A PRACTICAL FILE ON Software Engineering Subject Code: CS !

"# S$%&ITTE' TO:

RA(I) *AN'+I PRO$',O*I-I )IS+.A)I',ALA,A, BHOPAL (M. P.) IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT OF THE 6TH SEMESTER OF %AC+ELOR OF EN*INEERIN* IN CO&P$TER SCIENCE

Sub/itted To:
Mr. Manish Tiwari
Dept. of CS

Sub/itted %0:
Ankita Singh Som
0937CS101002 3rd Year, 6th Sem.

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE NRI - COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT! G"ALIOR #M.P.$

CONTENT
Lab A11ign/ent 2: Explain working model o !o"r minor pro#e$% Lab A11ign/ent #: &raw ollowing &iagram o !o"r minor pro#e$% 'i( 'ii( 'iii( 'i+( '+( &F& E)R USE *ASE SEQUEN*E *LASS

Lab A11ign/ent 3: &e,$ri-e ,o %ware engineering paradigm. Lab A11ign/ent 4: E567ain in detai718 9i: 9ii: 9iii: Re;er1e Engineering8 COCO&O &O'EL 'e1ign conce6t

9i;:

Ri1< /anage/ent

Lab A11ign/ent 2: Explain working model o !o"r minor pro#e$%

Project 'e1cri6tion T/e pro#e$% 0Exam S"i%e1 i, de+eloped in 2a+a3 w/i$/ mainl! o$",e, on -a,i$ Exam opera%ion,. 0Exam S"i%e1 i, a window, appli$a%ion wri%%en or 45-i% 6indow, opera%ing ,!,%em,3 de,igned %o /elp ",er, %o wri%e exam,. T/e ,o %ware Exam S"i%e /a, 4 main mod"le,. 7. Login Mod"le 5. In,er%ion %o &a%a-a,e Mod"le 4. Ex%ra$%ing rom &a%a-a,e Mod"le

.aterfa77 /ode7 T/e waterfa77 /ode7 i, a ,e8"en%ial de,ign pro$e,,3 o %en ",ed in ,o %ware de+elopmen% pro$e,,e,3 in w/i$/ progre,, i, ,een a, lowing ,%eadil! downward, 'like a wa%er all( %/ro"g/ %/e p/a,e, o *on$ep%ion3 Ini%ia%ion3 Anal!,i,3 &e,ign3 *on,%r"$%ion3 Te,%ing and Main%enan$e. T/e wa%er all de+elopmen% model origina%e, in %/e man" a$%"ring and $on,%r"$%ion ind",%rie,9 /ig/l! ,%r"$%"red p/!,i$al en+ironmen%, in w/i$/ a %er)%/e) a$% $/ange, are pro/i-i%i+el! $o,%l!3 i no% impo,,i-le. Sin$e no ormal ,o %ware de+elopmen% me%/odologie, exi,%ed a% %/e %ime3 %/i, /ardware)orien%ed model wa, ,impl! adap%ed or ,o %ware de+elopmen%. T/e ir,% ormal de,$rip%ion o %/e wa%er all model i, o %en $i%ed a, a 7:;< ar%i$le -! 6in,%on 6. Ro!$e3 %/o"g/ Ro!$e did no% ",e %/e %erm =wa%er all= in %/i, ar%i$le. Ro!$e pre,en%ed %/i, model a, an example o a lawed3 non)working model 'Ro!$e 7:;<(. T/i,3 in a$%3 i, /ow %/e %erm i, generall! ",ed in wri%ing a-o"% ,o %ware de+elopmen%>%o de,$ri-e a $ri%i$al +iew o a $ommonl! ",ed ,o %ware pra$%i$e. T/e 6a%er all Model wa, ir,% Pro$e,, Model %o -e in%rod"$ed. I% i, al,o re erred %o a, a 7inear 1e=uentia7 7ife c0c7e /ode7. I% i, +er! ,imple %o "nder,%and and ",e. In a wa%er all model3 ea$/ p/a,e m",% -e $omple%ed "ll! -e ore %/e nex% p/a,e $an -egin. A% %/e end o ea$/ p/a,e3 a

re+iew %ake, pla$e %o de%ermine i %/e pro#e$% i, on %/e rig/% pa%/ and w/e%/er or no% %o $on%in"e or di,$ard %/e pro#e$%. In wa%er all model p/a,e, do no% o+erlap.

&iagram o 6a%er all)model Ad;antage1 of waterfa77 /ode7:

Simple and ea,! %o "nder,%and and ",e. Ea,! %o manage d"e %o %/e rigidi%! o %/e model ? ea$/ p/a,e /a, ,pe$i i$ deli+era-le, and a re+iew pro$e,,. P/a,e, are pro$e,,ed and $omple%ed one a% a %ime. 6ork, well or ,maller pro#e$%, w/ere re8"iremen%, are +er! well "nder,%ood.

'i1ad;antage1 of waterfa77 /ode7:

On$e an appli$a%ion i, in %/e %e,%ing ,%age3 i% i, +er! di i$"l% %o go -a$k and $/ange ,ome%/ing %/a% wa, no% well)%/o"g/% o"% in %/e $on$ep% ,%age. No working ,o %ware i, prod"$ed "n%il la%e d"ring %/e li e $!$le. Hig/ amo"n%, o ri,k and "n$er%ain%!. No% a good model or $omplex and o-#e$%)orien%ed pro#e$%,. Poor model or long and ongoing pro#e$%,.

No% ,"i%a-le or %/e pro#e$%, w/ere re8"iremen%, are a% a modera%e %o /ig/ ri,k o $/anging.

Lab A11ign/ent #: &raw ollowing &iagram o !o"r minor pro#e$% '+i( &F&

'ATA FLO. 'IA*RA&

DATA FLOW DIAGRAM

DFD 0 LEVEL

User

Result

System

Context Diagram

DFD LEVEL 1

Data!ase Conne"tion Login 0.1 0.#

Main System 0.

S$e%eton Str&"t&re

LEVEL #' Data Base

S"#$ up dd users !mployee

!%am

!d"t !mplyee !%am Results

Delete !mployee

LEVEL ' Data&ase

System

'ass(ord ) User #ame

'+ii(

E)R

ER > 'IA*RA&

'+iii(

USE *ASE

In ,o %ware and ,!,%em, engineering3 a u1e ca1e i, a li,% o ,%ep,3 %!pi$all! de ining in%era$%ion, -e%ween a role 'known in UML a, an =a$%or=( and a ,!,%em3 %o a$/ie+e a goal. T/e a$%or $an -e a /"man or an ex%ernal ,!,%em. In ,!,%em, engineering3 ",e $a,e, are ",ed a% a /ig/er le+el %/an wi%/in ,o %ware engineering3 o %en repre,en%ing mi,,ion, or ,%ake/older goal,. T/e de%ailed re8"iremen%, ma! %/en -e $ap%"red in S!,ML or a, $on%ra$%"al ,%a%emen%,.

'ix(

SEQUEN*E

'x(

*LASS

Classes in Java: A $la,, i, a -l"e prin% rom w/i$/ indi+id"al o-#e$%, are $rea%ed. A ,ample o a $la,, i, gi+en -elow@ p"-li$ $la,, &ogA S%ring -reed9 in% age9 S%ring $olor9 +oid -arking'(A B +oid /"ngr!'(A B +oid ,leeping'(A B B A $la,, $an $on%ain an! o %/e ollowing +aria-le %!pe,.

Loca7 ;ariab7e1 8 +aria-le, de ined in,ide me%/od,3 $on,%r"$%or, or -lo$k, are $alled lo$al +aria-le,. T/e +aria-le will -e de$lared and ini%ialiCed wi%/in %/e me%/od and %/e +aria-le will -e de,%ro!ed w/en %/e me%/od /a, $omple%ed. In1tance ;ariab7e1 8 In,%an$e +aria-le, are +aria-le, wi%/in a $la,, -"% o"%,ide an! me%/od. T/e,e +aria-le, are in,%an%ia%ed w/en %/e $la,, i, loaded. In,%an$e +aria-le, $an -e a$$e,,ed rom in,ide an! me%/od3 $on,%r"$%or or -lo$k, o %/a% par%i$"lar $la,,. C7a11 ;ariab7e1 8 *la,, +aria-le, are +aria-le, de$lared wi%/ in a $la,,3 o"%,ide an! me%/od3 wi%/ %/e ,%a%i$ ke!word. A $la,, $an /a+e an! n"m-er o me%/od, %o a$$e,, %/e +al"e o +ario", kind o me%/od,. In %/e a-o+e example3 -arking'(3 /"ngr!'( and ,leeping'( are me%/od,. Delow men%ioned are ,ome o %/e impor%an% %opi$, %/a% need %o -e di,$",,ed w/en looking in%o $la,,e, o %/e 2a+a Lang"age.

Lab A11ign/ent 3: &e,$ri-e ,o %ware engineering paradigm. =Paradigm= 'a Ereek word meaning example( i, $ommonl! ",ed %o re er %o a $a%egor! o en%i%ie, %/a% ,/are a $ommon $/ara$%eri,%i$. 6e $an di,%ing"i,/ -e%ween %/ree di eren% kind, o So %ware Paradigm,@ Programming Paradigm i, a model o /ow programmer, $oom"ni$a%e an $al$"la%ion %o $omp"%er, Software Design Paradigm i, a model or implemen%ing a gro"p o appli$a%ion, ,/aring $ommon proper%ie, Software Development Paradigm i, o %en re erred %o a, So %ware Engineering3 ma! -e ,een a, a managemen% model or implemen%ing -ig ,o %ware pro#e$%, ",ing engineering prin$iple,.

Programming Paradigm A Programming Paradigm i, a model or a $la,, o Programming Lang"age, %/a% ,/are a ,e% o $ommon $/ara$%eri,%i$,.

A programming language i, a ,!,%em o ,ign, ",ed %o $omm"ni$a%e a %a,kFalgori%/m %o a $omp"%er3 $a",ing %/e %a,k %o -e per ormed. T/e %a,k %o -e per ormed i, $alled a computation3 w/i$/ ollow, a-,ol"%el! pre$i,e and "nam-ig"o", r"le,. A% %/e /ear% i% all i, a "ndamen%al 8"e,%ion@ What does it mean to understand a programming language? What do we need to know to program in a language? T/ere are %/ree $r"$ial $omponen%, %o an! lang"age. T/e language paradigm i, a general prin$iple, %/a% are ",ed -! a programmer %o $omm"ni$a%e a %a,kFalgori%/m %o a $omp"%er. T/e syntax o %/e lang"age i, a wa! o ,pe$i !ing w/a% i, legal in %/e p/ra,e ,%r"$%"re o %/e lang"age9 knowing %/e ,!n%ax i, analogo", %o knowing /ow %o ,pell and orm ,en%en$e, in a na%"ral lang"age like Engli,/. Howe+er3 %/i, doe,nG% %ell ", an!%/ing a-o"% w/a% %/e ,en%en$e, mean. T/e %/ird $omponen% i, semantic,3 or meaning3 o a program in %/a% lang"age. Ul%ima%el!3 wi%/o"% a ,eman%i$,3 a programming lang"age i, #",% a $olle$%ion o meaningle,, p/ra,e,9 /en$e3 %/e ,eman%i$, i, %/e $r"$ial par% o a lang"age. T/ere /a+e -een a large n"m-er o programming lang"age,. Da$k in %/e 6<G, %/ere were o+er ;<< o %/em ? mo,% were a$ademi$3 ,pe$ial p"rpo,e3 or de+eloped -! an organiCa%ion or %/eir own need,. For%"na%el!3 %/ere are #",% o"r ma#or programming lang"age paradigm,@ Imperative (Procedural) Paradigm 'For%ran3 *3 Ada3 e%$.( !"ect# riented Paradigm 'SmallTalk3 2a+a3 *HH( $ogic Paradigm 'Prolog(

%unctional Paradigm 'Li,p3 ML3 Ha,kell( Eenerall!3 a ,ele$%ed Programming Paradigm de ine, main proper%! o a ,o %ware de+eloped -! mean, o a programming lang"age ,"ppor%ing %/e paradigm. I ,$ala-ili%!Fmodi ia-ili%! I in%egra-ili%!Fre",a-ili%! I por%a-ili%! I per orman$e I relia-ili%! I ea,e o $rea%ion

Software Design Paradigm So %ware &e,ign Paradigm em-od! %/e re,"l%, o peopleG, idea, on /ow %o $on,%r"$% program,3 $om-ine %/em in%o large ,o %ware ,!,%em, and ormal me$/ani,m, or /ow %/o,e idea, ,/o"ld -e expre,,ed. T/",3 we $an ,a! %/a% a So %ware &e,ign Paradigm i, a model or a $la,, o pro-lem, %/a% ,/are a ,e% o $ommon $/ara$%eri,%i$,. So %ware de,ign paradigm, $an -e ,"-)di+ided a,@ &e,ign Pa%%ern, *omponen%, So %ware Ar$/i%e$%"re

Framework, I% ,/o"ld -e e,pe$iall! no%ed %/a% a par%i$"lar Programming Paradigm e,,en%iall! de ine, ,o %ware de,ign paradigm,. For example3 we $an ,peak a-o"% O-#e$%)Orien%ed de,ign pa%%ern,3 pro$ed"ral $omponen%, 'mod"le,(3 "n$%ional ,o %ware ar$/i%e$%"re3 e%$. 'e1ign Pattern1 A de,ign pa%%ern i, a pro+en ,ol"%ion or a general de,ign pro-lem. I% $on,i,%, o $omm"ni$a%ing Jo-#e$%,G %/a% are $",%omiCed %o ,ol+e %/e pro-lem in a par%i$"lar $on%ex%. Pa%%ern, /a+e %/eir origin in o-#e$%)orien%ed programming w/ere %/e! -egan a, $olle$%ion, o o-#e$%, organiCed %o ,ol+e a pro-lem. T/ere i,nK% an! "ndamen%al rela%ion,/ip -e%ween pa%%ern, and o-#e$%,9 i% #",% /appen, %/e! -egan %/ere. Pa%%ern, ma! /a+e ari,en -e$a",e o-#e$%, ,eem ,o elemen%al3 -"% %/e pro-lem, we were %r!ing %o ,ol+e wi%/ %/em were ,o $omplex. Ar$/i%e$%"ral Pa%%ern,@ An ar$/i%e$%"ral pa%%ern expre,,e, a "ndamen%al ,%r"$%"ral organiCa%ion or ,$/ema or ,o %ware ,!,%em,. I% pro+ide, a ,e% o prede ined ,"-,!,%em,3 ,pe$i ie, %/eir re,pon,i-ili%ie,3 and in$l"de, r"le, and g"ideline, or organiCing %/e rela%ion,/ip, -e%ween %/em. &e,ign Pa%%ern,@ A de,ign pa%%ern pro+ide, a ,$/eme or re ining %/e ,"-,!,%em, or $omponen%, o a ,o %ware ,!,%em3 or %/e rela%ion,/ip, -e%ween %/em. I% de,$ri-e, $ommonl! re$"rring ,%r"$%"re o $omm"ni$a%ing $omponen%, %/a% ,ol+e, a general de,ign pro-lem wi%/in a par%i$"lar $on%ex%. Idiom,@ An idiom i, a low)le+el pa%%ern ,pe$i i$ %o a programming lang"age. An idiom de,$ri-e, /ow %o implemen% par%i$"lar a,pe$%, o $omponen%, or %/e rela%ion,/ip, -e%ween %/em ",ing %/e ea%"re, o %/e gi+en lang"age. Co/6onent1: O %en e8"a%ed %o de,ign pa%%ern, wi%/ Emp/a,i, on re",a-ili%! So %ware $omponen%, are -inar! "ni%, o independen% prod"$%ion3 a$8"i,i%ion3 and deplo!men% %/a% in%era$% %o orm a "n$%ioning program.

A $omponen% i, a p/!,i$al and repla$ea-le par% o a ,!,%em %/a% $on orm, %o and pro+ide, %/e realiCa%ion o a ,e% o in%er a$e,...%!pi$all! repre,en%, %/e p/!,i$al pa$kaging o o%/erwi,e logi$al elemen%,3 ,"$/ a, $la,,e,3 in%er a$e,3 and $olla-ora%ion, A $omponen% m",% -e $ompa%i-le and in%eropera%e wi%/ a w/ole range o o%/er $omponen%,. Example, o $omponen%,@ 06indow13 0P",/ D"%%on13 0Tex% Edi%or13 e%$. Two main i,,"e, ari,e wi%/ re,pe$% %o in%eropera-ili%! in orma%ion@ 7. /ow %o expre,, in%eropera-ili%! in orma%ion 'e.g. /ow %o add a 0p",/ -"%%on1 %o a 0window19 5. /ow %o p"-li,/ %/i, in orma%ion 'e.g. li-rar! wi%/ API re",a-le +ia an 0in$l"de1 ,%a%emen%( Software Arc?itecture: So %ware ar$/i%e$%"re i, %/e ,%r"$%"re o %/e $omponen%, o %/e ,ol"%ion. A par%i$"lar ,o %ware ar$/i%e$%"re de$ompo,e, a pro-lem in%o ,maller pie$e, and a%%emp%, %o ind a ,ol"%ion '*omponen%( or ea$/ pie$e. 6e $an al,o ,a! %/a% an ar$/i%e$%"re de ine, a ,o %ware ,!,%em $omponen%,3 %/eir in%egra%ion and in%eropera-ili%!@ In%egra%ion mean, %/e pie$e, i% %oge%/er well.

In%eropera%ion mean, %/a% %/e! work %oge%/er e e$%i+el! %o prod"$e an an,wer. T/ere are man! ,o %ware ar$/i%e$%"re,. */oo,ing %/e rig/% one $an -e a di i$"l% pro-lem in i%,el . Fra/ewor<1: A so&tware &ramework i, a re",a-le mini)ar$/i%e$%"re %/a% pro+ide, %/e generi$ ,%r"$%"re and -e/a+ior or a amil! o ,o %ware a-,%ra$%ion,3 along wi%/ a $on%ex% o me%ap/or, w/i$/ ,pe$i ie, %/eir $olla-ora%ion and ",e wi%/in a gi+en domain. Framework, $an -e ,een a, an in%ermedia%e le+el -e%ween $omponen%, and a ,o %ware ar$/i%e$%"re. Example@ S"ppo,e an ar$/i%e$%"re o a 6DT ,!,%em re",e ,"$/ $omponen%, a, 0Tex% Edi%ing Inp"% o-#e$%1 and 0P",/ -"%%on,1. A ,o %ware ramework ma! de ine an 0HTML Edi%or1 w/i$/ $an -e ir%/er re",ed or -"ilding %/e ar$/i%e$%"re.

Software Engineering and Software Paradig/1 T/e %erm =,o %ware engineering= wa, $oined in a-o"% 7:6: %o mean =%/e e,%a-li,/men% and ",e o ,o"nd engineering prin$iple, in order %o e$onomi$all! o-%ain ,o %ware %/a% i, relia-le and work, e i$ien%l! on real ma$/ine,=. T/i, +iew oppo,ed "ni8"ene,, and =magi$= o programming in an e or% %o mo+e %/e de+elopmen% o ,o %ware rom =magi$= 'w/i$/ onl! a ,ele$% ew $an do( %o =ar%= 'w/i$/ %/e %alen%ed $an do( %o =,$ien$e= 'w/i$/ ,"ppo,edl! an!one $an doL(. T/ere /a+e -een n"mero", de ini%ion, gi+en or ,o %ware engineering 'in$l"ding %/a% a-o+e and -elow(. So %ware Engineering i, no% a di,$ipline9 i% i, an a,pira%ion3 a, !e% "na$/ie+ed. Man! approa$/e, /a+e -een propo,ed in$l"ding re",a-le $omponen%,3 ormal me%/od,3 ,%r"$%"red me%/od, and ar$/i%e$%"ral ,%"die,. T/e,e approa$/e, $/ie l! emp/a,iCe %/e engineering prod"$%9 %/e ,ol"%ion ra%/er %/an %/e pro-lem i% ,ol+e,. So %ware &e+elopmen% $"rren% ,i%"a%ion@ People de+eloping ,!,%em, were $on,i,%en%l! wrong in %/eir e,%ima%e, o %ime3 e or%3 and $o,%, Relia-ili%! and main%aina-ili%! were di i$"l% %o a$/ie+e &eli+ered ,!,%em, re8"en%l! did no% work 7:;: ,%"d! o a ,mall n"m-er o go+ernmen% pro#e$%, ,/owed %/a%@ 5M worked 4M $o"ld work a %er ,ome $orre$%ion, NOM deli+ered -"% ne+er ,"$$e,, "ll! ",ed 5<M ",ed -"% ex%en,i+el! reworked or a-andoned 4<M paid and "ndeli+ered Fixing -"g, in deli+ered ,o %ware prod"$ed more -"g, In$rea,e in ,iCe o ,o %ware ,!,%em, NASA S%ar6ar, &e en,e Ini%ia%i+e So$ial Se$"ri%! Admini,%ra%ion inan$ial %ran,a$%ion ,!,%em, */ange, in %/e ra%io o /ardware %o ,o %ware $o,%, earl! 6<K, ) P<M /ardware $o,%, middle 6<K, ) N<)O<M ,o %ware $o,%, %oda! ) le,, %/an 5<M /ardware $o,%, In$rea,ingl! impor%an% role o main%enan$e Fixing error,3 modi i$a%ion3 adding op%ion, *o,% i, o %en %wi$e %/a% o de+eloping %/e ,o %ware Ad+an$e, in /ardware 'lower $o,%,(

Ad+an$e, in ,o %ware %e$/ni8"e, 'e.g.3 ",er, in%era$%ion( In$rea,ed demand, or ,o %ware Medi$ine3 Man" a$%"ring3 En%er%ainmen%3 P"-li,/ing &emand or larger and more $omplex ,o %ware ,!,%em, Airplane, '$ra,/e,(3 NASA 'a-or%ed ,pa$e ,/"%%le la"n$/e,(3 =g/o,%= %rain,3 r"nawa! mi,,ile,3 ATM ma$/ine, '/a+e !o" /ad !o"r $ard =,wallowed=Q(3 li e),"ppor% ,!,%em,3 $ar ,!,%em,3 e%$.

US Na%ional ,e$"ri%! and da!)%o)da! opera%ion, are /ig/l! dependen% on $omp"%eriCed ,!,%em,. Man" a$%"ring ,o %ware $an -e $/ara$%eriCed -! a ,erie, o ,%ep, ranging rom $on$ep% explora%ion %o inal re%iremen%9 %/i, ,erie, o ,%ep, i, generall! re erred %o a, a so&tware li&ecycle. S%ep, or p/a,e, in a ,o %ware li e$!$le all generall! in%o %/e,e $a%egorie,@ Re8"iremen%, 'Rela%i+e *o,% 5M( Spe$i i$a%ion 'anal!,i,( 'Rela%i+e *o,% OM( &e,ign 'Rela%i+e *o,% 6M( Implemen%a%ion 'Rela%i+e *o,% OM( Te,%ing 'Rela%i+e *o,% ;M( In%egra%ion 'Rela%i+e *o,% PM( Main%enan$e 'Rela%i+e *o,% 6;M(

Re%iremen% So %ware engineering emplo!, a +arie%! o me%/od,3 %ool,3 and paradigm,. Paradigm, re er %o par%i$"lar approa$/e, or p/ilo,op/ie, or de,igning3 -"ilding and main%aining ,o %ware. &i eren% paradigm, ea$/ /a+e %/eir own ad+an%age, and di,ad+an%age, w/i$/ make one more appropria%e in a gi+en ,i%"a%ion %/an per/ap, ano%/er 'L(. A me%/od 'al,o re erred %o a, a %e$/ni8"e( i, /ea+il! depended on a ,ele$%ed paradigm and ma! -e ,een a, a pro$ed"re or prod"$ing ,ome re,"l%. Me%/od, generall! in+ol+e ,ome ormal no%a%ion and pro$e,,'e,(. Tool, are a"%oma%ed ,!,%em, implemen%ing a par%i$"lar me%/od. T/",3 %/e ollowing p/a,e, are /ea+il! a e$%ed -! ,ele$%ed ,o %ware paradigm, &e,ign Implemen%a%ion In%egra%ion

 Main%enan$e T/e ,o %ware de+elopmen% $!$le in+ol+e, %/e a$%i+i%ie, in %/e prod"$%ion o a ,o %ware ,!,%em. Eenerall! %/e ,o %ware de+elopmen% $!$le $an -e di+ided in%o %/e ollowing p/a,e,@ Re8"iremen%, anal!,i, and ,pe$i i$a%ion &e,ign Preliminar! de,ign &e%ailed de,ign Implemen%a%ion *omponen% Implemen%a%ion *omponen% In%egra%ion S!,%em &o$"men%ing Te,%ing Uni% %e,%ing In%egra%ion %e,%ing S!,%em %e,%ing In,%alla%ion and A$$ep%an$e Te,%ing Main%enan$e D"g Repor%ing and Fixing */ange re8"iremen%, and ,o %ware "pgrading

So %ware li e$!$le, %/a% will -e -rie l! re+iewed in$l"de@ D"ild and Fix model 6a%er all and Modi ied 6a%er all model, Rapid Pro%o%!ping Doe/mK, ,piral model

Build and i! model T/i, work, OR or ,mall3 ,imple ,!,%em,3 -"% i, $omple%el! "n,a%i, a$%or! or ,o %ware ,!,%em, o an! ,iCe. I% /a, -een ,/own empiri$all! %/a% %/e $o,% o $/anging a ,o %ware prod"$% i, rela%i+el! ,mall i %/e $/ange i, made a% %/e re8"iremen%, or de,ign p/a,e, -"% grow, large a% la%er p/a,e,. T/e $o,% o %/i, pro$e,, model i, a$%"all! ar grea%er %/an %/e $o,% o a properl! ,pe$i ied and de,igned pro#e$%. Main%enan$e $an al,o -e pro-lema%i$ in a ,o %ware ,!,%em de+eloped "nder %/i, ,$enario.

Fig"re@ D"ild and Fix model

"aterfall and Modified "aterfall models .aterfa77 &ode7 &eri+ed rom o%/er engineering pro$e,,e, in 7:;<. O ered a mean, o making %/e de+elopmen% pro$e,, more ,%r"$%"red. Expre,,e, %/e in%era$%ion -e%ween ,"-,e8"en% p/a,e,.

Fig"re@ 6a%er all model Ea$/ p/a,e $a,$ade, in%o %/e nex% p/a,e. In %/e original wa%er all model3 a ,%ri$% ,e8"en%iall! wa, a% lea,% implied. T/i, mean% %/a% one p/a,e /ad %o -e $omple%ed -e ore %/e nex% p/a,e wa, -eg"n. I% al,o did no% pro+ide or eed-a$k -e%ween p/a,e, or or "pda%ingFre)de ini%ion o earlier p/a,e,. Implie, %/a% %/ere are de ini%e -reak, -e%ween p/a,e,3 i.e.3 %/a% ea$/ p/a,e /a, a ,%ri$%3 non)o+erlapping ,%ar% and ini,/ and i, $arried o"% ,e8"en%iall!. *ri%i$al poin% i, %/a% no p/a,e i, $omple%e "n%il %/e do$"men%a%ion andFor o%/er prod"$%, a,,o$ia%ed wi%/ %/a% p/a,e are $omple%ed. &odified .aterfa77 &ode7 Needed %o pro+ide or o+erlap and eed-a$k -e%ween p/a,e,. Ra%/er %/an -eing a ,imple linear model3 i% needed %o -e an i%era%i+e model. To a$ili%a%e %/e $omple%ion o %/e goal,3 mile,%one,3

and %a,k,3 i% i, normal %o reeCe par%, o %/e de+elopmen% a %er a $er%ain poin% in %/e i%era%ion. Seri i$a%ion and +alida%ion are added. Seri i$a%ion $/e$k, %/a% %/e ,!,%em i, $orre$% '-"ilding %/e ,!,%em rig/%(. Salida%ion $/e$k, %/a% %/e ,!,%em mee%, %/e ",er, de,ire, '-"ilding %/e rig/% ,!,%em(.

Fig"re@ Modi ied 6a%er all model T/e wa%er all model 'and modi ied wa%er all model( are in lexi-le in %/e par%i%ioning o %/e pro#e$% in%o di,%in$% p/a,e,. Howe+er3 %/e! generall! re le$% engineering pra$%i$e. *on,idera-le emp/a,i, m",% -e pla$ed on di,$erning ",er,K need, and re8"iremen%, prior %o %/e ,!,%em -eing -"il%. T/e iden%i i$a%ion o ",er,K re8"iremen%, a, earl! a, po,,i-le3 and %/e agreemen% -e%ween ",er and de+eloper wi%/ re,pe$% %o %/o,e re8"iremen%,3 o %en i, %/e de$iding a$%or in %/e ,"$$e,, or ail"re o a ,o %ware pro#e$%. T/e,e re8"iremen%, are do$"men%ed in %/e re8"iremen%, ,pe$i i$a%ion3 w/i$/ i, ",ed %o +eri ! w/e%/er ,"-,e8"en% p/a,e, are $ompl!ing wi%/ %/e re8"iremen%,. Un or%"na%el! ,pe$i !ing ",er,K re8"iremen%, i, +er! m"$/ an ar%3 and a, ,"$/ i, ex%remel! di i$"l%. Salida%ion eed-a$k $an -e ",ed %o pre+en% %/e appearan$e o a ,%rong di+ergen$e -e%ween %/e ,!,%em "nder de+elopmen% and %/e ",er,K expe$%a%ion, or %/e deli+ered ,!,%em. Un or%"na%el!3 %/e wa%er all li e$!$le 'and %/e modi ied wa%er all li e$!$le( are inade8"a%e or reali,%i$ +alida%ion a$%i+i%ie,. T/e! are ex$l",i+el! do$"men% dri+en model,. T/e re,"l%ing de,ign reali%! i, %/a% onl! O<M o %/e de,ign e or% o$$"r, d"ring %/e a$%"al de,ign p/a,e wi%/ 7F4 o %/e de,ign e or% o$$"rring d"ring %/e $oding a$%i+i%!L T/i, i, %opped -! %/e a$% %/a% o+er 76M o %/e de,ign e or% o$$"r, a %er %/e ,!,%em i, ,"ppo,ed %o -e $omple%edL In general %/e -e/a+ior o man! indi+id"al, in %/i, %!pe o pro$e,, i, oppor%"ni,%i$. T/e -o"ndarie, o p/a,e, are indi,$rimina%el! $ro,,ed wi%/ deadline, -eing ,omew/a% ar-i%rar!. #apid Protot$ping Pro%o%!ping al,o re erred %o a, e+ol"%ionar! de+elopmen%3 pro%o%!ping aim, %o en/an$e %/e a$$"ra$! o %/e de,ignerK, per$ep%ion o %/e ",erK, re8"iremen%,. Pro%o%!ping i, -a,ed on %/e idea o de+eloping an ini%ial implemen%a%ion or ",er eed-a$k3 and %/en re ining %/i, pro%o%!pe %/ro"g/ man! +er,ion, "n%il an ,a%i, a$%or! ,!,%em emerge,. T/e ,pe$i i$a%ion3 de+elopmen% and +alida%ion a$%i+i%ie, are $arried o"% $on$"rren%l! wi%/ rapid eed-a$k a$ro,, %/e a$%i+i%ie,.

Eenerall!3 pro%o%!ping i, $/ara$%eriCed -! %/e ",e o +er! /ig/)le+el lang"age,3 w/i$/ pro-a-l! will no% -e ",ed in %/e inal ,o %ware implemen%a%ion -"% w/i$/ allow rapid de+elopmen%3 and %/e de+elopmen% o a ,!,%em wi%/ le,, "n$%ionali%! wi%/ re,pe$% %o 8"ali%! a%%ri-"%e, ,"$/ a, ro-",%ne,,3 ,peed3 e%$.

Fig"re@ Rapid Pro%o%!ping model Pro%o%!ping allow, %/e $lari i$a%ion o ",er, re8"iremen%, %/ro"g/3 par%i$"larl!3 %/e earl! de+elopmen% o %/e ",er in%er a$e. T/e ",er $an %/en %r! o"% %/e ,!,%em3 al-ei% a ',"-( ,!,%em o w/a% will -e %/e inal prod"$%. T/i, allow, %/e ",er %o pro+ide eed-a$k -e ore a large in+e,%men% /a, -een made in %/e de+elopmen% o %/e wrong ,!,%em. T/ere are %wo %!pe, o pro%o%!pe,@ Explora%or! programming@ O-#e$%i+e i, %o work wi%/ %/e ",er %o explore %/eir re8"iremen%, and deli+er a inal ,!,%em. S%ar%, wi%/ %/e par%, o %/e ,!,%em w/i$/ are "nder,%ood3 and %/en e+ol+e, a, %/e ",er propo,e, new ea%"re,.

T/row)awa! pro%o%!ping@ O-#e$%i+e i, %o "nder,%and %/e ",er,K re8"iremen%, and de+elop a -e%%er re8"iremen%, de ini%ion or %/e ,!,%em. *on$en%ra%e, on poorl! "nder,%ood $omponen%,. Experimen%, wi%/ pro%o%!ping ,/owed %/a% %/i, approa$/ %ook N<M le,, %ime and re,"l%ed in NOM le,, $ode9 /owe+er3 i% prod"$ed $ode w/i$/ wa, no% a, ro-",%3 and %/ere ore more di i$"l% %o main%ain. &o$"men%a%ion wa, o %en ,a$ri i$ed or done in$omple%el!. T/e ,$/ed"le expe$%a%ion, o ",er, and manager, %ended %o -e "nreali,%i$ e,pe$iall! wi%/ re,pe$% %o %/row)awa! pro%o%!pe,. Boe%m&s Spiral Model Need an impro+ed ,o %ware li e$!$le model w/i$/ $an ,"-,"me all %/e generi$ model, di,$",,ed ,o ar. M",% al,o ,a%i, ! %/e re8"iremen%, o managemen%. Doe/m propo,ed a ,piral model w/ere ea$/ ro"nd o %/e ,piral a( iden%i ie, %/e ,"- pro-lem w/i$/ /a, %/e /ig/e,% ri,k a,,o$ia%ed wi%/ i% -( ind, a ,ol"%ion or %/a% pro-lem.

Lab A11ign/ent 4: E567ain in detai718 Re;er1e Engineering8 Re;er1e engineering i, %/e pro$e,, o di,$o+ering %/e %e$/nologi$al prin$iple, o a de+i$e3 o-#e$%3 or ,!,%em %/ro"g/ anal!,i, o i%, ,%r"$%"re3 "n$%ion3 and opera%ion. I% o %en in+ol+e, %aking ,ome%/ing 'a me$/ani$al de+i$e3 ele$%roni$ $omponen%3 $omp"%er program3 or -iologi$al3 $/emi$al3 or organi$ ma%%er( apar% and anal!Cing i%, working, in de%ail %o -e ",ed in main%enan$e3 or %o %r! %o make a new de+i$e or program %/a% doe, %/e ,ame %/ing wi%/o"% ",ing or ,impl! d"pli$a%ing 'wi%/o"% "nder,%anding( %/e original. Re+er,e engineering /a, i%, origin, in %/e anal!,i, o /ardware or $ommer$ial or mili%ar! ad+an%age. T/e p"rpo,e i, %o ded"$e de,ign de$i,ion, rom end prod"$%, wi%/ li%%le or no addi%ional knowledge a-o"% %/e pro$ed"re, in+ol+ed in %/e original prod"$%ion. T/e ,ame %e$/ni8"e, are ,"-,e8"en%l! -eing re,ear$/ed or appli$a%ion %o lega$! ,o %ware ,!,%em,3 no% or ind",%rial or de en$e end,3 -"% ra%/er %o repla$e in$orre$%3 in$omple%e3 or o%/erwi,e "na+aila-le do$"men%a%ion.

Motivation Rea,on, or re+er,e engineering@

Interfacing. RE $an -e ",ed w/en a ,!,%em i, re8"ired %o in%er a$e %o ano%/er ,!,%em and /ow -o%/ ,!,%em, wo"ld nego%ia%e i, %o -e e,%a-li,/ed. S"$/ re8"iremen%, %!pi$all! exi,% or in%eropera-ili%!. &i7itar0 or co//ercia7 e16ionage. Learning a-o"% an enem!K, or $ompe%i%orK, la%e,% re,ear$/ -! ,%ealing or $ap%"ring a pro%o%!pe and di,man%ling i%. I% ma! re,"l% in de+elopmen% o ,imilar prod"$%. I/6ro;e docu/entation 1?ortco/ing1. Re+er,e engineering $an -e done w/en do$"men%a%ion o a ,!,%em or i%, de,ign3 prod"$%ion3 opera%ion or main%enan$e /a+e ,/or%$oming, and original de,igner, are no% a+aila-le %o impro+e i%. RE o ,o %ware $an pro+ide %/e mo,% $"rren% do$"men%a%ion ne$e,,ar! or "nder,%anding %/e mo,% $"rren% ,%a%e o a ,o %ware ,!,%em

Ob1o7e1cence. In%egra%ed $ir$"i%, o %en ,eem %o /a+e -een de,igned on o-,ole%e3 proprie%ar! ,!,%em,3 w/i$/ mean, %/a% %/e onl! wa! %o in$orpora%e %/e "n$%ionali%! in%o new %e$/nolog! i, %o re+er,e)engineer %/e exi,%ing $/ip and %/en re)de,ign i%. Software &oderni@ation. RE i, generall! needed in order %o "nder,%and %/e Ka, i,K ,%a%e o exi,%ing or lega$! ,o %ware in order %o properl! e,%ima%e %/e e or% re8"ired %o migra%e ,!,%em knowledge in%o a K%o -eK ,%a%e. M"$/ o %/i, ma! -e dri+en -! $/anging "n$%ional3 $omplian$e or ,e$"ri%! re8"iremen%,. Product Securit0 Ana701i1. To examine /ow a prod"$% work,3 w/a% are ,pe$i i$a%ion, o i%, $omponen%,3 e,%ima%e $o,%, and iden%i ! po%en%ial pa%en% in ringemen%. A$8"iring ,en,i%i+e da%a -! di,a,,em-ling and anal!,ing %/e de,ign o a ,!,%em $omponen%.TNUAno%/er in%en% ma! -e %o remo+e $op! pro%e$%ion3 $ir$"m+en%ion o a$$e,, re,%ri$%ion,. %ug fi5ing. To ix 'or ,ome%ime, %o en/an$e( lega$! ,o %ware w/i$/ i, no longer ,"ppor%ed -! i%, $rea%or,. Creation of un7icen1edAuna66ro;ed du67icate1. Acade/icA7earning 6ur6o1e1. RE or learning p"rpo,e, ma! -e "nder,%and %/e ke! i,,"e, o an "n,"$$e,, "l de,ign and ,"-,e8"en%l! impro+e %/e de,ign. Co/6etiti;e tec?nica7 inte77igence. Under,%and w/a% !o"r $ompe%i%or i, a$%"all! doing3 +er,", w/a% %/e! ,a! %/e! are doing.

9;:

COCO&O &O'EL T/e Con1tructi;e Co1t &ode7 'COCO&O( i, an algori%/mi$ ,o %ware $o,% e,%ima%ion model de+eloped -! Darr! 6. Doe/m. T/e model ",e, a -a,i$ regre,,ion orm"la wi%/ parame%er, %/a% are deri+ed rom /i,%ori$al pro#e$% da%a and $"rren% a, well a, "%"re pro#e$% $/ara$%eri,%i$,. *O*OMO wa, ir,% p"-li,/ed in Doe/mK, 7:P7 -ook 'o&tware (ngineering (conomics a, a model or e,%ima%ing e or%3 $o,%3 and ,$/ed"le or ,o %ware pro#e$%,. I% drew on a ,%"d! o 64 pro#e$%, a% TR6 Aero,pa$e w/ere Doe/m wa, &ire$%or o So %ware Re,ear$/ and Te$/nolog!. T/e ,%"d! examined pro#e$%, ranging in ,iCe rom 53<<< %o 7<<3<<< line, o $ode3 and programming lang"age, ranging rom a,,em-l! %o PLFI. T/e,e pro#e$%, were -a,ed on %/e wa%er all model o ,o %ware de+elopmen% w/i$/ wa, %/e pre+alen% ,o %ware de+elopmen% pro$e,, in 7:P7. Re eren$e, %o %/i, model %!pi$all! $all i% C C ) *+. In 7::O C C ) II wa, de+eloped and inall! p"-li,/ed in 5<<< in %/e -ook'o&tware Cost (stimation with C C ) II.T5U *O*OMO II i, %/e ,"$$e,,or o *O*OMO P7 and i, -e%%er ,"i%ed or e,%ima%ing modern ,o %ware de+elopmen% pro#e$%,. I% pro+ide, more ,"ppor% or

modern ,o %ware de+elopmen% pro$e,,e, and an "pda%ed pro#e$% da%a-a,e. T/e need or %/e new model $ame a, ,o %ware de+elopmen% %e$/nolog! mo+ed rom main rame and o+ernig/% -a%$/ pro$e,,ing %o de,k%op de+elopmen%3 $ode re",a-ili%! and %/e ",e o o )%/e),/el ,o %ware $omponen%,. T/i, ar%i$le re er, %o C C ) *+. *O*OMO $on,i,%, o a /ierar$/! o %/ree in$rea,ingl! de%ailed and a$$"ra%e orm,. T/e ir,% le+el3 ,asic C C ) i, good or 8"i$k3 earl!3 ro"g/ order o magni%"de e,%ima%e, o ,o %ware $o,%,3 -"% i%, a$$"ra$! i, limi%ed d"e %o i%, la$k o a$%or, %o a$$o"n% or di eren$e in pro#e$% a%%ri-"%e, 'Cost -rivers(. Intermediate C C ) %ake, %/e,e *o,% &ri+er, in%o a$$o"n% and -etailed C C ) addi%ionall! a$$o"n%, or %/e in l"en$e o indi+id"al pro#e$% p/a,e,. Basi' (O(OMO %a1ic COCO&O $omp"%e, ,o %ware de+elopmen% e or% 'and $o,%( a, a "n$%ion o program ,iCe. Program ,iCe i, expre,,ed in e,%ima%ed %/o",and, o ,o"r$e line, o $ode 'SLO*( *O*OMO applie, %o %/ree $la,,e, o ,o %ware pro#e$%,@

Organi$ pro#e$%, ) =,mall= %eam, wi%/ =good= experien$e working wi%/ =le,, %/an rigid= re8"iremen%,

Semi)de%a$/ed pro#e$%, ) =medi"m= %eam, wi%/ mixed experien$e working wi%/ a mix o rigid and le,, %/an rigid re8"iremen%,

Em-edded pro#e$%, ) de+eloped wi%/in a ,e% o =%ig/%= $on,%rain%,. I% i, al,o $om-ina%ion o organi$ and ,emi)de%a$/ed pro#e$%,.'/ardware3 ,o %ware3 opera%ional3 ...(

T/e -a,i$ *O*OMO e8"a%ion, %ake %/e orm Effort A667ied 9E: V a-'RLO*(-'e;e7o6/ent Ti/e 9': V $-'E or% Applied(d- B/ont?1C Peo67e re=uired 9P: V E or% Applied F &e+elopmen% Time BcountC w/ere3 -LOC i, %/e e,%ima%ed n"m-er o deli+ered line, 'expre,,ed in %/o",and, ( o $ode or pro#e$%. T/e $oe i$ien%, a!3 !!3 c! andd! are gi+en in %/e ollowing %a-le@

Software a) 6roject )) ') d)

Organi$

5.N 7.<O 5.O <.4P

Semi)de%a$/ed

4.< 7.75 5.O <.4O

Em-edded

4.6 7.5< 5.O <.45

Da,i$ *O*OMO i, good or 8"i$k e,%ima%e o ,o %ware $o,%,. Howe+er i% doe, no% a$$o"n% or di eren$e, in /ardware $on,%rain%,3 per,onnel 8"ali%! and experien$e3 ",e o modern %ool, and %e$/ni8"e,3 and ,o on.

9;i:

'e1ign conce6t

S,STE& 'ESI*N

O$TP$T FOR& 'ESI*N *omp"%er o"%p"% i, %/e mo,% impor%an% and dire$% ,o"r$e o in orma%ion %o %/e ",er. E i$ien%3 in%elligi-le o"%p"% de,ign ,/o"ld impro+e %/e ,!,%em rela%ion,/ip wi%/ %/e ",er and /elp in de$i,ion)making. T/e o"%p"%, pro+ide in %/e ,!,%em are %/e ,o %$op! repor% a+aila-le or prin%ing. Prin%o"%, ,/o"ld -e de,igned aro"nd %/e o"%p"% re8"iremen% o %/e ",er. T/e o"%p"% de+i$e, %o $on,ider depend on %/e a$%or ,"$/ a, $ompa%i-ili%! o %/e de+i$e wi%/ %/e ,!,%em3 re,pon,e %ime re8"iremen% and n"m-er o $opie, needed.

INP$T FOR& 'ESI*N Inp"% &e,ign i, %/e pro$e,, o $on+er%ing ",er origina%ed $omp"%er -a,ed orma%. Ina$$"ra%e inp"% da%a are %/e mo,% $ommon $a",e o error, in da%a pro$e,,ing .Error, en%ered -! da%a en%r! opera%or, $an -e $on%rolled -! inp"% de,ign. T/e goal o de,igning inp"% da%a i, %o make da%a en%r! a, ea,!3 logi$al and ree rom error, a, ar a, po,,i-le. In %/i, ,!,%em3 %/e inp"% ,$reen, are de+eloped a$$ording %o %/e ",er re8"iremen%,.

'ATA%ASE 'ESI*N

T/e general %/eme -e/ind a da%a-a,e i, %o /andle in orma%ion a, an in%egra%ed w/ole. A da%a-a,e i, a $olle$%ion o in%errela%ed da%a ,%ored wi%/ minim"m red"ndan$! %o ,er+e man! ",er, 8"i$kl! and e e$%i+el!. A %er de,igning %/e inp"% and o"%p"%3 %/e anal!,% m",% $on$en%ra%e on da%a-a,e de,ign or /ow da%a ,/o"ld -e organiCed aro"nd ",er re8"iremen%,. T/e general o-#e$%i+e i, %o make in orma%ion a$$e,,3 ea,! 8"i$k3 inexpen,i+e and lexi-le or o%/er ",er,. &"ring da%a-a,e de,ign %/e ollowing o-#e$%i+e, are $on$erned@)

*on%rolled Red"ndan$! Ea,! %o learn and ",e More in orma%ion and low $o,% A$$"ra$! In%egri%! TA%LES $SE' Na/e: Due1tion Pri/ar0 <e0: 1codeE =no Fie7dna/e S$ode T06e Sar$/ar5 Si@e O

Qno Qde,$ */oi$e7 */oi$e5 */oi$e4 An,wer

Sar$/ar5 Sar$/ar5 Sar$/ar5 Sar$/ar5 Sar$/ar5 Sar$/ar5

O 5O 4< 4< 4< 4<

Na/e: Regi1tration Pri/ar0 <e0: E/ai7 Fie7dna/e Email Fname Lname &oQ"ali P/ pa,,word T06e Sar$/ar5 Sar$/ar5 Sar$/ar5 N"m-er Sar$/ar5 N"m-er Sar$/ar5 Si@e O O 5O 7< 7O 7O 7<

Na/e: Re1u7t Fie7dna/e E/ai7 E5a/ Percent Statu1 T06e Sar$/ar5 Sar$/ar5 N"m-er Sar$/ar5 Si@e 2" 2" F 2"

9;ii:

Ri1< /anage/ent

Ri1< /anage/ent i, %/e iden%i i$a%ion3 a,,e,,men%3 and priori%iCa%ion o ri,k, 'de ined in ISO 47<<< a, the e&&ect o& uncertainty on o!"ectives3 w/e%/er po,i%i+e or nega%i+e( ollowed -! $oordina%ed and e$onomi$al appli$a%ion o re,o"r$e, %o minimiCe3 moni%or3 and $on%rol %/e pro-a-ili%! andFor impa$% o "n or%"na%e e+en%,T7U or %o maximiCe %/e realiCa%ion o oppor%"ni%ie,. Ri,k, $an $ome rom "n$er%ain%! in inan$ial marke%,3 pro#e$% ail"re, 'a% an! p/a,e in de,ign3 de+elopmen%3 prod"$%ion3 or ,",%ainmen% li e)$!$le,(3 legal lia-ili%ie,3 $redi% ri,k3 a$$iden%,3 na%"ral $a",e, and di,a,%er, a, well a, deli-era%e a%%a$k rom an ad+er,ar!3 or e+en%, o "n$er%ain or "npredi$%a-le roo%)$a",e. Se+eral ri,k managemen% ,%andard,/a+e -een de+eloped in$l"ding %/e Pro#e$% Managemen% In,%i%"%e3 %/eNa%ional In,%i%"%e o S%andard, and Te$/nolog!3 a$%"arial ,o$ie%ie,3 and ISO ,%andard,. Me%/od,3 de ini%ion, and goal, +ar! widel! a$$ording %o w/e%/er %/e ri,k managemen% me%/od i, in %/e $on%ex% o pro#e$% managemen%3 ,e$"ri%!3 engineering3 ind",%rial pro$e,,e,3 inan$ial por% olio,3 a$%"arial a,,e,,men%,3 or p"-li$ /eal%/ and ,a e%!. T/e ,%ra%egie, %o manage ri,k %!pi$all! in$l"de %ran, erring %/e ri,k %o ano%/er par%!3 a+oiding %/e ri,k3 red"$ing %/e nega%i+e e e$% or pro-a-ili%! o %/e ri,k3 or e+en a$$ep%ing ,ome or all o %/e po%en%ial or a$%"al $on,e8"en$e, o a par%i$"lar ri,k. *er%ain a,pe$%, o man! o %/e ri,k managemen% ,%andard, /a+e $ome "nder $ri%i$i,m or /a+ing no mea,"ra-le impro+emen% on ri,k3 w/e%/er %/e $on iden$e in e,%ima%e, and de$i,ion, ,eem %o in$rea,e.

A widel! ",ed +o$a-"lar! or ri,k managemen% i, de ined -! ISO E"ide ;43 =Ri,k managemen%. So$a-"lar!.= In ideal ri,k managemen%3 a priori%iCa%ion pro$e,, i, ollowed w/ere-! %/e ri,k, wi%/ %/e grea%e,% lo,, 'or impa$%( and %/e grea%e,%pro-a-ili%! o o$$"rring are /andled ir,%3 and ri,k, wi%/ lower pro-a-ili%! o o$$"rren$e and lower lo,, are /andled in de,$ending order. In pra$%i$e %/e pro$e,, o a,,e,,ing o+erall ri,k $an -e di i$"l%3 and -alan$ing re,o"r$e, ",ed %o mi%iga%e -e%ween ri,k, wi%/ a /ig/ pro-a-ili%! o o$$"rren$e -"% lower lo,, +er,", a ri,k wi%/ /ig/ lo,, -"% lower pro-a-ili%! o o$$"rren$e $an o %en -e mi,/andled. In%angi-le ri,k managemen% iden%i ie, a new %!pe o a ri,k %/a% /a, a 7<<M pro-a-ili%! o o$$"rring -"% i, ignored -! %/e organiCa%ion d"e %o a la$k o iden%i i$a%ion a-ili%!. For example3 w/en de i$ien% knowledge i, applied %o a ,i%"a%ion3 a knowledge ri,k

ma%erialiCe,. Rela%ion,/ip ri,k appear, w/en ine e$%i+e $olla-ora%ion o$$"r,. Pro$e,,) engagemen% ri,k ma! -e an i,,"e w/en ine e$%i+e opera%ional pro$ed"re, are applied. T/e,e ri,k, dire$%l! red"$e %/e prod"$%i+i%! o knowledge worker,3 de$rea,e $o,% e e$%i+ene,,3 pro i%a-ili%!3 ,er+i$e3 8"ali%!3 rep"%a%ion3 -rand +al"e3 and earning, 8"ali%!. In%angi-le ri,k managemen% allow, ri,k managemen% %o $rea%e immedia%e +al"e rom %/e iden%i i$a%ion and red"$%ion o ri,k, %/a% red"$e prod"$%i+i%!. Ri,k managemen% al,o a$e, di i$"l%ie, in allo$a%ing re,o"r$e,. T/i, i, %/e idea o oppor%"ni%! $o,%. Re,o"r$e, ,pen% on ri,k managemen% $o"ld /a+e -een ,pen% on more pro i%a-le a$%i+i%ie,. Again3 ideal ri,k managemen% minimiCe, ,pending 'or manpower or o%/er re,o"r$e,( and al,o minimiCe, %/e nega%i+e e e$%, o ri,k,. &et?od For %/e mo,% par%3 %/e,e me%/od, $on,i,% o %/e ollowing elemen%,3 per ormed3 more or le,,3 in %/e ollowing order.
1. iden%i !3 $/ara$%eriCe %/rea%, 2. a,,e,, %/e +"lnera-ili%! o $ri%i$al a,,e%, %o ,pe$i i$ %/rea%, 3. de%ermine %/e ri,k 'i.e. %/e expe$%ed likeli/ood and $on,e8"en$e, o ,pe$i i$ %!pe, o

a%%a$k, on ,pe$i i$ a,,e%,( N. iden%i ! wa!, %o red"$e %/o,e ri,k, O. priori%iCe ri,k red"$%ion mea,"re, -a,ed on a ,%ra%eg! Princi67e1 of ri1< /anage/ent T/e In%erna%ional OrganiCa%ion or S%andardiCa%ion 'ISO( iden%i ie, %/e ollowing prin$iple, o ri,k managemen%@ Ri,k managemen% ,/o"ld@

$rea%e +al"e ? re,o"r$e, expended %o mi%iga%e ri,k ,/o"ld -e le,, %/an %/e $on,e8"en$e o ina$%ion3 or 'a, in +al"e engineering(3 %/e gain ,/o"ld ex$eed %/e pain -e an in%egral par% o organiCa%ional pro$e,,e, -e par% o de$i,ion making pro$e,,

expli$i%l! addre,, "n$er%ain%! and a,,"mp%ion, -e ,!,%ema%i$ and ,%r"$%"red -e -a,ed on %/e -e,% a+aila-le in orma%ion -e %ailora-le %ake /"man a$%or, in%o a$$o"n% -e %ran,paren% and in$l",i+e