plus est, il est remarquer que dans la pratique de la traduction, on doit oprer un choix terminologique lors de la traduction du roumain vers le franais des deux quivalents du terme tax, savoir taxe et droit . Quand est-ce quon doit employer taxe et quand est-ce
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quil faut utiliser droit? Dans une telle situation, le traducteur doit vrifier la dfinition du mot dans plusieurs glossaires, ce qui ne permet pas toujours darriver au rsultat escompt, car les glossaires noffrent pas toujours des dfinitions suffisamment claires pour faciliter leur traduction dans une autre langue. Par exemple, le Dictionnaire dapprentissage du franais des affaires, qui offre de nombreuses remarques sur lemploi des termes, comme nous lavons dailleurs indiqu avant, ne donne pas dexplications relatives la synonymie taxe / droit. Dans une telle situation, cest le contexte dusage de ces termes qui est susceptible daider lindividualisation de leur valeur. Moins frquent, le terme droit , ayant le sens de somme paye, dsigne un droit acquis en change du paiement de cette somme. Ainsi, les droits de douane confrent le droit dentre dans un pays, les droits dinscription ou de scolarit concdent linscription en vue de suivre une formation. Il est remarquer aussi que pour droits de scolarit on emploie aussi frais de scolarit, qui dsigne une participation financire aux cots occasionns par la formation. Ces quelques exemples montrent que la terminologie joue un rle essentiel dans la traduction spcialise et que les dictionnaires et les glossaires se montrent souvent peu performants cet gard, sarrtant peu sur les nuances de sens et les divergences conceptuelles. Il en dcoule la ncessit de concevoir la terminologie en fonction de la traduction, de fournir pour les entres des renseignements sur les aspects traditionnels, de montrer les rpercussions sur la traduction spcialise des cas de synonymie en terminologie.
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Bibliographieslective
ANTOINE, Joseph, CORNIL, Jean-Paul - Lexique thmatique de la comptabilit : Dictionnaire spcialis explicatif, 7e dition revue, augmente et mise jour avec la collaboration de Stphane MERCIER, Bruxelles, De Boeck & Larcier sa. BINON, Jean (coord) 2000 - Dictionnaire dapprentissage du franais des affaires. Dictionnaire de comprhension et de production de la langue des affaires, Didier, Paris. CILIANU-LASCU 2010 - Pour une formation interdisciplinaire du traducteur en conomie : entre domaine de rfrence, linguistique et terminologie , dans Les actes du colloque Les comptences des traducteurs et des interprtes en vue de lintegration sur le march du travail actuel Timioara 27-28 mai 2010, CD-ROM. DEPECKER, Loc 2002 - Entre signe et concept: lments de terminologie gnrale, Presses Sorbonne Nouvelle, Paris. SAVIN,Vasile, SAVIN, Christine-Anca 2001- Dicionar romn-francez administrativ, comercial, economic, financiar-bancar, juridic, Editura Dacia Cluj-Napoca. SAVIN,Vasile, SAVIN, Christine-Anca 2001: Dicionar francez-romn administrativ, comercial, economic, financiar-bancar, juridic, Dacia, Cluj-Napoca. MOUNIN, Georges [1963], 2008: Les problmes thoriques de la traduction, Gallimard, Paris. STANCIU, Daniela, TEFAN Liana 2010 : La terminologie du management et la conscience manageriale dans Les actes du colloque Les comptences des traducteurs et des interprtes en vue de lintegration sur le march du travail actuel Timioara 27-28 mai 2010, CD-ROM. VASILESCU, Ruxandra (coord) 2008- Dicionar de termeni economici romn, englez, francez, spaniol, Polirom, Iai.
Limbajul juridic i traducerea
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Srosi-Mrdirosz, Krisztina-Mria
Not introductiv
Secolul XX aduce o semnificativ schimbare n domeniul traductologiei, dac ne gndim la acele idei ale lingvitilor structuraliti, care au fost folosite de cercettorii interesai de traduceri (v. Saussure, Hjelmes), sau la contribuia cercului lingvistic de la Praga (v. Trubetskoy, Havranek, Mukarovsky, Levy, Prohazka), la impactul cercettorilor din SUA asupra tiinei traducerii (concepii preluate din operele lui Sapir, Whorf, Loundsbury, Voegelin, Harry Hoijer, Greenberg, Weinreich). Traducerea nseamn nu numai nlocuirea unui text scris ntr-o limb cu un alt text compus ntr-o alt limb, ci i creaie. Este vorba despre o activitate creativ n care - indiferent de genul textului care urmeaz s fie tradus traductorul, pe lng translaia propriu-zis, transmite cultura aferent limbii surs i sugereaz ideologia politic i principiile de funcionare ale societii n care a fost creat opera original. Transmiterea informaiilor cuprinse n textul surs, precum i pstrarea funcionalitii acestuia vor fi posibile numai prin aplicarea unor strategii de traduceri i prin folosirea i efectuarea unor transferuri. n cursul analizei unor traduceri oficiale am observat c textele juridice i oficiale pot fi traduse cu ajutorul principiilor elaborate pentru alte tipuri de texte; n acelai timp, analiza a demonstrat i faptul c aceste texte int nu vor avea valoarea unui act autentic doar prin simpla aplicare a acestor principii. n cursul analizei traducerilor, cercettorul este confruntat cu o problematic mai complex: care este relaia dintre textul surs i textul int, ce fel de asemnri i diferene exist ntre textul original i cel tradus (altele dect cele cauzate de diferena morfo-sintactic a celor dou limbi), ce fel de asemnri i diferene exist ntre textele traduse i textele similare netraduse (adic create n limba int), cum vor mplini aceste texte traduse funcia lor comunicativ i informativ, care sunt cauzele deficienelor acestor traduceri. Elaborarea prezentei lucrri a avut ca scop obinerea unor rspunsuri la aceste ntrebri, odat cu prezentarea unor aspecte practice ale traducerilor autorizate.
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I. Teoria cercetrii
Traducerea este un concept extrem de larg, care poate fi definit n mai multe feluri: att n cazul n care este privit ca proces, ct i atunci cnd o privim ca pe rezultatul unui proces. Exist mai multe criterii n baza crora putem clasifica traducerile: dup mediul traducerii, exist traduceri scrise i orale (interpretare), dup modul de elaborare exist traduceri manuale (fcute de om) i traduceri automatice (generate de un soft pentru traduceri), precum i traduceri mixte (prima faz este executat de calculator, dar revizuirea este fcut de om). n funcie de caracterul textului surs putem diferenia traduceri literare i traduceri non-literare. n zilele noastre, aria traducerilor este mbogit de alte genuri de traduce cum ar fi: traducerile audiovizuale (dublajul, subtitrarea, traducerea simultan) sau citirea unor texte direct n limba int (de exemplu n cazul folosirii diferitelor metode de proiectare). Lederer afirm c traducerea este un proces prin care traductorul dorete s obin echivalen ntre dou texte elaborate n dou limbi diferite. Aceste dou texte pe lng interdependena lor depind i de cultura aferent celor dou limbi. (n traducerea noastr: Lederer: 2003: 3) Acei savani care definesc traducerea ca proces argumenteaz aceast ipotez, afirmnd c traducerea este un act metacomunicativ de transfer, prin care textul primar se transform ntr-o entitate secundar;cercettorii care definesc traducerea ca rezultat al unui proces consider c aceasta este doar un text ce deriv din necesitile culturale, istorice i geografice. n ambele tipuri de definiie textul este un concept de baz, fapt evident, deoarece oricum am privi problema, rezultatul fiecrui act de traducere este un text tradus. Ca i concluzie, putem spune c cele dou tipuri de definiie se deosebesc prin accentuarea unui aspect sau altul: exist cercettori care pun accentul pe analiza procesului de traducere, pe cnd alii pun accentul pe analiza textului a produsului finit. Cele dou tipuri de definiie par a avea mai multe puncte comune dect diferene. Analiza traducerilor din perspectiva produsului finit atrage dup sine problema relaiei dintre textul int i textul surs i trezete venica dilem dintre coninut i sens. Roman Jakobson enun faptul c orice experien cognitiv poate fi tradus n orice limb existent. El este de prere c numai operele genului liric nu pot fi traduse, datorit trsturilor specifice ale acestui gen literar. Astfel de afirmaii oglindesc faptul c opoziiile sens-coninut, respectiv stil-form (Jakobson 1966: 238) sunt probleme centrale ale traductologiei.
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Coninutul i sensul unui text pot fi traduse aproape ntotdeauna, dar stilul i forma textului nu ntotdeauna pot fi pstrate ntr-o alt limb. Nida este de prere c diferenele dintre culturi pot provoca i ele probleme traductorilor. Traductorul este prins ntre ciocan i nicoval: triete dilema intelectului creativ i a raionalitii tiinifice. Traducerea este art, tiin i meteug (Nida 1964: 3). Forma i coninutul nu pot fi separate: scopul traducerii este informarea cititorului cu ajutorul coninutului prezentat prin form. Exist i cazuri n care traductorul pe lng informare dorete n acelai timp, s provoace un anumit fel de comportament: are ca scop ca cititorii s considere textul traducerii inteligibil i nu doar comprehensibil (Nida 1964: 158). n acest scop a fost nevoie de introducerea conceptului de echivalen (Holmes 1970: 37). Analiza criteriilor echivalenei este un domeniu important de cercetare al traductologiei. Aproape toi cercettorii sunt interesai ntr-un fel sau altul de echivalena dintre textul surs i textul int. Dup prerea lui Kinga Klaudy putem distinge dou ,,taberede cercettori: prima consider c echivalena este condiia fundamental a traducerilor i afirm c traducerea nseamn, de fapt, crearea unui text echivalent (fr echivalen total nu putem vorbi de traducere), iar a doua ,,tabr este de prere c echivalena nu poate fi total, o traducere poate fi echivalentul originalului numai din anumite puncte de vedere form, coninut, funcie comunicativ (Klaudy 1997a: 73). n aceast a doua tabr exist dou curente: curentul normativ i curentul descriptiv. Adepii primului curent stipuleaz reguli prin aplicarea crora traductorul va obine echivalena total, iar adepii celuilalt curent descriu i analizeaz metodele prin care traductorul realizeaz echivalena n traduceri. Este de remarcat i un al treilea curent, ai crui adepi afirm faptul c echivalena n traducere depinde de tipul textului care urmeaz s fie tradus. Principala reprezentant a acestei concepii este Katharina Reiss. Citind traducerile oficiale i juridice putem observa c ambii poli ai opoziiei lui Nida sunt prezeni (echivalena formal i echivalena dinamic). De exemplu, n cazul unor documente cum ar fi crile funciare sau contractele, cei doi poli se apropie unul de cellalt, deoarece traductorul este obligat la pstrarea formei i n acelai timp, va respecta i criteriul inteligibilitii, innd cont de abilitile i cunotinele cititorilor textului tradus. n cazul documentelor ce fac obiectul prezentei cercetri, singura variant a echivalenei care poate fi nfptuit este echivalena comunicativ, deoarece n cazul traducerilor autorizate
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realizarea echivalenei comunicative va deveni msura autenticitii actelor traduse. Aceste traduceri fac parte din domeniul traducerilor specializate, astfel la analizarea lor trebuie s inem cont i de prerea lui Reiss cu privire la echivalen, dup care tipul textului va stabili modalitile prin care un traductor intete spre echivalen. Domeniul textelor care pot deveni obiectul unor cercetri traductologice s-a lrgit semnificativ n zilele noastre: pe lng traducerile literare i textele informative, contractele, legile, textele tehnice, brevetele, ghidurile de utilizare i chiar actele de identitate i de studii pot deveni obiecte de analiz ntr-o cercetare traductologic. n urm cu dou decenii, pe lng traducerile literare, lingvitii difereniau traduceri generale i traduceri specializate. n zilele noastre, linia de delimitare dintre aceste dou categorii din urm nu mai poate fi tras cu atta siguran, deoarece n practica de zi cu zi vedem c traductorii efectueaz traduceri din orice domeniu, fr s dispun de studii de specialitate n domeniul respectiv. Ar fi ideal ca traductorii s aleag cte un domeniu n care doresc s efectueze traduceri, s studieze acel domeniu sau chiar s obin un atestat n acel domeniu, devenind traductori de specialitate. Acest lucru ar fi indicat, deoarece nicio persoan nu poate deveni specialist n toate domeniile existente, i nu poate obine competene superioare de traductor n toate aceste domenii. Traductorul de specialitate, n cursul activitii sale ntlnete manuale, ghiduri de utilizare, descrieri de utilaje i maini, bilanuri i balane contabile, rapoarte din domeniul afacerilor, texte de publicitate, pliante informative, texte medicale, indicaii farmaceutice, texte juridice, etc. Fiecare dintre texte necesit alte tehnici de traducere i alte soluii stilistice. Analiza unui tip de traduceri n baza principiilor stabilite de literatura de specialitate nu poate fi efectuat fr a cunoate trsturile limbajului i tehnicile de textualizare care caracterizeaz acel tip de text.
II. Limbajul juridic i traducerea. Traducerile autorizate

II.1. Dreptul i limba Analiza limbajului juridic se ocup cu cercetarea terminologiei juridice. Textele juridice sunt, de regul, greu de neles (Tarnczy 1966, Deme 1981, Montero 1999). n cursul cercetrii unui text juridic provocarea ca omul s treac prin labirintul de cuvinte i s evite greelile
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de interpretare prea o simpl chestiune tehnic. Acest lucru ns este posibil numai n cazul n care privim limbajul juridic ca pe un sistem ermetic, accesibil prin metode deductive. Dar limbajul juridic nu este un simplu limbaj tehnic, ci o variant a limbajelor naturale existente n societate (Szab 2001: 1). Acest limbaj natural devine i el o metod de manifestare a unui segment social. Legislaia, ca i limba este o entitate care se afl n continu schimbare, astfel stadiul acesteia, ca i al limbii este momentan i nu poate fi descris cu metode descriptive. Dei limbajul juridic posed unele caracteristici ale limbajelor de specialitate, el nu poate fi analizat ca atare. Afirmaiile juridice nu au valoare n sinea lor, ele pot fi calificate i interpretate numai n raport cu situaia la care se refer. Termenele juridice nu pot fi descrise doar prin definirea cuvintelor; pentru a defini un termen trebuie s analizm contextul n care acel termen i mplinete funcia comunicativ. Cum ar fi recomandat s folosim cu exactitate un termen juridic ntr-o frazem sau expresie? De exemplu: drept are dreptul, este ndreptit; stat reprezentatul statului; contract raport contractual; reguli obligaii stabilite n reguli. Rolul primar al acestor cuvinte este nu descrierea unei entiti, ci stabilirea unui anumit raport ntre indivizi. Acest rol d un alt aspect termenilor (Hart 2000: 104). Pragmatic vorbind, putem afirma c juristul care este cunosctorul legilor i al procedurilor i pune pe ,,laici, pe nespecialiti, ntr-o situaie n care el vorbete o alt limb un limbaj special, de rit limb care nu ntotdeauna este neleas de omul de rnd. Omul obinuit devine, astfel subordonat n acest act de comunicaie. O situaie devine o cauz juridic prin transpunerea ei n lumea actelor juridice, cu ajutorul retextualizrii sale n limbajul juridic. Limbajul juridic difer de limbajul comun, dar nu n maniera unei limbi strine. Cuvintele din care se compun termenii juridici sunt de fapt cuvintele pe care le folosim i n alte contexte: de ex.: minor este prezent att n vocabularul omului de rnd, ct i n lexicul folosit de juriti (Simpson 2000: 142). Prin analiza raportului dintre termenii juridici i cuvintele lexicului ajungem la concluzia c exist unele expresii care posed doar sens juridic, fr s aib sens comun (pact comisoriu, rezerv succesoral). Putem afirma totodat c n cazul n care o expresie este folosit numai de juriti, acea expresie devine mai rar obiectul unei schimbri semantice. n cazul n care un cuvnt exist att n limbajul comun, ct i n cel juridic, sensul comun poate influena sensul juridic al cuvntului.
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Aproape orice cuvnt poate fi definit n context juridic. Din momentul n care un cuvnt apare ntr-un text juridic sau ntr-o lege, apare i necesitatea definirii acestuia. Cauza diferenei sensurilor aceluiai cuvnt n funcie de tipul discursului, se ascunde n faptul c acele cuvinte care se gsesc ntr-o lege pot avea consecine unice: de ex. un om poate fi condamnat pentru comiterea unui delict cu premeditare (se accentueaz funcia performativ al limbii). ntlnim i cazuri n care un concept juridic este introdus de o judectorie, deci se nate din practica juridic. Acest lucru se datoreaz faptului c, dei o instan se strduiete s foloseasc limbajul comun, deseori este nevoit s foloseasc termeni de specialitate care duc la formarea unor noi concepte i denumiri (Simpson 2000: 144). n cazul propoziiilor performative, accentul cade pe funcia performativ a limbajului de specialitate, pe impactul acestui tip de limbaj asupra oamenilor. Efectele juridice deriv din legile existente, i stabilesc raporturile de drept dintre oameni (Olivecrona 2000: 174). Dac suntem dornici s nelegem limbajul juridic este nevoie de traducerea textelor juridice n limbajul comun, prin reconstruirea lor cu ajutorul categoriilor noastre mentale. II.2. Limbajul juridic i traducerea O caracteristic general a dreptului este c se manifest prin intermediul unor texte ce formeaz un ntreg; astfel, la crearea altor texte (de exemplu efectuarea unor traduceri) creatorul textului trebuie s fie atent la pstrarea coerenei. Coerena se va pstra prin folosirea corect a terminologiei de specialitate (pri contractante, pedeaps cu nchisoarea, etc.), precum i prin utilizarea corespunztoare a unor frazeme cu valoare terminologic (n cele ce urmeaz, n temeiul articolului x., se declar autentic, etc.). Caracterul normativ al legilor i al unor acte juridice duce la elaborarea unor texte att de concentrate i sintetizate, nct ele nu mai pot fi descifrate de ,,laici. Pentru a nelege semnificaia acestor texte este nevoie ca ele s fie citite de mai multe ori, i chiar analizate. Scopul specific pentru care aceste texte au fost create explic folosirea unor propoziii lungi i concentrate, ns traducerea acestor propoziii reprezint o adevrat provocare pentru traductor. Pentru ca aceste texte s fie inteligibile n limba n care vor fi traduse, traductorul trebuie mai nti s interpreteze textul surs, deoarece deseori i acest text este neinteligibil.
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Exist cazuri n care un text surs lege, contract, act constitutiv sau carte funciar este de nedesluit. Aceast afirmaie este n contradicie cu cele enunate cu privire la caracterul logic al textelor juridice, dar exist cazuri n care indicibilitatea textului este rezultatul incompetenei celui care a formulat textul. Aceste texte sunt foarte greu de tradus, deoarece rolul traductorului este efectuarea translaiei, i nu corectarea greelilor din textul surs. Astfel, putem afirma c n cazul n care un text este nedesluit, traductorul trebuie s pstreze cumva indicibilitatea acestuia, deoarece niciodat nu se tie care a fost intenia celui care a formulat textul (sunt cazuri n care un jurist elaboreaz un text care las posibiliti de interpretare, astfel traductorul poate nimici prin corectare chiar esena textului.). Traductorul care efectueaz traduceri juridice i oficiale trebuie s-i in creativitatea n frn i trebuie s respecte terminologia domeniului juridic. Pentru traductor este dificil aplicarea corespunztoare a limbajului de specialitate, deoarece nu dispune de sursele de unde ar putea s se documenteze. Pe de alt parte, traductorul nu ntotdeauna poate accepta termenul respectiv, deoarece preferinele sale lingvistice sunt diferite de o terminologie deseori seac. ns n cazul traducerilor juridice i oficiale este esenial ca traductorii s foloseasc terminologia existent (Vrnai 2006: 48). Expresiile terminologiei juridice au rol important n oglindirea relaiei strnse, existente ntre textele ce formeaz totalitatea documentelor juridice (acte normative, procedurale, etc.). Aceste expresii funcioneaz ca i cum ar fi coduri, dar totui ele nu pot fi nlocuite cu elementele unui alt sistem semiotic, deoarece aceste expresii sunt segmente ale limbajului natural. Dac un traductor ntlnete o expresie necunoscut, el trebuie s in cont de mai multe aspecte (juridice, lingvistice, culturale) n crearea unui echivalent corespunztor n limba int. Aspectul cel mai important este stabilirea corect a semnificaiei expresiei necunoscute n scopul redrii corecte a acesteia n textul int, chiar dac traducerea exact va duna formulrii adecvate. Ortega Arjonilla consider c traducerile juridice explic aciunile juridice (Arjonilla 1996: 88). Traductorul devine lingvist i jurist n acelai timp, dar nainte de toate trebuie s fie bilingv i s cunoasc foarte bine tematica pe care o traduce. Traducerile juridice nu se realizeaz prin traducerea cuvintelor i propoziiilor, prin acestea se traduc culturi i feluri de a fi. Din acest motiv, traductorul trebuie s recurg la metodele comparatisticii i s compare att limbajele juridice ale celor dou limbi, ct i sistemul legislativ al culturilor aferente acestor limbi.
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Pentru a folosi aceast metod n cursul efecturii traducerilor trebuie definit unitatea de msur a traducerilor: cuvnt, fraz, propoziie sau text. Cercetarea de fa accept prerea lui VinayDarbelnet (Vinay Darbelnet 1958: 22) dup care unitatea de msur a traducerilor este segmentul de text, ale crui elemente nu pot fi traduse separat. nelegerea mecanismelor textului original este esenial pentru descifrarea semnificaiei complexe a textului respectiv. Desigur, cunoaterea limbii surs i ceea a limbii int, intuiia i ptrunderea n imaginile din original au o importan mare n traducerea acestor documente. Efectuarea comparaiei dintre elementele lexicale, morfologice i semantice ale celor dou limbi este n sarcina fiecrui traductor i este premergtoare procesului de traducere. Traductorul trebuie s evite att schimonosirea originalului, introducerea n text a elementelor strine, ct i traducerea mecanic literar. Elucidarea semnificaiei unui discurs i redarea acestei semnificaii ntr-o alt limb, n forma unui discurs echivalent, vor fi posibile numai dac traductorul analizeaz semnele lingvistice din perspectiva realitii extralingvistice. n cazul traducerilor juridice i oficiale este nevoie de cunoaterea minim a celor dou sisteme juridice i a procedurilor aferente sistemului juridic n cauz. Aplicarea metodelor tiinelor juridice comparate este util, pe de o parte pentru a nelege regulile procedurale, pe de alt parte pentru a defini rolul textului n cultura aferent limbii surs. Comparaia este o metod teoretic, care face posibil stabilirea convergenelor i divergenelor existente ntre cele dou sisteme juridice. n cazul traducerilor juridice i oficiale traductorii ntlnesc greuti mari la traducerea cuvintelor care denumesc realii juridice, legislative, politice sau administrative. Dac un traductor traduce din limba romn n limba maghiar, se afl n faa unei probleme bilaterale: pe de o parte, viziunea celor dou sisteme juridice difer radical, pe de alt parte, textele elaborate n limba romn au o formulare complicat, fiind foarte bogate n citarea altor norme juridice i fiind lipsite de graia unui text normal. Traductorul ntmpin mari dificulti n cazul cnd ncearc s traduc denumirea unor instituii juridice cum ar fi: Curtea de Apel, nalta Curte de Casaie i Justiie, Tribunal, Judectorie, Procuratur, Magistratur, Parchetul de pe lng Tribunalul Cluj, Registrul Comerului, sau denumirea normelor juridice cum ar fi: Hotrre Guvernamental, Hotrre de Urgen, Ordonan de Urgen, Ordin al Guvernului, Lege.
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Dac dorim s traducem denumirile instituiilor din Romnia, n limba maghiar, trebuie mai nti s examinm instituiile existente n cele dou ri i s verificm competenele lor. n Romnia, n fiecare ora exist Judectorie, n fiecare municipiu reedin de jude exist Tribunal, iar n fiecare regiune exist Curte de Apel. Mai exist Curtea Suprem de Justiie, care astzi poart denumirea de nalta Curte de Casaie i Justiie. n sistemul romnesc, pe lng fiecare judectorie i tribunal exist un Parchet. n Ungaria, exist judectorii oreneti i judeene, exist Curi de Apel i Curtea Suprem de Justiie, ns curtea de apel poart denumirea de curtea suprem judeean de justiie. Sarcina traductorului este s decid dac va corela cele dou denumiri n funcie de competena instituiilor, sau va traduce mecanic denumirea romn, ajungnd la o expresie ad hoc, n varianta maghiar. Dac traductorul alege corelarea expresiilor, varianta corect n maghiar pentru expresia Tribunal va fi Megyei Brsg (adic Judectorie Judeean), iar dac alege traducerea, aceeai expresie se va traduce cu varianata Trvnyszk (adic Tribunal). ns, dac traductorul alege aceast a doua variant, risc ca cititorii int s nu fie capabili s identifice instituia despre care este vorba n textul tradus, i astfel s nu fie neles sensul textului int. Traducerea denumirii actelor juridice poate i ea s creeze probleme traductorului. n Romnia exist: Hotrre Guvernamental, Hotrre de Urgen, Ordonan de urgen, Ordin al Guvernului, Ordin al Primului Ministru, Ordin al Ministrului Justiiei stb., Lege, n Ungaria exist Lege, Decret-lege, Ordonan cu efecte de lege, Ordonan de guvern, Ordin ministerial, Ordin al primului ministru, Hotrre de guvern, Hotrrea Parlamentului, Hotrrea Consiliului Ministerial. Deci, n Ungaria nu exist corespondent pentru actele normative ce poart denumirea de Ordonan de Urgen i de Hotrre de Urgen, iar n Romnia nu exist Hotrre al Consiliului de Minitri i Hotrre a Parlamentului. Azi, n Romnia deja nu exist Decret Lege, care n Ungaria nc exist, dar exist Decret, care ns nu exist n legiferarea din Ungaria. n cazul expresiilor: Ordonan de Urgen i Hotrre de Urgen, echivalentul n maghiar va fi elaborat prin traducerea cuvnt cu cuvnt a componentelor expresiilor, aceeai soluie fiind valabil i n cazul traducerii n romn a expresiilor Minisztertancsi Hatrozat s Orszggylsi Hatrozat (adic Hotrre al Consiliului de Minitri i Hotrre a Parlamentului). n cazul normei juridice ce poart denumirea de Decret n textul maghiar poate fi folosit cuvntul Rendelet (adic Decret),
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dar n acest caz traductorul va fi obligat la explicarea diferenei dintre decretul din Romnia i Decretul Lege (adic Trvnyerej Rendelet) din Ungaria. Aceste diferene provin din diversitatea sistemului politic existent n cele dou ri (Parlament Bicameral respectiv Parlament Unicameral, sistem semiprezidenial i sistem parlamentar). Astfel, putem afirma c metodele analizei comparative n cursul elaborrii traducerilor pot aduce un surplus. Comparaia celor dou sisteme juridice ajut traductorul n recunoaterea concordanelor. Comparaia trebuie efectuat att cu privire la termeni ct i la segmentele (unitile) mai mari. Dac cele dou sisteme juridice sunt foarte diferite unul de cellalt, traductorul se afl n faa unei probleme mai serioase. ntr-o astfel de situaie, traductorul trebuie s se concentreze asupra realizrii echivalenei funcionale (Klaudy 1998: 81). Esena echivalenei funcionale const n faptul c textul int va avea acelai rol n rndul cititorilor traducerii, pe care l are textul surs, n rndul cititorilor originalului. Traductorul trebuie s in cont de cunotinele cititorilor traducerii, precum i de abilitile acestora de comprehensiune. Traductorul trebuie s creeze un text, care va avea un impact similar asupra cititorilor traducerii, cu impactul textului original asupra comunitii, n a crei limb a fost scris. Astfel, se va realiza i echivalena dinamic (Nida 1964: 168). n acest scop, traductorul va renuna la traducerea total, i va transmite mai degrab informaiile cuprinse n original. Pentru a reui acest lucru, traductorul va avea posibilitatea de a explicita textul cu ajutorul unor elemente explicative, sau cu ajutorul unui cuvnt cu o semantic mai bogat. Traductorul poate tlmciui semnificaia textului surs i prin folosirea unor tehnici de recompunere a propoziiilor subordonate (Klaudy 1997: 380). II.3. Problematica traducerilor autorizate Traducerile oficiale sunt acele texte traduse, pe care comunitatea int le accept i le utilizeaz ca fiind documente autentice. Teoria traducerii nu prea s-a ocupat cu acest segment al traducerilor, astfel, acest tip de traducere nu este clar definit. Traducerile oficiale au trsturi comune cu traducerile juridice, interpretariatul n instane sau interpretariatul la alte instituii (imigrri, asisten social, poliie, direcia de investigare a infraciunilor i a crimei organizate). Majoritatea studiilor
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elaborate cu privire la acest tip de traducere arat c traductorul care se ocup cu traduceri oficiale trebuie s respecte foarte multe norme. Aceste norme, la rndul lor depind, de legile existente, de practica juridic i de proceduri (Mayoral-Asensio 2003: 1). Documentele oficiale sunt traduse pentru mai multe categorii de cititori int: organele administrative, instanele, ceteni care triesc ntr-un mediu bilingv etc. Uneori, aceste documente sunt traduse pentru a uura aplicarea legii unei ri fa de cetenii strini sau fa de imigrani. Aceste traduceri sunt prevzute cu ncheieri de legalizare, astfel traductorul devine certificatorul coninutului actului respectiv. n conformitate cu legislaia romn, traducerile oficiale trebuie legalizate de un notar public. Legalizarea certific autenticitatea actului i confirm faptul c traductorul este unul autorizat pentru a efectua astfel de traduceri. ns aceast msur nu va influena calitatea traducerilor din romn n maghiar, deoarece majoritatea notarilor publici nu cunosc limba maghiar, i nu sunt nici specialiti n traduceri, astfel nu pot verifica exactitatea textului tradus. Traducerile oficiale, dup prerea lui Roberto Mayoral-Asensio, conin urmtoarele trei elemente: date i activiti nregistrate (nateri, cstorii, decese, testamente, delicte, msuri administrative); elemente de certificare (ncheieri de legalizare, atestri, certificri); elemente de autentificare (tampil, numr de nregistrare, semntur, apostil) (Mayoral Asensio 2003: 3). Scopul pentru care un act emis ntr-o limb trebuie tradus ntr-o alt limb difer de cel pentru care este tradus o oper literar: documentele traduse trebuie s devin de fapt echivalenii textului original din punct de vedere comunicativ (l. Klaudy 1997: 82). n majoritatea cazurilor, traductorul trebuie s in cont de legile n baza crora funcioneaz comunitatea int. Cititorii acestor traduceri vor proveni mai ales din rndul angajailor organelor jurisdicionale i din cel al lucrtorilor din administraia public. Astfel traductorul trebuie s satisfac nevoile acestei categorii de cititori care devin de fapt i utilizatorii actului tradus. Orice text oficial poate fi tradus aproape n orice limb, deoarece n anumite situaii efectuarea acestor traduceri este o necesitate. n cazul traducerilor oficiale este mai degrab recomandat s folosim termenul de document n loc de text. Documentele pot conine date cu privire la anumite persoane (certificate de natere, acte de studii, etc.) sau pot stabili raportul juridic ntre dou persoane (contracte, acorduri, etc.).
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Dup prerea lui Christiane Nord, traducerile oficiale pot fi categorizate ca fiind traduceri de tip document, astfel nsui textele traduse vor deveni documente autentice (Nord 1997: 47). Att clientul ct i utilizatorul textului este interesat de exactitate i autenticitate nu de calitate. Conceptul de autenticitate nu poate fi definit cu uurin, deoarece hermeneutica textelor juridice rmne un mister (textul este construit din cuvinte i documente). Istvan Bart consider c n efectuarea unei traduceri, traductorul trebuie s porneasc de la textul complet, dar i el este de acord c echivalena trebuie nfptuit i la nivelul propoziiilor i al cuvintelor. El este de prere c dup elucidarea contextului textului n cauz, ar fi indicat analiza fiecrei propoziii n parte. Primul lucru ar trebui s fie diferenierea prilor exacte ale propoziiei de cele interpretabile. Prile exacte sunt acele elemente n cazul crora traductorul are o singur posibilitate de traducere, iar prile interpretabile sunt acele segmente n cazul crora traductorul poate s aleag ntre dou sau mai multe variante (ed. Bart Klaudy 2003). n cazul prilor exacte nu putem vorbi despre traducere, mai degrab despre nlocuire: denumirea instituiilor, termene de specialitate, frazeme caracteristice limbajului juridic. Traductorul va cuta echivalentul exact al cuvntului respectiv (cu ajutorul metodelor comparative). Traducerea prilor interpretabile depinde de intenia traductorului, care va alege dintre mai multe variante. Sunt pri interpretabile acele elemente lexice i frazeologice care nu au valoare terminologic, precum i cuvintele funcionale (verbe, conjuncii, adverbe, interjecii). Traductorul este liber i n alegerea ordinii cuvintelor, trebuie, ns, s aleag varianta care ajut la autohtonizarea textului tradus (Bart 2003: 21).
Concluzii
Analiza traducerilor este o testare util a rolului limbii n viaa societii. Pe parcursul ntregului proces translaional, n timp ce traductorul nfptuiete un nou act comunicativ, el se afl n permanen sub presiunea determinaiei sale sociale i n acelai timp ncearc s intermedieze cu succes ntre autorul textului surs i cititorul textului int. Lucrarea prezint traducerea pe de o parte, ca fiind un proces de comunicare, care se desfoar pe scena vieii sociale, pe de alt parte,
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ca fiind un produs finit rezultatul procesului de creaie. Aceast din urm abordare dovedete concepia conform creia cititorul traducerii nu va fi martorul procesului de traducere, el va fi doar consumatorul produsului finit, adic al textului. n analizarea traducerilor, cercettorul trebuie s in cont i de factorul sociolingvistic, deoarece caracteristicile textului tradus depind n mare msur de factori cum ar fi: persoana traductorului, persoana utilizatorului, locul i condiiile n care se efectueaz traducerea, scopul traducerii, etc. Am observat c folosirea termenului de echivalen distorsioneaz ntr-o anumit msur esena fenomenului n sine, deoarece la nicio traducere nu putem vorbi de echivalen total. Ar fi mai indicat ca n locul acestui termen s folosim termenul de traducere adecvat. ntruct redarea exact a specificului coninutului i a formei originalului este n mare msur complicat prin faptul c fiecare limb i are un mod al su individual de a oglindi realitatea, organiznd ntrun fel sau altul datele, experienele, deseori se afirm c traducerea echivalent, n genere, este imposibil. Dar totui, pentru a obine echivalena comunicativ adic traducerea s-i ndeplineasc funcia n comunitatea int traductorul poate realiza prin folosirea unor metode i strategii corespunztoare o traducere acceptabil, i n consecin adecvat. n ceea ce privete dilema formei i a coninutului ar fi ideal ca ambele s fie pstrate n cursul procesului de traducere, dar acest lucru nu este posibil, deoarece forma textului surs este de cele mai multe ori determinat de conveniile lingvistice ale limbii surs, iar transpunerea acestor convenii n limba int ar viola naturaleea acestei limbi, traducerea devenind incorect i inutilizabil. n conformitate cu prerea lui Nida, traductorul trebuie fie atent la viitoarea reacie a cititorului, astfel de foarte multe ori pstrarea formei i a stilului originalului ar fi inutil. Orice proces de citire este de fapt traducere i interpretare. Astfel, fiecare traducere va purta semnele imaginaiei i a lumii traductorului i va oglindi principiile sale culturale. Cele enunate n paragraful precedent sunt mai puin valabile n cazul textelor oficiale i juridice, interpretarea textului i creativitatea n traducerea acestuia fiind de o importan minor. n concluzie, putem afirma c regulile normative de traducere sunt de fapt reguli de formulare a unor texte i fac parte din legile ce guverneaz comportamentul lingvistic. A traduce nseamn a crea un text ntre
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condiii mai stricte de creaie. Teoria sugereaz cercetare abstract, lipsit de aspectele practice. Ajutorul pe care-l d teoria traducerii, practicii const n accentuarea diferitelor posibiliti ale limbii, n alegerea din noianul variat de mijloace pe cel mai potrivit pentru contextul dat. A. V. Fiodorov atrage atenia asupra faptului c nu trebuie s confundm teoria traducerii cu o culegere de reguli de uz practic sau cu modele, pe care trebuie s le respectm la traducere n fiecare caz concret (Fiodorov 1962: 19).
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Bibliografie
I.Bart 2003 -Eurpai Unis szvegek fordtsa angolrl magyarra [Tradu cerea textelor UE din englez n maghiar.]. In: EU-fordt iskola. Bart I., Klaudy K. (ed.) Budapest: Corvina. pp. 1735. L. Deme 1983 - A kzigazgatsi irat mint kzlemny. [Actele administrative ca i comunicate.] In: Magyar Nyelvr, Vol. 105. Nr. 4 sz. 1983. pp. 407415. A.V. Fiodorov- Bevezets a fordtselmletbe. [Introducere n traducto logie.] In: A.fordts tudomnya: vlogats a fordtselmlet irodalm bl. Bart I., Klaudy K. (ed.) 1986. Budapest: Tanknyvkiad. 1985. pp. 200224. trad.: Tri Sarolta. P. Heltai 2003 - Message Adjustment in Translation. In: ACROSS. Vol. 4. Nr. 2. pp. 145185. P. Heltai 2002 - Claims, Changes and Challenges. In: Fordtstudomny Vol.5. Nr. 2. pp. 123133. P. Heltai 2004- Terminus s kznyelvi sz. [Terminologia i limbajul uzual.] In: Drth J. (ed.) Szaknyelvoktats s szakfordts 5. Gdll: Szent Istvn Egyetem pp. 2545. R. Jakobson 1966 - On Linguistic Aspects of Translation. In: On Translation. Brower, R.A. (ed.) New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 107239. K. Kroly 2003 - Korpusznyelvszet s fordtskutats. [Lingvistica corpus i cercetrile traductologice] In: Fordtstudomny. Vol. 5. Nr. 2. pp. 1826. K. Kroly 2007- Szvegtan s fordts. [Analiza textului i traductologia] Budapest: Akadmiai Kiad. K. Klaudy 1987- Fordts s aktulis tagols. [Traducere i segmentarea real a propoziiilor.] In: Nyelvtudomnyi rtekezsek 123. Budapest: Akadmiai Kiad. K. Klaudy 1991- tvltsi mveletek a fordtsban. [Transferuri n traducere.] Budapest: Klkereskedelmi Fiskola. K. Klaudy 1997a - A fordts elmlete s gyakorlata. [Teoria i practica traducerii.] Budapest: Scholastica. K. Klaudy1997 b - Fordts II. Bevezets a fordts gyakorlatba. Angol, nmet, orosz fordtstechnikai pldatrral. [Traduceri: introducere n practica traducerii di limbile englez, german i rus.] Budapest: Scholastica.
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K. Klaudy 1999 - Bevezets a fordts elmletbe. [Teoria traducerii.] Budapest: Scholastica. K. Klaudy 2003, Languages In Translation: Lectures on the Theory, Teaching and Practice of Translation. Budapest: Scholastica. K. Klaudy 2007 - Nyelv s fordts. Vlogatott fordtstudomnyi tanulmnyok. [Limb i traducere: studii de traductologie.] Budapest: Tinta. M. Lederer 2003- The Interpretive Model. Manchester: St.Jerome. R. Mayoral-Asensio 2003 - Translating Official Documents. Manchester: St. Jerome. E. Nida 1964 - Toward a Science of Translation with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: Brill. Ch. Nord 1997- Translating as a Purposeful Activity. Functionalis Approaches Explained. Manchester: St. Jerome. K. Olivecrona 2000 - A jogi nyelv s a valsg. [Limbajul juridic i realitatea.] In: Jog s nyelv. Szab M., Varga Cs. (ed.) Budapest. pp. 153216. K. Reiss 1995 - Text Type Translation and Translation Assessment. In: Reading in Translation Theory. Chesterman, A. (ed.) Helsinki: Finn Lectura. pp. 5896. A.W. B. Simpson 2000 - A jogi fogalmak elemzse. [Analiza conceptelor de drept.] In: Jog s nyelv. Szab M., Varga Cs. (eds.) Budapest. pp. 133153. M. Szab 2000- Sz szerint: a jog s a nyelv interferencijrl. [Interferena dintre drept i limb.] In: Jog s nyelv. Szab M., Varga Cs. (ed.) Budapest. pp. 198. L. Tarnczi 1972 - Jogi szvegek fordtsa. [Traducerea textelor juridice.] In: Fordtstechnika. Mszaki-gazdasgi fordtsok idegennyelvbl magyarra. Homrdin Botond va (ed.) A tudomnyos tjkoztats elmlete sorozat. Nr. 20. Budapest: OMKDK.pp. 158161. Sz. Vrnai 2006 - Jogi szvegek, szerzdsek s jogszablyok fordt s nak sajtossgai.[Caracteristicile traducerilor autorizate.] In: Fordts technikai tmutat. Krnyei Tibor.(ed.)Budapest: MFE. pp. 4653. J. P. Vinay, J. Darbelnet 1956 - Stilistique acompare du franais et de langlais. Methode de traduction. Paris: Didier.
Translation and Modal Meanings
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Ben, Attila Rcz, Lilla
TraNslatioN aNd Modal MeaNiNgs
1. The notion of modality

In our linguistic utterances, we convey to our fellow humans not only the facts of actual or imagined reality, but we also impart the attitude towards our own statements: we may denote the probability of truth, the certitude of our statements or the possibility, the necessity of certain actions (Ma 2008, Murvai 1982). In Palmers definition, modality is the grammaticalization of the speakers attitude and opinion (Palmer 1993: 16). Yet this designation might be somewhat constrictive, because it presents this phenomenon from a specific perspective, whereas modality is not only a grammatical (syntactical) phenomenon, but a semantic and pragmatic process as well. In all probability, this is why in Kuglers classification, it is part of the functional-semantic categories of the sentence, just like the aspect or the premise, all the while implying that it may be construed as a semantic category as well (Kugler 1999: 102), similarly to Szende, in whose regard modality is a semantic category related to sentence types (as a syntactical category) and the act of speech (as a pragmatic notion, Szende 2006: 1). According to a wider interpretation of modality, all meanings that do not convey facts but denote a possible or desirable state of reality can be considered modal ones (Kugler 1999: 102).
2. Modality and translation

Descriptive grammars usually treat modality in a general fashion, discussing linguistic means expressing certain modal meanings in some languages, and they place less emphasis on examining the prevalence of the phenomenon by linguistic variants and types of texts. Yet it may be rightfully assumed that there could be some divergence in different types of text concerning the use of the modal system, and this may have an effect on translation issues as well (Kaczmarek 2010).
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We have examined the prevalence of modal meanings in English texts and their Hungarian translations. On this occasion, we have analyzed and compared two types of texts: legal and literary fiction. The legal text corpus contains the English and Hungarian texts created during the European Parliaments plenary sessions between 2005 and 2009 [Internet source of the legal text corpus: www.europarl.europa.eu/archives). The bilingual text corpus comprises 200 pages (600,000 characters]. The literary fiction text corpus comprises an English youth novel (J.K. Rowling: Harry Potter and the Sorcerers Stone) and its Hungarian translation (Harry Potter s a blcsek kve translator: Tams Boldizsr Tth). The refined system of English modal meanings, as we have noted, may present several problems during the process of translation, especially regarding equivalence or optimal similarity, although these questions may differ by type of text, as we shall see later on. 2.1. It is known that in English, the main linguistic means of expressing modal meanings is the modal auxiliary verb. As a starting point, we have examined the meanings of sentences and contexts which contained modal auxiliaries in the English texts, and we compared them with the signification of their Hungarian sources. While analyzing the English variants of the European Parliaments texts, we have noticed that the meanings of modal auxiliaries in the texts were more meagre and narrow than in the literary fiction texts. In English, the auxiliary can may express ability and possibility as well (Palmer 1990: 72). In the legal texts analyzed, sentences containing the auxiliary can imply, almost without exception, possibility and permission, and consequently, only the phenomena connected to deontic modality are predominant. The fragments of source language texts below, as well as their Hungarian translations, denote the more limited function of meaning in sentences using the auxiliary can: (1) Believes that the above requirements can be achieved only through a constitutional reform of BiH based on the following criteria () [European Parliament resolution of 24 April 2009 on the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina]. gy vli, hogy a fenti kvetelmnyeket Bosznia-Hercegovinnak a kvetkez kritriumokon alapul alkotmnyos reformja tjn lehet elrni (...)
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(2) Supports the introduction by the Commission of mechanisms to verify and support progress in these areas, based in particular on the identification of specific criteria, and strongly urges the Romanian Government to take all necessary measures to meet the expectations set out, so that recourse to safeguard clauses can be avoided;[ European Parliament resolution on the accession of Romania to the European Union (2006/2115(INI.)] tmogatja az e terleteken elrt elrelpst rint, a konkrt kvetelmnyek meghatrozsn alapul ellenrz s tmogat mechanizmusok Bizottsg ltali bevezetst, s nyomatkosan srgeti a romn kormnyt, hogy hozza meg a lefektetett elvrsok teljestshez szksges sszes intzkedst, hogy a vdzradkok ignybevtele elkerlhet legyen; In the literary fiction text, both the modal meaning expressing ability (willingness) and the function implying possibility or permission of the auxiliary can are prevalent, which indicates that the auxiliary can has more plentiful possibilities of meaning. The results of the analysis show that the auxiliary must in the legal texts examined appears, almost exclusively, in its necessary, compulsory meaning, viz. in its deontic sense: () freedom from torture and other cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment is a basic right that must be protected under all circumstances;[ European Parliament resolution of 7 May 2009 on the Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2008 and the European Unions policy on the matter (2008/2336(INI)]. a knzstl s ms kegyetlen, embertelen s megalz bnsmdtl vagy bntetstl val mentessg olyan alapvet jog, amelyet minden krlmnyek kztt vdeni kell; (...) efforts must be made to focus greater attention on respect for basic human rights, in particular political rights, in the negotiation and implementation of bilateral or regional trade agreements, even those concluded with important trading partners ...[ European Parliament resolution of 7 May 2009 on the Annual Report on
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Human Rights in the World 2008 and the European Unions policy on the matter (2008/2336(INI)]. (...) erfesztseket kell tenni s nagyobb figyelmet fordtani az alapvet emberi jogok, klnsen a politikai jogok tiszteletben tartsra (...); (...) all forms of discrimination must be fought with equal intensity ...[ European Parliament resolution on the protection of minorities and anti-discrimination policies in an enlarged Europe (2005/2008(INI)]. (...) a megklnbztets sszes formja ellen egyforma ervel kell kzdeni (...) In the analyzed legal texts the possible meanings of the English modal verbs were limited, and those meanings appeared especially which were expressing deontic modality, necessity, obligation and permission. 2.2 The difference between the categories and expressions of the English and Hungarian modal system necessarily results in differences appeared in translation. This can be seen in the modification or semiadaptation of the modal meanings in the target language from the source language. As it was mentioned earlier, may and might are English modal auxiliary verbs and they encode linguistically different levels of probability. If in the target language there is no such distinction based on the lexical-grammatical category, the translator should express this probability value by using methods offered by the target language. It can be concluded that in both types of texts we analyzed the small probability meaning of the modal might is often lost. Lets take a look at an example of the European Parliament text, where the different probability value of may and might disappears: () expresses its disquiet at the possibility that the death penalty might once again start to be enforced; urges the Guatemalan Government, on the contrary, to genuinely commit itself to the universal moratorium on the death penalty; however, welcomes the decisions taken by President Colom in March 2008 which may lead to the abolition of the death penalty in Guatemala
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[ European Parliament resolution of 7 May 2009 on the Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2008 and the European Unions policy on the matter (2008/2336(INI)]. () agglynak ad azonban hangot annak lehetsge miatt, hogy a hallbntetst elkezdhetik jra alkalmazni; srgeti a guatemalai kormnyt, ezzel szemben, hogy valban ktelezze el magt a hallbntetsre vonatkoz egyetemes moratrium mellett; dvzli azonban Colom elnk 2008. mrciusi dntseit, amelyek a hallbntets eltrlshez vezethetnek Guatemalban () It is not clear in the Hungarian text, which option considers the European Parliament more likely to occur in Guatemala: the abolition of the death penalty or the reuse of it. The comparison of the two English modal structures (death penalty might once again start to be enforced the decisions may lead to the abolition of the death penalty) clearly indicates that the text editors believe that the former (the abolition of capital punishment) is more likely to happen. This subtle difference in the Hungarian translation is lost; both choices are equally possible to the reader, because there is no linguistic signifier to this distinction (a hallbntetst elkezdhetik jra alkalmazni Colom elnk dntsei a hallbntets eltrlshez vezethetnek). Similarly, in translation the semantic difference of the necessity of modal verbs must and should sometimes fades. The structure formed with the modal verb must usually suggest certainty, obligation and necessity. The modal meaning of should does not express necessity but recommendation, suggestion, and sometimes moral obligation or probabilities. As for must we do not have a choice, although in a structure using the modal should we do. Therefore, the modal meaning expressed with the auxiliary verb must can be translated in Hungarian as kell, and should as kellene. Certainly, this correspondence is not always consistent. In the analyzed legal texts the modal meaning expressed with should are translated into the Hungarian as kell and kellene as well. This shows that the modal meaning of the Hungarian text is slightly different from the original meaning. This phenomenon is illustrated in the following two translated texts: () considers that Parliament should send a heavyweight mission to Burma, seeing that the current human rights situation is still not improving;[ European Parliament resolution of 7 May 2009
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on the Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2008 and the European Unions policy on the matter (2008/2336(INI)] () gy vli, hogy a Parlamentnek egy nehzsly misszit kellene Burmba kldenie, ltvn, hogy a jelenlegi emberi jogi helyzet az sszes szankci ellenre sem javul; () the preparations for the creation of the new European External Action Service should be used proactively to harmonise the approaches of the missions of Member States and the Commission abroad in the area of human rights[ European Parliament resolution of 7 May 2009 on the Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2008 and the European Unions policy on the matter (2008/2336(INI)] () az j eurpai klgyi szolglat ltrehozsra irnyul el kszleteket proaktv mdon fel kell hasznlni arra, hogy har mo nizljk a tagllamok s a Bizottsg klfldi missziinak megkzeltseit az emberi jogok tern () In the analyzed legal texts the modal structures using the English should modal auxiliary verb appear in translation more often as kell than as kellene: in those target sentences where the Hungarian correspondent of the modal verb should is kell or kellene, 87,5 % of the translated predicate structures use kell. In the same type of text the English modal structures containing the modal must in 90 % are translated into Hungarian with structures containing kell auxiliary verb. This indicates that the different meanings of the sentence structures containing must and should modal verbs are somewhat blurry in the translation. 2.3. There are examples in the legal text translations as well as in the literary text translations for the fading, the disappearance or variation of the English modals. Sometimes the modal meaning decreases and the skills or actions considered necessary or probably are displayed as facts: So you must know loats of magic already. (65) - Gondolom, akkor mris jl rtesz a varzslshoz. (39) Right, that should be enough fer a couple o terms, well keep the rest safe for yeh. (48)
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No, ennyi pnz j pr tanvre elg lesz. A tbbit megrzik itt neked. (30) I think we must expect great things from you, Mr. Potter. (56) Azt hiszem, nagy tetteket ltunk mg magtl, Potter r. (34) Sometimes the context and the reference for the same situation allows the modal meaning to fade in a sentence, not to appear in the linguistic level, since it was expressed explicitly in the previous sentence. I must lie, he thought desperately. I must look and lie about what I see, thats all. (194) Hazudnom kell, gondolta. Belenzek a tkrbe, aztn hazudok valamit, s ksz. (114) The change of grammatical structure of the source language can result in the fading of the modal meaning. The change of the nominative and predicative structures along with the change of modality can be seen in the translation of the next sentence: Even Muggles like yourself should be celebrating, this happy, happy day! (3) rmnnep ez a nap mg maguknak, mugliknak is! (3)
3. Conclusions
The functions of the modal meanings in different type of texts are prevailed differently: the difference is striking in the legal and literary texts. The different modal systems of the languages, the differences in the meanings on the level of words have effect on the translation of the modal meanings. It can be seen in the analyzed corpuses that the modal meanings are sometimes left out, faded or changed in the target text.
Acknowledgements
The present article has been supported by Sapientia Foundation Institute of Research Programs, Contract No. 34/7/22.03.2011.
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Bibliography
Kaczmarek, K. 2010. Az utasts kifejezeszkzei a jogi szakszvegben a deontikus modalits tkrben. Filolgia. A Magyar Tudomnyos Akadmia Modern Filolgiai Trsasgnak online folyirata. http:// www.filologia.hu/tanulmanyok/karolina-kaczmarek Kugler, N. 1999. Mondattan. Magyar Nyelvr 123. vfolyam 1. szm, 88108. Ma, X. 2008. The pertinent meaning of the modal verbs in translation analysis. Sino-US English Teaching. Aug. 2008, Volume 5, No. 8 (Serial No. 56), 63-66 Murvai, O. 1982. Szempontok a szvegjelents s a mo dalits kapcsolatnak vizsglathoz. In: Szab Zoltn (szerk.): A szvegvizsglat j tjai.Kriterion. Bukarest. 5383. Palmer, F.R. 1990. Modality and English Modals.London and New York: Longman. Palmer, F.R. 1993. Mood and Modality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Szende, V. 2006. A felttelessg kifejezse a magyarban. http:// www.bbi. hu/index.php?id=79&cid=222. Source texts J.K. Rowling. 1998. Harry Potter and the Sorcerers Stone, Arthur A. Levine Books, New York. J.K. Rowling. 2000. Harry Potter s a blcsek kve translator: Tams Boldizsr Tth, Animus Kiad, Budapest.
A Practical Approach to Translating Modal Verbs. The Case of need
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Imre, Attila
A Practical Approach to TraNslatiNg Modal Verbs. The Case of need
Introduction
Modal verbs are usually problematic, especially when teaching or translating them. Palmer (1990: 4) highlights the necessity of differentiating the English modal verbs from other verbs (from the primary auxiliaries) based on at least 7 criteria: inversion with the subject, their negative form, code (He must listen and so must you.), emphatic affirmation, lack of s in the third person singular, lack of nonfinite forms and lack of co-occurrence of modal verbs. The first four are coined by Huddleston (1976: 333) as the nice properties, whereas the last three of them seem to be extremely important in teaching modal verbs. Palmer also notes that in terms of negation and tense they are highly idiosyncratic, which might be worth considering when translation is involved. Consequently, grammar books dedicate separate chapters for the English modal verbs, as they do not work in very well when the English verb system is described. Functionally, in our view (Imre 2008), we can differentiate strong verb(s) (be, am, are, is, was, were), auxiliary verbs (be, am, are, is, was, were; have, has, had; to do, does, did ), modal verbs (less than 20, but they can be subdivided), and weak verbs (which do not belong to any of the aforementioned ones). However, present and past participle forms should be considered as weak verbs and will serves as the auxiliary verb for future tenses. When a modal verb is coupled with any other type of verb, it simply takes over their function, as it stronger than the strong, auxiliary or weak verbs. This kind of introduction seems necessary form the point of view of translating the modal verbs, as they are part of the English tense system, offering either an epistemic or deontic (root, cf. Recski 2002) meaning. Lyons (1977: 792) regards epistemic modality as subjective
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(concerned with matters of knowledge or belief, 1977: 793), to which Palmer (1990: 7) adds that deontic modality is also subjective; Lyons (1977: 823) describes deontic modality as concerned with the necessity or possibility of acts performed by morally responsible agents. Needless to say, we are interested in both types. Epistemic modals express a judgement about the truth of propositions, while with the help of deontic modals speakers give permission or lay obligations (Palmer 1990: 10). Need is classified as a special subset of modals (Palmer), or even quasi-modal (Greere-Zdrenghea 2000: 38). Strictly speaking, it belongs to dynamic necessity, which is neither epistemic nor deontic. However, our concern is all the possible translations of the English modal verbs in a particular language (Romanian and Hungarian in this case), as we are primarily interested whether it is worth saving into a database all the possible translations of need. Then we would like to test the sample database with the help of a very efficient translation environment, namely memoQ, in order to find out whether this facilitates a faster and more reliable translation overall.
Meanings of need
When we are interested in the meanings of need from the point of view of translation, we should investigate various forms, such as affirmative, negative, interrogative, negative-interrogative, reported speech, passive constructions, and also taking into account idiomatic expressions, stock phrases as well. As for the voice, Palmer draws the conclusion that deontic modals are voice-neutral. Therefore, we will try to summarize in short the possible functions of need first. Anyway, since the advent of cognitive linguistics we are quite aware of the fact that there are no clear-cut categories (cf. Rosch, Brugman, Lakoff and Johnson) and Palmer also warns us that the meanings of modals cannot be described in terms of wholly discrete categories, as they merge of fade into one another (1990: 21). Need is only half within the modal system (cf. Palmer 1990: 25), but the real problem is that it functions both as modal and weak verb. Based on the nice properties, Palmer offers some samples (1990: 41):
A Practical Approach to Translating Modal Verbs MODAL I neednt read them in full. Nu trebuie s(Ro) Nem kell/szksges (Hu) One need hardly ask. Nu cred c e necesar s(Ro) Aligha szksges(Hu) MAIN (WEAK) I dont need to read them in full. Nu trebuie s/ Nu e necesar s(Ro) Nem kell/szksges (Hu) One needs to ask. Trebuie s (Ro) kell(Hu)
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The examples above clearly show that need is a weak (main) verb when followed by to and a verb in infinitive, whereas the lack of s in the third person singular indicates that it is modal. Need is also modal when it is followed by another verb directly. To our great relief, from the point of view of translation it seems that there is no difference between weak and modal need, which is further supported by Palmers sentences (1990: 128): Need I say more? Do I need to say more? Although there is a stylistic difference between the two sentences above, this does not appear in translation. The special meaning of need to inner compulsion is also noted by (Perkins 1983: 62, cited by GreereZdrenghea 2000: 243). The affirmative form of need is similar to must, although it indicates the requirements for a specific purpose or personal reasons (Palmer 1990: 129). Compared to must, Bdescu (1984: 427-428) observes that need is a convenient substitute, and she distinguishes in meaning non-modal need (regular) and modal need. The first one is translated as e nevoie de, necesit, whereas the latter is translated as e(ste) obligat (s). Although this kind of differentiation may work well during language classes when different various shades of meaning are highlighted, they seem to be problematic when trebuie is used in translation, as this word refers to both necessity and obligation. Consequently, the Romanian translation for need is basically trebuie (s), e nevoie s, preserving the root of the verb in past (a trebuit s, trebuia s), future or negative (and interrogative) forms. At this point we are not interested what happens when the Romanian trebuie is translated into English, as must, have to, need, had better may all be correct, let alone the cases when neednt have, shouldnt have, oughtnt have are implied (nu trebuia s fi, n-ar fi trebuit, nu era nevoie, etc.). Need does not have
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morphologically past tense forms (cf. Palmer 1990: 10, 44), it does not occur in the past tense (Greere Zdrenghea 2000: 65), although we can express need in past. The past for need is easy in the case of non-modal, expressing not necessary, in which case is similar with have to: I didnt go I didnt need to. (Palmer 1990: 128) nu trebuia (Ro) nem kellett (Hu) The modal need in past is similar with other modals in past (Imre 2010), followed by have, usually in negative form: You neednt have done that (although you did.) n-ar fi trebuit s (Ro) nem kellett volna (Hu) Quirk et al. (1972: 384) differentiate auxiliary negation and main verb negation. According to Palmer (1990: 34), this can be misleading for formally it is the modal that is negated in both. We support Palmers view, as we mentioned in the introduction that whenever a modal is combined with any other verb (except for, of course, another modal, as there is no co-occurrence), the modal takes over all the possible functions of the other verb. Palmer (1990: 38) distinguishes negation of the modality and negation of the proposition. Neednt, dont have to negate the modality or the lack of obligation, whereas the deontic must in negative (mustnt) negates the proposition (cf. Hallidays verbal crossing out, 1970: 333). Deontic neednt does not express permission, but fills the gap by stating that there is no necessity (Palmer 1990: 40). The idea of necessity expressed by need is expressed by all negative, interrogative and negative-interrogative forms, although the non-modal need is more likely to be used. As for interrogation, Palmer clearly states that only the modality can be questioned. Formally, interrogation has much in common with negation: not only are both nice properties, but also, to a large extent the same modal forms are used for both (Palmer 1990: 35, 41), but in the case of necessity modals the situation is more complex, as need in interrogation is hardly used (Need I come tomorrow?); Palmer states that it is more natural to ask:
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Must I come tomorrow? (Palmer 1990: 78) We do not want to discuss here all the three possibilities for neednt described by Palmer (1990: 119), as their translation overlap (nu trebuie, nu e necesar in Romanian, nem kell, nem szksges in Hungarian), and Gleanu Comiel (1982: 63) also highlights this lack of obligation. According to Recski (2001: 112), must is more frequent in formal text types and we tend to believe that this is also the case with need. Thus the translatability of need is tested with the help of a translation environment (MemoQ) choosing fiction, more precisely Asimovs Foundation.
Our database and MemoQ

The possibility of faster and more accurate translation seems to be at hand since the appearance of translation environments. In our project we have been using MemoQ (version 4.5.29., cf. Imre 2010), for which detailed description can be found at www.kilgray.com. The basic idea is that if we feed its database with proper translations, we should be able to enhance productivity of translation varying from 10% (fiction) up to 70% in case of technical texts. Being part of a larger project concerning modal verbs and the efficiency of translation environments, we have collected more than 1,000 samples of sentences containing modal verbs from Asimovs Foundation, available in English, Romanian and Hungarian. 40 sentences contained various forms of need, out of which we created a single document to be translated. We opened a new project in MemoQ translation environment (TE), to which this document was added. Then we have pre-translated all the major possible translations of need into Romanian and Hungarian and added them to the term base, trying to offer as various translations as possible. The list below contains the pre-translated need into Romanian and Hungarian. The samples are taken from Bdescu [1], Palmer [2], Greere Zdrenghea [3] and our own [4]:
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You need never do that. [2] nu e nevoie s He doesnt need to work so hard. [3] nu trebuie s I need tell no one about it. [2] nu e necesar s
nem kell nem szksges flsleges szksgtelen kell szksges meg kell gondolni mindenkppen meg kell szksgem van nem kellett volna szksgtelen volt nem kellett le kellett
He needs to make a lot of money. [2] trebuie s This needs to be thought about. [2] must needs [1] I need a new suit. [3] You neednt have done that. [4] I didnt need to write to him. [3] Your hair needed cutting [3] trebuie gndit trebuie neaprat nevoie de nu trebuia s n-ar fi trebuit s nu trebuia s trebuia ar fi trebuit avea nevoie de trebuie nevoie de nu-i necesar s nu-i nevoie s nu-i nevoie de nu trebuie s aproape c nu e nevoie s mai c nu e nevoie s
Your hair needs cutting. [4] He neednt work so hard. [3] I dont need to do that. [4] I dont need any money. [4] I hardly need say how much . [3]
le kell nem kell szksgtelen nem kell szksgtelen flsleges aligha szksges nem kell klnsebben
Results
After having added our pre-translations to the term base, we compared the results with the original Romanian and Hungarian editions. We would say that the results are encouraging as shown in the table below:
A Practical Approach to Translating Modal Verbs EN need will need would need needs (verb) needs (noun) need be done/placed is needed (in) need of there is no need for need not dont need neednt needed didnt need Total 13 4 2 1 2 2 1 3 4 2 1 3 2 1 41 RO 8 3 2 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 2 0 22 (53,65%) HU 8 3 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
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16 (39,02%)
The Romanian pre-translation was 53% compatible with the original translation, and this result may be further improved. First of all, in at least two cases there was no Romanian translation for a particular sentence containing need and in a few other cases trebuie was used instead of nevoie, but they may be accepted as synonyms in those cases. However, there were a few literary solutions, such as nu avei motive de instead of nu e nevoie, or the case of needs, which is a complete failure. First of all, we did not add to the database as a noun (nevoie, necessitate), and its verb sense was translated originally in both the Romanian and the Hungarian version (impune, kvn). Even if the expression there is no need for was not added to the database initially, the Romanian pre-translation worked well, whereas the Hungarian was not successful at all. The case of didnt need is interesting; although it was added to the term base, the pre-translation could not detect it, as the string was interrupted by an adverb (really). To sum up, in 9 cases we were faced with either the freedom of translator
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(cred c e bine s, impune, n-am vreme de, vreau s, nu avei motive s) or the translator ignored to translate need. We have high hopes that by adding some expressions to the database (in need of necesit; Theres no need for/to nu-i nevoie de/s) we could further improve the success of pre-translation, to which need as a singular/plural noun should be also added (nevoi, necesitate, necesiti). The specific Romanian particles for conjugation (am, ai, a, ale, avem, avei, au) should not be added to the term base, as in the long run they would prove unproductive. And it is worth mentioning that need was translated as nevoie in 23 instances out of 41, whereas trebuie was used 4 times and necesar only twice. The Hungarian pre-translation of need was less successful, only 39% correct hits, although in many cases was similar to the Romanian. However, in case of there is no need for we found no correct Hungarian translation, and even if neednt was 100% pre-translated correctly into Romanian, there was only one correct hit in Hungarian (33%). Generally, we could observe that the freedom of translator is greater in Hungarian, and more synonyms come into picture which should be added to the term base as they come up. Here are some examples: szorul, kvn, kellene, szksglet, semmi oka, nincs rtelme, hinyzik, rfrt volna, ignyel, semmi szksg, nlkl meglesz. Out of 41 cases 16 were translated as derived forms of szksg (need, Romanian nevoie) and 7 were translated as kell (need/have to, Romanian trebuie).
Conclusions
To conclude with, we can say that even if there are multiple possi bilities to translate need in theory, this variety is rather reduced in practice for Romanian (mainly nevoie), but seems more true for Hungarian. However, the results can be further analysed in case the text is formatted. For instance, in a previous article (Imre Keresztesi 2011) it was mentioned that must was highlighted in red, so mustnt was not recognized by memoQ as a single unit until we removed the formatting tag. So when we created the document with all the sentences containing need, we have removed all the formatting tags, which should be added back if the Romanian or Hungarian translation also needs them, requiring extra work again.
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We support Recski in stating that EFL teachers should start their description of need with the most common grammatical structures: affirmative, negative, future and past forms and a few expressions, such as there is no need, in need of. And we also believe that creating a database with need should also start here, which can be further completed by synonymous translations. Translation environments act like constant reminders for consistency, thus quality assurance is less problematic. And taking into account the present day tendency there is no need to prove the importance of CATtools (cf. Imre 2010), as major translation agencies already take them for granted in the translation business, even if these tools take a lot of time to be mastered.
Acknowledgements
The present article has been supported by Sapientia Foundation Institute of Research Programs, Contract No. 34/7/22.03.2011. We are also grateful to Kilgray Company for having included Sapientia University in their Academic Programme, thus offering free MemoQ TE licenses.
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References
Bdescu, A. L. 1984 - Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureti: Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic. Gleanu, G. - Comiel, E. 1982 - Gramatica limbii engleze pentru uz colar, Bucureti: Editura Didactic i Pedagogic. Greere, A. Zdrenghea, M. 2000 - A Guide to the Use of English Modals and Modal Expressions, Cluj-Napoca: Clusium. Huddleston, R. 1976 - Some Theoretical Issues in the Description of the English Verb, In: Lingua, 40, 331-83. Imre, A. 2008 - Logikus angol nyelvtan, Bucureti: Editura Didactic i Pedagogic. Imre, A. 2010- Translating Modal Verbs with Translation Environment. Should and ought to, In: Research, Education, Development. Inter national Symposium 2010 Trgu-Mure, Cluj-Napoca: Risoprint, 447-454. Imre, A. Keresztesi, P. (2011) Translating Must with Translation Environment, In: Research, Education, Development. International Symposium 2011 Trgu-Mure, Cluj-Napoca: Risoprint, forthcoming. Lakoff, G.& Johnson, M. 1980 - Metaphors We Live By, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Lyons 1977- Semantics, Vol.I-II, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Palmer, F.R. 1990- Modality and the English Modals, 2nd ed., New York: Longman. Perkins, M.R. (1983) Modal Expressions in English, London: Frances Printer. Recski, L.J. 2002 - The English Modal Auxiliary Must: A Corpus-Based SyntacticSemantic Account, In: Revista da Abralin, Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 99-122. Rosch, E. 1977 - Human Categorization, In: Warren, N. (ed.): Advances in Cross-Cultural Psychology. Vol.7, London: Academic Press. XXX. 2010. MemoQ Quick Start Guide. Downloaded from http://www. kilgray.com/files/user-guide/memoQ_QuickStartGuide _ 4_0_EN_0. pdf , 10.04.2010. Source texts Asimov, I. 1951- Foundation, Gnome Press. Asimov, I. 1993 - Fundaia, Bucureti: Editura Nemira, translated by G. Stoian. Asimov, I. 1986- Alaptvny Az Alaptvny pereme, Budapest: Kozmosz Fantasztikus Knyvek, translated by P.F. Nagy.
Training as a Medical Translator
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TraiNiNg as a Medical TraNslator
Due to the growing number of medical articles published worldwide, translators are faced with the difficult task of translating medical texts from different areas. This paper aims to focus on the particularities of medical texts in the fields of histology and pathology and to analyse some of the strategies that can be successfully applied in translating such articles. The history of translatology as an academic discipline does not coincide chronologically with the history of any of the various translating traditions (Baker 2004: 295) or with the act of translating, which is about as old as human communication itself. Medicine is one of the three oldest recorded fields of human knowledge and discovery, along with theology-philosophy, and astronomy-geography (Fischbach 1986: 16). The history of medical translation dates back to times that precede the writings and the work of the Western father of Medicine, Hippocrates. Pilegaard quotes Fischbach who states that medical translation is the most universal and oldest field of scientific translation because of the homogenous ubiquity of the human body (Trosborg 1997: 160). This is due to the fact that Greek medical scholars had access to earlier writings in languages such as Sanskrit or Egyptian. Other great civilisations like Indian or Chinese also produced writings of medical research. They sometimes combined their medical observations with elements of religion or magic in order to try to explain different phenomena. After a contribution of over 2,000 years, Greek and Latin have shaped todays medical English. English has inherited roots and affixes. Thus for a professional in the field of medicine, reading papers in English or other languages may not pose much difficulty since many European languages have built their medical terminology on Greek or Latin. Munday quotes Mary Snell-Hornby (Munday 2008: 76) who includes medical texts in the category of special language translations, along with legal, economic, science or technology language. Reiss, quoted by Munday (Munday 2008: 72) categorises text types into
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informative, expressive, operative and audiomedial. According to her classification medical texts belong to the group of informative texts in which the language is expected to be objective and factual, logical, and the TT should transmit referential content. Pilegaard quotes Brunt (Trosborg 1997: 159) who attributes medical English to the field of technical or scientific English. Regardless of category or belongingness, when it comes to translating such texts from English into another language or vice versa, the translator is faced with numerous difficulties. Medical translation covers a range of genres, from health information brochures and articles on health in magazines for the general public to medical textbooks, instructions accompanying prescription drugs, specialised articles in medical journals, summaries of PhD theses, patient education brochures, case reports, etc. Medical articles intended for publication in medical journals differ significantly from the type of health-related articles published in popular magazines. In the case of such texts, it is not enough to perform the translation of the ST, to check it for accuracy of grammar, and to make sure that all the terms are correct. Such a translation is expected to be as accurate and coherent as if it had been produced in the target language. Difficulties in translating medical articles arise from the translators lack of medical knowledge, of medical terminology or phraseology. There are several stages and steps to be taken into account. Translations can be done in different ways, depending on whether the focus is on the ST or on the TT. Even the correctness of a translation depends on the intended reader (Nida 1969: 1). Thus, translators can make use of word-for-word translation, literal, faithful, communicative, free translation or adaptation. Regardless of the mode and method applied, the TT has to fulfil the need of its purpose. The same text can be translated differently depending whether it is intended to be published in a journal, newsletter, health magazine, etc. Superceanu (Superceanu 2009: 66) gives a list of four modes and the methods that these translations can use. Full-content and selective translations can both use linguistic (faithful and semantic) or pragmatic/ communicative methods. The condensing mode will use the methods of consecutive or concomitant translation, whereas adapting can be of two types: linguistic or cultural adaptation.
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Nevertheless, choosing the most suitable mode or method still does not solve the difficulty of the translation process. Nord (Trosborg 1997: 58) sets forth a list of four translation problems. These are: 1. pragmatic 2. intercultural 3. interlingual 4. text-specific translation problems. Since there are two different communicative situations ST and TT, pragmatic translation problems arise from the contrast between the two situations. Intercultural translation problems are due to the fact that different cultures have different habits, or norms. Interlingual translation problems derive from the structural differences in the vocabulary and syntax of different languages, while text-specific translation problems are related to the translation of figures of speech, rhetorical figures, etc. Sager (Trosborg 1997: 32) suggests new types of strategies. These are: 1. strategies changing content 2. strategies changing intention 3. strategies changing content and intention. Once the translator knows the requirements and expectations of the readers, he or she can decide what strategy best applies in order to achieve the skopos. The skopos theory, developed by Katharina Reiss and Hans Vermeer around the 1980s, signalled a change in thinking from the structural linguistic approach that had been the dominant one. Dimitriu (Dimitriu 2002: 55) states that defining the translation skopos is the first step translators must take before actually proceeding to the translation proper. According to the first strategy from the list above, it is the translators decision whether the text should be summarised, abridged, reduced or whether certain parts may be left out. However, such omissions of parts of the text should not affect the TT in any way but they should improve the quality of the text. Apart from omissions, the translator may decide whether explanations or extensions would be necessary to make the TT coherent and clear for the reader. Annotations or exemplifications can be inserted in the text but these should never be disruptive or too extensive to pose difficulties for the readers. As far as strategies that change the intention of the text are concerned, translators need to be aware of the way the TT is going to be delivered. This can be a printed article or an oral presentation. Thus, the text type should be adapted to the intention of the TT.
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The third group of translation strategies applies to cases when there are various cultural differences between the readership of the source language and that of the target language. In this case, the translator may have to deal with both the changing of the content to make the target text suitable to the new readership and with the changing of intention of the TT. Nida (Nida and Taber 1982: 33) integrates Chomskys generativetransformational model in the following three-stage system of translation:
In Nidas view, a good translation depends on achieving equivalent response. Achieving such a response is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, along with making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response in the reader of the TL as the original produced in the SL. For this purpose a medical text should be approached with both types of equivalence, that is, formal, so that the message of the TT matches the one in the ST and dynamic, so that the effect in the reader of the TT is the same as the one the ST has in the SL on the reader, adapting grammar, lexicon or cultural differences in order to achieve naturalness (Nida and Taber 1982: 13). While medical professionals learn the language of medicine during their education and training, unfortunately the case of linguists is different. Desirably, a medical translator should have specialised knowledge but the lack of formal training is not an insurmountable obstacle. It is more that the translator understands the text and can see beyond it. Reading medical articles undoubtedly contributes to enriching the knowledge of the translator.
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Due to the widespreadedness of English, many Romanian medical professionals publish their articles in world-renowned journals, some of which are available on the Internet, such as PubMed, Medline, etc. This might have contributed to the adaptation of Romanian medical articles to the organization of English ones. Thus, such articles are structured into four parts under the following headings: Introduction, Material and methods, Results, Discussion. Even if a commissioned article written in Romanian, for example, does not have this structure, the translator should adapt the text in a way according to the requirements of the English one. There are cases when medical articles produced in the native language of the medical professional lack coherence, parts are included under the wrong sections. Since Romanian and English differ significantly, a writer of a Romanian article will freely use long sentences, with different types of embedded subclauses. This cannot be the case of English, where a medical article is expected to be coherent, to make use of comprehensible sentences, omitting useless, embedded subclauses which distort the meaning or make the reader confused. Some problems in the translation of medical articles may stem from acronyms frequent in medical English, thus the translator should either build a list or glossary of acronyms in the target text and place it at the beginning or the end of the text, depending on the text type, or simply avoid using acronyms in the TT if these may mean something else or if the target language does not use acronyms for certain terms. For example, there are acronyms that can be translated into other languages such as WHO (World Health Organisation, OMS Organizaia Mondial a Sntii) but there are others that remain unchanged, Hungarian uses AIDS just as English does, while Romanian calls it SIDA. A frequent acronym in pathology is ACC, that is, acinic cell carcinoma. Nevertheless, Romanian does not use CCA to render the same concept. GIST (gastrointestinal stromal tumour) is another example pertaining to histology and pathology. Although Romanian calls such conditions tumori stromale gastrointestinale, it uses the same acronym: GIST. A translator can easily translate celule canceroase as cancerous cells. Although every reader would understand the meaning of cancerous cells, they would expect the English tumour cells or cancer cells, where the noun itself can function as an adjective. Virusul papiloma uman is translated as human papilloma virus; here Romanian uses the same acronym as English, that is, HPV. Regardless of the mode, method or strategy used by the translator, the main focus is that of the skopos. The translation of the ST does not
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necessarily have to be utterly faithful to the ST, the translation can simply be a rewriting of the original, but the TT has to be clear and coherent as if it had been written in the target language. Adaptations or omissions can be used as long as they contribute towards the skopos of the text in order to produce a functionally adequately target text.
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References
Baker, M. (ed.) 2004 - Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, London,Routledge. Dimitriu, R. 2002 - Theories and Practice of Translation, Iai, Institutul European Fischbach, H. (ed.) (1998), American Translators Association Series Translation and Medicine, Amsterdam/ Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company. Fischbach, H. 1986 - Some Anatomical and Physiological Aspects of Medical Translation: Lexical equivalence, ubiquitous references and universality of subject minimize misunderstanding and maximize transfer of meaning, in Meta: journal des traducteurs/ Meta: Translators Journal, Volume 31, numro 1, Mars 1986, p. 16-21. Munday, J. 2008 - Introducing Translation Studies Theories and Appli cations, London/ New York, Routledge. Nida, E. and Taber, C. 1982 - The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden, E. J. Brill. Superceanu, R. 2009 - Translating Pragmatic Texts, Timioara, Orizonturi Universitare Trosborg, A. (ed.) (1997), Text Typology and Translation, Amsterdam/ Philadelphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company.
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The Role of Translation in Teaching a Foreign Language
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The Role of TraNslatioN iN TeachiNg a ForeigN LaNguage
0. Translation was a significant part of ELT for a long time, and then a significant missing part for a long time also. With the arrival and total dominance of communicative methodologies, translation was quickly consigned to the past, along with other traditional tools such as dictation, reading aloud and drills. However, translation and these other neglected activities are now a feature of many communicative classrooms and successful aids to learning, although the approach to using them has changed. Teachers and students use translation in order to learn, rather than learning translation. Modern translation activities usually move from L1 to L2, although the opposite direction can also be seen in lessons with more specific aims, have clear communicative aims and real cognitive depth, show high motivation levels and can produce impressive communicative results. The purpose of translation in the language classroom is to help learners develop their knowledge of English. However, some learners may become translators one day, and the basic knowledge of translation they have gained in the classroom can serve as a solid ground for building up translation skills. Translating from L2 into L1 seems to be natural, but what about a more demanding task, rendering L1 into L2? It is certainly advisable to stick to the former mode at lower levels and leave the latter for a more advanced stage, although some very simple L1-L2 translation activities, especially those involving awareness raising, can also be carried out at initial stages of learning. This involves deciding how to administer translation activities, and choosing the most appropriate forms of classroom interaction. Translation is a serious business, which requires careful preparation both on the part of the teacher and the learner. Distributing a text and telling your students translate it is not a very good way to start. Suitable preparatory activities are necessary, and they can be integrated in reading, listening and writing activities, and also in vocabulary and grammar practice.
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Since translation is time consuming, it is advisable that longer pieces should be done at home. Occasionally, separate classes can be devoted to translation, but only with a highly motivated class. The teacher should ensure that these tasks are done as pair or group work. The purpose of this is to give the learners a chance to discuss, test and compare their ideas. It would be a shame to limit the role of translation only to the presentation of lexical items. One should rather explore ways for its appropriate application within the communicative paradigm and create challenging language activities which have cognitive depth. Therefore, translation activities practised in the classroom ought to meet the following criteria: language is used for a purpose; they create a desire for communication; they encourage students to be creative and contribute their ideas; students are focused on what they are saying; rather than how they are saying it; students work independently of the teacher; students determine what they want to say or write.
I. Reasons for using translation in teaching a foreign language

If a strong case for translation in the language classroom is to be made, at least three things ought to be demonstrated: criticisms against it are not valid learners need it it promotes their learning The studies that have dealt with commonly made criticisms (translation teaches learners about language, and doesnt really help them learn how to use it, or that it encourages the excessive use of the mother tongue), and they have demonstrated that these objections are justified only if translation practice amounts to the regular combination of grammar rules with translation into the target language as the principle practice technique. They have also shown that if properly designed, translation activities can be employed to enhance the four skills and develop accuracy, clarity and flexibility (Duff 1989:7). Out of these, important questions arise: To what extent do students need translation? Will the student have to use translation once he has
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learned L2? The answer to the latter question is positive, for translation is a real life communicative activity the learners translate in class for peers, decodes signs and notices in the environment, and translates both instructions and letters for friends and relations. Moreover, with the increased mobility of persons and goods in a unified, multilingual Europe, translation is expected to be practiced almost on daily basis. In addition, one should not lose sight of Duffs warning that language competence is a two-way system, that we need to be able to communicate into and from the language system. Still little guidance is given how to communicate back into the mother tongue, something that many professionals need to do in their daily work (Duff 1989:6).
Successful classroom activities

If the teacher wants that the students acquire the intentional results with the help of translation activities, then he/she needs to plan the lessons according to the students level and motivation. The following suggestions can be taken into consideration and used as models in teaching English with the help of translation: Learner groups work on translating different sections of a text, and then regroup to connect together their parts into a full text, with suitable connecting language. Learners bring in examples of L1 language (in their own country) or L2 (in another country) for discussion and translation. Signs can be particularly interesting. This can also be done by sharing material by means of group e-mails. Learners bring in short texts, proverbs, poems and present them to the class, explaining why they like them. These are then used for translation. Students work in groups on short texts then regroup and compare their versions, before producing a final text. This can then be compared with an official published version. Students translate and then other learners back translate, then compare versions and discuss why there are differences. Students look at unsuitable translations and discuss the causes of errors. Ask students to find different kinds of texts for comparison and translation, for example recipes, e-mails, graffiti, technical texts, post-its. Students develop a webpage or blog with their own translated work.
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Students examine and then present their findings on the translations of a particular group of words, such as those of their own professional field. Students evaluate translation software/web pages and then report back to the group.
The Importance of Mother Tongue in Teaching a Foreign Language

I believe that it is a good idea to use the native language, especially for beginners or elementary students. You will achieve 3 things as follows: You will arouse confidence in your students when learning English. There will be less or no inhibition among your students. It will encourage your students to speak in English more readily as they will not be shy and they will be confident that you will not laugh at them when they make mistakes. Your students will be more comfortable with you when they know that you are in a position to understand them. I believe it is all a question of comfort level. Put your students at ease and they will open up to you and your encouragement to speak and learn the English language. As you progress towards lower intermediate and intermediate level you can reduce the use of the other languages and probably drop it when they reach upper intermediate. The fact is that the mother tongue use in the foreign language classroom has been always controversial among linguists and teachers, of course. Nowadays it can be said that the communicative approach has received wide support. I agree that the target language should be used as the main language and as a medium of communication however; I believe that the mother tongue has also got its role in foreign language classroom. Its role is minimal but facilitating pupils learning and language acquisition when needed. Recent studies indicate that appropriate and judicious use of mother tongue can play a significant role in foreign language teaching and successful target language acquisition. When teachers teach English merely in the target language, pupils will not only become familiar with their foreign language but they will be later able to produce new structures themselves since language is much better learnt through real use that through pattern drills and exercises.
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The reasonable use of mother tongue can play its role in some cases, but the target language should remain the main language. It may sometimes happen that pupils keep using their mother tongue rather than a target language in the foreign language classroom. Harmer suggests that this may happen because pupils want to say something important, and the easier way how to do it is to use their native language (2004:129). Nonetheless, Harmer also proposes a number of things that teacher can do when these situations occur: Talking to pupils about the issue: teachers can discuss with pupils how they feel about using English and their mother tongue in the classroom. Encouraging pupils to use English appropriately.Teachers should go on in encouraging pupils to use English. Responding only to English use: teachers can ignore what pupils say in their mother tongue. Creating an English environment: teachers themselves should use the target language for the majority of time, so that pupils are constantly exposed to English.
Conclusion
Translation seems to be an often used strategy and preferred language practice technique for many students in EFL situations. As such, it undoubtedly has place in the language classroom. However, translation is not a time-saving instrument. It can be invaluable in provoking discussion and helping us increase our own and our students awareness of the inevitable interaction between the mother tongue and the target language inevitably occurring in the process of language acquisition. It is obvious from my paper that I support the idea that the target language should remain the main language to be used in foreign language classroom however, with the appropriate and cautious use of mother tongue in some cases. The possibility when to use the mother tongue in foreign language classroom is presented based on the fact that a judicious use of the mother tongue can sometimes have both pedagogical and effective role in the communicative language classroom. However, I want to stress out that teachers must keep in mind that the target language should remain the main language.
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Bibliography
Brown, H. D. 2001- Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, London: Longman. Brunette, L. 2000 - Towards a terminology For Translation Quality Assessment:A Comparison of TQA Practices, in The Translator, Vol.6, Nr.9, pp.169-182. Candlin, N., Mercer, N., ed. 2001- English Language Teaching in its Social Context, London and New York: Routledge. Duff, A. 1990 - Translation, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Harmer, J., 1994 - The practice of English language Teaching, London: Longman. Harmer, J. 2007 - The Practice of English Language Teaching (4th edition), Harlow, England: Pearson Education Limited. Ivanova, A. 1998 - Educating the Language Elite; Teaching Translation for Translation Training, in Malmkjr, K. (ed.), Translation and Language Teaching, Language Teaching and Translation, Manchester: St. Jerome, pp.91-110. Jakobsen, A.L. 1993 - Translation as Textual (Re)production, in Studies in Translatology, Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. Jourdan, C., Tuite, K. 2006 - Language, Culture and Society, Cambridge/ New York: Cambridge University Press. Kasper, G., Rose, K.R. 2001- Pragmatics and Language Teaching, in Pragmatics and Language Teaching, Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, pp.1-10. Schffner, C. and B. Adab (eds.) 2000 - Developing Translation Competence, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Superceanu, R.2009 - Translating Pragmatic Texts, Timioara: Orizonturi Universitare. Tagnin, S., (1996) in Dollerup, C. and Appel, V.,(eds.) Students Research for Translation, in Teaching Translation and Interpreting 3, Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins, pp. 163-9. Willis, J. 1991- Teaching English through English, New York: Longman. Willis, J. 1996 - A Framework for Task-Based Learning, New York: Longman.
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Teaching Translation, available online at http://translationjournal.net/ journal/13educ.htm, retrieved on September 1st 2011 Role of mother tongue in learning english for specific Purposes, available online at http://www.esp world.info/Articles_22/PDF/ROLE%20 OF%20MOTHER%20TONGUE%20IN%20LEARNING%20 ENGLISH%20FOR%20SPECIFIC%20PURPOSES.pdf retrieved on September 5th 2011 Translation activities in the language classroom, available online at http:// www.teachingenglish.org.uk/articles/translation-activities-languageclassroom retrieved on September 7th 2011 The place of translation in Language Teaching, available online at http://www.sueleatherassociates.com/pdfs/Article_translationin languageteaching.pdf, retrieved on September 12th 2011 Teaching Translation, available online at http://translationjournal.net/ journal/13educ.htm, retrieved on September 14th 2011
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TheEffectsoftheEUsLanguagePolicyonRevitalizingEndangeredLanguages
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The Effects of the EUs LaNguage Policy oN RevitaliZiNg ENdaNgered LaNguages
0. The European Union has 23 official and working languages. These are the following: Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish and Swedish. The first regulation of the European Commission establishing official languages was adopted on April 15th 1958, and it named Dutch, French, German and Italian, official and working languages of the EU, the languages of the founding countries (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands). Since then, with the enlargement, the number of official languages also increased. In 1973, with the accession of Denmark, the Republic of Ireland and the UK, English and Danish were added to the group of official languages. Ireland declined having Irish (Irish Gaelic) a declared official language. Nevertheless, with the accession of Ireland, the documents of the EU were published and authenticated in Irish as well. On June 13th, 2005 Irish became an official language of the EU, the new stipulations becoming valid from January 1st, 2007. This fact is important from the point of view of our paper on EU language policy and language revitalization. The number of official and working languages (23) is lower than the number of Member States (27), because some of them share official languages. For example, Belgiums official languages are French, German and Dutch.
Official and working languages French German Italian Dutch Danish Year declared official 1958 1958 1958 1958 1973
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Official and working languages English Greek Portuguese Spanish Finnish Swedish Czech Estonian Latvian Lithuanian Hungarian Maltese Polish Slovak Slovenian Bulgarian Irish Romanian
Gl, Nomi Year declared official 1973 1981 1986 1986 1995 1995 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2007 2007 2007
Table 1. Official languages of the European Union and when they were declared official As stated above, all official languages are also working languages, which means that all documents a Member State or a person under the jurisdiction of a Member State sends to EU institutions can be addressed in any official language, and the answer can be drafted in the same language (eg. Lnnroth 2008: 9). Furthermore, EU regulations, legal documents and other general information should be published in all 23 official languages and the EUs Official Journal is published in all 23 languages. Other documents, such as communication with national authorities, decisions addressed to individuals and correspondence are translated into the languages needed. Official documents, different regulations, legal texts, decisions of courts will be published in all official languages. All European treaties are considered to be original texts in all languages, not just translations of the original text (even if they are translations, in fact; see for example Marzocchi 2005: 9). Another interesting fact is that in relation to legislative texts the term translation is not used, they prefer draft (abfassen).
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As many countries are candidates to join the European Union (eg. Croatia, Turkey and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia), the number of official languages is about to grow. The situation is even more complicated if we consider that some states have signed agreements on regional languages: for example Spain managed to have its three co-official languages, Catalan, Basque and Galician to be used in correspondence with EU institutions. Translation costs are supported by Spain.
I.The concept of linguistic diversity and multilingualism in the European Union

In presenting these definitions, we first need to state the following: multilingualism means the coexistence of several languages in a social group, while plurilingualism refers to knowledge and use of multiple languages by the same individual. A plurilingual society is made up mostly of individuals being able to speak several languages (even at different levels of competence), i.e. multilingual or plurilingual people. A multilingual society can be composed mainly of monolingual individuals who do not speak each others languages (Charter 2005). The document entitled the Council Resolution on a European strategy for multilingualism includes the following statements: Linguistic and cultural diversity is part and parcel of the European identity; it is at once a shared heritage, a wealth, a challenge and an asset for Europe. Multilingualism is a major cross-cutting theme encompassing the social, cultural, economic and therefore educational spheres. The promotion of less widely used European languages represents an important contribution to multilingualism (Resolution 2008). The European Charter for Plurilingualism (2005) includes the following statements: Plurilingualism is a vital tool for promoting democratic citizenship and is also the most desirable and the most effective means of communication in public debates since it enshrines the values of tolerance and acceptance of differences and minorities. Linguistic and cultural diversity which is inseparable from the concept of active European citizenship is therefore
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a component of European identity. (...) Utilitarian objectives must not determine the fate of languages. Having one overriding vision of globalisation tends to lead to a situation in which one single language monopolises communication. We must therefore underline the superiority of a plurilingual approach, based on the use of cultural languages (Charter 2005). In 2000, the EU has set an ambitious goal: to become, by 2010, the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. Part of this objective is to achieve greater social cohesion and to generate sustainable economic growth capable of providing more and better jobs. The plan developed to achieve this objective is known as the Lisbon Strategy. Education policy is central, and language learning is essential in this context (http:// ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc4021_ro.htm). The European Union thus stresses the importance of linguistic diversity, and the causes are complex. On the one hand preserving cultural and linguistic diversity is a response to globalization, which is becoming more and more accentuated, motivating individuals to find their origins, their roots and some necessary benchmarks, language being one of these. On the other hand, language is a symbol of cultural identity and resistance to any foreign domination, while multilingualism is one of the answers to the shock of civilizations and the various forms of political, cultural and economic hegemony. This attitude includes the viewpoint according to which the use of a single language as a vehicle for international communication does not, in any way, ensure dialogue and peace. On the contrary, such a language becomes the expression of domination (Charter 2005). We conclude therefore that the concepts of multilingualism and plurilingualism are extremely important in the European Union and that the EU citizens language rights are complex. EU language policy safeguards and promotes regional and minority languages, as established in Article 22 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights: the Union shall respect cultural, religious and linguistic diversity.
II. EU language policy and its effects on the Member States

EU language policy is radically different from that of totalitarian regimes or new states, which require the knowledge of one language from all its subjects. European Union even coined the term multilingual policy (Lnnroth 2008a: 5).
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First, multilingualism is a fundamental value of the European project. The motto of the EU is unity in diversity, which represents this attitude. The EU language policy referring to every European citizen is for them to speak at least two foreign languages besides their mother tongue. This objective was defined by European leaders at the Barcelona Council meeting in 2002, and focused mainly on the wish of the EU regarding every child to learn at least two foreign languages from the earliest age (http://ec.europa. eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/ doc4001_ ro.htm). Based on this attitude, all languages are equally important, the number of users does not matter: even if there are 100 or 100 million speakers, every one of them have the right to access the decisions that affect them directly or indirectly (Lnnroth 2008a: 11). Some reference points of the EU language policy: Council conclusions of June 12th, 1995 on language diversity and plurilingualism in the EU; Council Resolution of December 16th, 1997 on learning EU languages at an early age; Council Resolution of February 14th, 2002 regarding the promotion of linguistic diversity and language learning within the objectives of year 2001 - European Year of Languages; Council conclusions of May 22nd, 2008 on multilingualism (published in the Official Journal C140, 06/06/2008) available at http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc 4001_ro.htm]. Commission Communication of September 18th, 2008 entitled Multilingualism: an asset for Europe and a shared commitment; Council Resolution of November 21st, 2008 on a European strategy for multilingualism (published in the Official Journal C320, 16/12/2008); Council Resolution on the European strategy for multilingualism makes the following suggestions to the Member States: To promote multilingualism in order to strengthen social cohesion, intercultural dialogue and the European construct; To enhance foreign language learning throughout life; 1. To promote linguistic diversity and intercultural dialogue by strengthening the support of translation to promote the dissemination of ideas and knowledge in Europe and worldwide; 2. Promote EU languages on a global level (Resolution 2008).
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Taking into consideration all of the above, the EU has created a perfect context for language revitalization and the revival of endangered languages. Or has it?
III. Basic issues of language revitalization

Language revitalization has been an ever growing topic in the sociolinguistic scholarly writings first and foremost because we can no longer discuss bilingualism, language loss, language death without considering the possibility of language revitalization. Language revitalization, just as language shift, language loss and linguistic assimilation is triggered by several factors which differ in their nature and with the help of which the dimensions of language revitalization can be outlined. These dimensions are organized on social, political/ideological and linguistic levels. The social dimension of language revitalization includes the historical, economic and demographical variables which determine the past and present state of the endangered language. The linguistic dimension of language revitalization connects the linguistic domain with the applied ones, with minority education, with the linguistic or even dialectological questions raised by language planning, graphization, codification, and standardization. The political and/or ideological dimension includes the official status of the language, the questions of linguistic rights and the ones raised by nationalist movements, which define the symbolic role of the language, its connections to identity, the attitudes towards the language. Language revitalization needs to be preceded by the assessment of the linguistic state and that of the ethnolinguistic vitality of the language in order to be able to apply the most appropriate methods in its revival. This is supported by the fact that the linguistic vitality of a language can be a starting point for language revitalization programs. This assessment is facilitated by the UNESCO framework, which contains the following variables: Intergenerational language transmission; Absolute number of speakers; Proportion of speakers within the total population; Shifts in domains of language use; Response to new domains and media;
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Materials for language education and literacy; Governmental and institutional language attitudes and policies, including official status and use; Community members attitudes towards their own language; Type and quality of documentation (GrenobleWhaley 2006: 4).
IV. Official recognition and language revitalization

Official recognition, status, the existence of supportive or prohibitive laws influence the domains of language use in a direct way, and thus its functions, vitality, and the shifts in these domains are in a close relationship with the degree of language endangerment. The official status determines the attitudes of the dominant and non-dominant communities towards the non-dominant language in an indirect way, as the existence of language rights trigger positive attitudes, and these multiply the possibilities to preserve or even revive the language. Apart from official status in the case of the groups which are organized based on linguistic and often linguistic and ethnical criteria, from the point of view of political, economic and social power relations one can identify the group of the so called minority languages, which does not necessary mean numeric minority (Szpe 2001: 136). From the point of view of language revitalization it is important that we distinguish minorities, the language of which is also the majority language of a certain country (e.g. the Hungarian language in most of the Central-European states), and minorities which speak a so-called stateless language (such as Basque or Catalan). In the case of the former, that of the languages, which are the official or dominant language of a state, or in our case, the European Union, one may ask if it is appropriate to consider them endangered at all. When analyzing this question on the micro-level, that of the speech communities, it becomes obvious that if within a certain community a regression of language use can be detected, it is rightfully considered endangered even if it is an official language in a certain state (e. g. Eira 2002). Language revitalization changed the future of some languages even if only for a short period of time. While for example a few years ago Welsh was considered highly endangered, its state was improved by changes in its social and legal status. How and for how long these are going to live on, what bi- or multilingual contexts will they create differs from language to
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language and needs time to become clear. The means of counteractions still vary from one community to the other and depend on the position the language has in the identity of the speakers.
Conclusions
It is unquestionable that the support of minority languages and the promotion of multilingualism have aided language revival. They have created the ideological and in some cases legal background some of these languages needed in their reinforcement. Nevertheless, some important questions arise. Although the official language policy of the EU is highly multilingualism-oriented, and though all official languages are thought to have the same importance, statistical facts seem to depict a somewhat different story. The dominance of the English language is unquestionable within the EU as well: 15 years ago half of the original documents of the EU were drafted in French, and only 30% in English; today more than 70% of the documents are drafted in English and only 15% in French. English seems to have reinforced its role as the lingua franca of the 21st century. One cannot really foresee the effects this will have on local languages or even the other, less important official languages of the EU. It could revive local language awareness and cultural identity, but there is an equal possibility for it to promote assimilation and monolingualism in the long run.
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Bibliography
*** European Charter on Plurilingualism. 2005. *** Council Resolution on a European Strategy for multilingualism. November 21st, 2008. Eira, Christina 2002. Language Maintenance at the Micro Level: Hmong ex-refugee communities. In Bradley, David Bradley, Maya (ed.): Language Endangerment and Language Maintenance. RoutledgeCurzon, London, 23056. Grenoble, Lenore A. Whaley, Lindsay J. 2006. Saving Languages. An Introduction to Language Revitalization. Cambridge University Press. http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/publications/presentations/ speeches/20080801_shanghai_en.pdf (December 6th 2010). http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/publications/presentations/ speeches/20080801_shanghai_en.pdf (December 6th 2010). Lnnroth, Karl-Johan 2008a. Speech Efficiency, transparency and openness: translation in the European Union. XVIII World Congress of the International Federation of Translators Translation and cultural diversity, Shanghai, August 47th, 2008. Lnnroth, Karl-Johan 2008b. Why is the language policy in EU political dynamite? Centre for European Policy Studies, Brussels. http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/publications/presentations/ speeches/20080222_ceps_eu_l nguage_policy_en.pdf (December 6th 2010). Marzocchi, Carlo 2005. On a Contradiction in the Discourse on Language Arrangements in EU Institutions. Accross Languages and Cultures 6 (1), 512. Szpe Gyrgy 2001. Nyelvpolitika: mlt s jv. Iskolakultra-knyvek 7, Iskolakultra,Pcs.
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TermiNology Issues aNd GuideliNes for TeachiNg ENglish for Specific Purposes
English for Specific Purposes is a sphere of language teaching that has been developed to meet the needs of those learners who intend to use English in professional contexts and for professional purposes. As ESP is generally taught at university level, it is widely assumed that such courses are addressed to adult or young adult learners, who are likely to have some knowledge of the language. Thus, English for Specific Purposes is addressed to intermediate level students or above, beginners or pre-intermediate students cannot be expected to meet the demands of such courses. Not only do students have to have some English skills, but they also have to have some knowledge of the profession they study or practice. Thus, there might be differences between students who study ESP during university years, while preparing for the profession they have chosen (in their case learning the profession, learning its terminology in their mother tongue and in English is done in parallel), and students who decide to enroll to an ESP course for other reasons (taking up a job abroad) and who are already familiar with their professions terminology and linguistic issues and particularities.
Definitions of ESP
Strevens s (1988) definition makes a distinction between four absolute and two variable characteristics: I. Absolute characteristics: ESP consists of English language teaching which is: designed to meet specified needs of the learner; related in content (i.e. in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines, occupations and activities; centred on the language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics, etc., and analysis of this discourse; in contrast with General English.
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II. Variable characteristics: ESP may be, but is not necessarily: restricted as to the language skills to be learned (e.g. reading only); not taught according to any pre-ordained methodology. (Strevens 1988: 1-2). At a 1997 Japan Conference on ESP, to which Laurence Anthony refers to, in his article English for Specific Purposes: What does it mean? Why is it different?, Tony Dudley-Evans, co-editor of the ESP Journal, offered a modified definition, which still relied on the definition given by Strevens, in point of splitting the main features of ESP into absolute and variable characteristics. According to this revised definition ESP has: I. Absolute Characteristics: ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learner; ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves; ESP is centred on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities. II. Variable Characteristics: ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines; ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English; ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level; ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students; Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners (Dudley-Evans 1998: 4-5). The history of the ESP (English for Specific Purposes) movement can be traced back to the 1960s, though several books and materials designed to teach English for specialists in different fields (especially business and economics) were published even in the first decades of the 20th century. As Marianne Celce-Murcia puts it, in a book that was published in 1991, almost 30 years ago, ESL/EFL practitioners in many parts of the world began to convene on order to discuss the development of systematic analyses of students needs, particularly as they related to the features of the English that students must employ in the real world (Celce-Murcia 1991: 67). The most important questions that required urgent answers and that finally led to a remarkable development in ESP were: What will our students do when they finish their studies/start working? (Sell products, work in technical fields, consult patients, etc.); What are the characteristics of the English language they will need in order to succeed?; What are the best methods to teach them the English they will
Terminology Issues and Guidelines for Teaching English...
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need in their professional life? For teachers of English who advocated the implementation of ESP courses, it became more and more evident that curricula had to be based on a systematic and accurate analysis of students needs concerning the language required by the tasks performed in their (future) profession. There are four important phases in the history and development of the ESP movement. The first phase covers the 1960s and 1970s, when teaching ESP focused on the sentence-level. The needs analyses that were carried out concentrated on the lexical and grammatical features of professional registers, such as the language of engineering or the language of law. Researchers discovered, among the most striking characteristics of EST (English for Science and Technology), for instance, the extensive use of Present Tense Simple, of passive constructions and of noun compounds. In what Business English is concerned, the focus was on the rules of writing business letters, rules that stated the use of a set format, formulaic expressions, a limited set of vocabulary and conjunctions. After careful analyses of identified spoken or written discourse, practitioners organized their grammar-based curricula around the features of these special registers. One of the most famous of the published volumes to appear during this period was Swaless Writing Scientific English (1971), where chapters are based principally upon the grammatical forms most commonly found in the scientific English register (Celce-Murcia 1991: 68).The late 1970s and early 1980s brought about the second phase in the career of ESP, in which the sentence level analysis and the focus on grammatical forms started to integrate rhetorical functions as well. In 1981 Tarone et alii published a study that intended to examine the function and frequency of passive voice within astrophysics (Tarone, E, Dwyer, S, Gillette S, Icke, V 1981, On the use of the passive in two astrophysics journal papers, ESP Journal, 1(2), 123-140.) When comparing the functions of passive structures in these astrophysics journal articles with active voice, they practically performed a rhetorical analysis, stating that passive voice is used by the scientists/authors of the articles when a. they are following established procedures rather than discussing their own procedural choices, b. they are discussing others work in contrast to their own, c. they are referring to their own future research, or d. they wish to front (i.e., topicalize) certain information in sentences (Celce-Murcia 1991: 68-69). Tarone et alii are pioneers of rhetorical analysis in ESP, as they do not simply state that a particular feature (namely Passive voice) is frequently
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used in a certain type of texts, but they also ask why this specific item is employed, identifying different rhetorical functions. Moreover, they start to take into consideration the differences within larger ESP registers, as they dont refer to the whole range of scientific disciplines, to English for Science, but to a particular branch of it, i.e. astrophysics. Thus, in this second phase the focus of register analysis becomes more rhetorical, and, when talking about understanding language use in ESP, mere counting of grammatical and/or lexical features is not enough any longer. The third phase of the evolution of ESP integrated the discoveries of the previous two phases (linguistic features and rhetorical elements), as the focus was on the target situation and the oral communication students may need in different professional contexts, which led to the implementation of the so-called notional-functional curriculum. The main pillars of this notional-functional approach were: the communicative purposes (or functions) of the speaker, the setting for language use and the mode of communication and the keyword of the whole approach is the functional nature of communication. Therefore in Notional-Functional Syllabuses, instead of having textbook units which are organized grammatically (as in Phase 1), such as The Present Perfect, or which consider the purposes of written discourse (e.g. Article Introductions or The Sales Letter), as in Phase 2, there are chapter headings such as Agreeing and Disagreeing or Paying Compliments. Within the chapters, students are provided with sample dialogues taking place in different contexts among different people, thereby exemplifying the language which realizes a speakers communicative purposes within a specified context (Celce-Murcia 1991: 70). The fourth phase started in the second half of the 1980s. If earlier the focus was on the discourse and its grammatical features, on the communicative situation or the communicative purpose, now the attention shifts to the strategies used by learners to acquire the language (the contribution pf psycholinguistics). Hutchinson and Waters, authors of English for specific purposes. A learning-centered approach (CUP, 1987), are the first who claim the needs analysis must include issues like the measurement of learners existing knowledge, learners interest in the materials presented, learners modalities of storing and retrieving information and their active involvement in curriculum design.
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ESP categories
Celce-Murcia cites Strevens model of ESP, which divides ESP into two main subcategories as follows: I. EOP (English for Occupational Purposes) which subdivides into: 1. VESL (Vocational ESL, e.g. English for Auto mechanics) 2. Professional English (e.g. English for Business and Economics) II. EAP (English for Academic Purposes) which also has two subcategories: 1. EST (English for Science and Technology) 2. EAP (English for Academic Purposes, i.e other than EST) David Carver (1983) identifies three types of ESP: 1. English as a restricted language (such as the language used by air traffic controllers or by waiters) 2. English for Academic and Occupational Purposes 3. English with specific topics (Carver, 1983,131-137.) In the Tree of ELT (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP is broken down into three branches: a) English for Science and Technology (EST), b) English for Business and Economics (EBE), and c) English for Social Studies (ESS). Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). An example of EOP for the EST branch is English for Technicians whereas an example of EAP for the EST branch is English for Medical Studies (Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. 1987). It seems obvious that the senior branch of ESP is English for Science and Technology, as it received the biggest amount of attention, it was the first to be included in English teaching curricula, and it has had the greatest number of practitioners and the most numerous volumes of publications. The majority of scientific papers and books are printed in English and this phenomenon started some decades ago. Another explanation of this concentration on EST is that science, especially at the discourse level, is more regular across languages (Celce-Murcia 1991: 71), which means that there are many similarities between scientific English and Scientific Romanian, especially with terms of Latin or Greek origin, names of chemical substances, etc. If the early years of developing and implementing methods and materials for teaching ESP, the interest was oriented towards English for
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Science and Technology and English for Business and Economics, in the 1990s a new branch of science emerged and gained importance, thus English for Information Technology and English for the Internet became fashionable. In the 2000s, due to the spread of mass tourism and to the changes that occurred in the labour market, which made more and more people take up jobs (even if only summer jobs) abroad, the need for other Englishes grew, and several course books on English for Tourism or English for Medicine, for instance, were published. The diversification of ESP teaching materials and fields has several causes, among which we mention working abroad, travelling, working and translating for EU bureaus and offices, but also the growing need to read and write professional literature in English in more and more fields. Establishing or maintaining communication channels between scientists and researchers from different countries cannot be done without the necessary ESP skills. PhD studies or international scientific conferences, for instance, are impossible to attend, without reading and/or publishing articles in English in all sciences (Law, Philology, Psychology, Mathematics, History etc.). English for Science Defining the principles that govern the physical world requires a special linguistic code. The language of science(s) is precise, clear and unambiguous. Impersonal statements, logical thinking, clear and accurate descriptions prevail, while metaphors, humour or affective connotations completely lack. English for Science(s) involves a special vocabulary, which often means a large set of words of Latin or Greek origin, but the development of sciences and new discoveries impose the continuous renewal or enrichment of this scientific vocabulary. There is also a sciencespecific grammar as well: this means that the language of science prefers very accurate and unambiguous expressions, which leads to a higher rate of repetitive expressions, to the frequent use of relative pronouns (which, that, of which) or adverbials. Linking words that express contradiction, explanation, conclusion are unavoidable. Such linking words are the conjunctions (and, although, though, since, as), prepositions (despite, during) or adverbs (usually, meanwhile, firstly, secondly). Scientific texts in English often use long and complex sentences, with complex noun phrases. Another particular feature of scientific English is the use of passive voice, which allows the speaker/ writer to be
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more impersonal, to withdraw from his role of doer and put the emphasis on the experiment, phenomenon that has been carried out or presented. Another aspect that must be mentionned, is the use of non-verbal items such as graphics, models, images, tables etc. Yet, the interpretation or explanation of these non-verbal segments of scientific discourses is verbal. A particular branch of English for Science is English for Horticulture/ Horticultural Engineering. English for Horticulture displays all the peculiarities of Scientific English: -a lot of nouns and noun phrases of Latin origin and the habit of giving both the English and the Latin name for plants, species of plants (marigold/Calendula officinalis L., or fungi, bacteria and other agents that cause their illnesses (venturian scab/Venturia inaequalis, apple moth (Cydia pomonella); - a lot of Passive constructions are used, especially when referring to the steps taken to carry out an experiment or when giving instructions for using substances, equipments or manipulating plants, seeds, seedlings, etc. (The seedlings were removed from the foil tunnel; Further measurements were carried out monthly; Until recently, sweet cherry compatibility was studied mostly with traditional test crossings; Sterilized seeds were incubated on hormone-free medium); - preference for Present Simple when explaning, describing, characterizing plants, procedures, equipments, etc. (Pot-grown Chrysanthemums require a more humid air in the first 3 weeks after being planted in pots; The infection starts with a small, circular and superficial brown spot on the leaf, which progressively increases; The extensive use of pesticides causes pollution of the environment); - the use of Past Simple and of Present Perfect to refer to experiments (our experiment was carried out in the village of Bgz in 2009; In order to determine the nutritive values, we have determined the sugar content in the juice yield (g/100g), the soluble dry matter (refraction) and titratable acidity); - another particular aspect of English for Horticultural Engineering is the preference for long titles (The Analysis of Rooting and Growth Peculiarities of Juniper Species Propagated by Cuttings; The Effect of Different Fertilizers on the Quality of the Floral Stem and Inflorescence of Pot Grown Chrysanthemums; Relationship between flowering, fruit setting and environmental factors on consecutive clusters in greenhouse tomato).
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English for Medicine
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The language of medical sciences is used in contexts where failures in communication or mistakes in expressing oneself may lead to disastruous or even fatal results. It is said that medicine is the king of all professions. In the past, the lingua franca of medicine was Latin (which explains the amount of medical terms of Latin origin); today, English has taken over this role, as the most widely cited medical journals are in English. Practitioners have to be able to master this new lingua franca of medicine, not only to communicate (with their patients or the other members of the medical staff), but also to improve professionally, to have access to the most recent discoveries. English for Medicine involves the medical terminology (description, diagnosis, treatment), implying a lot of terms related to anatomy or physiology (mainly of Latin or Greek origin), but it also involves the language used in the communication between the people involved in the process of curing. When teaching or designing curricula/ teaching materials for English in Medicine, we have to have in mind the specificities of the communication between the main actors of this kind of communication: - doctor/patient (examining, referring patients to someone else, explaning details of diagnosis, treatment, taking a medical history, explaning a case to the patient/to a relative, giving advice/ instructions); - nurse/patient (explaning medical examinations and procedures to a patient, giving advice, being supportive, calming patients down, giving instructions); - doctor/nurse (asking and answering questions about cases/patients, asking to perform activities such as taking blood pressure, feeling the pulse, giving injections, asking for surgical instruments and utensils, giving instructions on medical procedures or treatment); - and doctor/ other doctors (examining, meeting emergencies, referring patients to someone else, calling in a specialist, asking for a second opinion, holding lectures at conferences/for medical students). Among the specificities of English for Medicine, one should mention: - the large amount of terms of Latin origin (Infarct- Lat. Infarcio= to stuff into, to obstruct; tumour- Lat. Tumere= to swell; pulseLat pulsus= a pushing or a beating or Greek origin (coma- Gr.
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Koma= deep sleep; nausea- Gr. Naus= ship; anorexia- Gr. An= without+ orexis= appetite, necrosis- Gr. Nekrosis= deadness) or even combinations like cardiovascular- Gr. cardia = heart + Lat. Vasculum= a vessel; - the use of Present Simple when describing processes, mechanisms and/or functions of the organism (Patients who suffer from asthma exhibit virtually identical symptoms to those who suffer from airflow limitation caused by chronic bronchitis; The pupil contracts when light falls on the eye; The external and internal intercostal muscles occupy the space between the ribs); - the use of Past Tense and Present Perfect for asking questions about the patients medical history, past illnesses, childhood or adult diseases (How long have you had this cough? When did these spots appear? Have you ever been hospitalized?) and Present Simple in questions connected with their lifestyle and attitude (Do you smoke?); - the use of Present Perfect to refer to recent discoveries/ medical procedures or experiments (Greenhill has noted an increasingly common cause of tubal pregnancy, namely previous plastic operation on the tube Dobrovici-Bostaca, 1999, 223); - the extensive use of acronyms and abbreviations: AB-abortion, Abantibody, ABLB- alternate binaural loudness balance/test, a.d.- auriodextra/Latin term for right ear, AIDS-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, BP- blood presure; British Pharamcopoeia; boiling point (the context is vital for the understanding of the terms and for deciding upon the proper meaning of the abbreviation), CLA- Certified Laboratory Assistant, RN- Registered Nurse, VSDventricular septal defect, WBC- white blood cell, y.o.- year old, etc. A good textbook for teaching English for Medicine should have, at the end, a list of such acronyms and abbreviations. - Another aspect of medical English is the use of synonyms: whereas more largely used terms like remedy or medical history taking can have synonyms (medicine, cure, treatment in the case of remedy or anamnesis in the case of medical history taking), the majority of the more specialized terms (especially noun phrases) do not have synonyms, this leads to the use of this/that/these/those or which or to the repetition of the same word in one sentence: Symptomatology may also be based on morphologic alteration of the tissues, which gives rise to characteristic types of lesions; these are divided into so-called elementary or primary
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lesions and secondary lesions, which occur conescutively in consequence to the primary lesions (Dobrovici- Bostaca, 1999, 133). Another aspect of the use of synonyms is when they use the English variant alongside with the Latin version, such as uterine tube or fallopian tube and tuba uterina Fallopii (Lat. Tuba= trumpet or in toto/overall, completely such as in This concept is difficult to accept in toto (Dobrovici-Bostaca 1999: 223); - English for medicine resembles English for horticultural sciences or biology in the large number of nouns with irregular plural forms, such as nouns of Latin origin: -usi: bacillus-bacilli, locus-loci, stimulus-stimuli -uses: virus-viruses -usboth i and es ended plural forms: fungus-funguses/fungi, nucleus-nucleuses/nuclei -aae: larva-larvae -uma: bacterium-bacteria, ovum-ova, stratum-strata Another set of irregular plurals derive from Greek words: -is-es: diagnosis-diagnoses, axis-axes, synopsis-synopses - Passive Voice is largely used in medical English: Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1926; Insulin is a hormone produced by the islets of Langerhans; Very little is known about the reasons of the shifts, changes and fluctuations of diabetes; Needle biopsy is used to examine kidney and prostate tissue; - The use of modal verbs is another issue of medical English, the most frequently used modals are can and should or must. Can is mainly used to expose possible scenarios in the evolution of the disease or physiological process: Occasionally fulminant hepatic failure can occur; Jaundice can occur if the patient takes contraceptive pills. The alternative to can is may in the same type of contexts: The abuse of tobacco may result in dimness of vision; Tobacco may act as an allergen. Should and must are used in nursing manuals and instructions for looking after patients, to describe processes and procedures of nursing, namely when giving advice on how different medical procedures should be carried out properly: The bath should begin with the area of the eyes; Before a patients temperature is taken, the thermometer should be carefully cleaned; The hot-water container should never be placed directly against the skin of a patient; it must be covered with soft material to protect against burns.
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English for the Media There is no such thing like a uniform media language, a unique style that characterizes all forms of the media, a linguistic code that is used by all the journalists. Yet, we shall try to identify some features that could be considered characteristic for what we call English for the media and for the press. Among these, one should mention: the use of Past Tense in the body of the articles and the use of Present Tense in the titles and descriptions of images and photographs, even when dealing with past events; the ommission of articles in headlines; variations in word order, so as to put old information towards the beginning of sentences and move new information towards the end; in newspaper articles written in English, inversion is often used (commented the Prime Minister..); the use of descriptive adjectives is common practice: ( tall, dark-eyed, forty years old writer XY declared); For the sake of an increased dramatic effect, the titles of printed materials use the Present Tense Simple, or the past participle of the passive constructions (dangerous murderer captured last night..). The language of the radio, on the other hand, prefers the active and passive forms of Present Perfect Tense (the olympic athlete, XY, has failed a drug test). English for Advertising English for Advertising is another branch of English Media or Communication students should be familiar with. Although in case of ads visual effects are of the utmost importance, linguistic elements also contribute to the appeal of commercials. When making an ad, linguistic factors are as important a psychological ones. The language of ads has the following characteristics: concrete and vivid vocabulary, with lots of metaphorical or artistic effects, connotations. The making of television commercials has led to a top list of advertising words, according to this, the most frequently used adjectives in English ads are the following: new, good/ better/ best, free, fresh, delicious, full, sure, clean, wonderful, special, crisp, fine, big, great, real, easy, bright, extra, safe, rich.
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The main difficulties of ESP are related to designing the proper needs analysis questionnaires, elaborating and identifying the most appropriate materials, and finding the right methods, as adults are never entirely problem-free learners, and have a number of characteristics which can sometimes make learning and teaching problematic (Jeremy Harmer, 2001, 40). Designing and delivering efficient ESP programs and/ or lessons is time-consuming and forces the English language teacher to strive to become a specialist in two fields, or at least to cooperate incessantly with other teachers, specialists in the professions students are trying to learn. Several skills and abilities are integrated in the teaching of ESP and designing ESP materials can be a real challenge. Nevertheless, it is absolutely necessary to introduce authentic materials in various formats, in order to form and develop the skills students will need in the professional communication they will be involved with. The main objective of this process is to develop a linguistic conduct that allows them to do fairly well in work-related contexts, to be equipped with the linguistic resources that facilitate an efficient institutional communication. Engaging students in real-life tasks, based on authentic materials, extracting the lexical units that are relevant to their current/future professional activity will finally lead to their recognizing, understanding and producing English for horticultural sciences, English for medicine, English for the media, etc.
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Bibliography
Carver, D. (1983) - Some propositions about ESP.The ESP Journal, 2,131137. Celce-Murcia, Marianne (ed.) (1991): Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Akadmiai Kiad Budapest- Newbury House. Dobrovici, Viorica Bostaca, Ioan (1999): English in Medicine. A Text Book for Doctors, Students in Medicine and Nurses, Polirom. Harmer, Jeremy (2001)- The practice of English Language Teaching, Longman, Pearson Education Ltd. Hutchinson, T.-Waters, A. (1987)- Developments in ESP. A Multidisciplinary Approach, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Kurtn Zsuzsa (2003) Szakmai nyelvhasznlat. Nemzeti Tanknyvkiad, Budapest. Strevens, P. (1988)- ESP after twenty years: A re-appraisal. In M. Tickoo (Ed.),ESP: State of the Art(pp. 1-13). Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Centre. International Journal of Horticultural Science, vol. 9, number 3-4, Budapest, Agroinform Publishing House. On-line resources Kristen Gatehouse, Key Issues in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Curriculum Development, www.khae-service.com). Laurence Anthony, English for Specific Purposes: What does it mean? Why is it different?, http://www.antlab.sci.waseda.ac.jp/abstracts/ESParticle.html.
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ESP for Horticulture Needs Analysis and Genre Analysis
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ESP for Horticulture Needs ANalysis aNd GeNre ANalysis
Introduction
The process of designing an ESP (English for Specific Purpose) course for horticulture students involves interdisciplinary research, including the following domains: foreign language pedagogy (curriculum theory and development), linguistics (applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, special / technical language), and agriculture (horticulture, cultivation). The longterm goal of teaching ESP is to prepare the students for communication in their future profession. Thus the following questions emerge: What activities and purposes are they going to need English for? What situations are they likely to use the language in? What sort of tasks could best prepare them for these situations and activities? Some possibilities to find answers to these questions are presented in this paper.
Needs analysis present and long-term language learning needs

The main objective of ESP is to prepare students to use English within workplace, professional, or academic environments. One of the main characteristics of ESP course design is that syllabuses are based on analyses of the needs of the learners. In ESP the target language is studied to ease the way to enter these environments, or to gain greater communicative efficiency within them. The syllabus is usually based on specific needs, and it can be motivating for students to see the relevance of what they are learning. Students in ESP classes often have limited time to learn a language; therefore it seems reasonable to teach them what they really need. Thus one of the tasks of the ESP course developer is to identify the real needs of the students and design a course around them (Basturkmen: 2009). Needs analyses are considered important in
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the process of curriculum development because of the following reasons: to ensure a strong basis for the teaching-learning content; to determine general and specific aims that can help defining the subject and the expected outcomes of the teaching-learning process; to give a point of reference for continuous evaluation and feedback (Kurtn: 2001). A survey of the present and more urgent language learning needs of horticulture students from Sapientia University was conducted. The interviewed students have compulsory English language courses in the first two years of their university studies, and they are offered an optional foreign language course in the third year. They study English once a week in two hours, working in small groups (10 -12 students in a group). The result of the interviews showed that most of the students study English because it is compulsory, and they have to pass their tests at the end of each term, and later, in their last year of studies, they have a more difficult foreign language test before their state examination. Some of them want to study foreign languages for other reasons as well, such as: some of their teachers expect them to read scientific literature in English; they participate in different common projects with universities from other countries, where knowledge of English is usually requested; some of the visiting lecturers keep their presentation in English, etc. The language test before their state examination proved to be the most urgent language learning need for the students. In order to determine the level required at this test, the available documents and tests of the two testing centres where our students have to take their language examinations were analysed (Alpha testing centre from Babe-Bolyai University, tests from Petru Maior University). It was concluded, that the students need to master the language on intermediate /upperintermediate level. These examinations cannot be considered ESP tests if we take a closer look at the given tasks and the level of abstraction of some of the reading and listening texts and the given topics of the essays. It is more precise to label them very wide-angled ESP exams. Wide-angled here means that the tests cover more general content, topics and language use, which might be related to a wider range of disciplines. A questionnaire was prepared to find out what long-term language learning needs the horticulture students from Sapientia University have and what roles and tasks the students will have to be able to perform as horticulture engineers. In order to find out what specific activities can be related to the field of horticulture where English language is necessary, colleagues who teach special subjects for horticulture students and some
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professionals with work experience were interviewed. A list of specific activities, where special language is needed for engineers, was also used (Kurtn: 2003). The questionnaires were completed by 80 horticulture students, 10 teachers from the Horticulture Department of Sapientia University, and 10 horticulturists. The following four charts show the degree of importance they attributed to different reading, writing, listening and speaking activities. a. The degree of importance of different writing activities:
b. The degree of importance of different reading activities:
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c. The degree of importance of different listening activities:
d. The degree of importance of different speaking activities:
Significant differences can be observed regarding the opinions of the questioned target-group members. The students opinion was influenced by their prospects and goals regarding their professional career, while the teachers and the horticulturists opinion was shaped by their previous experience in their profession regarding the need and use of foreign languages. The results defining how many target-group members found certain activities very important vary between 86% and 35%. While 83% found it important to be able to write a tender and 83% to write curriculum vitae, only 35% found it important to be able to write advertisements. The questioned target-group members very rarely chose the not important
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option. Even if they did not find an activity very important, they labelled it as important. It is interesting to notice, that there are more reading and writing activities than listening and speaking ones. However, verbal communication will probably become more and more popular with the help of modern technology. Based on the above presented results it was concluded that all the activities listed in the questionnaire are important enough to be taken in consideration in planning an ESP course for horticulture students. However, because of the permanent changes of the social and individual needs, a needs analysis can never be regarded as a finished and closed matter. It must be a process-oriented, continuous and repeated procedure, which can always help us to improve the efficiency of the teaching-learning process.
Genre analysis scientific publications

A class of language use and communication that occurs in particular communities is called a genre, and the community in which the genres are used label them with different terms. For example the engineering community has a genre labelled design brief or feasibility study, the teaching community has end of the year report, and the medical community has case history. Thus, the defining feature of a genre is its communicative purpose that differentiates it from other genres. The goal of genre theory is to explain the texts used by different professional communities in consideration of the functions of the groups (Basturkmen: 2009). The needs analysis showed that the specialized texts used by the horticulturists are of the following genres: articles, studies, reports, presentations, tenders, curriculum vitae, forms, contracts, technological procedures, brochures of products, advertisements, business meetings, feasibility studies, warnings, safety regulations, letters, faxes, e-mails, telephone conversations, telephone messages, chat-programmes, operational procedures etc. Before planning an ESP course for horticulture students it is necessary to analyze these genres in order to determine their characteristics. Knowing their specific features will be of great help in designing appropriate tasks in the teaching/learning process. The specialized texts from different genres are analyzed from the following viewpoints: their
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specific structure; the communicative functions expressing specialized meanings; means of creating cohesion; expressing rhetorical functions: hypothesis, explanation, reasons for and against something etc. One of the most complex genres, the scientific publication was analysed first. The specialized texts from this genre were gathered with the help of my colleagues from the Horticulture Department of Sapientia University (40 articles, a total of 360 pages). Most of them are scientific articles and studies they usually recommend to horticulture students. The texts were available in Word and PDF format, so the search functions of the Word and Adobe Reader programs could be used for the analysis. Regarding their structure the following main elements of macrostructure can be distinguished in scientific publications: presenting the situation, introducing a problem, reactions to the problem, solution / recommended solution and evaluation. Thus the texts usually have the following parts: title, subtitle, author / authors, key-words, abstract, introduction, research methods, results, discussion / conclusions, acknowledgments, bibliography, references, cited literature. All these structural parts have their own specific features, which the students will have to get familiar with. They need to be conscious of the typical characteristics of each part. To teach these features and characteristics we need to know what specific communicative functions expressing specialized meanings can be found in the different parts. Let us consider for example the analysis of the abstract. The abstract is the summary of the whole text and it can be found under the title and the authors name, before the introduction. Its length is usually determined by the editors of the publication, but in most cases it doesnt exceed 250 words. The abstract contains concentrated information; it tries to give very briefly as much information about the article as possible. It summarizes in one or two sentences the main idea of each structural part. Sometimes one sentence can contain the summary of more parts. The abstract helps the reader decide whether he wants to read the whole article or not. It does not contain any figures, charts, data or formulas. First it gives some background information about the topic, which is usually the summary of the introduction. In this part the use of the Simple Present Tense and Passive Voice can be observed. E.g. Cameraria orhidella Deschka et Dimic is a polyvoltine species which can complete under suitable conditions the development of as many as three generations a year. In the Czech Republic, however, the
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third generation suffers from high mortality due to the shortage of food and later also unfavourable water. If the third generation is not completed the population continuity is ensured by diapausing pupae occurring in each generation. The number of diapausing pupae is determined by the actual abundance of the species and thus also by the actual damage to the horse chestnut foliage. This part is followed by the presentation of the goals. Here the frequent use of the Simple Past Tense and the Present Perfect Tense can be observed. The Passive Voice is preferred. E.g. Trials were conducted at the technology verification Centre (TVC), Bukedea, Kumi district in the second rains of 2001(B), to determine the impact of chemical spray on the abundance and diversity of natural enemies of cowpea pests. In the summary of the presentation of the experiment and the results the Simple past Tense and Passive Voice are used in most cases. E.g. Twenty-four plant shipments arriving via air cargo from () to (), were sampled on February 6-7, 2003. Random samples of rooted plants or cuttings were washed in 80% ethanol to collect the mite species present. Altogether 81 mites is 11 families were identified in 12 plant shipments. General statements are made in the summary of the conclusions, so the use of the Simple Present Tense, Passive Voice, and frequent use of modal verbs can be observed in this part. E.g. The data provided in this thesis indicate that the role of spiders as natural control agents in orchards can be argumented. In orchards where Integrated Pest Management is applied, and where the use of broadspectrum pesticides is minimized, an excellent possibility is available to develop more complex and abundant spider communities, which can contribute to a better suppression of pests. In abstracts the use of expressions that many readers might not understand (e.g. the jargon of a restricted, small professional community) is usually avoided. Abbreviations are not preferred, except if they are widely known by the professionals. Quotations or bibliographic references are not used in this part. Most of the analyzed scientific publications proved to be explanatory argumentative type of texts. This means that they introduce a problem, formulate a hypothesis, they contain argumentations, proofs, statistics, figures, charts, graphs, formulas, and conclusion. Their level of abstraction is higher than that of descriptive narrative texts.
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However, descriptive narrative parts can also be found in them (definitions, descriptions, classifications). Most of the descriptions from scientific publications in horticulture refer to different plants and pests. The descriptions usually contain the following information: the denomination of the plant in English and Latin languages, occasionally the origin of the denomination, the sub-species of the plant, its habitat, the colour, shape and other characteristics of its leaves, flowers and crop, its gender, reproduction, its edible part and its taste, its availability etc. For instance, Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) is native to Eurasia, and is mainly known in North America as an attractive ornamental shrub. It has silvery deciduous leaves and colourful orange berries that persist most of the winter. The name is from its habit of growing near the sea, and from the possession of many spines or thorns that are reminiscent of some buckthorn species (of the genus Rhamnus). Plants typically grow 2-4 m in height, although some in China have reached 18 m and others grow no higher than 50 cm. There are both male and female plants; the latter develop berries that are round to almost egg-shaped, and up to 1 cm long. The fruit is usually orange, but yellow and red fruits also occur. Unlike the majority of fruits that fall away from the maternal plant at maturity, the Sea Buckthorn berries remain on the bushes all winter until eaten by birds. The fruits have a distinctive sourish taste and a unique aroma reminiscent of pineapple. Indeed, in Belarus the fruit juice is known as Russian pineapple. Classifications regarding different aspects can be found quite frequently in the narrative-descriptive parts. The following example shows a classification of the spiders from the point of view of their hunting habits, and their possible utilisation in the gardens against different pests according to these habits. For instance, Some types of spiders may be adapted towards catching a particular type of prey. The bolas spiders and ladder web spiders (Araneidae) have webs that are specially adapted to catch adult Lepidoptera. Smaller web weavers, such as Linyphidae and Dictynidae, capture mainly soft-bodies insects such as aphids. Some cobweb weavers (Theridiidae) specialize on ants, including fire-ants. A number of species of jumping spiders (Salticidae) are also behaviourally adapted to feeding on ants. The water spiders (Argyronetidae) are highly specialized in that they forage underwater and feed on fly larvae, including mosquitoes.
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In conclusion it can be said that scientific publications proved to be the most complex genre from the previously mentioned group of specialized texts used by horticulturists. The next step after analyzing the different genres is to decide what kind of tasks and activities can best prepare the language learners to perceive and produce them. At the same time we can decide what cognitive processes are needed in order to perform these activities (recognition, understanding, comprehension, interpretation, reproduction, self-expression, identification, recollection, analysis, synthesis, evaluation) (Kurtn: 2001; Willis and Willis: 2007). Based on the above exemplified analysis of scientific publications let us see a few examples from the numerous task-types that could prepare students to perceive (read and understand) and to produce (write) such texts. We can differentiate three main groups of tasks: warm up activities (their goal is to introduce a topic, to awaken the students interest, to introduce new vocabulary) main activities and post-task activities (follow-up tasks for recycling texts, post-task language work, Willis and Willis: 2007; Brdos: 2005). Examples for warm-up activities: Brainstorming: group discussion about what the students already know/ have read or heard about the topic (self-expression); The student will try to predict what the text is going to be about, based on the title / subtitles / key-words (anticipation) Examples for main tasks: The students will read the text and try to identify a given number of key words (synthesis); TRUE or FALSE? after reading the text, the students will try to decide whether some given statements are true or false (recollection, evaluation); The students will try to write an abstract (no longer than 250 words) based on the whole text of a scientific publication (synthesis) The students will write an article about a chosen topic (e.g. an experiment they have done) (self-expression) Examples for post-task activities: The student will try to use the new technical terms they encountered while reading the scientific publication in different context. (reproduction, self-expression, recollection)
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The students will try to gather more information about the topic they have read about from the internet, library or their teachers (comprehension, self-expression, recollection).
Conclusions
The two steps presented above the thorough needs analysis and genre analysis before task planning , proved to be of great importance and significant help in curriculum development. After a thorough analysis of the specific types of genres of specialized texts used by the horticulturists, it will be possible to decide what kind of tasks and activities can best prepare the language learners to perceive and produce each of them, and it will be possible to design a complex ESP course for horticulture students.
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Bibliography
BRDOS, J. (2005), l Nyelvtants-trtnet, Budapest: Nemzeti Tan knyvkiad. BASTURKMEN, H. (2009), Ideas and Options in English for Specific Purposes, New York and London: Routledge. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages http://www. coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf. Ghidul Candidatului: Limba Englez. Cluj Napoca: Universitatea BabeBolyai Facultatea de Litere, Centrul de Limbi Moderne Alpha. KURTN, ZS. (2001), Idegen nyelvi tantervek, Budapest: Nemzeti Tan knyv kiad. KURTN, ZS. (2003), Szakmai nyelvhasznlat, Budapest.
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Mai bun dect originalul Jobb, mint az eredeti
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Mai buN dect origiNalul Jobb, miNt aZ eredeti Cteva aspecte privind traducrea titlurilor de cri din literatura beletristic n/din limba maghiar n limba romn
n aceast lucrare a-i dori s prezint cteva aspecte ale traducerii unor texte pe baza experienei dobndite n cadrul cursului de traducere romno-maghiar din departmentul nostru, care este realizat n cooperare cu departmentul de limba i litaratura romn al Universitii, ct i pe baza experienei dobndite n cadrul lucrrilor de cercetare pe care le-am fcut n aceast var, la Biblioteca Judeean din Trgu-Mure. Despre cartea la care lucrm, i care st la baza activitii de cercetare amintite, cteva cuvinte sunt necesare: la catedra nostr se pregtesc traductori i interprei din 2002. n cadrul cursurilor de traducere literar ne-am confruntat cu problema c nu exist o lucrare care s cuprind toate datele despre traductorii n limba maghiar. i astfel, s-a nscut ideea de a realiza o astfel de lucrare. n primul rnd, intenia noastr este s editm o enciclopedie a traductorilor de literaur beletristic n limba maghiar, din perioada 1945-2010. Autorii lucrrii sunt: Papp Andrea (efa de catedr), Vihar Judit i subsemnatul. n ce m privete, m ocup de acele capitolele care cuprind traductorii din Romnia, Jugoslavia i Cehoslovacia. n lunile iulie-august am colectat datele la Biblioteca Judeean din Trgu-Mure. i de aici un foarte mare mulumesc pentru ajutor tuturor lucrtorilor! Fiecare profesor, cum vine vorba, a fost odat copil! Fiindc de copil vorbesc foarte bine i limba romn i limba maghiar, i sunt un mare amator de cri, am citit sute i sute de cri n ambele limbi. Ce face omul mic i mare cnd caut ceva de citit la o librrie sau la bibliotec: ia s vedem un titlu interesant. Cnd e mai mare cititorul, desigur, se uit i la autor, iar cnd este mai nvat caut i dup autor. Acum,
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cum predau aceast prezentare pot analiza ct de importan este munca traductorilor: ca s poi capta interesul cititorului nu este de ajuns s traduci bine, chiar dac acesta este cel mai important aspect al unei traduceri, trebuie s alegi un titlu ca lumea. Noi, care predm arta nobil dar grea a traducerii petru studeni, ntotdeauna le aducem ca exemplu marii traductori din literatura maghiar i romn. Exist dou feluri de traductori: meteri i meseriai. Nu degeaba se spune c din cei care sunt meteri n a scrie beletristic se formeaz cei care traduc la nivel de masterat. Acetia sunt mai puin la numr. Cei mai muli sunt meseriaii. ns ei reprezint acea categorie care duce greul meseriei! Dar, amndou categoriile au un ars poetica de baz: s prezinte textul cititorului ct mai exact i cite! Este foarte important de amintit c acum, aceast meserie se pred nu numai la Universitatea din Budapesta, ci i la facultatea din Trgu -Mure a Universitii Sapientia, pentru c un meseria bun nu se poate forma fr o coal bun. Din pcate, un mare numr de meseriai profeseaz fr a avea pregtirea corespunztoare i acest lucru se poate observa citind cteva lucrri pe care am avut ocazia s le primesc pentru corectare, sau i mai ru, citind cteva cri deja aprute. nainte de a trece la prezentarea amintit n titlu, ne vom opri la dou exemple din literatura n limba engez. i iat, am ajuns la prima observaie. n limba romn i n limba maghiar, dac vorbim despre limba n care i-au scris romanele Jack London i Lewis Carroll zicem c sunt n englez. Dar amndoi au fost scriitori americani, i nu trebuie s explic c totui exist diferene ntre cele dou limbi. n limba maghiar, pentru literatura englez din toat lumea utilizm expresia angolszsz irodalom, care n traducere ar veni literatura angol saxon. Dar termenul angol nu este utilizat n limba romn. Unul dintre romanele clasice ale scriitorului Jack London este Clciul de fier, n traducerea excelent a lui Dumitru Maziliu. Titlul dat de autor este traducerea titlului original din limba englez The Iron Hell. n limba maghiar, romanul a aprut sub titlul A vaspata, n traducerea la fel de excelent a lui Szinnai Tivadar. Traducerea n limba romn a titlului ar fi: Copita de fier. Desigur, ambii traductori au vrut s exprime mesajul romanului, s capteze atenia cititorului. Un alt mare clasic al literaturii engleze este Lewis Carroll, celebru prin seria Alice Adventures. n limba romn, traductorul (Frida Papadache) a folosit o form destul de neconvenional a numelui personajului pricipal (Aventurile Alisiei in ara Minunilor), desigur pentru c nu exist un nume
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corespunztor. n traducerile n limba maghiar, doar n primele variante s-a ncercat o maghiarizare a numelui (Alisz kalandjai),ns mai trziu s-a trecut la folosirea numelui n varianta identic limbii engleze (Alice kalandjai). Cu permisiunea Dumneavoastr, exemplele mele de traduceri interesante de titluri de cri sunt luate de la meterii meseriei. S nvm de la ei! O vorb ca introducere. Perioada anilor 1970-80 a fost una foarte bogat n ceea ce privete traducerile aprute ntre limbile maghiar i romn. Acest lucru nu numai c a contribuit la evoluia celor dou literaturi, la cunoaterea celor dou culturi, dar a fost un cadru propice pentru dezvoltarea unei mari coli de traductori de literatur beletristic. Prin aceast prezentare, prin enciclopedia la care lucrm, dorim s le aducem un omagiu. S sperm c va veni o vreme cnd iari vor aprea mai multe traduceri. O remarc general privind munca acestor maetri ai literaturii ar fi binevenit: ntr-o parte nsemnat, traductorii au fost i ei scriitori remarcabili, iar cine a tradus dintr-o limb a tradus opere ale traductorului. Oferim cteva exemple de traduceri din limba maghiar n limba romn: Veronica Porumbacu (1921 1977, pseudonim, numele adevrat a fost Veronica Schwefelberg), autoare a ctorva excelente lucrri pentru copii, a tradus, printre altele, i numerose poezii pentru copii, aparinnd scriitorului maghiar Kiss Jen (1912 1995). Cele dou volume au aprut sub titlul: S fii prieteni (1961), Copii mei, v spun acum (1963). Interesant este faptul c cele dou titluri sunt titluri de poezii, pentru c volumele respective sunt antologii. Eu sunt de acord, pentru c un meter poate s-i permit s traduc ce-i place mai mult. Gelu Pteanu (1925 1995) A fost scriitor i traductor. Pot s v spun cu mndrie c Dnsul mi-a fost profesor muli ani, n cadrul cursurilor mele de la catedra de limba romn de la Budapesta, i de la domnul profesor am nvat primii pai n arta traducerii. Lista traducerilor n cele dou limbi este foarte lung: Adio, pantaloni scuri (Bcs a rvidnandrgtl, Blint Tibor) /La revedere pantaloni scuri/ Ft Frumos, basme romneti; Iano Vizeazul basme maghiare / interesant c nu a tradus numele din limba maghiar/ Mlatinile se apr (A mocsarak visszatnek, Korda Istvn) /Mlatinile riposteaz/
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Dumitru Radu Popescu i Angela Popescu, scriitori, dramaturgi, traductori. n traducerea lor a aprut, printre altele, colecia cu piticul Cipi, de Fodor Sndor, personaj cunoscut de multe generaii de copii i prini, n ambele limbi: Cipi, acest pitic uria (Csipike az ris trpe) /Interesant este folosirea numelui personajului principal n transcrierea romeasc, fr diminutiv/ Piticul Cipi, acest uria fericit (Csipike a boldog ris) /Cipi uriaul fericit/ Piticul cel fioros (Csipike a gonosz trpe) /Cipi piticul cel rutcios/ Piticul i Surzil (Csipike s Kukucsi) /Kukucsi este un nume, care provine din cuvntul kukucskl, pe care-l folosim pentru a desemna pe cineva care trage cu ochiul. Aici traductorul a gsit un nume excelent la personajul amintit crtia: ,,- Bun dimineaa, i s mai vin o uic! I-a rspuns vesel la salut Chior-Chiondor, zis Ceacir, poreclit Surzil ,,- Plinks j reggelt! - ksznt r vidman Kukucsi./ Mihail Sevastos (1892 1967) scriitor, poet, gazetar, traductor: Spre tabra din pdure (csk tbort vernek, Nagy Istvn) 1963 /cs i prieteni i fac corturile/. Oferim cteva exemple de traduceri din limba romn n limba maghiar: rva Tams:4 A kis furulys s a citrom (Fluieraul i alemaia, Dumitru Alma 1966). Balogh Jzsef (1931 - ). Ziarist, scriitor, traductor. Este redactor a mai multor volume de antologii din literatura romn i rus. Din literatura romn a tradus opere semnate de Marin Sorescu, Constana Buzea, Gheorghe Tomozei, Gellu Naum. Ikaruszosdi (antologie de versuri de Marin Sorescu 1968) Ds lakoma nagyidben (Cin bogat n viscol, Constana Buzea, 1983) /Vacsora hviharban/. Boros Ferenc (1908 1963). Preot reformat, poet, scriitor, traductor: J ton (Bucurie, Ion Istrati, 1952) /Boldogsg/ Stt vek (ntunecare, Cezar Petrescu 1956, 1964) /Stteds/ Bustya Endre (1927 1996). A fost istoric de art, traductor. Sub ngrijirea lui au fost publicate operele lui Ady Endre. Din limba romn a tradus opere semnate de Mircea Sntimbreanu, Emil Isac: Kicsi hiba-nagy galiba (antologie de proz scurt Mircea Sntimbreanu, 1958) /Greal mic-problem mare/.
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Cski Lszl (1944 2008). Este dramaturg, poet, scriitor, traductor: Beszdmese, mesebeszd (Povestea vorbei, Anton Pann 1974) /A beszd mesje/ Lder szzek (Fecioare despletite, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, 1978) /Meztelen szzek/. Forr Lszl (1932 ). Ziarist, scriitor, traductor. Din limba romn a tradus, printre altele , opere de Titus Popvici, Nicolae Velea, Simion Pop: Ipu kt halla (Moartea lui Ipu, Titus Popovici, 1972) /Ipu halla/. Kerekes Gyrgy (1933 ). S-a impus ca redactor, traductor. Din limba romn a tradus opere aparinnd lui Petre Ispirescu, Eugen Barbu, Aurel Mihale, Ion Luca Caragiale. A redactat mai multe volume de antologii, poveti populare romneti, opere scrise de Mihail Koglniceanu, Ion Luca Caragiale, Tudor Vianu: Cugulya regap-regany fia (ugulea, fiul unchiaului i al mtuei, Petre Ispirescu, 1963). Lrinczi Lszl (1919 ). Este scriitor, ziarist, traductor. Din limba romn a tradus, printre altele, opere scrise de Mihail Sadoveanu, Mihai Eminescu, Tudor Arghezi: A parasztkapitny (Neamul oimretilor, Mihail Sadoveanu, 1969, 1972) /oimreti nemzetsg/. Majtnyi Erik (1922 1982). Este redactor, scriitor, traductor, unul dintre cei mai mari meteri ai traducerii, foarte prolific. A tradus din limbile romn, rus, german. Din limba romn a tradus opere de Petre Ispirescu, Maria Banu, Alexandru Vlahu, B.P Hadeu, Eugen Jebeleanu, Tudor Arghezi, Grigore Alexandrescu, Marcel Breslau: Hej Bukarest reg vr ifj vros (Bucureti, ora iubit, Maria Bnu,1961) /Bukarest, szeretni val vros/; Ifjsgnak ifjsga, let, amely nem r vget (Tineree fr btrnee i via fr de moarte, Petre Ispirescu, 1962) /. Soltsz Jzsef traduce: 4 A vilg egy virgkehelyben (Lumea ntr-un degetar, Lucia Olteanu,1984) /A vilgy egy gyszben/. Szabdi Lszl (1907 1959). A fost profesor universitar, lingvist, poet, ziarist, traductor. Din limba romn a tradus, printre altele, opere de Mihail Sadoveanu, Mihai Eminescu. Nicora Potcova (Nicoar Potcoav, Mihail Sadoveanu, 1954).
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II. n partea a doua a lucrrii, prezentm cteva exemple din textele pe care le-am analizat la cursurile de traducere de la Universitatea ELTE din Budapesta i la Sapientia din Trgu-Mure. Pornim de la noiunea de literatur beletristic, despre care scriem enciclopedia noastr. Limba maghiar nu folosete aceast form (care provine din cuvntul german Belletristik). Se foloseste mfordts, adic traducerea (fordts) unei opere (m). Pe lng traducerile din texte literare, la cursuri traducem i texte cu coninut istoric i este interesant de analizat acest domeniu. Prin prezentarea unor exemple care se leag de istoria Transilvaniei, doresc s prezint cteva dintre caracteristicile lingvistice n procesul traducerii textelor specifice, din limba romn n limba maghiar: traducerea cuvntului preot. n limba maghiar se folosesc cuvinte diferite pentru a desemna noiunea propus, n funcie de dou religii diferite. Dac este vorba de catolici, se folosete pap, dac este vorba de reformai, se folosete lelksz. Este obligaia traductorului s cunoasc aceste aspecte ale religiei. Traducerea cuvntului titlu de propietate at fi, mot-a-mot, tulajdoni cm. n limba maghiar folosim expresia tulajdon. Pentru cuvntul consilier utilizm traducerea tancsnok. Dac ncercm s traducem termenii prefectur sau prefect se ivete problema c n adminstraia maghiar nu a existat o form a acestora, de aceea ne ntlnim cu cuvinte maghiare ca prefektra, sau prefektus. Din anul 2010 avem n administraia maghiar sinonimul funciei de prefect kormnymegbzott. nainte de 1948 cuvntul prefektus, n limba maghiar, era utilizat de acei dascli, care la colegiile catolice de biei aveau grij de educarea elevilor la internate. /Felgyel: katolikus finevel intzetekben, kollgiumokban az a nevel, aki a nvendkek foglalkozst vezeti, magaviseletkre felgyel s nevelskrt felels. Katolikus papnevel intzetekben az n. papi szeminriumokban a nvendkek tanulmnyi felgyelje/5. Avem consiliile care conduc judeele - tancs (adic sfat)- n limba maghiar, folosim termenul consilieri - n traducere- tancsnok. i s rmnem la administraia local, termen al crui echivalent maghiar este helyi kzigazgats. Limba romn nu utilizeaz n acest context expresia oficial maghiar nkormnyzat (autoguvernare). i aceasta, pentru c noiunile legate de conducerile locale au fost preluate din limba francez /Charte europenne de lautonomie locale (adic autonomia local)/;codificatorii n limba maghiar au utilizat termeni din limba german (Selbstverwaltung).6 n limba maghiar folosim noiunea de nkormnyzat i n cazurile n care limba romn folosete cuvntul autoguvernare (de exemplu, n cazul minoritilor).
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De-a lungul istoriei, n limba roman s-au folosit diferite expresii pentru organul suprem de conducere a rii: Sfatul domnesc, Divanul, Divanul domnesc, Corpul Ponderator, Marea Adunare Naional, Parlament. n limba maghiar folosim expresia orszggyls (adunare naional) sau cel mult, parlament.. i aceasta, pentru c, dei n istoria Ungariei aceat instituie a avut denumiri oficiale diferite, expresia orszggyls s-a implementat ca definiie utilizabil n traducerea textelor. Oferim i cteva exemple de traducere a unor expresii. Traductorul trebuie s fie atent la schimbrile care au avut loc n ortografia limbilor respective i s fie la curent cu evoluia terminologiei respective: utca, utza strad regiune rgi, tartomny cocioab kalyiba, vityill, rgi hz polgri mic burghez Tabla Regeasc Kirlyi tltbla Comunitate religioas felekezet still secession szecesszis stlus Cancelaria Aulic Transilvan Bcsi Kancellria (chiar dac denumirea n limba romn utilizeaz denumirea oficial german). Unul dintre consilierii renumii a fost Teleki Smuel, de care se leag contrucia palatului Teleki i nfinarea bibliotecii de pe strada Bolyai. i exemplele ar putea continua la nesfrit. Sper c fiecare meter sau meseria este contient de importana creaiei sale. i pe aceast cale doresc s subliniez necesitatea ca cei care lucreaz n domeniu s aib, pe lng mul tiplele cunotine n toate domeniile, o pregtire academic corespunztoare. i pentru acesta, universitile din Budapesta i Trgu-Mure sunt excelent pregtite. Cadrele didactice sunt gata s pregteasc corespunztor studeni din domeniu. Sperm c numrul lor va crete, ca i al traducerilor beletristice.
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n aceast paranteza am s fac observaii asupra traducerii, s-au am s traduc liber titlul original. Fodor Sndor, Pitiucul i Surzil. Editura Tineretului, Bucureti 1969; Fodor Sndor, Csipike s Kukucsi. Editura Pro-Print, Budapesta 2007; 4 rva Tams este unul dintre traductorii despre care nc nu avem date biografice. 5 http://www.kislexikon.hu/prefektus_a.html; 6 Veress Emd: A prefektusi tisztsg az nkormnyzati rendszerben s az alkotmnybrsgi gyakorlatban (Romnia esete). In: http://www.jogiforum.hu/publikaciok/73.
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ExplicitationStrategiesInTheTranslationofEmil yBrontsWutheringHeights
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ExplicitatioN Strategies IN The TraNslatioN of Emily BroNts Wuthering Heights
0. In the nineties with the advent of electronic corpora and the development of corpus linguistics more and more research focusing on universal features of translated texts was carried out in the field of translation studies. The seminal paper in this respect was Mona Bakers article (1993) who foresaw the impact the emerging discipline was to produce on the study of translation. Translated texts are assumed to have a language of their own known as the third code, thus marking them off from original texts. Furthermore, translations exhibit some characteristics that are considered to be universal independently of the languages involved. Baker gives a few examples of translation universals in the abovementioned article: explicitation, a marked tendency towards disambiguation and simplification, preference for conventional grammaticality, avoidance of repetitions (by omitting or rewording them) as well as the tendency to exaggerate features of the target language (TL). The aim of the present paper is to identify and compare the most common explicitation strategies in the Romanian and Hungarian translations of Emily Bronts classic novel, Wuthering Heights. Thus, the corpus is provided by Henriette Yvonne Stahls translation into Romanian (referred to as TT1 in the paper) and two different Hungarian translations, namely those of Str Istvn (TT2) and Borbs Mria (TT3). I.1.Defining explicitation. By far the most investigated translation universal is explicitation. The term was first introduced into the field by Vinay and Darbelnet who defined it as: Procd qui consiste introduire dans LA [langue darrive] des prcisions qui restent implicites dans LD [langue de dpart], mais qui se dgagent du contexte ou de la situation(1958: 9). Thus, translations tend to state more than their source text (ST), are somewhat clearer, even longer or more specific than
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the equivalent ST. Nida (1964) summed up the most common translation techniques as additions, subtractions and alterations. For Dimitrova (2005) the terms explicitation and addition are synonymous: she speaks about addition-explicitation and omission-implicitation. The two terms can also be discussed as losses or gains in translation. Ppai (2004) defines explicitation in two ways: in terms of process and in terms of product. Accordingly, explicitation can be referred to as either a translation technique consciously used by translators to improve the quality and processability of the ST or as a text feature manifested in higher level of explicitness as compared to original texts. According to Dimitrova (2005) explicitation can take one of the two forms: addition of new elements and specification (use of more specific words, see, for example, the transfer operation called lexical particularization later in the text). The so-called explicitation hypothesis was formulated by BlumKulka, who noted a higher level of redundancy and cohesive explicitness in French translations of English texts due to morphological and syntactical differences between the two languages as well as stylistic preferences. The hypothesis postulates an observed cohesive explicitness from SL to TL texts regardless of the increase traceable to differences between the two linguistic and textual systems involved. It follows that explicitation is viewed here as inherent in the process of translation. (Blum-Kulka 1986 quoted from Venuti 2000: 300). Since the concept of explicitation has become elusive in nature almost defying any definition, in other words, an umbrella term covering a wide range of more or less automatized, obligatory as well as optional translation operations, some researchers have proposed to narrow it. According to Sguinot (1988 quoted from Baker and Saldanha 2009: 105) structural, stylistic or rhetorical differences should not be regarded as instances of explicitation. Apart from additions, the term should be reserved for cases of explicitation of implicit textual content or whenever a ST element is given greater prominence in translation through focus or emphasis. Robin (2010), who analyzed explicitation in revised translations, claims that explicitation is a universal text-editing operation performed by revisers and translators alike and aimed at rendering a text less ambiguous and easier to process by the receptor. The verification of the asymmetry hypothesis formulated by Klaudy (2004) would provide evidence for the universal nature of explicitation.
Explicitation Strategies In The Translation of Emily Bront...
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The hypothesis states that explicitation in one direction does not always lead to implicitation in the other, that is, translators are more inclined to use explicitation than implicitation in their translations. To prove this a lot of empirical studies would be necessary involving different language pairs and translation directions. I.2. Possible reasons for explicitation.One possible explanation for using explicitation so often in written translation would be that the latter is a displaced form of communication as opposed to face-to-face communication. There is no proof of whether interpreters rely on this strategy as often as translators do. Given the nature of oral translations we might expect that interpreters favour implicitation instead of explicitation owing to time constraints. According to Pym (2005: 41), explicitation is part of a conscious risk management strategy applied by the translator in view of minimalizing the possibility of misinterpretation on the part of the reader. It derives from an endeavour to conform to TT readers expectations (see target-culture oriented translation theories). I.3.Types of explicitation. Klaudy (2004) distinguished between four types of explicitation, namely obligatory, optional, pragmatic and translation-inherent explicitation. Obligatory explicitation occurs because of differences between the morphological, syntactical and semantic systems of languages. If the translator does not explicitate, s/he produces ungrammatical sentences. This type of explicitation is mostly due to the fact that some grammatical categories are present in one language and absent in the other. For instance, the grammatical category of gender is absent in Hungarian, but present in the Indo-European languages. Being a synthetic language, Hungarian uses inflections where English, which is highly analytical, relies on prepositions and pronouns instead. Therefore, when we translate from Hungarian into an Indo-European language, the TT will unavoidably be longer and contain more words (morphological explicitation). As to semantic explicitation, this does not necessarily entail an increase in the number of words in the TT. It is rather a consequence of the fact that each language segments reality in a different way. For example, when translating brother and sister into Hungarian the translator has no choice but to explicitate by using cs for younger brother, hg for younger sister, bty for older brother and nvr for older sister.
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Optional explicitation is triggered by differences in language use and genre conventions. If explicitation is not resorted to, the text either fails to fulfill target readers expectations or it reads like a translation (with instances of translationese). Though the sentences, taken separately, are grammatical, the text as a whole is unidiomatic and unnatural. At word level such optional explicitations include the translation of IndoEuropean reporting verbs (say), inchoative verbs (begin to tremble) and verbs with general meaning (see) by using more specific words. At the level of the sentence an example would be the use of relative clauses instead of nominal or verbal constructions (predicativisation). This operation is optional since there are nominal and verbal constructions in Hungarian, too; however, it has become almost a norm among practitioners to explicitate in such cases. Text-level instances of optional explicitation include the insertion of logico-grammatical connectors, conjunctions, emphasizers, anaphors and cataphores that orientate or anchor the reader in the text. Pragmatic explicitation is motivated by assumed differences or gaps in world knowledge between SL and TL readers. It is a special case of optional explicitation since the reasons are not linguistic but pragmatic in nature. It refers to the translation of realias, culture-specific words denoting material things (for example, food, geographical places etc). Several options are available for the translator: transliteration, paraphrase, calque, generalization, omission, looking for analogies, etc. The correct translation solution will depend on text-type and function of the given word. Translation-inherent explicitation is ascribed to the nature of the translation process itself. Klaudy does not provide examples of this class. II. 1.Results of the analysis. As expected, the three translations abound in instances of the first three types of explicitation whereas the third type was not identified. The cohesive pattern of the three translations shows differences first of all because gender is a missing category in Hungarian. The third person pronoun in Romanian is marked for gender; therefore, Romanian sentences are more explicit, whereas, in some cases, the reference of the Hungarian personal pronoun might be ambiguous. An example is given below, where, nevertheless, it was not necessary to appeal to other means of explicitation like use of first name, surname, marital status etc. to clarify the referent of the pronoun as it was clear from the context:
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ST: She looked at me, leaning back in her chair, and remained motionless and mute. TT1: Ea m privi, rezemndu-se de speteaza scaunului, dar rmase nemicat i mut. TT2: Rm nzett nmn s rzketlenl. TT3: rm nzett, htradlt szkben, s nma s mozdulatlan maradt. Another example of obligatory explicitation in one direction and, respectively, implicitation in the other, again, ensuing from linguistic differences between Romanian and Hungarian, is related to the fact that Hungarian uses the singular with collective meaning very often whereas English and Romanian prefer the plural: ST: Joseph mumbled indistinctly in the depths of the cellar, but gave no intimation of ascending; so his master dived down to him, leaving me vis--vis the ruffianly bitch and a pair of grim, shaggy sheep dogs, who shared with her a jealous guardianship over all my movements. TT1: Dar Joseph mormia ceva neneles n fundul pivniei i prea c nu are de gnd s vin sus, aa c stpnul su cobor chiar el, lsndu-m singur, fa-n fa cu ceaua aceea amenintoare i cu o pereche de cini ciobneti, flocoi i fioroi, care, mpreun cu ea, mi urmreau cu mare bgare de seam toate micrile. TT2: Joseph drmgtt valamit a pince mlybl, de nemigen sietett feljnni, gy ht a gazda is lement utna, szemtl szembe hagyvn engem a gonosz szukval s egypr dz, loboncos juhszkutyval, melyek fltkenyen gyeltek minden mozdulatomra. TT3: Joseph motyogott valamit a pince mlyn, de nem adta jelt, hogy felkapaszkodna; gy ht a gazdja szllt al, magamra hagyva a gald szukval meg egy pr dz, loboncos juhszkutyval, amelyek osztoztak vele a minden mozdulatomat vigyz rkdsben. Optional explicitation is represented by lexical particularization, a technique which contributes to textual cohesion. The translator has the choice between translating a ST segment literally and producing
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a decontextualized translation equivalent or using a more specific translation variant entailed by the immediate textual environment. In the example below (the first sentence of the novel) the Romanian translator instead of focusing on the dictionary meaning of the adjective solitary chose an equivalent which is semantically richer anticipating the moroseness and the unpleasant character of the landlord. In other words, the translator has to be able to discern text meaning or instantial meaning and follow lexical networks closely in the text as they determine the meaning of individual lexical items (Baker 1992: 206). The other two translators appealed to literal translation, respectively, omission: ST: I have just returned from a visit to my landlord the solitary neighbour that I shall be troubled with. TT1: Adineauri m-am ntors din vizita fcut posacului meu proprietar i vecin, singura fptur care ar putea s m mai tulbure aici. TT2: Most trtem vissza ltogatsombl; fldesuramnl voltam: az egyedli szomszdom, akirl szlni fogok. TT3: Az imnt trtem haza; fldesuramat ltogattam meg, egyetlen szomszdomat mssal nem kell bajldnom. As the following example demonstrates, semantic explicitation is sometimes the result of drawing implicatures from the text during the process of interpretation. Anxious to be accompanied home in the snow, Mr. Lockwood enquires after Mr. Heathcliffs boys. Given the context, the setting and the participants, the translators of TT1 and TT2 conclude, rightly, that the protagonist must be referring to the landlords servants. The third translators option for a general word evokes, nevertheless, the same referent in the readers mind: ST: Are there no boys at the farm? TT1: Nu sunt rndai la ferm? TT2: Nincsenek bresek a tanyn? TT3: Nincsen egy legny sem a tanyn? But these same lexical networks are not always possible to be preserved or reproduced in translation because words that are semantically related (i.e. synonymous) in one language may be less so in the other. For example, the semantic field of preaching in English and Romanian
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is more differentiated than in Hungarian; as a result, reiteration in TT1 takes the form of a superordinate word (cuvntare, predic) whereas in the other two TTs repetition is resorted to (prdikci): ST: However, in my dream, Jabes had a full and attentive congregation: and he preached good God! what a sermon: divided into four hundred and ninety [sic] partseach fully equal to an ordinary address from the pulpitand each discussing a separate sin! TT1: Totui, n visul meu, Jabes se afla n faa unei capele pline de oameni ce-l ascultau cu luare-aminte; iar el predica DoamneDumnezeule, ce predic! Era mprit n patru sute nouzeci de pri, fiecare parte fcnd ct o cuvntare obinuit rostit de la amvon, i referindu-se fiecare la un anumit pcat! TT2 : Akrmint volt is a dolog, lmomban Jabes nagyszm s figyelmes gylekezettel dicsekedhetett; prdiklt szent Isten! prdikcija ngyszzkilencven rszre tagozdott, mindegyik felrt hosszsgban egy rendes prdikcival, s egy kln bnrl szlt mindegyik. TT3: lmomban mindazonltal Jabesnek npes s figyelmes gylekezete volt, s a prdikcija jsgos Isten! micsoda prdikci ngyszzkilencven cikkelybl llt; mindegyik tkletesen megfelelt egy-egy kznsges prdikcinak, s mindegyik egy-egy bnt vett trgyul! Another optional explicitation refers to verbalisation, the transfer operation that consists of replacing ST nouns or nominal phrases, adjectives, participles, infinitives with the corresponding verb forms. By raising them to the level of the sentence, these parts of speech are given more emphasis, implicitly, the TT becomes more explicit. The operation is usually carried out in Romanian and Hungarian, too: ST: Hindley is a detestable substitute. TT1: Hindley i ine locul ntr-un mod infernal. TT2: Hindley ugyancsak kevss tudja ptolni t. TT3: Hindley hitvny ptlk. ST: As it spoke, I discerned, obscurely, a childs face looking through the window.
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TT1: Pe cnd vorbea am zrit n ntuneric o fa de copil ce privea pe fereastr. TT2: Mg tovbb hallottam a hangot, s gy rmlett, egy gyermek arct ltom az ablak mgtt. TT3: s szavai kzben halvnyan egy gyermekarcot vettem ki, amint benz az ablakon. Finally, the insertion of conjunctions is a text-level optional explicitation strategy characteristic of EnglishHungarian translation direction: ST: Being unable to remove the chain, I jumped over, and, running up the flagged causeway bordered with straggling gooseberry bushes, knocked vainly for admittance, till my knuckles tingled and the dogs howled. TT1: Nefiind n stare s desfac lanul porii, am srit peste gard i am nceput s alerg de-a lungul aleii mrginite, de o parte i de alta, de tufe rzlee de coacze. Zadarnic btui n u pn mi amorir pumnii i cinii ncepur s latre. TT2: Mivel nem tudtam kiakasztani a lncot, tmsztam a kertsen, s vgigszaladtam a kikvezett ton, melyet elszrt pszmtebokrok szeglyeztek ktoldalt. Hiba kopogtattam azonban bebocstsrt: csak kezem fjdult meg bel, s a kutykat vertem fel vele. TT3: Nem tudtam megbirkzni a lnccal, ht tugrottam a kertsen, s felszaladtam az gasbogas pszmtebokrokkal szeglyezett macskakves jrdn, m hasztalan kopogtam bebocsttatsrt, holott mr belesajdult a kezem btyke, a kutyk meg vontottak. Pragmatic explicitation is represented in the novel, among others, by the translation of proper names denoting geographical places, animals, literary characters etc. and units of measurement. The techniques used by the three literary translators include transliteration, transliteration and explanatory footnote, transliteration and translation in footnote, literal translation and looking for equivalences. First of all, the title of the novel, Wuthering Heights, has the role of denoting the scene where the action takes place and creating local colour. It is suggestive of the external life conditions as well as of the character of the people living there who are in perfect unison with nature and its
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rules. The choice of the Romanian translator to transliterate the name of the place adds a touch of the exotic without revealing anything about the culture or the people. The decision to add an explanatory footnote as well marks her intention to inform and educate her readers but at times it can also disrupt their attention from the text. The Hungarian translators attribute a documentary function to this proper name and wishing to introduce the readers and familiarize them with this particular world they create two equally suggestive translation equivalents, namely Szelesdomb and Zgbrc. Likewise, the translators of TT1 and TT2, who translate the names of the two dangerous dogs either in a footnote or in the text (Dinatule and Csikar for Gnasher, and Lupule, respectively Ordas for Wolf), show awareness of their function to create suspense and alert to the unpredictable nature of the beasts, thus compelling the reader to sympathise with the protagonist.
Conclusions
The explicitation strategies established by Klaudy and characteristic of Indo-EuropeanHungarian translations, namely, lexical particularization, verbalisation, activisation and completion of elliptical sentences are equally used in the Romanian translation, too. The reason might be that English is a very concise and highly polysemantic language whereas Romanian and Hungarian are less pragmatic and use more words to express the same ideas. Logico-grammatical connectors and conjunctions are more widely used in Hungarian than in the Romanian translation; while they are absolutely necessary in the former because of the nature of the language, they are also less tolerated, even redundant in the latter.
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Bibliography
Primary Bibliography Bront, Emily (1998) - Wuthering Heights, New York: OUP. Bront, Emily (1993)- vlt szelek, Translated by Borbs Mria. Budapest: Eurpa knyvkiad. Bront, Emily (1967) -vlt szelek. Eighth Edition. Translated by Str Istvn. Budapest: Eurpa knyvkiad. Bront, Emily (1968) -La rscruce de vnturi, Bucureti: Editura pentru Literatur Universal. Secondary Bibliography Baker, Mona and Gabriela Saldanha (eds.) 2009 - Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, Second Edition. London and New York: Routledge. Baker, Mona 1992 - In Other Words. A Coursebook on Translation, London and NewYork: Routledge. Baker, Mona 1993 - Corpus Linguistics and Translation Studies. Implications and Applications in Baker, M., Francis, G., Tognini-Bonelli, E. (eds) 1993 Text and Technology: In Honour of John Sinclair, Amsterdam: Benjamins. Dimitrova, Brigitta Englund 2005 - Expertise and Explicitation in the Translation Process, Amsterdam /Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Klaudy, Kinga 2009 - Bevezets a fordts gyakorlatba, Budapest: Scholastica. Klaudy, Kinga 2007 - Nyelv s fordts. Vlogatott fordtstudomnyi tanulmnyok, Budapest: Tinta knyvkiad. Munday, Jeremy 2001 - Introducing Translation Studies, London and New York: Routledge. Nida, Eugene 1964- Toward a Science of Translating, Leiden: E.J. Brill. Ppai, Vilma Explicitation: A universal of translated text? in: Mauranen, A. and Kujamki, P. (eds) 2004-Translation Universals. Do they Exist?, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Pym, A. Explaining Explicitation in: Kroly, K., Flris, . (eds.) 2005New Trends in Translation Studies, Budapest: Akadmiai Kiad, pp. 4574.
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Robin, Edina 2010-Explicitci a lektorlt fordtsokban in: Alkalmazott nyelvszeti kzlemnyek, Miskolc, V. vfolyam, 1. Szm, pp. 179182. Toury, Gideon 1995 - Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, Amsterdam /Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Venuti, Laurence (ed.) 2000 - The Translation Studies Reader, London and New York: Routledge. Vinay, J.P. and J. Darbelnet 1958 - Stylistique compare du franais et de langlais, Paris: Didier.
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Herztier Aspecte ale traducerii literare
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Nagy-Szilveszter, Orsolya
HerZtier Aspecte ale traducerii literare
Herta Mller este o scriitoare german de mare succes, nscut n Romnia. Ctigtoare a premiului Nobel pentru literatur, dar distins i cu numeroase premii literare pentru creaia sa, Herta Mller scrie cri pe teme romneti, meninnd o distan specific fa de realitatea german contemporan. Creaia sa se caracterizeaz printr-o inovaie estetic remarcabil privind temele alese: operele sale sunt documente literare ale persecuiilor politice n timpul dictaturii comuniste din Romnia lui Ceauescu. Emigrnd n Republica Federal German n anul 1987, scriind mai mult n limba german i abordnd tema realitii trite n Romnia comunist, Herta Mller este reprezentanta unei literaturi controversate, greu de clasificat. Literatura german ancorat n realitatea romneasc necesit o abordare multicultural n procesul de receptare i interpretare, caracterul german al acestei literaturi este adnc nrdcinat n contextul cultural, istoric i politic est-european. To understand Herta Mllers work, critics must accept and acknowledge all aspects of her cultural identity, because her uniqueness lies in the juncture of the Banat-Swabian, Romanian, and German presence and the style in which she imagines and gives expression to them (Glajar 2004: 152). Cartea sa intitulat Herztier, tradus n romn Animalul inimii, este un roman scris cu mult sinceritate, este un amalgam al amintirilor din copilrie ale naratoarei, un amalgam al experienelor sale ca student n Timioara i ca emigrant n Germania. Animalul inimii este probabil romanul cel mai autobiografic sau autoficional al scriitoarei (Cooper 2009: 484). Naratoarea este student la Timioara cnd face cunotin cu Edgar, Kurt i Georg, studeni vabi din Banat. Povestea tragic a unei colege de dormitor i moartea sa declarat sinucidere, dar perceput ca suspect de cei patru studeni este un bun prilej de a-i apropia. Cei patru prieteni formeaz o comunitate secret i strns, reflectnd asupra poeziilor proprii, citind cri interzise, aduse din vest, n secret, discutnd despre sentimentele comune de fric i de alienare, despre
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comunitile tradiionale de provenien. Dup terminarea studiilor fiecare este repartizat la lucru n diferite pri ale rii, dar i fac vizite i menin legtura de prietenie. Confruntndu-se cu diferite greuti, cum ar fi concedierea de la locul de munc, greuti financiare, persecuiile venite dinspre Cpitanul Piele, reprezentant al Securitii, cei patru prieteni ajung s contemple la posibilitatea de a emigra n Germania. Georg, Edgar i naratoarea reuesc s ajung n Germania, ns Georg moare cu cteva sptmni dup emigrare, cznd de la etajul cinci o alt moarte suspect. Tereza, aparenta prieten a naratoarei se dovedete a fi un personaj ambiguu, devenind colaboratoare a Securitii; ea o urmrete pe naratoare chiar i n Germania. Tereza moare suferind de cancer, apoi sosete i vestea morii suspecte a lui Kurt: se spnzurase cu o funie n locuina sa. Astfel, aluziile din prima pagin a romanului ncep s se cristalizeze: Azi nu-mi pot nc imagina un mormnt. Doar un cordon, o fereastr, o nuc i o funie. Fiecare moarte e pentru mine un sac (Mller 2006: 7). Moartea Lolei apare prin simbolul cordonului, Georg a fost aruncat printr-o fereastr la Frankfurt, nuca reprezint cancerul Terezei, iar funia face referire la moartea lui Kurt. Teroarea politic, suferinele cotidiene, dezndejdea, msurile de oprimare, sentimentul de resemnare sunt reflectate n roman ntr-un mod fragmentar, printr-o cronologie narativ zdrobit, ntr-un limbaj ncrcat cu simboluri, metafore, aluzii, caracterizat de un stil paratactic. Astfel, romanul n sine apare ca un poem n proz, limbajul poetic este caracterizat de o niruire de imagini i metafore, care necesit decodare continu din partea cititorului. De obicei operele scriitorilor de mare succes se bucur de o atenie sporit privind traducerea i publicarea lor n diferite limbi, alta dect ceea a creaiei literare. Traducerea operelor literare devine un mijloc de acces la operele literaturii universale. Prin traducerea textelor aparinnd canonului literar universal se introduc totodat i principii i elemente noi n literatura naional. Through the foreign works, features (both principles and elements) are introduced into the home literature which did not exist there before (Even-Zohar 1990: 47). n acelai timp, trebuie luat n considerare i factorul de modificare, de recreare a acestor opere prin procedeul de traducere. Chiar dac traductorul profesional lucreaz cu metode, instrumente, capaciti i cunotine specifice, el rescrie opera literar original. n principiu, traducerea fr pierdere este imposibil, repetiia perfect a complexitii unui sens lingvistic prin intermediul
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unui alt sens lingvistic este imposibil de realizat. Trebuie ns subliniat i ideea procesului de mbogire a textului n situaia hermeneutic de apropiere, n care se afl att traductorul ct i textul. When the rewriter is perfectly fused with the source, a poem is translated. That this happens so frequently is a cause for celebration. Poetry is not what is lost in translation, it is rather what we gain through translation and translators (Bassnett 1998: 74). Actul traducerii este totdeauna i un proces de interpretare, n traducere se manifest preferina pentru valori a traductorului, deciziile sale influeneaz procesul de transcriere a operei originale ntr-o alt limb i cultur (Steiner 2001). n domeniul studiilor culturale i de traducere este recunoscut importana proceselor manipulatoare, implicate n producerea textelor. Scriitorul nu scrie ntr-un vid, ci el nsui este produsul unei culturi particulare, al unui moment particular n timp, iar textul reflect diferiii factori care au contribuit la procesul de creaie. Traducerea se afl ntr-o reea de relaii de putere, de factori modelatori, care exist att n contextul de surs ct i n contextul de int (Bassnett 1998: 136). Traductorul se afl ntr-un rol activ de mediator cultural care cntrete n mod constant, este un profesionist independent, responsabil i competent, un expert de limb i comunicare, servind att autorul ct i cititorul. (Leppihalme 1997: 19) Succesul, calitile i trsturile specifice unei traduceri literare pot fi judecate numai lund n considerare mai muli factori, dar mai ales pornind de la opera original, din punct de vedere poetic, gramaticostilistic, al esteticii de gen, al performanei traductorului, dar i n comparaie cu alte traduceri n aceeai limb, sau n alte limbi. Traducerea titlului Herztier n limba romn i maghiar semna leaz deja diferene interesante, iar dac se ia n considerare i traducerea n limba englez, surpriza devine i mai mare (n lucrarea de fa traducerea lui Michael Hoffman este discutat numai n privina titlului). Cuvntul Herztier este un cuvnt german inventat de ctre autoare, referindu-se la imaginea central a romanului: o for de via animalic, instinctiv, care determin individul i felul su de a tri este o imagine a vulnerabilitii. Lyn Marven (Lyn Marven ntr-o emisiune de radio, Bilingual Metaphors, Place Name Changes, and Interpreting for the Dodgers) consider c prin crearea cuvntului Herztier- cum multe imagini ale romanului sunt metafore mixte, combinate din limba romn i german- Herta Mller s-a inspirat din jocul de cuvinte
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animal i inim, n limba romn. Aceste dou cuvinte sunt destul de asemntoare, ceea ce poate duce la crearea cuvntului inimal, dar poate fi relaionat i cu cuvntul anima, a nsuflei, suflet: Animalul inimii, inima ca animal viu locuind corpurile i asigurnd circuitul vital, este o referire direct la spaiul ultim al intimitii individuale, n care profanarea totalitarismului nu a ptruns. Construit ilicit pe matricea unui sistem religios, totalitarismul deine toate structurile necesare opresiunii i subjugrii, ns nu-i poate asuma deplin caracterul demonic-religios deoarece nu are acces la zona n care o religie autentic i gsete ecoul. Anima - animal, perpetuu vnat i asediat, este de fapt identitatea scriitoarei, centrul dinamic al unui conflict absurd, fr sfrit (Glavan 2009: 14). Comparnd titlurile Herztier i Animalul inimii, se poate constata o diferen n lungimea titlului, cuvntul compus n limba german este descompus n dou cuvinte romneti, iar cuvntul de baz Tier/animal este poziionat invers. Din punct de vedere al rezonanei, titlul german pare a fi mai aspru fa de muzicalitatea sugerat de titlul n limba romn. Traducnd romanul n limba maghiar, Ndori Ldia a optat pentru titlul Szvjszg, asemntor cu cel german prin modul de compunere al cuvntului. Cuvintele Herz, szv i inim arat o echivalen stabil din punct de vedere semantic, ca i Tier i animal, ns traductoarea a ales cuvntul jszg n loc de a folosi termenul generic llat animal. Jszg are o semnificaie mult mai specific, avnd sensul de moie, posesiune sau referindu-se la vit, animale domestice. Astfel apare un fel de contradicie n titlul maghiar al romanului: fora de via specific fiecrui individ pare a fi o substan spiritual domesticit, pe cnd n roman, animalul inimii apare n diferite ipostaze: cteodat dispare ca un oricel, altdat se lipete de un animal al inimii aparinnd altcuiva, iar animalul inimii al omului transparent era mai urt dect toate animalele pmntului (Mller 2006: 64) Decizia lui Michael Hoffman privind traducerea titlului n limba englez The Land of Green Plums( Traducere n limba englez, ctigtoare a premiului prestigios International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award n anul 1998) ara prunelor verzi este o manifestare a rolului de interpretator i a creativitii traductorului: pentru titlul englez, Hoffman alege o alt imagine semnificativ din roman, ,,prunele verzi . Aceast metafor face referire la admoniiunea tatlui naratoarei: Nu-i voie s mnnci prune verzi, smburele e nc moale i muti din moarte. Nu-i mai ajut la nimic, mori. Temperatura ridicat i arde inima pe
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dinuntru (Mller 2006: 19-20). Titlul The Land of Green Plums are o rezonan muzical specific, iar aplicarea metaforei ,,prunelor verzi apare ca o abatere creativ de la titlul original german. Rsfoind traducerile romanului Herztier n limba romn i maghiar, se pot observa anumite momente de explicitare aplicate de ctre traductori. Explicitarea este tehnica de a face informaia mai explicit n textul int, informaie ce apare implicit n textul surs (Baker, Saldanha 2009: 104). Este vorba de specificarea, clarificarea unor termeni, cuvinte, situaii semantice, informaii adiionale oferite de ctre traductor, n textul int. O situaie aparte apare att n traducerea romn ct i n cea maghiar, cnd traductoarele trebuie s se confrunte cu folosirea anumitor cuvinte, fraze scrise n limba maghiar, sau cnd n textul original apar momente de referire la sensul cuvintelor ntr-o alt limb. Ich hob die Zungenspitze. Zur Mundhhle sagte man in seiner Sprache Mundhimmel. Ich sah die Glatze auf einem Sargkissen mit Sgemehl liegen, und die Knchel unter einem Schleiertuch. (Mller 2009: 196) Am ridicat vrful limbii. Bolii palatului pe limba lui i se spunea cerul gurii, i vedeam chelia zcnd pe o pern de sicriu presrat cu rumegu i gleznele sub un linoliu. (Mller 2006: 179) Nyelvem hegyvel megrintettem a szjpadlsomat. Az nyelvn gy mondjk: szjmennybolt. Lttam a kopasz fejt egy kopors prnjn, a prnban frszpor, bokjt eltakarta a halotti lepel. (Mller 2011: 204 n fragmentul din opera original apare cuvntul creat de Herta Mller Mundhimmel, care este de fapt o traducere ad litteram a cuvntului cerul gurii n limba romn, termenul avnd semnificaia de peretele superior al cavitii bucale, palatul bucal. Traducerea maghiar aplic tehnica de traducere cuvnt cu cuvnt, Mundhimmel fiind relativ echivalent cu szjmennybolt, mennybolt n limba maghiar semnificnd bolta cereasc. Interesant este soluia aleas de ctre Nora Iuga pentru a traduce acest fragment: ea folosete dou sintagme sinonimice, iar pentru cititorul romn se confirm iari contextul romanului: naratoarea, etnic german n Romnia, este vorbitoare de limb german i romn, identitatea sa etnic se difereniaz de identitatea Cpitanului Piele, i
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de limba oficial a statului Bolii palatului pe limba lui i se spunea cerul gurii. Lund n considerare fragmentele citate, se poate constata o diferen semnificativ privind construcia de propoziii. n traducerea maghiar, primele dou propoziii sunt reorganizate fa de textul original, sintagma palatul bucal este transferat n prima propoziie din ceea de a doua. n varianta romn se poate observa o contopire de propoziii, prin coordonare traductorul realizeaz o propoziie compus. Fragmentele citate mai jos dovedesc potenialul de variabilitate privind traducerile literare i procedeele, tehnicile aplicate de ctre traductori diferii: Die Hhnerqual lag neben dem Wrterbuch. Tereza schwenkte sie jeden Tag, bevor wir aen. Wenn sie zur Tr hereinkam, sagte sie: Ich komme die Hhner fttern. Und jedesmal fragte sie, ob ich heute schon wisse, wie der Vogel aus Georgs Anleitungen auf Rumnisch heit. Aber ich konnte Tereza nur rumnish sagen, wie der Vogel auf Deutsch heit: Neunmal tten. Der Vogelname stand in keinem Wrterbuch. Ich hatte einmal eine deutsche Kinderfrau, sagte Tereza. Sie war alt, weil meine Gromutter keine junge Kinderfrau zulie, damit mein Vater nicht in Versuchung kommt. Die alte war streng und noch nach Quitten. Sie hatte lange Haare auf den Armen. Ich sollte Deutsch lernen von ihr. Das Licht, der Jger, die Braut. Mein liebstes Wort war Futter, weil es in meiner Sprache vgeln bedeutet. Es roch nicht nach Quitten: Sie gibt uns Milch und Butter Wir geben ihr das Futter Die Kinderfrau sang mir: Ihr Kinder kommet schnell nach Haus die Mutter blst das Licht schon aus. (Mller 2009: 176-177) Spaima ginilor se afla lng dicionar. Tereza o agita n fiecare zi, nainte s mncm. Cnd intra pe u, spunea : Vin s dau mncare la psri. i de fiecare dat m ntreba dac am aflat deja cum se numete pe romnete pasrea din instruciunile lui Georg. Dar nu-i puteam dect explica Terezei pe romnete cum se numete pasrea pe nemete : cel ce ucide de nou ori. Numele psrii nu figura n nici un dicionar*.
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Am avut odat o nemoaic care vedea de mine, spuse Tereza. Era btrn, pentru c bunica nu admitea femei tinere la copil, ca s nu-l ademeneasc pe tata. Btrna era sever i mirosea a gutui. Avea pr lung pe brae. Trebuia s nv nemete de la ea. Das Licht, der Jger, die Braut. Cuvntul meu preferat era Futter, pentru c n limba mea asta nsemna cnd te fui. Nu mirosea a gutui. Sie gibt uns Milch und Butter Wir geben ihr das Futter Femeia care vedea de mine mi cnta : Ihr Kinder kommet schnell nach Haus die Mutter blst das Licht schon aus. * Denumirea romneasc a psrii e sfrncioc. (Mller 2006: 161-162) A csirkeknz a sztr mellett hevert. Tereza mindennap meghintztatta evs eltt. Ahogy belpett azt mondta: Jttem csirkt etetni. s minden alkalommal megkrdezte, tudom-e mr, hogy hvjk romnul azt a madarat, amely Georg utastsban szerepel. De csak azt tudtam megmondani, hogy hvjk nmetl: kilencszer gyilkol. Ez a madrnv egyetlen sztrban sem szerepelt. Volt egyszer egy nmet gyereklnyunk, mondta Tereza. reg volt, nagyanym nem trt meg fiatal gyereklnyt, nehogy apm ksrtsbe essen. Szigor regasszony volt, birsalmaszag. Hossz szrszlak nttek a karjn. Az lett volna a dolga, hogy megtantson nmetl. Das Licht, der Jger, die Braut. A kedvenc szavam a Futter volt, mert az a mi nyelvnkn baszst jelent. s nem volt birsalmaszaga: Oda megynk gyakni Ahol tejet kapni. Az regasszony azt is nekelte nekem, hogy: Gyertek haza, gyerekek, Janytok kesereg. (Mller 2011: 182-183) Se remarc folosirea tehnicii de explicitare de ctre Nora Iuga. Traductoarea consider necesar clarificarea situaiei semantice privind pasrea amintit n fragment: sintagma cel ce ucide de nou ori se refer la o specie concret de psri, sfrnciocul, i este o traducere explicativ a termenului german Neuntter. Denumirea german
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reflect modul tipic de hrnire al sfrnciocului, care nfige prada n prealabil n spini de arbori pentru a fi ucis i sfiat mai uor, n acest mod fcnd i provizii de hran. Pentru a oferi traducerea denumirii speciei, traductoarea recurge la aplicarea unei note de subsol, astfel crend o unitate paratextual. Acest procedeu de explicitare este folosit i pe pagina 90 a traducerii din limba romn, unde se poate observa actul de clarificare n sensul invers: Iuga proiecteaz n avans sintagma din textul tradus pe pagina 161 pentru a explica semnificaia termenului german folosit pentru denumirea speciei, de fapt traductoarea citeaz un fragment tradus de ctre ea nsi : * n limba german, Neuntter = cel ce ucide de nou ori (n.t.). (Mller 2006: 90). Astfel traductoarea creeaz un circuit paratextual remarcabil. O alt tehnic interesant privind cele dou traduceri este preluarea cuvintelor germane din textul lui Mller, pentru a reda contextul nvrii limbii germane de ctre Tereza, ntr-un mod ct mai sugestiv i autentic: Das Licht, der Jger, die Braut [] Futter. O diferen semnificativ poate fi constatat n redarea fragmentelor de poezie i cntec, recitate de ctre ddac. Traducerea din limba romn citeaz versurile germane existente n opera original, dar Ndori decide s traduc versurile n limba maghiar. n acest caz este evident preocuparea traductoarei de a aplica creativitatea n procesul de traducere, de fapt ea recreeaz fragmentul de poezie i cntec, punnd accent pe rime i muzicalitate. Mai mult, ea altereaz poezia, conferindu-i un nou strat de sens primar; n timp ce varianta german pare a fi o poezie pentru copii, despre vac Ea ne d lapte i unt / noi i dm hran (traducere ad litteram din limba german n romn) traducerea maghiar dezvolt jocul de cuvinte despre care relateaz Tereza naratoarei romanului, n fragmentul citat. n textul german se face referire la relaia dintre cuvntul german Futter(Futter are sensul de hran, furaj n limba german) i cel din limba romn, vulgar a fute- generat de rezonana asemntoare n mintea copilului care nva limba german. Astfel Ndori Ldia urmrete direcia indicat de sensul vulgar al cuvntului, crend versuri cu sens alterat nspre vulgar, gyakni fiind un cuvnt arhaic, avnd sensul de a performa un act sexual, a se copula Acolo ne ducem s futem / Unde primim lapte (traducere ad litteram din limba german n romn). Reflectnd asupra elementelor de vocabular folosite n traduceri i comparndu-le cu cele germane din opera original, se evideniaz viziunea individual a traductoarelor i contribuia lor individual la opera literar a lui Herta Mller. n timp ce Kinderfrau
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are sensul general de ddac, varianta maghiar opteaz pentru tehnica traducerii cuvnt cu cuvnt, Kinder nsemnnd gyerek/copil, cu meniunea observrii diferenei ntre denumirea de Frau/ femeie i lny/ fat n romn; sau, l nlocuiete cu regasszony/btrna. n traducerea romn gsim o tehnic de reformulare sintagmatic atributiv: o nemoaic care vedea de mine, femeia care vedea de mine. Obiectul tradiional, jucria confecionat din lemn amintit n fragmente este denumit cu diferene semantice nuanate: Hhnerqual/ spaima ginilor/csirkeknz. Cuvintele compuse din textul german i cel maghiar arat o echivalen semantic, care ncorporeaz sensul de chin, tortur, fcnd trimitere la sensul de chin fizic i psihic. Termenul romnesc este o structur posesiv, prin care ginile devin personalizate, fiind capabile de a simi spaim, fric. Romanul Herztier reflect ntr-un mod special contextul multi cultural i multilingv al societii prezentate n oper. Herta Mller creeaz colaje de propoziii, fraze, insernd cuvinte maghiare n textul german al operei. Pentru redarea stilului specific i a caracterului de colaj, Nora Iuga preia cuvintele sau propoziiile scrise n maghiar din opera lui Mller, transcriindu-le numai cu caractere nclinate un procedeu tehnic de a evidenia anumite fragmente ntr-un text: Frau Margit hatte gesagt: Nincs lv nincs muzsika, aber was soll man machen, wenn du jetzt kein Geld hast fr die Miete (Mller 2009: 187) Doamna Margit spuse : Nincs lv nincs muzsika, dar ce-i de fcut, dac acum n-ai bani de chirie (Mller 2006 :171). Propoziia preluat din limba maghiar este un clieu, exprimnd ideea c fr bani nu se poate bucura de niciun serviciu. Cum Ndori traduce deja n limba maghiar, pentru a face traducerea mai fidel, recurge la aplicarea tehnicii de explicitare n textul operei nsei, adugnd o clarificare spuse doamna Margit pe maghiar ( traducere ad litteram din limba maghiar n romn) Ha nincs lv, nincs muzsika, mondta magyarul Margit nni, most mit csinljunk, ha nincs pnzed lakbrre (Mller 2011: 194). Procedee de traducere amintite mai sus pot fi observate i n urmtoarele fragmente: preluarea cuvntului german berendlich n traducerea romn i explicitarea sensului posibil prin adugarea unei note de subsol i traducerea cuvntului respectiv n limba maghiar, pornind de la reperele oferite de textul original:
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Ich fand in der Beschreibung einer hydraulischen Maschine das Wort berendlich. Es stand nicht im Wrterbuch. Ich sprte, was berendlich fr Menschen bedeuten konnte, aber nicht fr Maschinen (Mller2009: 140). Am gsit n descrierea unei maini hidraulice cuvntul ber endlich*. Nu figura n dicionar. Simeam ce ar fi putut s nsemne berendlich, acel dincolo de margini, pentru oameni, dar nu pentru maini. *n traducere ad literam : superfinit (n.t.) (Mller 2006: 127). Az egyik hidraulikus gp lersban ezt a szt talaltam: tlszl. Nem volt benne a sztrban. reztem, mit jelentene ugyanez a sz emberekkel kapcsolatban, de hogy mit gpekkel kapcsolatban, arrl fogalmam sem volt (Mller 2011: 144). Cu privire la compararea abordrii elementelor multilingve, att n romanul original ct i n cele dou traduceri, se poate observa nu numai preluarea anumitor uniti textuale din opera original, tehnicile de explicitare sau traducerea n limba int ca decizii luate n procesul traducerii, dar i o diferen subtil n folosirea substantivelor proprii. n textul maghiar numele proprii ale diferitelor personaje sau personaliti istorice sunt identice cu cele din romanul scris de Herta Mller Edgar, Georg, Kurt, Pjele, Tereza, Margit, Hitler, Antonescu, Ceauescu etc. cu excepia lui Stalin, care apare n forma maghiarizat Sztlin (Mller 2011: 190). n traducerea romn, substantivele proprii coincid cu cele din Herztier, ns traductoarea transform numele lui Pjele n Piele, astfel oferind cititorului romn posibiliti multiple de conotare, evocate de ctre securistul Piele, aciunile sale, caracterul su i cinele denumit la fel: el este cel care frige pielea celor interogai, care are pielea groas, el poate fi pielarul care prelucreaz pielea altora, sau cel care ia apte piei de pe cei chinuii i urmrii etc. Acest acces la sens suplimentar privind cuvntul Pjele nu este garantat pentru cititorii necunosctori de limba romn. Romanul scris de Herta Mller prezint lumea comunismului romnesc ntr-un stil fragmentar, textul fiind un colaj de impresii i imagini zguduitoare. Pentru cititorul cunosctor al acestei perioade de dictatur, aluziile oferite n text duc la o semnificaie i la o nelegere mai profund. Aluzia este o figur de stil care face referire, printre altele,
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la o persoan, un loc, un eveniment, un moment istoric, sau chiar la un personaj sau la o oper literar, prezumabil cunoscut cititorului. Rolul aluziei este de a invita pe cititor s recreeze contextul, sensul sugerat n oper, prin receptarea i interpretarea semnalului inserat n text (Leppihalme 1997: 5). Considernd faptul c Mller scrie despre o realitate romneasc n limba german, cititorul priceput i cunosctor al acestei realiti are o probabilitate mai mare de a descifra aluziile ascunse n roman. De exemplu, fragmentele citate mai jos conin versurile unui cntec care se bucura de o popularitate mare n contextul temporo-spaial al naraiunii: Gelber Kanarienvogel gelb wie das Eigelb mit weichen Federn und abwesenden Augen (Mller 2009: 68) Canarul galben ca un glbenu cu pene moi i ochii dui (Mller 2006: 61)
Srga kanrimadr srga mint a tojs kzepe tolla mind puha szeme lmodoz. (Mller 2011: 69) n mod interesant, tocmai traducerea din limba romn este textul care l ajut pe cititor ntr-o descifrare mai complex, fiindc aici regsim versurile originale din cntecul ntitulat Canarul aparinnd formaiei romne Phoenix, n timp ce textul german i cel maghiar ofer numai o traducere a versurilor n limba respectiv. Canarul galben ca un glbenu/Cu pene moi i ochii dui/Cnta de dup srmele de-argint/ i rsul i se pierdea n vnt./Deodat, ochii triti din cap tresar/ i d din aripi, dar n zadar/Lovi cu capul srmele deargint/ Czu n jos cu pieptul frnt./Srman canar, i s-a prut/C zrile i s-au deschis/Dar n-a fost doar dect un vis/ Rnit tu ai czut./Canarul galben ca un glbenu/Cu pene moi i ochii dui/Plngea de dup srmele de-argint/ i plnsu-i se pierdea n vnt( versurile scrise de Nicolae
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Covaci / Victor Suvgu sunt preluate de pe http://www.romanianvoice. com/culture/phoenix/canarul.php). Acest cntec era o melodie-manifest a anilor aizeci, metaforele disperrii i ale sistemului nimicitor ntruchipate prin metafora canarului prins n srme au o semnificaie profund privind realitatea socioistoric prezentat n roman. Mai mult, se ofer i un reper temporal privind aciunea romanului: Nicolae Covaci, plecat n Olanda cu un an mai nainte, n 1977 se rentoarce n ar i reuete s scoat membrii formaiei pe ascuns i i aduce n Germania (informaii preluate de pehttp://www.transsylvania-phoenix.de/ro/myth70s.html) : Cntecul era foarte popular. Dar de dou luni cntreii fugiser peste grani i cntecul fusese interzis. (Mller 2006: 62). Prin aluzia la formaia Phoenix, membrii creia erau persecutai de Securitate, se accentueaz atmosfera apstoare a realitii i opiunea aparent sigur a oamenilor de a prsi ara sau de a risca fuga din Romnia comunist. Inserarea unor versuri din Canarul, dar i moto-ul romanului versuri scrise de Gellu Naum preluat, tradus i prelucrat de mai multe ori n discursul narativ creeaz o reea de intertexte, care favorizeaz mai mult cititorul romn n procesul de citire i n descoperirea mesajelor, a sensurilor ascunse. Descoperirea relaiilor semantice ntre diferitele texte nserate n roman este facilitat n traducerea romn, fiindc Animalul inimii ncorporeaz versurile originare, n timp ce n textul german i maghiar sunt inserate traducerile acestora n limba int. jeder hatte einen Freund in jedem Stckchen Wolke so ist das halt mit Freunden wo die Welt voll Schrecken ist auch meine Mutter sagte das ist ganz normal Freunde kommen nicht in Frage denk an serisere Dinge Gellu Naum (Mller 2009: 5)
aveam cte un prieten n fiecare bucic de nor de fapt aa sunt prietenii cnd e atta spaim pe lume mama spunea i ea c e normal i c nu accepta s m fac prieten mai bine m-a gndi la ceva serios Gellu Naum (Mller 2006: 5)
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minden kis felhdarabban lt egy bartom ilyenek a bartok ha annyi a flelem a vilgban anym azt mondta ez termszetes s inkbb ne is bartkozzam senkivel jobb ha komolyabb dolgokkal trdm GELLU NAUM (Balzs Imre fordtsa) (Mller 2011: 5) Traducerile literare reproduc operele originale ntr-un dialog al culturilor. Cntrirea diferitelor posibiliti de substituire oferite de sistemul lexical al limbii int i alegerea procedeului celui mai potrivit, n viziunea traductorului au un impact remarcabil asupra cititorului i a modului su de a recepta textul tradus. Prin traducere se pierde ceva din opera original, dar totodat textul tradus adaug i sensuri suplimentare, traductorul contribuind la modificarea situaiei hermeutice n care se afl cititorul i creaia literar tradus.
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Bibliografie
BAKER, Mona, Saldanha, Gabriela (eds) 2009 - Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, Oxford, Routledge. BASSNETT, Susan 1998- The Translation Turn in Cultural Studies, In Bassnett, Susan, Gentzler, Edwin (eds) Constructing Cultures : Essays On Literary Translation, Clevendon, Multilingual Matters, 123-139. BASSNETT, Susan 1998- Transplanting the Seed: Poetry and Translation, In Bassnett, Susan, Gentzler, Edwin (eds) Constructing Cultures : Essays On Literary Translation, Clevendon, Multilingual Matters, 57-75. COOPER, Thomas 2009- Herta Mller: Between Myths of Belonging, In Neubauer, John, Trk, Borbla Zsuzsanna (eds), The Exile and Return of Writers from East-Central Europe. A Compendium, Berlin, Walter de Gruyter, 475-496. EVEN-ZOHAR, Itamar 1990 - Polysystem Studies, In POETICS TODAY. International Journal for Theory and Analysis of Literature and Communication, Vol. 11, Nr. 1. GLAJAr, Valentina 2004 - The German Legacy in East Central Europe as Recorded in Recent German-Language Literature, New York, Camden House, 1-11, 115-160. GLAVAN, Gabriela 2009 - Anima neagr, In Orizont. Revista Uniunii Scriitorilor din Romnia, Nr 10 Anul XXI, 14. LEPPIHALME, Ritva 1997- Culture Bumps. An Empirical Approach to the Translation of Allusions, Clevendon, Multilingual Matters. MLLEr, Herta 2006 - Animalul inimii, Bucureti, Editura Polirom, trad. de Nora Iuga. MLLEr, Herta 2009- Herztier, Frankfurt am Main, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag. MLLER, Herta 2011- Szvjszg, Budapest, Cartaphilus, ford. Ndori Ldia. STEINER, George 2001- After Babel. Aspects of Language and Translation, Shanghai, Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. COX,Patrick 2009 - Bilingual Metaphors, Place Name Changes, and Interpreting for the Dodgers, emisiune radio World in Words ,PRIs The World. http://www.theworld.org/2009/10/bilingual-metaphors-place-namechanges-and-interpreting-for-the-dodgers/.
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CarmeN Sylva als bersetZeriN Im RahameN Der FiN De Sicle Literatur
I.Historischer berblick
Die Jahrhundertwende. Die europische literarische Stimmung um den bergang vom 19. zum 20. Jahrhundert wurde von der Mnchner Zeitschrift Jugend in ihrer ersten Nummer aus Januar 1900 ausgezeichnet dargestellt. Auf der Titelseite prsentierte die Zeitschrift ihren Lesern ein emblematisches Bild mit einem Janus Kopf, der mde auf das vergangene Jahrhundert zurckblickte, indem er dem neuen Jahrhundert froh und erwartungsvoll entgegensah. Die Zeit um das Jahr 1900 wurde also als markante Zeitenwende betrachtet. Auf der einen Seite hatte man die reiche berlieferte Kultur der vergangenen Jahrhunderte; man hatte auerdem eine schon kanonisierte Literatur, mit bedeutenden und richtig eingeordneten Schriftstellern, mit bevorzugten literarischen Themen und Motiven. Auf der anderen Seite schien es um 1900, als ob die Generation der Gegenwart keine Orientierungspunkte mehr htte, da die so reiche Kultur der Vergangenheit ihre Geltung verlor. Die Gegenwart war nur teilweise und mehr symbolisch mit der Vergangenheit verbunden und eher auf die Zukunft ausgerichtet, als ob sie vorbereitet wre, etwas Neues und Anderes zu schaffen. In diesem Sinne schrieb der Feuilletonist Friedrich Michael Fels 1891: Wir stehen an der Grenzscheide zweier Welten; was wir schaffen, ist nur Vorbereitung auf ein knftiges Groes, das wir nicht kennen, kaum ahnen (Fels, 1891 zitiert in: Ajouri 2009: 10). Diese Periode um die Jahrhundertwende war also stark von Unruhe geprgt. Es schien, als ob man die alten Werte und Systeme nicht mehr brauchte, trotzdem hatte man aber noch keine neue. Die Lage der Literatur in dieser Zeit ist ebenfalls bemerkenswert. Was passiert mit der Kultur und mit der Literatur um die Jahrhundertwende? Wer schreibt jetzt Literatur und mit welchem Zweck? Fr wen wird die Literatur geschrieben und welche Erwartungen hat der Schriftsteller der Fin de
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Sicle Bewegung von seinen Lesern? Und das, um nur ein paar Probleme und Fragen dieser kulturellen Strmung zu erwhnen. Historisch betrachtet, bezeichnet eigentlich das europsiche Fin de Sicle nicht unbedingt das Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts, sondern eine ganze Epoche, welche sich von der Mitte der achtziger Jahre des 19. Jahrhunderts bis zum Beginn des Ersten Weltkriegs erstreckt. Es handelt sich also nicht um ein einziges Jahr, sondern um einen ziemlich reichen Zeitraum, in dem man sowohl von Epocheneinheit, als auch von Epochenvielfalt sprechen kann. Die Bezeichnung dieser Strmung stammt natrlich aus Frankreich und ihre Verwedung im ganzen europischen kulturellen Raum bedeutet, dass insbesondere die franzsische Dichtung fr die literaturgeschichtliche Entwicklung und Aufblhen wichtig war. Mit dem Begriff Fin de Sicle ist auch derjenige der Dcadence (auf Deutsch Verfall) schon in den damaligen Schriften eng verbundet. Der Begriff, der auch aus Frankreich stammt, bestimmt in erster Linie den Niedergang des rmischen Imperiums und wird heute als Strmungsbezeichnung nur bestimmter Teile der Fin-de-Sicle-Literatur verwendet. Der biologisch geistige Verfall des Individuums, eine Endzeitstimmung, eine Angst vor Katastrophe und Weltuntergang wurden alle von der Literatur und Kultur der Zeit widerspiegelt und diesen Teil der damaligen Literatur nennt man Dcadence. Wenn man ber Fin de Sicle spricht, handelt es sich eigentlich um die Symptome der Krankheit der Moderne: Das Gefhl, am Ende des Jahrhunderts zu stehen, dem Zusammenbruch einer vergehenden Epoche beizuwohnen [...] erweckte eine gewisse Lust am Untergang(Balzer, Mertens 1990: 351). Was diese Jahrhundertwende im Gegenteil zu anderen Jahrhundertwenden, die in der Literaturgeschichte kaum erwhnt werden besonders hat, ist genau diese Stimmung der Verwirrung, welche die Intellektuellen und Autoren der Zeit erleben und implizit in ihren Werken wiedergeben. Heute weit man was die erste Hlfte des 20. Jahrhunderts fr die ganze europische Geschichte bedeutet und hier meint man die zwei Weltkriege, welche den Aufbruch der Menschheit fast herbeigebracht haben. Es handelt sich aber auch um eine Epoche der Entwicklung in allen Felden und Bereichen des menschlichen Lebens. 1885, im Jahr der Ersten Leipziger Mustermesse, sah man zum Beispiel die ersten Wagen mit Benzinmotor auf den Straen, was natrlich ein sichtbares Zeichen jener technischen Revolution war, die sich im ganzen Europa in den nchsten
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Jahrzenten rasant fortsetzen sollte: von der Erfindung des Telephons (1876) und des Gramophons (1887), des Kinematographen (1889) und des Rotationstiefdrucks (1891), des Aspirin (1899) und des Staubsaugers (1908) bis hin zum ersten Motorflug (1910) und zur Einfhrung der Fliebandproduktion (1913) mitten im letzten Vorkriegsjahr. Die Knste und die Wissenschaften blieben natrlich von dieser Entwicklung nicht unberhrt. Fr Literatur und Kunst, fr die Musik und Architektur der Epoche, aber auch fr manche Bereiche der historischen Wissenschaft ist die erstaunliche, fr das Fin de Sicle so charakteristische Vielfalt der Schlagworte und Begriffe, der Moden und Stile zu erwhnen. Schlielich kann aber der Untergang des englischen Luxusdampfers Titanic zwei Jahre vor dem Ausbruch des Ersten Weltkriegs als Sinnbild dieser Fin de Sicle Epoche betrachtet werden: sowohl grandis und beeindruckend, als auch vergnglich und tragisch, schwankend also zwischen zwei Extremen. I.1.Der deutsche literarische Raum. Im deutschen Raum umfasst die Periode des Fin de Sicle beinahe die gesamte Regierungszeitdes letzten deutschen Kaisers Wilhelm II., die sogenannte Wilhelminische Zeit der Jahre 1888 1914, welche auch als Epoche der Paradoxen betrachtet werden kann. Auf der einen Seite wurde das gesellschaftlich kulturelle Klima der Regierungszeit Wilhelm II. von konservativen Orientierungen charakterisiert. Auf der anderen Seite wurde diese Epoche von ausgezeichnetem Fortschritt und vom sogennanten Wirtschaftswunder gekennzeichnet . Die Entwicklung von Wirtschaft und Techink beeinflusste in hohem Masse die literarische Produktion der Zeit. Die Alphabetisierung der Menschen, als natrliches Ergebnis der technischen Entwicklung, muss man auch als kennzeichendes Phnomen der Epoche erwhnen. Dank neuer Drucktechniken war das Buch zur Massenware geworden und den Bedingungen des Marktes unterworfen, auf dem die Schriftsteller um die Gunst des Lesers, d.h. des Kufers in Konkurrenz gerieten. Die Zunahme der Kolportageromane, das Aufkommen der Trivialliteratur, im heutigen Bewusstsein noch immer mit Namen wie Ludwig Ganghofer (1855 1920), Eugenie Marlitt (1825 1887) und Hedwig CourthsMahler (1867 1950) verbunden, bezeugte den wachsenden Erfolg einer Unterhaltungsindustrie, die es so zuvor nicht gegeben hatte. Die Erfolge der neuen Medien, der aufkommenden Illustrierten, des Kinos leiteten also den bergang zu einer Kulturwarenindustrie ein und
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es ist eigentlich diese Epoche, die in der Fachliteratur als historischer Punkt der Verbreitung solcher Literatur, die man heute Trivial- oder Unterhaltungsliteratur nennt, betrachtet werden kann. Zum Thema des Unterschieds zwischen Trivial- und Unterhaltungsliteratur gibt es zahlreiche Publikationen, die das Feld der Germanistik meistens whrend der 60er und 70er Jahre geprgt haben. Autoren, wie z.B. Christa Brger sprechen von einem dualistischen System der Literatur, d.h. eine klare Dichotomie zwischen hoher und niedriger oder massenverbreiteter Literatur darunter ist natrlich Unterhaltungs- und Trivialliteratur zu verstehen. Zur selben Zeit gibt es andere Autoren, wie z.B. Marion Beaujean und Hans Friedrich Foltin, die von einem Dreischichtenmodell der Literatur sprechen, d.h. hohe Literatur oder die sog. Dichtung als oberste Stufe, Unterhaltungsliteratur als Mittelstufe und Trivialliteratur als unterster Schicht. Unter den geistigen Zentren des europischen Fin de Sicle sind Wien, Berlin und Mnchen, neben anderen wichtigen Zentren wie Paris, London oder Prag, zu erwhnen. Wenn Paris zum Beispiel als kultureller Meltingpot der europischen Moderne (Haupt 2008: 163) betrachtet werden kann, gilt Wien um 1900 als Inkarnation des Fin de Sicle (Haupt 2008: 163), da diese literarische Strmung von der Metropole der sterreichisch-ungarischen Doppelmonarchie in der Gestalt des Kaisers Franz Joseph ausgezeichnet verkrpert wurde. In Wien sind um die Jahrhundertwende solche Schriftsteller und Intellektuellen, wie Hermann Hesse, Thomas und Heinrich Mann, Hugo von Hofmannstahl, der Musiker Anton Bruckner oder Sigmund Freud, der eigentlich hier 1907 seinen einzigen Vortrag vor fachfremden Publikum hielt, ttig. Mnchen, eine Stadt der Traditionalisten aber auch der Avant garde, blieb ein Zentrum der Knste trotz der 1864 Grndung der Polytechnischen Hochschule. Das kulturelle Leben Mnchens wurde von solchen Namen wie Paul Heyse, Otto Gross, Frank Wedekind oder sogar Wassily Kandinski, aber auch durch die wichtigen Zeitschriften, die hier um die Jahrhundertwende gegrndet wurden, geprgt. Berlin, die Hauptstadt des neu gegrndeten Deutschen Kaiserreichs, markierte diese Epoche und die europische Moderne im Allgemeinen. Solche Autoren und Denker, wie Gerhart Hauptmann, Gottfried Benz, Franz Kafka, Georg Kaiser, Georg Heym, Wilhelm Dilthey um nur ein paar zu erwhnen sind mit dem Namen dieser Stadt eng verbunden. Es ist auch in Berlin, wo die Werke so bekannter Schriftsteller, wie Ibsen, Emile Zola oder Edmond de Goncourt um die Jahrhundertwende
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verffentlicht wurden. Auch wenn Berlin, nicht wie Wien und Mnchen als eine Sttte der Knste, sondern vor allem als ein Ort der Industrie und des Verkehrs wahrgenommen wurde, ist die literarische Moderne Europas ohne die Atmosphre dieser Stadt nicht denkbar. Naturalismus und Jugendstil, Impressionismum und Neuromantik, Symbolismus und Expressionismus alle sind dem deutschen Fin de Sicle einzuordnen, ohne dass man eine Dominanz der einen oder der anderen Bewegung merken zu knnen. Es handelt sich eigentlich um ein echtes faszinierendes Spannungsfeld der literarischen Ideologien und Kulturstrmungen. I.2.Die rumnische Literatur um die Jahrhundertwende. Die westeuropische Dekadenzliteratur und stimmung sind nicht so prgnant im rumnischen kulturellen Raum um die Jahrhundertwende zu finden. Obwohl die rumnische Literatur ein wichtiges Aufblhen in der zweiten Hlfte des 19. Jahrhunderts erlebte, wurde sie meistens sehr stark von nationalistischen Tendenzen geprgt. Als Beispiel dafr dient natrlich die bekannte literarische Gruppierung Junimea aus Iasi. Titu Maiorescu, der Grnder und Leiter dieser Gesellschaft stand unter dem Einfluss der deutschen Kultur, da er Philosophie in Berlin studierte (1858 1859) und 1859 die Doktorwrde der Universitt Giessen erhielt. Um 1870 verffentlichte er in seiner literarischen Zeitschrift Convorbiri literare bedeutende rumnische Schriftsteller, die heute zu den Klassikern rumnischer Literatur gezhlt werden, wie Mihai Eminescu, Ion Luca Caragiale oder Ion Creang. Gegenbewegungen zu Junimea sind in der rumnischen Literatur nach 1880 festzustellen. Die Gruppierung um Alexandru Macedonski, der sich als Vorreiter des Symbolismus in Rumnien betrachtete, und die literarische Zeitschrift Literatorul wurden von einem rigorosen Formalismus geprgt. Nationalistische Tendenzen treten ab 1890 verstrkt auf. Zu den sogenannten rurale[n] Romantiker[n] (Clinescu 1982: 567, eigene bersetzung aus dem Rumnischen) gehrten Barbu tefnescu Delavrancea, Ion G. Ionescu-Gion, deren Namen mit der Zeitschrift Revista nou zu verbidenden sind. Die nationalistische Tendenz um 1900 in der rumnischen Literatur um die literarische Zeitschrift Semntorul grenzte sich ebenfalls von Junimea ab und vertrat eine Literatur mit verstrkter gesellschaftlicher Relevanz, mit didaktischen und nationalen Tendenzen fr die lndliche Bevlkerung. Unter den
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Vertretern dieser nationalistischen Tendenz um 1900 sind zwei bekannte Schriftsteller zu erwhnen: tefan Octavian Iosif und Octavian Goga. Die vlkisch-nationalistischen Tendenzen um 1906 vornehmlich die Gruppierung Viaa romneasc forderte eine Literatur, die das buerliche Leben analysiert. Da also in Rumnien die Erwartung in eine nationale Literatur zu dieser Zeit sehr gro war, wurden die zeitgenischen literarischen Strmungen aus Europa erst viel spter aufgenommen. In ihrem Handbuch Fin de Sicle zhlt Sabine Haupt zum rumnischen Fin de Sicle [...] in erster Linie Autoren, die versuchen, sich von dem gegen Westeuropa gerichteten, nationalistisch volkspoetischen Dichterzirkel Junimea abzugrenzen und dem noch weit ber die Jahrhundertwende hinaus dominierenden idyllischen Realismus [...] modernere Perspektiven entgegenzusetzen (Haupt 2008: 110f). In diesem Sinne werden hier solche rumnischen Autoren erwhnt, wie der Dramatiker Dimitrie Anghel, als auch die Symbolisten Alexandru Macedonski, Ion Minulescu und George Bacovia, aber auch ein in der rumnischen Literatur wenig bekannter Dichter und zwar Adrian Maniu, der mit seiner phantastisch makabre[n] Lyrik (Haupt 2008: 111) thematisch-motivisch, als auch poetologisch an die franzsische Dekadenz Literatur der Zeit erinnerte. Die literarische Szene aus Rumnien war also um die Jahrhundertwende nicht unbedingt von der europischen Dekandenz - Stimmung geprgt, war aber schon von Unruhe und stndige Suche nach einer eigenen Identitt charakterisiert. Obwohl man nicht vom echten Fin de Sicle in Rumnien sprechen kann da der Einflu westeuropischer literarischer Strmungen in Rumnien von einer vllig gerechtfertigten Zeitund Inhaltsverschiebung immer gekennzeichnet wurde sind schon in der Gesellschaft und Kultur der Zeit Spuren dieser Strmung zu merken. II.Carmen Sylva am Kreuzungspunkt der Kulturen. Die deutschgeborene Prinzessin Elisabeth zu Wied die spter das literarsiche PseudonymCarmen Sylva nahm wurde zur Frstin und kurz danach zur ersten Knigin Rumniens dank ihrer 1869 Ehe mit dem Offizier Prinz Karl Eitel Friedrich von Hohenzollern Sigmaringen, der in der rumnischen Geschichte als Knig Carol I. bekannt geblieben ist. Das Bild Rumniens war damals von Exotismus geprgt, da dieses Land im europischen Raum fast unbekannt war. Aus einem kulturellen und literarischen Sichtpunkt existierte Rumnien auf der Landkarte Europas noch nicht.
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Dass Carmen Sylva eine wichtige Vermittlerin zwischen der noch jungen rumnischen Kultur und der deutschen und im Allgemeinen, westeuropischen reifen Kultur war, muss man heute unbedingt anerkennen. Obwohl sie zu ihren Lebzeiten eine umstrittene Persnlichkeit war und ihre literarische Beurteilung noch bis heute kontrovers blieb, da ihre literarischen Werke kurz nach ihrem Tod 1916 in Vergessenheit gerieten sind, ist ihre ausgezeichnete Rolle als Gnnerin und Frderin rumnischer Kultur und rumnischer Knstler, Musiker und Schriftsteller von groer Bedeutung. Es ist auch durch ihr positives Wirken, dass Literatur, Wissenschaft und Kunst in Rumnien aufblhten und ein nie bevor bekanntes Niveau erreichten. In diesem Sinne ist natrlich auch die literarische Ttigkeit der sogenannten dichtenden Knigin zu erwhnen, denn viele ihrer Werke thematisieren Aspekte der rumnischen Kultur und Geschichte, spielen sich im buerlichen Milieu ab oder preisen die Schnheit der rumnischen Landschaft. II.1.Thematischer berblick Carmen Sylvas literarischer Werke. Die dichtende Knigin versuchte ihr ganzes Leben eine literarische Legitimierung zu erlangen. Die ersten literarischen Spuren ihrer Persnlichkeit sind schon seit ihrem Jugend zu merken, aber es ist nun als Knigin von Rumnien und durch die Bekanntschaft mit dem rumnischen Dichter Vasile Alecsandri, der eigentlich zu einem engen Freund der Knigin wurde, dass sie ihre Werke verffentlichen lie. Wie die Knigin zu dem Pseudonym Carmen Sylva gekommen ist, erzhlte sie selbst im Band Mrchen einer Knigin, indem sie erklrt, dass sie nach einem schnen, poetischen Namen suchte. Da sie jetzt einem lateinischen Volk gehrte, sollte dieser Name lateinische Resonanzen haben; trotzdem sollte er auch Elisabeths deutsche Herkunft widerspiegeln. So wurde die Wahl auf den Namen Carmen Sylva (auf Deutsch Lied des Waldes oder Waldgesang) getroffen, der durch das Lateinische auch der rumnischen Sprache verwandt war und der ausdrcken sollte, dass die Knigins Dichtung dem Wald abgelauscht war und als Gesang den Menschen wiedergegeben wurde. Unter den Themen und Motiven, die Carmen Sylva in ihren Werken thematisierte, ist das Beispiel eigenes Schicksals zu erwhnen, da sowohl in den Dichtungen als auch im Prosa sind autobiographische Zge zu merken. Mit Vorlieben prsentierte sich Carmen Sylva als
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ideale Landesmutter, als leidende kinderlose Knigin, als mrtyrhafte Kmpferin fr das Wohl ihrer Untertanen. Dass alle diese eigentlich eine Selbstmythisierung der Persnlichkeit widerspiegeln, ist ja offensichtlich. Die Heimatthematik spielt auch eine wichtige Rolle in ihrer literarischen Ttigkeit. Darunter knnte man einen zur Zeit berhmten Gedichtenband der Knigin erwhnen und zwar Mein Rhein, das bereits im Titel verdeutlicht, dass es sich in diesen Gedichten um die Vermittlung einer kulturellen und idyllischen Landschaft aus subjektiver und autobiographischer Perspektive handelt. Thematisch betrachtet, verarbeitete Carmen Sylva in ihren Werken auch das Motiv ihrer neuen Heimat, d.h. des neugegrndeten rumnischen Knigreichs. In diesen Texten, deren Handlung in Rumnien lokalisiert ist oder in denen rumnische Motive verwendet werden, erkennt Silvia Irina Zimmermann zwei Tendenzen: einerseits politische Propaganda fr die neue deutsche knigliche Dynastie aus Rumnien und andererseits kulturelle Vermittlung zwischen Rumnien und Deutschland (Zimmermann 2001: 103). Ein Beispiel in diesem Sinne bietet der Mrchenband Pelesch Mrchen an, der eigentlich ein Versuch der Knigin, ein neues Mrchenbuch fr die rumnischen Kinder zu schaffen, war und in dem Carmen Sylva durch die Benutzung rumnischer und deutscher Mrchenmotive die beiden Kulturen symbolisch zu verbinden beabsichtigte. Obwohl Carmen Sylva alle literarischen Gattungen versuchte, es sind eigentlich nur einige ihrer Gedichtenbnder und wenige ihrer Prosawerke, die zu ihrer kurzfristigen Popularitt gefhrt haben. In einer Zeit, die literarisch und kulturell von Unruhe so stark geprgt war, wie jene der Jahrhundertwende, ist Carmen Sylvas schriftstellerische Aktivitt eher unter der sogennanten Unterhaltungsliteratur einzuordnen, obwohl vielleicht eine bessere Bezeichnung dafr massenverbreitete Literatur oder einfacher Massenliteratur wre, um die Absicht der dichtenden Knigin, etwas fr alle Leute, also fr die groe Masse der Leser zu schreiben, hervorzubringen. II.2.Die Aktivitt als bersetzerin und ihre Wichtigkeit. Als bersetzerin war CarmenSylva mehr im Bereich der Lyrik ttig , da ihr bersetzen von Prosa ziemlich beschrnkt und eigentlich mit ihrer Bekanntschaft zu dem franzsischen Schriftsteller Pierre Loti, ein Vertreter des Fin de Sicle, eng verbunden war. Ihre bersetzungen von Poesie sind aber zu erwhnen und vielleicht die besten literarischen Ergebnisse der dichtenden Knigin.
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Angeregt durch die Bekanntschaft mit Mite Kremnitz, vor allem aber durch die Freundschaft mit Vasile Alecsandri, dessen Einfluss auf die rumnische Folklore hnlich und ebenso groartig wie der des deutschen Schriftstellers Herder auf die deutsche Volkslitertur war (Podlipny-Hehn 2001: 32), begann Elisabeth ziemlich frh rumnische Lyrik ins Deutsche zu bersetzen, was eigentlich ihr erstes Kontakt mit der rumnischen Literatur war. Elisabeths erste verffentlichten bersetzungen Rumnische Dichtungen in Zusammenarbeit mit Mite Kremnitz erschienen 1879 unter dem Pseudonym E. Wedi, welcher eigentlich ein Anagramm ihres Namens war. Darunter waren zwei Gedichte Vasile Alecsandris, Stelele und Seceriul, von Carmen Sylva ins Deutsche bersetzt. Die dichtende Knigin hatte auch einige Werke Mihai Eminescus, des gefeierten Romantikers Rumniens, ins Deutsche bersetzt: Die Mrchenknigin und Des Waldes Mrchen, die 1888 in Hamburg verffentlicht wurden. In der zweiten Auflage Rumnischer Dichtungen Leipzig 1881 erschienen mehrere Gedichte Mihai Eminescus in deutscher bersetzung, darunter drei von Carmen Sylva und 17 von Mite Kremnitz. Auer Vasile Alecsandri und Mihai Eminescu hat die dichtende Knigin Werke auch anderer bekannten rumnischen Dichter bersetzt: Dimitrie Bolintineanu, Costache Conachi, Theodor erbnescu, Iacob Negruzzi. Die bersetzung von Volkspoesie wurde auch von Vasile Alecsandris Einfluss stark geprgt. Der rumnische Dichter war ein leidenschaftlicher Sammler von rumnischen Volkssagen und legenden. Der 1889 Band Lieder aus dem Dimbovitzathal (Alternativtitel: Der Rhapsode der Dimbovitza. Aus dem Volksmund gesammelt von Helene Vcrescu, ins Deutsche bertragen von Carmen Sylva) ist Carmen Sylvas bekanntestes Werk im Bereich der bersetzung von rumnischer Volkspoesie. Wenn man aber ber Carmen Sylvas bersetzungen rumnischer Volkspoesie spricht, ist auch unbedingt die bersetzung der fr die rumnische Kultur emblematischen Volksballade Mioria zu erwhnen eine bersetzung, die die metaphysische Traurigkeit des rumnischen Volkes, die groe und geheime Natur, ihre Ehe im Tod (Podlipny-Hehn 2001: 34, eigene bersetzung aus dem Rumnischen) ausgezeichnet wiedergibt. Offensichtlich trug Carmen Sylva durch diese bersetzungen zu einem besseren Verstndnis Rumniens bei, da sie eigentlich darin eine kulturelle Mission endlich sah, Rumnien und die rumnische Kultur im westeuropischen Raum bekannt zu machen. In diesem Sinne
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schrieb Carmen Sylva in einem Brief an ihrer Mutter: Ich wei, es ist ja ntzlicher zu bersetzen, aber es ist selbstverstndlich viel schner etwas zu schaffen (Badea-Pun 2007: 97, eigene bersetzung aus dem Rumnischen) Da aber die Zeit der Jahrhundertwende dafr nicht geeignet war, lsst sich darin erkennen, dass obwohl diese bersetzungen literararisch betrachtet gut waren, sind sie leider in der ffentlichkeit kaum weiter geblieben. Die europische literarische Szene um 1900, also die Epoche des Naturalismus, Symbolismus, Dekadenz oder Frh-Expressionismus, wollte ja nicht mehr solche Autoren lesen, die, wie Eminescu, noch im Schatten der Romantik standen. Die neue Generation um die Jahrhundertwende wollte etwas Neues schaffen und die groe Vergangenheit in der Vergangenheit lassen. III.Schlufolgerung Die Persnlichkeit der dichtenden Knigin ist noch heute ein heikles Thema und sie wird als Schriftstellerin weder in der rumnischen noch in der deutschen Kultur analysiert. Obwohl sie zur Massenliteratur eingeordnet werden kann, bleibt sie sowieso eine Persnlichkeit der Jahrhundertwende. Zur rumnischen Kultur und Literatur gehrt Carmen Sylva durch ihre Beziehung zu wichtigen Vertretern der damaligen rumnischen Kultur, aber nicht zuletzt durch ihre bersetzungen rumnischer Dichtungen ins Deutsche. Dass Carmen Sylva in einer umstrittenen Epoche und Zeit geschrieben hat, soll auch anerkannt werden. Eine Schriftstellerin, die sich selbst als Romantikerin vorstellte, die sich selbst in ihren Werken mythisierte, konnte eigenltich bis Ende ihres Lebens keinen echten Platz in der modernen Literatur finden. Anstatt aller mglichen Schlussfolgerungen, sollten vielleicht die Worte Marias, der spteren Knigin Rumniens, bedacht werden: Carmen Sylva verkrperte tatschlich ein zur unserer Zeit nicht mehr bekanntes Gemt: die groe Romantikerin (Maria, Regina Romniei 1990, III: 27, eigene bersetzung aus dem Rumnischen). Acknowledgements: This work was supported by the European Social Fund in Romania, under the responsibility of the Managing Authority for the Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007 2013 [grant POSDRU/CPP107/DMI 1.5/S/78342].
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Bibliographie
Ajouri 1990 - Literatur um 1900. Naturalismus Fin de Sicle Expressionismus, Akademie Verlag, Berlin. Badea-Pun G.2007 - Carmen Sylva uimitoarea regina Elisabeta a Romniei, ediia a 2-a, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti. Balzer, Mertens 1990-Volker Mertens (Hrsg.), Deutsche Literatur in Schlaglichtern, Meyers Lexikon Verlag, Mannheim / Wien / Zrich. Clinescu G.1982 - Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn n prezent, Editura Minerva, Bucureti. Haupt S.2008 -Handbuch Fin de Sicle, Alfred Krner Verlag, Stuttgart Maria, Regina Romniei 1990 Maria, Regina Romniei, Povestea vieii mele, 3 volume, Editura Moldova, Iai. Podlipny-Hehn 2001- Carmen Sylva, Editura Solness, Timioara. Zimmermann S.I. 2001 - Die dichtende Knigin. Elisabeth, Prinzessin zu Wied, Knigin von Rumnien, Carmen Sylva (1843 1916). Selbstmythisierung und prodynastische ffentlichkeitsarbeit durch Literatur, Inaugural Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwrde des Fachbereichs Germanistik und Kunstwissenschaften der Phillips Universitt Marburg, http://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/diss/ z2003/0624/pdf/volltext.pdf
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The Culture Specific Element A Mark of the National Feature
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The Culture Specific ElemeNt A MarK of the NatioNal Feature
0. The present article is part of a research theme entitled Commu nication of the national feature by translating the culture specific elements, that is slice of a post-doctoral research project: Reea transnaional de management integrat al cercetrii postdoctorale n domeniul Comu nicarea tiintei. Construcie instituional (coala postdoctoral) i program de burse (CommScie); The identification number of the contract: POSDRU/89/1.5/S/63663), and intends to view aspects related to the phenomenon of literary translation from Romanian into English, focusing upon issues raised by the inter-linguistic and intercultural transfer of terms that constitute the national feature of a language, preserving the local colour and atmosphere. I.1.As we have already stated in previous articles, the process of translation activates national and international cultural identities. Each and every language possesses specific linguistic and cultural particularity, unique, impossible or very difficult to render in a different language, resulting in endless difficulties in translation. We agree, therefore, that any language contains particular terms, terms that carry information of national cultural identity, terms that cannot be entirely equated by means of translation. When referring to the translation of literature, it is really difficult to offer a 1:1 equivalence between the source and target texts. If not completely impossible, as, for instance, the romantic and post-romantic translators (and not only) used to believe. Nevertheless, in order to achieve that universal cultural network, (in the name of obtaining that ideal system of inter-cultural relation and because it just couldnt be any other way) not only that literary translations are accepted, but even encouraged, of course with particular care for the form alongside with the fond. It is one thing to accept that a translation is not entirely faithful to its original, yet it is a plus in value, since it introduces an entirely new
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and different value to the target language, target culture, unknown up to that moment, and it is a completely different thing (unconceivable, we must underline) to allow any mediocre translation to attempt to accede the same statute. Therefore, if we cannot completely apply the rule no losses, no gains in translation, at least we should make sure that we operate a cautious and careful selection to any translation act. Nevertheless, since we agreed upon the necessity of translation, these terms need to be rendered and adapted to the target language. They are the so-called culture specific elements (CSEs) that are considered to be statements carrying cultural information, cultural units, culturally marked items, (Badea 2004:27) prestigious hints (idem), next to cultisms, yet without identifying themselves with them, nor to the etymological doublets, or to the neologisms. G. L Badea understands by CSE that minimal unit carrying cultural information, unit that does not decompose in order to decode the meaning and perform the translation, since that kind of an operation would tamper with the correct understanding of the meaning by the receiver (be it reader, translator etc) and would, therefore, lead to the alteration of the authorial intent. Let us not lose sight of the definition offered by the DEX (Romanian Academy: Explicative Romanian Language Dictionary) Culturem (CSE: Culture Specific Element) n. = the smallest unit of a cultural phenomenon, common element to certain cultural forms, structures, types (...). It was highly necessary to clarify such a term, since John Locke observed the linguistic and cultural barriers that impose that transfer resistance, that inertia in the translation process (Vilceanu 2007: 119) while Wilhelm von Humboldt considered that languages were a fascinating combination of universal linguistic and cultural elements with specific linguistic and cultural elements (...) that genius/spirit of the language of a people that cannot be transferred in a different language without suffering alterations in the process. (idem) Maybe one of the best supported pre-theory paving the way for the term in question is that of Eduard Sapir, who considered that it is the language that conditions thinking and also a guide to the social reality, while the individual experience is conditioned by that habitus linguistic of the community. To all that add the Benjamin Whorfs completion of Sapirs thesis, a.k.a. the Sapir Whorf Hypothesis or the theory of linguistic relativity, according to which language cannot exist unless anchored in the cultural context. Further on, the CSE is created, analysed and
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promoted, for the first time under this form, by Els Oskaar in his study of reference in the cultural and intercultural transfer domain, entitled: Kulturemtheorie. Ein Beitrag. (1988). As for a classification of the CSEs, we mention Paul Newmark (idem), who takes over the classification performed by Eugene Nida in 1966 and considers the following types of CSEs: - Ecological terms: flowers, fauna or climate particularities: for instance, there are different denominations for the same relief forms: (RO: Romanian language) cmpie, es, preerie, savan, step, tundr, pampas - (EN: English language) plain, flat land - lowland, prairie, veldt, tundra, pampas which reflects certain linguistic particularities. - Cultural artefacts: culinary art, clothing items, cultural features etc. We note the English CSE pudding, usually refered to as a dish or as a desert in the English speaking world, but only as a sweet desert in its Romanian equivalent. We complete by adding the interesting instance of the CSE mmlig, that is being translated with polenta, meaning that it was taken directly in its translated form, having no other equivalent since the term denoted by the term mmlig does not exist in different cultures; - Socio cultural structures: for instance, the CSE mansion (EN), chateau (FR: French language), castel (RO), that imply a certain degree of opaqueness or resistance to transfer from one language to the other; - Administrative, political, religious and artistic structures: see the CSE Parliament (EN), Parlament (FR), Parlament (RO), to be translated in very similar linguistic terms but do not overlap completely from the point of view of the reality they describe; - Habits and gestures: - Newmark refers to the non-verbal communication that can preserve certain specific national features. Georgiana Lungu-Badea speaks about the classification of CSEs in 4 big categories, and the examples (almost exclusively in French) provided by her are completed by Titela Vlceanu with the English versions (Vilceanu 2007:124). Therefore, we classify the CSE according to the - formal point of view (coliv, denier, lord, redneck, Ft-Frumos, Polichinelle, Scrooge), - functional point of view (poujadisme, five oclock tea, To be or not to be?, politically correct language)
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- type of origin text (literary, non-literary, common CSE) - linguistic space of occurance (native, foreign). On her turn, Titela Vlceanu offers us a different classification of CSEs: CSE that stands a solid resistance to transfer (idem: 126) that needs to be clearly explained by the translator during his process of translating for the less unadvised public: this type of CSE will be approached from the semantic perspective in the detriment of the linguistic perspective; for instance, the item mielul Domnului (RO), the Lords Lamb (EN) is rendered as seal in the Eskimo culture; elements that appear to be neutral from the cultural point of view, but which are, in fact, adapted in translation; for instance, the notion zpad (RO), snow (EN), having a large number of denominations in the Nordic languages; elements that appear to be neutral from the cultural point of view, but they become CSEs in certain contexts endowed with cultural load, for instance, the term modern culture from the novel The importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde, where a neutral collocation is used in order to refer to the Victorian epoch in which Shakespeareian plays were forbidden. It must be clear by now, that by the efforts in translating (here we understand also the process of equation, adaptation, re-invention, rendering, etc.) the CSEs in a different language, there is on the one hand , always a certain amount of loss implied as well as on the other hand , a certain amount of gain. All that due to the fact that any translator brings along a certain amount of new items, imposed by the continuous, neverending renewal of concepts, of civilization, of international language (Bulgar 1984:3). Once again, we have to embrace the idea, according to which the translation has the capacity to access and decode linguistic conventions otherwise unique, specific to a certain people, proper to a certain culture. Therefore, translation needs to be perceived as a means to enrich the vocabulary of a language; the translator uses strategies aiming to activate various linguistic-semantic areas by appealing to different methods of vocabulary growth: borrowings, linguistic calques, idioms, euphemisms, clich, culture specific elements, escamotation techniques, using certain explanatory notes or footnotes, attempts to reconstruct vague equivalences, etc.
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We should not lose sight of the factors that contribute to the obtaining of a translation: the external factors (the socio-cultural, historical frame, information on the author - bio-bibliography, authorial intent, etc., spatial-temporal coordinates of the source and target text, the receiver of the translation etc.) all accompanied by the intra-textual, internal factors (subject, content, composition, lexic, surface and deep structures of the phrase, style, etc.) Needless to say how important the linguistic and cultural competence of the translator are, the affinity to the text to be translated, his talent during translation; all these internal and external factors are imprinted upon such an attempt. Considering all the difficulties and challenges a translation of a certain original text impose, along with the possible less valuable results, we still believe that such attempts ought to be encouraged and sustained, strongly believing that this is a way to enrich ourselves as humans.
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Bibliography
Baconsky et al. 2002 - Teritorii actuale ale traducerii, Echinox Publishing House, Cluj Napoca. Bell, 2002- Translation and translating. Theory and practice, general editor Bulgr Gh.1984 - Interferene culturale n arta traducerii, n Romnia literar XVIII, nr. 21/1984 Candlin, C.N. Longman Group UK Ltd.,1991, traducere de Gazi, C., Teoria i practica traducerii, Polirom Publishing House, Iai. Dimitriu, R. 2002 - Translation theories and practice, Editura European Institute Publishing House, Iai. Eco, U. 2002 - La ricerca della lingua perfeta, n cutarea limbii perfecte, traducere din limba italian de Cojocaru D., Polirom Publishing House, Iai. Fejes, D.2006 - Fiecare traducere e o provocare, in Romnia Literar, 16/2006. Held et al. 2004 - Transformri globale. Politic, economie i cultur, Polirom Publishing House, Iai. Iovnescu, M. 2007 - Probleme lingvistice ale traducerii, Sitech Publishing House,Craiova. Jeanrenaud, M. 2006 - Universaliile traducerii, Studii de traductologie, Polirom Publishing House, Bucharest Levichi, L.2001 - Manualul traductorului de limba englez, Teora Publishing House, Bucharest. Lungu, Badea 2004 - Teoria culturemelor, teoria traducerii, West University Press, Timioara. Lungu, Badea 2005 - G., Tendine n cercetarea traductologic, West University Press,Timioara. Ricoeur, P. 2005 - Sur la Traduction, Bayard, 2004, translation and introductory study by Jeanrenaud, M., Despre traducere, Polirom Publishing House, Iai. Steiner, 1983 - After Babel. Aspects of language and translation, Oxford University. Press, New York and London, 1975, translated by Negoi, V. and Avdanei, t., Dup Babel. Aspecte ale limbii i traducerii, Univers Publishing House, Bucharest.
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Vlceanu, 2007 - T., Fidelitate i alteritate lingvistic i cultural, Universitaria Publishing House, Craiova. Stoichoiu-Ichim, 2002- Asimilarea mprumuturilor englezeti: aspecte actuale ale dinamicii sensurilor, in Aspecte ale dinamicii limbii romne actuale, University Press, Bucharest. Vazaca, M., 2008 - Preul dorinei de a traduce, in Romnia Literar, nr.8/2008.
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Han, Bianca-Oana
Drmatechnikk a nyelvoktatsban
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DrmatechNiKK a NyelvoKtatsbaN
A dramatikus munkaformk nyelvtantsban betlttt szerept vizsgl krdves kutatsomat szeretnm bemutatni. A kutats mdszere egyni rsbeli kikrdezs volt krdv segtsgvel. A krdv, amint az a fggelkben olvashat, zrt s nylt krdseket egyarnt tartalmaz. A zrt krdseket ler statisztikai mdszerrel rtkeltem, a nylt krdsek a tbbletinformci szerzst szolgljk. A krdvet a kutatsban rszt vev, a marosvsrhelyi Mvszeti Egyetem, valamint a Sapientia Egyetem dikjai tltttk ki. k mindannyian kt ven t, hetente egyszer az egyetemi program szerint angol nyelvet tanultak drms technikkkal illetve hagyomnyos mdszerekkel. A kutats mdszertana szerint a krdvet mindkt csoport dikjai kitltttk (a ksrleti csoporthoz tartozk s a kontroll-csoporthoz tartozk egyarnt). A krdvet a dikok nvtelenl tltttk ki a foglalkozsok zrsakor, azaz az egyetemi v lejrtakor. A kutats sorn 60 dikot krdeztem meg. Mindannyian
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msodves hallgatk, akik az angol nyelvet kzphalad illetve halad szinten beszlik. Amint azt az albbi bra is mutatja a vizsglatban a kt egyetem hrom klnbz szakn tanul dikok vettek rszt. A szakok klnbzsge s arnylag nagy szma nveli a kutats eredmnynek a hitelessgt. A mintban 41 fi s 19 lny szerepel. A fik tbbsgt termszetesen a mszakis hallgatk alkotjk.
A dikok letkora 20-29 kztt tallhat, az tlagletkor teht 24 v. A krdv segtsgvel tbb krdsre kerestem a vlaszt. Mivel a dikok a kzpiskolai tanrkon a hagyomnyos tantsi stlushoz szoktak, kvncsi voltam a sajt tanulsi szoksaikra, illetve a kzs tanuls sorn az ltaluk leghatkonyabbnak s leginkbb motivlnak vlt mdszerre. Ugyanakkor, arra is kerestem a vlaszt, hogy a drms munkamdszer megtapasztalsa eltt s utn milyen lmnyek, rzsek ktdnek az angol rhoz, illetve, hogy olddik-e az a fajta szorongs s gtls, amely a beszd, az idegen nyelven val kommunikci sikertelensge miatt alakul ki a dikokban. A msok eltti szereplstl sokan flnek. Kvncsi voltam, hogy milyen arnyban s erssggel jelenik meg a flelem a technikk megismerse eltt, s hogy ez mennyire alakul t bizalomm a drmapedaggia hatsra. A vizsglatban rszt vev 60 dik kzl szinte mindenki tanult mr angolul az ltalnos s kzpiskolban, vagy iskoln kvl (magntanrral, nyelviskolban). Sajnlatos mdon a nyelvtanulssal iskolai keretek kztt- eltlttt vek szma nem minden esetben tkrzi a nyelvtudst. A
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helytelen mdszer, a kiscsoportos oktats helyett a teljes osztllyal val munka, a gyakori tanrcsere mind a sikertelensghez vezet, s a dikokbl rdektelensget vlt ki, amely gtolja a nyelvtuds fejldst. A nyelvtuds teht nem fgg ssze a nyelvtanulssal eltlttt vek szmval. Sajt tanri tapasztalatombl tudom, hogy van olyan dik, aki iskolai tanrban mindssze kt vig tanulta az angolt, mgis hasznlhatbb nyelvtudssal rendelkezik, mint sok olyan trsa, akik vekig tanultk a nyelvet. A mellkletek azon nyelveket mutatjk, melyeket a dikok az angol nyelv mellett iskolai krlmnyek kztt tanultak. Ezek kzl a leggyakrabban vlasztott a nmet nyelv, melyet a francia nyelv kvet. Tovbbi mellkletek azokat a tanrai tevkenysgeket mutatjk, amelyeket a dikok a leghasznosabbnak vlnek nyelvtudsuk gaz dag tsa szempontjbl. A dikok vlaszthattak a krdvben szerepl tev kenysgek kzl, gy, hogy cskken sorrendben szmokkal jelltk a szmukra leghasznosabb valamint a legkevsb hasznos tevkenysget. A megadott tevkenysgek a kvetkezk voltak: fordtsos feladatok, nyelvtani gyakorlatok, prbeszdek s szitucis feladatok, nyelvi jtkok s irnytott beszlgets. Amint kiderlt, a dikok szmra leghasznosabb tevkenysg nem a nyelvtani gyakorlatok vagy a fordts, hanem az irnytott beszlgets valamint a szitucis gyakorlatok. Az irnytott beszlgets s a szitucis jtkok jobban ignybe veszik a dik meglv tudst, s mivel egy szmukra rdekes tmt dolgoznak fel, sokkal motivltabbak, s btrabban hasznljk a nyelvet. Termszetesen, minden ilyen gyakorlatot rtkels kvet, ahol lehetsg van a hibk javtsra, a nyelvtani krdsek megbeszlsre. Az rtkels a drma egyik munkaszakasza. A drmban az rtkels sorn nem j vagy rossz vlaszban kell gondolkodnunk. Sajt magunk szmra kell rtkelnnk azt, amit lejtszottunk, amit tltnk. Az rtkel tevkenysg gyakran rtelmezst is jelent. Mivel a drms mdszer megbontja a szoksos tantermi frontlis formt, s a tanr szerepben dolgozik, a tanri sttusz megvltozik, gyakran alacsonyabb is lehet, mint a dikok. Termszetesen, a megvltozott krlmnyekhez ms tanri kzlsmdot kell alkalmazni. Ha az a cl, hogy a dik nyitott vljon a felknlt jtk irnyba, el kell nyernnk a bizalmt, amely lehetv teszi a szabad vlemnynyilvntst. A folyton minst, brl hangnem, esetleg ironizl beszdstlus ppen
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az ellenkezjt eredmnyezi. gy a minststl val szorongs a dikokat vagy a vlemnyk elfojtsra, vagy arra kszteti, hogy a tanr kedvben jrva azt mondjk, amit feltehetleg hallani szeretne. A tanrnak gykeresen t kell rtkelnie a kommunkcijt, s a dikok kzlseire rzkeny befogadv kell vlnia. Btortania kell tanulit arra, hogy vlemnyket, gondolataikat ne hallgassk el. Nhny rai gyakorls utn, szinte termszetess vlik a dikok szmra, hogy az irnytott beszlgetsben, a szitucis jtkok sorn kinyilvntsk vlemnyket. A krdvben a dikoknak azt is meg kellett jellnik, hogy melyek azok a tanrai tevkenysgek, amelyeket szvesen vgeznek, rmket lelik bennk. A kvetkez brk ezen tevkenysgek arnyt mutatjk be. A vlaszthat tevkenysgek a kvetkezk voltak: szerepjtkok jtszsa fordtsok hallott szveg rtelmezse nyelvtani jtkok s beszd Ebben az esetben is, akrcsak a leghasznosabb tevkenysgek esetben, a legkedveltebb tanrai tevkenysg a szerepjtkok jtszsa, a nyelvtani jtkok s az irnytott beszd voltak (l. Mellkletek). A dramatikus munkaforma s a pedaggus szakmja kztt hasonlsg fedezhet fel, mivel az lland szerepls fontos eleme a tanri munknak. A drmatechnikkkal dolgoz csoportokban mindenki egyenl flknt van jelen, megsznik a tanr felsbbrendsge, hiszen gyakran is jtszknt vesz rszt a foglalkozson. Egyms klcsns elfogadst a jtkban megvalosul hitelessg garantlja. Pedaggiai rtelemben a drma olyan jtk, amely felpt egy kpzeletbeli vilgot, szereplit ebbe bevonja, vals problmkkal tkzteti ket, s ezltal vals tudsra s tapasztalatokra tesznek szert. A drma ereje abban rejlik, hogy a drma cselekvsnek tnik. Cselekvsbe gyazott gondolkods ez, melynek clja a jelentsteremts, kzvett kzege pedig kt kontextus (a vals trtns s a megjelentett tartalom) klcsnhatsa, fogalmazza meg Gavin Bolton a mdszer lnyegt. A drmapedaggia Angliban a kzoktats szerves rszeknt vtizedek ta a hatkony pedaggiai mdszerknt mkdik. Hozzsegt ahhoz, hogy egy-egy tma valdi lmnny vljon a gyermekek szmra, lethelyzetknt, akciknt ljk meg azokat, hozzsegtve ket sajt gondolataik, tleteik kifejezshez s gyakorlati megvalstshoz. (A tanr sokkal inkbb tevkeny rszese, mint irnytja a trtnseknek - gyakran kiszolglja, illetve facilittora a gyerekek tleteinek.)
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Jonathan Neelands a Drma a tanuls szolglatban cm munkjban azt emeli ki, hogy a gyereket nem passzv befogadknt, hanem aktv jelentsadknt, jelentsteremtknt rtelmezi, aki kzvetlen krnye zetrl mr az iskolba lps eltt is szmottev ismerettel,tanulsi tapasz talattal rendelkezik. Ezt a korai tanulst nem a vilg objektv, elmleti megismerseknt, sokkal inkbb rzki s gyakorlati kapcsolatfelvtelknt rtelmezhetjk, s mindez knnyen tekinthet ltalnos pedaggiai kiindulpontknt is. A gyerekeken mr az iskolskor eltt is, klnsen pedig magban az iskolai oktatsban megjelen tevkenysgek sorn megfigyelhetjk,hogy leghatkonyabban cselekvs kzben tanulnak. Az is szrevehet, hogy a gyerekek tbbnyire meglv tapasztalataikat hasznljk fel arra, hogy az j ismereteket,informcikat rtelmezzk, s amennyiben megadjuk nekik a lehetsget az ismert s az ismeretlen tartalmak kzti hidak megptsre, akkor jszer tanuli sttussal is felruhzzuk ket, illetve segtsget adunk ahhoz, hogy sajt tanulsi mdszereiket kialaktsk: segthetnk nekik megtanulni tanulni. A drmapedaggia az a tants s nevels szmos vonatkozsban alkalmazhat mdszer, amely ms malkotsokhoz hasonlan kpzeletbeli vilgot teremt. A rsztvevk jtktevkenysget folytatnak, szereplknt vannak jelen. A hagyomnyos tantervet kvet iskolkban gyakori, hogy azoknak a tudsterleteknek, tudsformknak tulajdontanak magasabb sttust, melyek a tudomnyos megkzeltst levlaszthatjk a szemlyes s intuitv tartalmakrl. E szemllet azt az zenetet kzvetti, hogy az objektv tartalmakat hangslyoz tanuls megbzhatbb, kvnatosabb s hasznosabb, mint az olyan tanuls, melyben a megismer funkcik szemlyes, gyakorta rzelmi tltettel rendelkez elemekhez ktdnek. A nyelvoktats reformjnak szksgszersge tbb vtizede vilgoss vlt. A szzad elejnek grammatizl nyelvoktatst robbansszeren vltotta fel a pragmatista megkzeltsi md, amely szerint az idegen nyelv tudst nem a nyelv ismeretn, hanem hasznlatnak minsgn mrhetjk le. Innen az audio-orlis s audiovizulis mdszerek ltrejttnek szksgszersge, amelyek letszerbb s rdekesebb tettk a nyelvtanulst. Ma mg tbb kell ahhoz, hogy a nyelvtanulst vonzv s sznvonalass tegyk, hogy minden pillanatban alkalmasak s kszek legynk az idegen nyelvet tanul dikokkal egytt gondolkozni, egytt alkotni. A dramatikus folyamat lnyege az itt s most megjelentse: a felidzett vagy aktulisan megnyilvnul trsas klcsnhats, az interakci. A drmafoglalkozs nem nmutogat drmai forma, a jtk sorn a jtszk emberi tapasztalatokat idznek fel, s jelentenek meg. A
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dramatikus tevkenysg egyarnt alkalmazza az idt s a teret, ereje abban van, hogy egyetlen cselekvsen keresztl szmtalan jelents feltrsra kpes. A drmapedaggia a jtknak a psziholgia ltal is igazolt szemlyisgfejleszt hatst aknzza ki, gy hogy ezzel egyidben kzssgi jelleg s clzat is. A jtk sorn a jtsz cselekvknt, kzremkdknt l meg lethelyzeteket. A jtkosok egymst vratlan helyzet el lltjk, spontn reakcikra ksztetik. A jtk letszersge ppen ebben rejlik. A szitucis szerepjtkok, annyira lethek, hogy brmikor megtrtnhet a nyelvet elsajtt dikkal. Az ilyen feladatok haszna ppen abban rejlik, hogy a dik mr elre fel tud kszlni egy hasonl helyzetre, olyan krlmnyek kztt, ahol vdve van. A drmajtk az nmegvalstsnak, az nkifejezsnek is eszkze. Elsegti a fantzia, a kreativits, az nll gondolkods fejldst. Ugyanakkor felttelezi, s eredmnyezi annak a felismerst, hogy a jtsz egy adott problma megoldshoz milyen informciknak s kszsgeknek van a birtokban, valamint azt a kpessgt, hogy egy adott problmt tbb szempontbl is tudjon szemlltetni. Felttelezi s eredmnyezi tovbb a lehetsges megoldsok megtallsra s az azokbl szrmaz esetleges elnyk s htrnyok mrlegelsre irnyul kpessget, illetve a szerzett tapasztalati tuds gyakorlati felhasznlsnak a kpessgt. A dramatikus jtk a dramatikus technikk olyan clcsoportra s helyzetre adaptlt kombincijt jelenti, mely az idegen nyelven zajl kommunikcit kvnja elsegteni, azt autentikusabb s letszerbb tenni. A verblis eszkzkn tl bevonja a munkba a dikok testt, hangjt, s klnbz szerepekbe bjtatja ket. Az itt s most helyzetekben, a dramatikus mintha vilgban a rsztvevk egsz szemlyisge kls s bels tulajdonsgai, emlkei, mltja, jelene, reakcii, hangulatai rszt vesz. Az gy ltrejv szitucik s kontextusok ms nyelvrai helyzeteknl vals(abb) interakcikat eredmnyeznek, s a hagyomnyosabb eljrsoknl jszersge rvn motivlbb. A dramatikus jtk msik funkcija, hogy a nyelvi kszsgeken tl fejleszti a rsztvevk szemlyisgt. A dramatikus munkaformk risi elnye, hogy a jtk, a szerepek, az rzelmi tls s a megrts rvn a szemlyisg finom vltozsa gyakorlatilag automatikusan vgbemehet. Nem elhanyagolhat szempont, hogy a jtk a szemlyisgnek ppen azokat a terleteit mozgatja meg s mdosthatja, melyek a tanri munka nlklzhetetlen elemei. A viselkedst rugalmasabb, btrabb, spontnabb, kreatvabb teheti, hozzjrulhat nmagunk s embertrsa-
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ink jobb megismershez s elfogadshoz, valamint erstheti a kills s szerepls biztonsgt. Ugyanakkor vltoztathatja a szemly szerepviselkedst, s gazdagthatja szereprepertorjt. Az rzelmi megls s az rtelmi feldolgozs rvn jfajta szemllet s ltsmd jelentkezhet. A dramatikus cselekvs lehetsget teremt az egynben rejl potencil kiaknzsra. A hallgatk teret kapnak hangjuk, gesztusaik, mimikai kifejezkpessgk fejlesztsre, szerepviselkedsk megtapasztalsra. A dramatikus mintha olyan teret, vilgot kpez, ahol megismerjk kszsgeinket, kpessgeinket, nmagunkkal szemebeslnk. Mindez a tanult idegen nyelven trtnik, gy fejlesztvn az adott nyelvi s kommunikcis kszsgeket. A drms eszkzk hasznlata nem elengedhetetlen s nem ktelez, de brmely nyelvtanulsi szinten hatkony lehet, tanri vlaszts fggvnye. Aki kedvet kapott hozz s kiprblja, annak tudnia kell, hogy a tanri gondolkods teljes jrartkelst teszi szksgess, mert a hagyomnyos tanr-dik szerepkrt gykeresen talaktja (ld. a tanri tudsflny sugallta hierarchikus viszony megsznse, a hibajavtsi mdszerek talaktsa). Amg a tanr a mltban sokszor modelleket mutatott fel, majd a tovbbiakban ellenrizte ezeknek a modelleknek az elsajttst, azaz felgyelte bizonyos mechanizmusok mkdst, addig a drms eszkzk bevetse teljes, de gyakran alrendelt jelenltet s logikai kszenltet kvn tle. Termszetesen ehhez elengedhetetlen az idegen nyelv biztos ismerete. Vlemnyem szerint kivitelezhet egy tantsi drma idegen nyelven val vgigjtszsa, de elkpzelhet csupn egy adott tmakr krbejrsa is drms mdszerrel. Ennek pedaggiai clja az idegen nyelven trtn kommunikci elindtsa s finomtsa. A tantsi drmt tancsos tbb (3-4) tanrn t folytatni, mert idegen nyelven nehezebben megy a bevonds, de sszeszokott csoportokkal egy dupla rnyi idre mr kerek foglalkozsokat lehet tervezni. Elnye, hogy nemcsak a tanr ltal mestersgesen felrakott szitucikban trtnik az idegen nyelv kommunikci, hanem beindul a drmai gondolkods is. Dolgozatom egyik hipotzise, hogy a dramatikus munkaforma a vizsglt clcsoportnl a hagyomnyos eljrsoknl hatkonyabb a vals(abb) kommunikcis helyzetek megteremtsre. A beszdkszsget az ltal fejleszti, hogy a mr meglv nyelvtuds hasznlatra s reaktivlsra jszersge, motivl ereje s a drmajtk lnyege rvn teremt lehetsget. Ezt az elmletben lertak s a krdves kutatsban nyert adatok
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egyrtelmen bizonytottk. A kutats eredmnyeknt egyrtelmv vlt szmomra, hogy a drmapedagginak azon tl, hogy motivl s izgalmas idegen nyelven zajl kaland, ers szemlyisgfejleszt hatsa is van. A rsztvevk a jtk sorn tanuljk a sajt magukrl alkotott kp szablyozst s pszichs egszsgk karbantartst. A rszvtel elsegt(het)i nmaguk s trsaik jobb megismerst s elfogadst, aminek komoly szakmai hozadka van. A dramatikus munkaforma ms eljrsokkal szembeni taln legfontosabb elnye, hogy a nyelvi s szemlyisgbeli fejlds egymssal prhuzamosan megy vgbe, ami szintn igazoltnak tekinthet.
Mellkletek
A vizsglati populci szakok szerinti megoszlsa szmtstechnika 33.33% informatika 21.7% sznmvszeti 16.7% ltvnyrendez 11.7% bbsznsz 3.3% zenepedaggia 13.3% A vizsglati populci nemek szerinti megoszlsa lny fi 31.7% 68.3% Tanult angolul? igen 95%
nem 5%
Tanult franciul? igen nem 36.70% 63.30% Tanult nmetl? igen 61.70%
nem 38.30%
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Nevezd meg a szmodra leghasznosabb tanrai tevkenysget! Fordts igen nem 39% 61% Nevezd meg a szmodra leghasznosabb tanrai tevkenysget! Nyelvtani gyakorlatok igen nem 39% 61% Nevezd meg a szmodra leghasznosabb tanrai tevkenysget! Szitucis feladatok igen nem 27.30% 72.70% Nevezd meg a szmodra leghasznosabb tanrai tevkenysget! Prbeszdek alkotsa igen nem 44.40 % 55.60% Nevezd meg a szmodra leghasznosabb tanrai tevkenysget! Nyelvtani jtkok s beszd igen nem 66.70 % 33.30% Nevezd meg a szmodra leghasznosabb tanrai tevkenysget! Szerepjtkok jtszsa igen nem 70.40 % 29.60%
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Szakirodalom
Bolton, G., 1996, A drma helye a tantervben. Drmapedaggiai Magazin. Bolton, G., 1994, A tantsi drma elmlete, Marczibnyi Tri Mveldsi Kzpont, Budapest. Gabnai, K., 1999, Drmajtkok. Bevezets a drmapedaggiba. Helikon, Budapest. Kaposi, L. (szerk.), 1995, Drmapedaggiai olvasknyv, Marczibnyi Tri Mveldsi Kzpont, Budapest. Neelands, J., 1994, Drma tanuls szolglatban, Marczibnyi Tri M ve ldsi Kzpont, Budapest. Morgan, N. Saxton, J., 1995, A szemlyes bevonds szintjeinek osztlyo zsa. In: Drmapedaggiai olvasknyv. Szerk: Kaposi Lszl, Magyar Drmapedaggiai Trsasg, Budapest. Vatai, ., 1996, A drma alkalmazsa a nyelvtantsban. In: DPM 1996/2. Ecoville.
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Abstracts
Liliana ALIC Definition in Teminography vs Definition in Lexicography

This article aims to study an important aspect of a terminographers work, namely the way a definition is conceived. Definitions vary, according to the specialist who deals with their conception: the terminographer or the lexicographer. Lexicography uses semasiology while terminography uses onomasiology to define terms. We wish to insist upon the unit each of the two domains chooses to deal with, because this very aspect makes the difference between lexicography and terminography. A lexicographer deals with one-word terms, while a terminologist may have to deal with concepts expressed in compound words. A language for special purposes often deals with collocations, which are identified by the terminographer. If terminology and terminography are interdisciplinary sciences, a terminagraphers work involves cooperation between specialists from various fields of activity who are needed to validate the terms. The two approaches, despite their differences, complete each other in their common goal to create inventories of terms for special or general use.
Vasile BAHNARU Dimitrie Cantemir a pioneer of internationalizing Romanian terminology

Until Dimitrie Cantemir, Romanian terminology from different fields had been in an incipient state of establishment, having been influenced largely by terminology systems from old Slavic (with small exception, of course, shown mainly in the literary variant from Moldova, which had experienced a certain Latin interaction through the Polish language, while the Muntenia variant had been under the influence of Bulgarian and Serbian). As someone familiar with classical languages (Greek and Latin), Dimitrie Cantemir came to the conclusion that the main source for developing scientific terminology are Greek, Latin and Neo-Latin languages, with his works Istoria ieroglific and Divanul being conclusive in this train of thought.
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Abstracts
Melinda BALZS Explicitation Strategies in the Translation of Emily Bronts Wuthering Heights
Explicitation is considered an inherent feature of the process of translation irrespective of the languages involved. Other potential translation universals include disambiguation, simplification, use of conventional grammar, etc. Since translations are regarded as having a language of their own, the study of translation universals enables us to find out more about this third code. My presentation is aimed at investigating how explicitation is realized in two different translations of Emily Bronts classic novel, Wuthering Heights.
Attila BEN Lilla RCZ Translation and modal meanings

In the article we present the translation of English modal meanings in Hungarian source texts. We have analyzed English and Hungarian law and literal text from that point of view. The differences show the slight change or modification of modal meanings. The study presents the forms of modification of modal values in translation, and emphasizes that the differences are often rooted in the different modal categories at word level of Hungarian and English. Sometimes the modal meaning differences at syntax level can change the meaning of a whole passage of a text. The analyses show that modal meanings are meta-information in the translation, which need extra attention during the translation activity.
Angela BIDU-VRNCEANU The role of linguistics in terminology

Terminology as a scientific interdisciplinary discipline has experienced remarkable development in the last decades. One can distinguish cognitive terminology studies (internal) from those representing descriptive linguistic terminology (external). The latter are divided depending on the methods used to describe a given terminology. Romanian studies support both lexical and textual perspectives through the relationship between dictionaries and texts, with different results depending on the terminology studied.
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Corina BOZEDEAN Les ambiguts terminologiques dans la traduction spcialise: le cas de quelques termes conomiques
Les ambiguts terminologiques que le traducteur rencontre dans la traduction spcialise sont loin dtre claires par les dictionnaires ou les glossaires bilingues ou monolingues du domaine. Cest pourquoi dans le passage dun terme dune langue lautre, le traducteur doit matriser la fois des connaissances linguistiques et extra-linguistiques. Or, lhtrognit des textes traduire sur le march du travail, empche souvent le traducteur de se spcialiser dans un seul domaine. Dans ce contexte, les ressources terminologiques devraient montrer une plus grande adquation aux exigences de la traduction spcialise, en claircissant plus prcisment certains aspects terminologiques fondamentaux, dont celui de la synonymie, qui peut occasionner des confusions. Tel est le cas des termes frais, dpenses, charges ou bien taxes et droits, dont ltroite parent rend difficile leur choix correct dans la traduction.
Doina BUTIURC Levels of analysis of the terminological metaphor

In the context of the relationship between language and terminology, the research proposes a concise analysis of the functions of the terminological metaphor by correlating it to the functions of the language (referential, denominative, denotative, etc.) and the field of cognitivism (the informational function). Other aspects of the research: the motivation of the terminological metaphor, the transparency of conceptualization, the coherence that the conceptual model confers to a given terminology/or a given field, etc. The application is accomplished by the study of the source field (the Greek and the Roman house/elements/principles/equivalence of attributes) and the target field (NA, Virology, and Rheumatology) from the medical terminology.
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Carmen D. CARAIMAN Nicoleta MEDREA A Lexicographic Approach to the English-Romanian/ Romanian-English Legal Dictionaries and Glossaries Existing On the Romanian Book Market
The goal of the study is to highlight the main methods used by the authors to create legal dictionaries and glossaries in English-Romanian and Romanian-English available on the book market today. Specialists and those interested in studying the content and structure of such dictionaries will notice the low number of works on the Romanian market compared to, for example, the field of economics. Furthermore, one may find the terms included to be insufficient, their structures simple. Our study shall analyze both the criteria the authors of the dictionaries used to select the terms, as well as their structure (phonetic transcription, contextualization, identifying countable/uncountable nouns, denoting special plural forms, references to synonyms or another term from the dictionary to eliminate ambiguities, etc.).
Alina-Elena CHIRIL Carmen Sylva as a translator in the context of Fin de sicle literature
As a German-born princess and the first Romanian queen, Carmen Sylva as she was known under her literary pseudonym is a cultural link between German culture and the still-maturing Romanian one. As such, Carmen Sylvas literary work is of course extremely important and her work as a translator must, by all means, be mentioned. This work aims to analyze Carmen Sylva as a translator of mostly Romanian folk poetry and to correctly categorize her literary work, especially since she wrote in the stormy literary era at the turn of the century also known as Fin de sicle or Decadence.
Inga DRU Viorica POPA Difficulties in assimilating certain terms in the current didactic discourse
There are changes in all human fields of activity, and once these happen, lexical and semantic innovations appear. Specialized languages, over time, decant; specialists make a rigorous selection of terms necessary
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for their work, loanwords are adapted or assimilated, while rebarbative terms fall into desuetude. The current didactic parlance has borrowed from certain international and other specialized languages a series of loanwords that give it a modern aspect, yet which, in the initial phase of borrowing, frequently shows semantic and phonetic difficulties. English and French loanwords are especially problematic, as these are generally written differently than they are pronounced (fortunate cases such as grant, master or item are somewhat rarer). The paper shall discuss a series of current concepts from the field in question and their terminological equivalents.
Eugenia ENACHE Translation and terminology

The goal of this article is to emphasize the reasons why translation and terminology are connected as well as the close relationship between translator and terminologist, working together to achieve a good comprehension of a text and an efficient communication. Focussed on translation, terminology aims to establish equivalences between various languages which can contribute to enhance the quality of the translation. For a translator, terminology helps translating contents from one language to another; a translator must have a good knowledge of terminology in order to achieve a good and reliable translation in various fields of human activity. The translator must also have a good knowledge of the structure of each language, of the way concepts are expressed. All this is a good indicator of the quality and of various abilities of a specialized translator.
Nomi GL The effects of the EUs language policy on revitalizing endangered languages
The revitalization of endangered languages has recently become a very popular topic in sociolinguistic research. As it is an extremely complex phenomenon, very many factors influence its outcomes. In my presentation I aim to outline the general linguistic context of the EU, as well as its possible effects on revitalizing endangered or potentially endangered languages, with a special regard to a few case-studies.
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Bianca-Oana HAN The Culture Specific Element A Mark of the National Feature
The present article intends to shed light upon certain aspects regardingthe literary translation from Romanian into English, focusing upon the issues implied by the intercultural and interlinguistic transfer of those terms that preserve the local and national atmosphere, thus constituting the specific of a language, the so-called culture specific elements, CSEs.
Attila IMRE A Practical Approach to Translating Modal Verbs

The paper deals with a rather problematic issue, namely the translation of a few English modal verbs into non-Indo-European languages, such as Romanian or Hungarian. The research starts from a database containing more than 1,000 sentences with modal verbs in three languages, which is then fed into the translation memory and term base of the MemoQ translation environment.
Dictionaries and Term Bases

The global village of the 21st century is becoming more and more technical, so it is difficult to find the place and role of published material. The article focuses on the importance of term bases, including their value and quality in an age when almost everything is downloadable. The second part of the article enlists several types of dictionary, including regular, printed, specialized and cultural ones as well.
Gabriella KOVCS ESP for Horticulture Needs Analysis and Genre Analysis
The necessity of ESP courses in higher education has become obvious and imperative since Romania became member of the European Union. A thorough needs analysis was conducted involving horticulture students
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and colleagues from Sapientia University (Trgu-Mure, Romania), and other professionals with work experience, in order to determine what genres are the students more likely to encounter in the future, what sort of tasks they have to be able to perform in their profession. Specialized texts used by horticulturists belonging to different genres were gathered. A part of them has been analyzed from the following viewpoints: their specific structure; the communicative functions expressing specialized meanings; means of creating cohesion; expressing rhetorical functions; cognitive processes. The needs analysis and genre analysis are of great help in deciding what kind of tasks and activities can best prepare the students for their future profession.
Elena MUSEANU Peculiarities of textual analysis in the economic terminology

The analysis starts from the premise of the differential partial behavior of terms in various types of economic discourse scientific and environment related (in the economic press of wide circulation). Examples considered concern the preservation of the hard core of the specialized meaning and the conceptual-semantic effects triggered by contextual combinations in different types of texts.
Imola-Katalin NAGY Terminology Issues and Guidelines for Teaching English for Specific Purposes
This paper deals with some aspects of foreign language teaching, with a special emphasis on the so-called ESP (English for Specific Purposes). Our aim is to cover some aspects of teaching English for professional purposes. After a short historical overview of language teaching methods and theories, we focus on some of the linguistic peculiarities of English for medicine, English for advertising, English for the media, English for medicine, etc. Finally, we intend to approach the use of role-plays and simulation in the teaching of English for different professions.
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Sndor Istvn NAGY Living History

The research takes account of several aspects of translation based on the experience gained within the Romanian-Hungarian translation course of our department, which has been carried out in cooperation with the Romanian Language and Literature Department of the University. Beside the translations of literary texts, the study notably focuses on works with historical content. Starting from the edifying examples of the historical text related to the history of Transylvania, our goal is to present several linguistic characteristics that are specific to the process of translation from the Romanian language into Hungarian.
Orsolya NAGY-SZILVESZTER Herztier Aspects of Literary Translation

Literary translation is not just a simple transposal of a discourse from a language into another, it is a form of creation, an embodiment of intercultural dialogue. The translator involved in the translation of literary texts has to confront a multitude of decisions in the process of recreating a literary work in another language and culture. This paper aims at highlighting and analysing several aspects of translating a literary text into the target language, focusing on examples drawn from Herta Mllers novel entitled Herztier, its translation into Romanian by Nora Iuga Animalul inimii and into Hungarian by Ndori Ldia Szvjszg.
Adrian NZNEAN Training as a medical translator

With the constantly growing number of medical articles, translators have to permanently keep up to date with the linguistic changes. Translators are thus faced with problems ranging from the lack of exact correspondents to borrowings. This article aims to focus on some of the particularities and difficulties that medical texts in the field of orthopaedics, histology and pathology can have and to analyse some of the strategies that can be successfully applied in translating such articles.
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Andreea NZNEAN The role of translation in teaching a foreign language

This article aims at presenting different arguments for and against translation in teaching a foreign language. It also recommends translation as one of many possibilities of relating English to students own languages. It also considers the different uses and roles of translation and bilingualism for different stages of learning and for different purposes. My intention is also to suggest ways in which translation might be incorporated into textbooks and curriculum development.
Maria-Laura RUS Annotations on Lexical innovations

Vocabulary is the most susceptible compartment of language to be subjected to different changes. The lexical units that were subject to these changes of form and/or meaning, representing lexical innovations, can be underlined in so far as they are seen diachronically, because once generalized, they become historical categories. The changes in vocabulary determine its quantitative growth, based on words and variants that already exist in language or adaptation and endorsement of words, forms, meanings from other languages. The paper presents different linguistic phenomena that lexical innovations are based on: lexical analogy, hypercorrectness, popular etymology, contamination. Illustrative examples for each of these phenomena are brought into our discussion.
Claudia RUSU-MARIAN Cristina RUSU-MARIAN Doina BUTIURC The Conceptual Metaphor Mental Model and Construct
The study proposes to define the status of the conceptual metaphor from a contrastive perspective. Shaping the scientific concepts in the base of a metaphorical model cannot be separated from the domain of logic. The conceptual metaphor has a cognitive function. Selecting the database for the transfer complies with the objective factors allowing a more efficient exploitation of the ontological, through generalisation/
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abstraction: the equivalences, the stability of rapports among the domains, the dependence of the locutor on the mental stereotypes, the tendency to reflect the traits of the phenomenon in conditions of conceptual transparency etc. The process of metaphorisation is not carried out at random, but respecting certain logical patterns.
Camelia SPOIU Definitions and their role in medical terminology

The present work is a short study of metalexicography aiming to analyze the types of alternative definitions of medical terms registered in DEX and in DEXI. On the other hand, hyponymy studied concerning lexicographical definition is an interesting aspect of linguistics. Hyponymy and also hypernymy are exploited for the wording of the lexicographical definitions and these become the main lexicographical manner for defining the medical terms in dictionaries of general language.
Krisztina-Mria SROSI-MRDIROSZ Legal language and translation

A general characteristic of law is that this scientific domain is manifested through texts forming a whole. Hence the translators obligation to maintain the consistency of legal language in translations and/or in equivalence. In our research we propose to emphasize all the elements that help maintain a relative coherence of the domain (contracting parties, imprisonment, etc.), but also that of the special terminology: the use of expressions that function as codes which cannot be replaced with the elements of another semiotic system as they are the segments of natural language; the correct use of phraseological expressions with a terminological value, the maintenance of the existing terminology especially in legal and official texts, etc. We will not neglect the difficulties the translator faces in proper application of the specialized language (the poverty or even lack of terminological resources, the conventional nature of forms, the culture and the need to create).
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Rka SZAL Drama techniques in language teaching

The aim of the present research is organizing and performing a comprehensive and comparative survey among different groups of students learning English as foreign language at different level and through different methods. Our objective is to monitor the effects of an alternative teaching method- in our case educational drama-, to observe its effect on students achievement, their self-knowledge, communication and emotional intelligence.
Cristina-Alice TOMA Discursive terminology and migrating terms

Traditional terminology studies the term as a concept, while modern linguistic terminology considers the term, from a semasiologic point of view, as a lexeme. Consequently, a contradiction arises between, on the one hand, the univocal semantic term, his mono reference, and terminological polysemia on the other hand. In this article, by taking the example of mathematics, we propose a solution to the above-mentioned conflict via discursive terminology, which gives a new interpretation to the results of lexical terminology. The meaning is associated with the conceptual property and each concept has a specific representation and a conceptual structure.
Lidia VIERU Difficulties of translating certain chromatic terms

The question of colours has always concerned both humanists and scientists, being a social question as well, as people do not live alone but in society. The analysis of the special vocabulary demonstrates the importance of the chromatic terms used and defined in a different way than in the general vocabulary. The domain of chromatic terminology is less explored, that is the reason for the emergence of many translation and spelling problems. Colour terminology from the grammatical point of view is part of the class of the adjective, constituting from variable and invariable adjectives. The invariable adjective colour names are
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less numerous than the variable ones. Their number, insignificant in the older corpora, is growing in the modern language through more or less wide-spread neologisms. The greatest difficulties appear in using invariable adjectives denoting simple, mixed or nuanced colours. The paper inventories a number of difficult cases in the domain and also proposes solutions.
Mariana VLAS Touristic terminology: dynamics, influences, trends

Tourism used to represent mainly an opportunity to travel and have fun. Today it is defined as a socioeconomic phenomenon, and it has become one of the largest most profitable sectors of the economy, with a significant inventory of terminology. The speed with which it has spread and become international, together with an increasing development of the tourist industry, offers an instructive illustration of the linguistic evolution of the given domain, within which the general phenomena, such as word formation, the evolution of meanings, lexical borrowing, syntactic computation, the interference of registers, etc., are manifested.
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About the authors/ Despre autori/ A sZerZkrl

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Liliana ALIC, Ph.D. Associate professor at Transilvania University of Braov, Romania; competences: textual linguistics, discourse analysis, translation studies; she published 10 studies and articles, 3 books (single author) and 1 book (co-author); member of the Lexicology, Terminology, Translation network. Vasile BAHNARU, Ph.D. Professor hab. and scientific researcher I., director of The Institute of Philology of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova; competence: linguist, terminologist, dictionaries author; he has a valuable contribution to solving theoretical problems in the area of semasiology and special terminology; Activities of a public interest: chief-editor of Buletinul Institutului de Lingvistica, Revista de lingvistica si stiinta literara, edited by the Institute of Philology, Chiinu; president of the Scientific Council of ASM Institute of Philology. Melinda BALZS Assistant lecturer at Sapientia University Trgu-Mure (where she is a seminar instructor for the specialization Translation and Interpreting Studies) and authorized translator for English and French. Her international experience includes a translation traineeship at the DirectorateGeneral for Translation of the European Parliament, Luxembourg. At present, she is a doctoral student at Babe-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca and her domain of research is translation studies. Attila BEN, Ph.D. Associate professor at Babe-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca (Faculty of Letteres; competences: linguistics, specialist in sociolinguistics, contactology and translation theory. Published volumes: Nyelvi kapcso latok, nyelvi dominancik az erdlyi rgiban (Linguistic Contacts in Transilvania, co-author: Jnos Pntek, 2003); A klcsnsz jelentsvilga (Semantics
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About the authors/ Despre autori/ A szerzkrl
of Lexical Borrowings, 2004), Contactology (Linguistic Contactology lingvistic, 2008); Romnmagyar kulturlis sztr (Romanian-Hungarian Cultural Dictionary, editor-in chief, 2009). Angela BIDU-VRNCEANU, Ph.D. Professor at University of Bucharest; distinguished personality of the Romanian culture; competence: specialist in semantics, linguist, terminologist, Ph.D. adviser; she is part of REALITER pan-Latin termi nology network; she has published over 100 studies in the country and abroad; 14 volumes (as single author or in collaboration); international collaboration: studies and researches, grants, REALITER terminology projects (as a director, coordinator, consultant professor); since 1997 she has been the editor of Analele Universitaii of Bucharest, the series of Language and Literature; she is a member of the editorial board of Revue Roumaine de linguistique; she won the Romanian Academy Prize for the volume Modele de structurare semantica. Corina BOZEDEAN Assistant lecturer at Petru Maior University of Trgu-Mure and a Ph.D. Candidate at Cergy-Pontoise University with the Ph.D. thesis: Limaginaire du minral dans luvre dHenry Bauchau. She is interested in the issue of the imaginary and in literary and specialized translations from and into French/ Italian/ Romanian. She is the author of several translations in Romanian, French and Italian (Leons sur la thorie du droit, Imprimeries Runies, Lausanne, 2007; LEducation europenne des fonctionnaires publics, University Publisher in Miskolc, 2008; Dimensiuni ale subiectului. Alteritate, relaionare, transcenden, Galaxia Gutenberg, 2010). She is also the author of several articles published in academic journals in Romania, Belgium and France. Doina BUTIURC, Ph.D. Associate professor at Petru Maior University ofTrgu-Mure; competency domains: linguistic anthropology, applied linguistics, terminology; she published 40 studies in Romania and abroad, 9 books (single author or in collaboration); member of the Pan Latin terminology network REALITER; international collaborative, REALITER terminology projects (project manager, member of the research project crew).
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Carmen D. CARAIMAN, Ph.D. Assistant professor at Nicolae Titulescu University of Bucharest. She is a member of the Faculty of Social and Administrative Sciences and she has been teaching Legal English to Law and Public Administration students for 11 years. She has published several articles and books as single author Concise Oxford Lingua English - Romanian Dictionary, Educational Center, Oxford University Press, Bucharest, 2009, or as a coauthor - Dicionar de ecologie i mediu nconjurtor, 2001 (coord. Irina Nistor, translators: Liliana Anton, Carmen D. Caraiman). Alina-Elena CHIRIL Ph.D. student at Alexandru Ioan Cuza University in Iai. Her Doctoral Thesis focuses on the various issues of the 19thcentury mass literature as illustrated in Germany. Competences: German language and literature, mass literature and trivial literature from an intercultural perspective. Inga DRU, Ph.D. Associate professor and researcher at the Institute of Philology of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Chiinu; competence: terminology; he has published over 20 studies in the country and abroad, including one monograph, one dictionary and one textbook; international collabo ration: Member of the Commission for the computerization of the Ro manian language of the Romanian Academy; Member of TERMROM National Association of Terminology, Bucharest; Member of REALITER International association. Eugenia ENACHE, Ph.D. Associate professor at Petru Maior University of Trgu-Mures, Roma nia; competences: French and Francophone language and literature, translation studies; she published various studies: 6 books (single author and co-author); professional sessions: IUFM Versailles, city of Cergy, France (2005/2008); Haute Ecole Charlemange, Lige (2007), Belgium; member in professional associations: The Romanian Association of French Teachers, The Association of Francophone University Departments and the Romance Linguistic Society. Nomi GL, Ph.D. Studied atBabe-Bolyai University ofCluj-Napoca, Faculty of Letters, BA in English and Hungarian language and literature (2003), with anMAin Irish
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Studies (2004), and a Ph.D. in sociolinguistics (2008). Her main domain of research is the revitalization of endangered languages. Guest lecturer at Sapientia University, Faculty of Technical and Human Sciences Trgu-Mure. Bianca-Oana HAN, Ph.D. Assistant lecturer at Petru Maior University ofTrgu-Mure; competence: English language and literature, applied linguistics, traductology; she published studies in specialised journals and in collective volumes in the country and abroad, 1 volume (single author). Attila IMRE, Ph.D. Assistant professor at Sapientia University, Faculty of Technical and Human Sciences Trgu-Mure; published several articles home and abroad as well as 2 volumes as single author; project coordinator on translating English modal verbs into Romanian and Hungarian by means of translation environments; certified MemoQ trainer; competences: comparative EnglishRomanian-Hungarian studies, cognitive linguistics, translation studies. Gabriella KOVCS Assistant lecturer at Sapientia University, Faculty of Technical and Human Sciences Trgu-Mure; Ph.D. candidate; competences: language exam preparation, English for Specific Purposes. Nicoleta MEDREA, Ph.D. Assistant professor at Petru Maior University of Trgu-Mure. She is a member of the Law and Public Administration Department of The Faculty of Economics, Law and Administrative Sciences. She has published several articles on different topics such as British Literature, British Culture and Civilization and Legal English. She is a member of ESSE and RAAS - English professional associations. She has acquired thorough knowledge of Legal English by teaching legal terminology to Law and Public Administration students for 11 years, as well as by translating and revising articles published in Curentul Juridic, a law journal where she functions as a member of the editorial board. Elena MUSEANU, Ph.D. Assistant professor at Romanian American University, Faculty of Domestic and International Business, Banking and Finance.She received her Ph.D. in Linguistics from University of Bucharest (coord. Professor
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Angela Bidu-Vrnceanu, Ph.D.); She has since published more than 20 articles in international and national scientific journals, author and coauthor of 7 books.She is a Realiter member (PanLatin Network of Terminology);international research collaborations: terminology projects, REALITER;Specializations and certificates (enumeration): PREPARING STUDENTS FOR BEC VANTAGE, British Council and Cambridge University, ESOL Examinations; Certificate of Attendance PREPARING STUDENTS FOR ESP, British Council and Cambridge University, ESOL Examinations; Certificate of Attendance PREPARING STUDENTS FOR BEC HIGHER, British Council and Cambridge University, ESOL Examinations; Certificate of Attendance FIRST REGIONAL TEACHER TRAINING CONFERENCE FOR BULGARIAN AND ROMANIAN TEACHERS OF ENGLISH, Veliko Turnovo, Bulgaria, British Council and Cambridge University, ESOL Examinations; Certificate of Attendance PREPARING STUDENTS FOR THE IELTS EXAM, British Council and Cambridge University, ESOL Examinations. Imola-Katalin NAGY, Ph.D. Assistant lecturer at Sapientia University, Faculty of Technical and Human Sciences Trgu-Mure; single author of more volumes on English grammar and English language exams. Sndor Istvn NAGY Lecturer at Etvs Lornd University Budapest; Faculty of Letters, Foreign Languages Department, Hungary; guest lecturer at BabeBolyai University Cluj-Napoca and Sapientia University Trgu-Mure; compentences: theory and practice of translation and interpretation from Romanian to Hungarian; linguistics (theory and practice of synonymy); history of Transylvania between 1938-1945; editor of volumes in the field of translation; co-author of Enciclopedia traductorilor de literatur beletristic n limba maghiar 1945-2010 (forthcoming); preparing his Ph.D. thesis at ELTE University, Hungary: Trgu-Mure during the Second World War. Orsolya NAGY-SZILVESZTER Assistant lecturer at the Faculty of Technical and Human Sciences of Sapientia University, Trgu-Mure, Department of Applied Social Sciences; Ph.D. student at Babe-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca.
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Adrian NZNEAN Assistant lecturer at the Department of Foreign Languages, The University and Medicine and Pharmacy of Trgu-Mure, teaching medical English, as well as Romanian to foreign students. Different courses in education and in integrating technology in teaching foreign languages, associate teacher at Unirea National College, Trgu-Mure. Numerous scientific events and published papers (Challenges in Translating Medical Texts; Pragmatic Approaches to Medical Translation; The Computerised ESP Teacher and the Medical Students) in national and international confe rences and symposia. He is currently a Ph.D. student at Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iai, with a doctoral thesis in the translation of medical articles. Co-author of two volumes on Gender studies, numerous translations of medical articles published in PubMed or Patologa Revista latinoamericana. Andreea NZNEAN Ph.D. student at Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iai; German-English teacher at Unirea National College in Trgu-Mure; coordinator of projects and educational programs; participation in scientific events, conferences and symposia; published articles: Pedagogic Translation in the Foreign Language Classroom, in International Symposium Research, Education and Development, Risoprint Publishing House Cluj-Napoca, 2010, Learner-focused Curriculum Design for EMP and Translation Competence and Its Acquisition, Criza valorilor i valorile crizei n domeniul limbilor i literaturilor moderne, Alpha Publishing House, Iasi, 2010 (collaboration), Task-based learning in education and The Status of Islamic Women and Romanian in The Proceedings of the International Conference European Integration between Tradition and Modernity, 3rd edition, University Press Petru Maior Trgu-Mure , 2009, the article Sexuality, society and feminism. Woman as a cultural icon published in the collection Studies, Gender Studies, volume of essays and articles, Volume I, University Press Petru Maior Trgu-Mure, the articles Representations of Women in Advertising and Media and Femininity, Fashion and Work published in Gender Studies, Volume II, a collection of essays and articles, University Press Petru Maior Trgu-Mure. Viorica POPA, Ph.D. Associate professor at Alecu Russo State University of Bli, The Department of Romanian Language; competences: general linguistics,
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compared linguistics, grammar, Romanian language history, orthography, sociolinguistics; she has published articles and studies in the country and abroad. Lilla RCZ Student at the Faculty of Technical and Human Sciences of Sapientia University, Trgu-Mure, Department of Applied Social Sciences, Translators and Interpreters; member of a research group on translating English modal verbs into Romanian and Hungarian. Maria-Laura RUS, Ph.D. Assistant lecturer at Petru Maior University of Trgu-Mures; domain of competence: contemporary Romanian language; translator; she published over 20 articles in the competence domain in national and international magazines. Claudia RUSU-MARIAN Competence: psychology and social sciences: also interested in conceptual metaphors in psychology. Cristina RUSU-MARIAN Ph.D. candidate, University of Piteti, competence: specialist in mathe matics and informatics; also interested in conceptual metaphors. Camelia SPOIU Ph.D. candidate, The Doctoral School of the Faculty of Letters, University of Bucharest (Ph.D. adviser: professor Angela Bidu-Vrnceanu). Krisztina-Mria SROSI-MRDIROSZ, Ph.D. Assistant professor at the Faculty of Technical and Human Sciences of Sapientia University, Trgu-Mure, collaborator of the Szab T. Attila Linguistic Institute in Cluj-Napoca and official translator licensed by the Romanian Ministry of Justice. Main field of research: the translation of legal and official texts. Co-redactor of special dictionaries: HungarianRomanian Dictionary of Administrative Language, Hungarian-Romanian Dictionary of Educational Terminology and author of articles in the field of specialized translation.
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Rka SZAL Assistant lecturer at the Faculty of Technical and Human Sciences of Sapientia University, Trgu-Mure; finished her Ph.D. studies, working on her thesis, researching Foreign Language Teaching through Drama; MA degree in Irish Studies; competence: new teaching methods and alternative teaching techniques. Cristina-Alice TOMA, Ph.D. Assistant professor at University of Bucharest and Free University of Brussels, one of the young personalities of Romanian linguistics, holds Ph.D. titles obtained at University of Bucharest (2005, Supervisor prof. univ. dr. Bidu-Vranceanu Angela) and University of Geneva (2010, Supervisor Emilio Manzotti PO). She has published over 50 articles and studies in Romanian and international journals, as well as authored or coauthored 7 books. A member of the PanLatin network of terminology REALITER and several linguistic associations (TERMILAT, TERMROM, RITerm, SSL, SBL), Dr. TOMA is an active member of several groups of scientific research and discussions (CLTA, GRAL, Terminometro, HDG), and also participates at various international collaboration and research studies (as director or member). Lidia VIERU, Ph.D. Scientific researcher at The Institute of Philology of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Chiinu; scientific competence: terminologist (economy, finance, education, industry, etc.); has published studies and articles in journals in Chisinau, is the author and co-author of specialized works, of bilingual and multilingual Dictionaries (Financial-banking dictionary, Russian- Romanian- French- English), etc. ; responsibilities: Secretary of the commission for regulating onomastics and the national terminology of the Institute of Philology of the Academy of Sciences. Mariana VLAS, Ph.D. Scientific researcher at The Institute of Philology of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Chiinu; competence: lexicography, terminology, translation studies, holding seminars on translation and terminology.
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PUBLICATIONS IN THE WORKSHOP SERIES
ALBERT-LRINCZ ENIK (SZERK.) Fekete den. A 2000. november 26-n s 2001. november 15-n Kolozsvron megtartott Drogfrum cm konferencik eladsai. Kolozsvr. 2003. MCSY ILDIKNDA TAMS (SZERK.) Krnyezettudomnyi konferencia. 2005. mrcius 1718. Kolozsvr. 2006. GAGYI JZSEF (SZERK.) Emlkezet s kommunikci. Narratvk az egyni, a trsas s a kzssgi identits teremtsben. 2004. mrcius 1920. Marosvsrhely. 2007. ELEK SNDOR (SZERK.) Agrrpolitika vidkfejleszts. Cskszereda, 2007. PAP LEVENTETAPODI ZSUZSA (SZERK.) Kzssg, kultra, identits. Vlogats a Kultusz, Kultra, Identits (Cskszereda, 2003. szeptember 2628.), Kzssg s Idegenek (Cskszereda, 2005. szeptember 1416.) cm konferencik eladsaibl. Cskszereda, 2008. BOD BARNATONK MRTON (SZERK.) Nations and National Minorities in the European Union. 2008. mrcius 2729. Kolozsvr. 2009. CSATA ANDREAELEK SNDOR (SZERK.) Gazdasgpolitika vidkpolitika. Az eurpai unis tagsg kihvsai Szkelyfldn. Cskszereda. 2009. DOMOKOS JZSEF (SZERK.) MACRo2010. Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on Recent Achievements in Mechatronics, Automation, Computer Science and Robotics. Marosvsrhely. 2010. KOVCS RKA ROZLIA Egymst segtve hogyan segthetnk? ErforrsEgyttmkds Eredmny. Marosvsrhely. 2010.
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Szal Rka
RMEN OTLIAGAGI JZSEF j mdia s kommunikatv magatarts. 2008. februr 29. mrcius 1. Marosvsrhely. 2011. TAPODI ZSUZSA PAP LEVENTE Tkrben. Imagolgiai tanulmnyok. Cskszereda. 2011.
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Elsz

Petru Maior University, Trgu-Mure, The Faculty of Sciences and Letters

The Institute of Philology of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Chiinu

Faculty of Technical and Human Sciences, Trgu-Mure

ScientiaKiad Publishing House Kolozsvr2011 2011 Cluj-Napoca2009

Editorial Note Not editorial A szerkesztk elszava Foreword Cuvnt-nainte

361 373 381

I. LINGUISTICS AND TERMINOLOGY

Rolul lingvisticii n terminologie

Rolul liNgvisticii N termiNologie

Rolul lingvisticii n terminologie

Rolul lingvisticii n terminologie

Rolul lingvisticii n terminologie

Rolul lingvisticii n terminologie

Rolul lingvisticii n terminologie

Rolul lingvisticii n terminologie

Terminologie discursive et termes migrateurs

TermiNologie discursive et termes migrateurs

La reprsentation et la structure conceptuelle

Terminologie discursive et termes migrateurs

une reprsentation en mtalangage:

Terminologie discursive et termes migrateurs

Terminologie discursive et termes migrateurs

Terminologie discursive et termes migrateurs

Linterdisciplinarit du terme FONCTION

Lanalyse terminologique discursive

La reprsentation et la structure conceptuelles

Terminologie discursive et termes migrateurs

La structure conceptuelle de la f o n c t i o n dans un texte mathmatique est la suivante:

La migration conceptuelle interdisciplinaire

Structure conceptuelle de la fonction in MbiolXI: 23

Terminologie discursive et termes migrateurs

Peculiarities of Textual Analysis in the Economic Terminology

Peculiarities of Textual ANalysis iN the EcoNomic TermiNology

Peculiarities of Textual Analysis in the Economic Terminology

Peculiarities of Textual Analysis in the Economic Terminology

Peculiarities of Textual Analysis in the Economic Terminology

Peculiarities of Textual Analysis in the Economic Terminology

Peculiarities of Textual Analysis in the Economic Terminology

Dimitrie CaNtemir, pionier al internaionalizrii terminologiei romneti

Dimitrie Cantemir, pionier al internaionalizrii...

Dimitrie Cantemir, pionier al internaionalizrii...

Dimitrie Cantemir, pionier al internaionalizrii...

Dimitrie Cantemir, pionier al internaionalizrii...

Dimitrie Cantemir, pionier al internaionalizrii...

Dimitrie Cantemir, pionier al internaionalizrii...

Dru, Inga Popa, Viorica

Dificulti de echivalare a unor termeNi N discursul didactic actual

Dru, Inga Popa, Viorica

Dificulti de echivalare a unor termeni n discursul didactic

Dru, Inga Popa, Viorica

Dru, Inga Popa, Viorica

Dificulti n utilizarea termenilor cromatici

Dificulti n utilizarea termeNilor cromatici

Dificulti n utilizarea termenilor cromatici

Terminologia n domeniul turismului. Istoric i aplicativitate

TermiNologia N domeNiul turismului. Istoric i aplicativitate

Terminologia n domeniul turismului. Istoric i aplicativitate

Terminologia n domeniul turismului. Istoric i aplicativitate

Terminologia n domeniul turismului. Istoric i aplicativitate

Terminologia n domeniul turismului. Istoric i aplicativitate

Terminologia n domeniul turismului. Istoric i aplicativitate

Terminologia n domeniul turismului. Istoric i aplicativitate