Frontier k DDI 2011

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Frontier K
Frontier K.................................................................................................................................................................1
1NC Shell.................................................................................................................................................................2
2NC Turns Case Args..............................................................................................................................................5
2NC Heg Link..........................................................................................................................................................6
2NC Colonization Link............................................................................................................................................6
2NC Linear Time Link Stuff....................................................................................................................................
2NC AT !ermutation..............................................................................................................................................."
2NC AT #$%e&ti'it()S&ien&e.................................................................................................................................1*
2NC +m,a&t Car-s..................................................................................................................................................11
2NC Alternati'e) +n-i'i-uals ke(..........................................................................................................................1.
2NC Astroen'ironmentalism Alt...........................................................................................................................1/
2NC AT 0oesn1t sol'e $)& ,eo,le are %erks..........................................................................................................16
2NC AT Frontier 2eta,hor +ne'ita$le..................................................................................................................1
2NC S,a&e 3thi&s 1st.............................................................................................................................................1"
2NC AT Frontier re,s not &entral..........................................................................................................................2*
2NC Frame4ork)5e,s 1st .....................................................................................................................................21
666!earl Har$or Car- 7useful 2n& link8666...........................................................................................................22
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1NC Shell
The Affs frontierist justification for going into space replicates flae! e"ceptionalis# $ the rhetorical
fra#e of the 1AC #ust %e e&aluate!
'illings ( 7Lin-a: !h0: 5esear&h Asso&iate at S3T+ +nstitute: So&ietal +m,a&t of S,a&e Flight: ,. /;.</;/
htt,9))$ooks.google.&om)$ooks=i->?"l5@ATA&uBCC,g>!A/;.Cl,g>!A/;.C-D
The i-eas of frontier ,ioneering: &ontinual ,rogress: manifest -estin(: free enter,rise: an- rugge- in-i'i-ualism ha'e $een
,rominent in the Ameri&an national narrati'e: 4hi&h has &onstru&te- an- maintaine- an i-eolog( of EAmeri&anismEF4hat
it means to $e Ameri&an: an- 4hat Ameri&a is meant to $e an- -o. +n eG,loring the histor( of B.S. s,a&eflight: it is useful
to &onsi-er ho4 B.S. s,a&e a-'o&a&( mo'ements an- initiati'es ha'e inter,rete- an- -e,lo(e- the 'alues an- $eliefs
sustaine- $( this national narrati'e.The aim here is to illuminate the role an- fun&tion ot i-eolog( an- a-'o&a&( in the
histor( of s,a&eflight $( eGamining the rhetori& of s,a&eflight a-'o&a&(.H Starting from the ,remise that s,a&eflight has
,la(e- a role in the Ameri&an national narrati'e an- that this national narrati'e has ,la(e- a role in the histor( of
s,a&eflight: this ,a,er eGamines the relationshi, $et4een s,a&eflight an- this narrati'e. 3Gamining the histor( of
s,a&eflight a-'o&a&( re'eals an i-eolog( of s,a&eflight that -ra4s -ee,l( on a -ura$le Ameri&an &ultural narrati'eFa
national m(tholog(Fof frontier ,ioneering: &ontinual ,rogress: manifest -estin(: free enter,rise: rugge- in-i'i-ualism: an-
a right to life 4ithout limits. This i-eolog( rests on a num$er of assum,tions: or $eliefs: a$out the role of the Bnite- States
in the glo$al &ommunit(: the Ameri&an national &hara&ter: an- the ErightE form of ,oliti&al e&onom(. A&&or-ing to this
i-eolog(: the Bnite- States is an- must remain ENum$er #neE in the 4orl- &ommunit(: ,la(ing the role of ,oliti&al:
e&onomi&: s&ientifi&: te&hnologi&al: an- moral lea-er. That is: the Bnite- States is an- must $e eG&e,tional. This i-eolog(
&onstru&ts Ameri&ans as in-e,en-ent: ,ioneering: resour&eful: in'enti'e: an- eG&e,tional: an- it esta$lishes that li$eral
-emo&ra&( an- free<market &a,italism 7or &a,italist -emo&ra&(8 &onstitute the onl( 'ia$le form of ,oliti&al e&onom(.E The
rhetori& of s,a&e a-'o&a&( eGalts those en-uring Ameri&an 'alues of ,ioneering: ,rogress: enter,rise: free-om: an- rugge-
in-i'i-ualism: an- it a-'an&es the &ause of &a,italist -emo&ra&(. Hel'ing into the language or rhetori& of s,a&eflight is a
,ro-u&ti'e 4a( of eG,loring the meanings an- moti'es that are em$e--e- in an- &on'e(e- $( the i-eolog( an- a-'o&a&(
of s,a&eflightFthe &ultural narrati'e of ,ioneering the s,a&e frontier. A&&or-ing to rhetori&al &riti& Thomas LessI:
rhetori&al anal(sis &an she- some light on . . . JTJhe ,ro&esses of &ommuni&ation that un-er,in -e&ision making in free
so&ieties . . . .Ku-gments on matters of ,u$li& ,oli&( take their &ues from rhetori&: an- so an un-erstan-ing of an( so&iet( s
rhetori& 4ill tell us a lot a$out its i-eas: $eliefs: la4s: &ustoms an- assum,tionsFes,e&iall( ho4 an- 4h( su&h so&ial
features &ame into $eing.1 To $egin this: anal(sis: some -efinition of ke( &on&e,ts is 4arrante-: starting 4ith &ulture an-
&ommuni&ation. Anthro,ologist Cliffor- Loertzs -efinition of &ulture is o,erati'e in tins anal(sis9 MCulture is anJ
histori&all( transmitte- ,attern of meanings em$e--e- in s(m$ols: a s(stem of inherite- &on&e,tions eG,resse- in s(m$oli&
forms $( means of 4hi&h men &ommuni&ate: ,er,etuate an- -e'elo, their kno4le-ge a$out an- attitu-es to4ar- life. J+t is a
&onteGt 4ithin 4hi&h so&ial a&tion &an $eI intelligi$l'Fthat is: thi&kl(F-es&ri$e-.1 Nuil-ing on LeertzHs &on&e,tion:
&ommuni&ation theorist Kames Care( has &hara&terize- &ulture as a ,re-ominantl( rhetori&al &onstru&tion: Ea set of
,ra&ti&es: a mo-e of human a&ti'it(: a ,ro&ess 4here$( realit( is &reate-: maintaine- an- transforme-:E ,rimaril( $( means
of &ommuni&ation.EH So&ial norms &an $e &onstru&te-.,er,etuate-:an- resiste-Fan- i-eologies &an $e ,ro,agate-
FEthrough ritualize- &ommuni&ation ,ra&ti&es.E H?hen a-'o&ates s,eak of a-'an&ing s&ientifi& an- te&hnologi&al ,rogress
$( eG,loring an- eG,loiting the s,a&e frontier: the( are ,erforming ritual in&antations of a national m(th: re,eating a
&ultural narrati'e that affirms 4hat Ameri&a an- Ameri&ans are like an- are meant to -o. For the ,ur,oses of this anal(sis:
&ommuni&ation is a ritual: &ulture is &ommuni&ation: an- &ommuni&ation is &ulture. Stan-ar- -efinitions of i-eolog( an-
a-'o&a&( are o,erational here. An i-eolog( in .1 $elief s(stem 7,ersonal: ,oliti&al: so&ial: &ultural8. A-'o&a&( is the a&t of
arguing in fa'or of a &ause: i-ea: or ,oli&(.
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The I#pact is e"ceptionalist racis# an! the forgetting of atrocities
Spanos 200)* ?illiam O. PAmeri&an 3G&e,tionalism: the Keremia-: an- the Frontier9 From the !uritans to the Neo<Con<2enQ
+n a &ons&ious res,onse to this national anGiet(: !resi-ent Kenne-( i-entifie- his &am,aign an- later his a-ministration as
the Ne4 Frontier: no4 en'isione- as glo$al: though the imme-iate erran- 4as lo&ate- in the 4il-erness of Southeast
Asia: an- he intro-u&e- -omesti& an- foreign ,oli&ies inten-e- to &a,italize on the ,ersuasi'e ,o4er of the Ameri&an
eG&e,tionalist m(th of the frontier. As Kohn Hellman ,uts the Kenne-( a-ministration1s eGtension of the regenerati'e
frontier 7an- its im,erati'e of 'iolen&e8 in Ameri&an 2(th an- the Lega&( of Oietnam 9 The Ne4 Frontier ,ro&laime- that
the 4estern frontier: offi&iall( &lose- in 1;"* $( the Su,erinten-ent of the Census to mark for Turner the ominous en- of
the first era of Ameri&an histor(: &oul- remain in its meta,hori&al -imensions an o,en lan-s&a,e of &hallenge an-
,ossi$ilit(. +n this s(m$oli& frontier Ameri&a &oul- regenerate its tra-itional 'irtues 4hile ser'ing future ,rogress. Here the
in-i'i-ual Ameri&an &oul- flee the &it( (et s,rea- the -ominion of that &it(: take forth ,rogress (et $ring $a&k natural
'irtue: an- thus resol'e in a mi--le lan-s&a,e the &onfli&t $et4een &ontem,orar( Ameri&an so&iet( an- tra-itional
Ameri&an &hara&ter an- ,ur,ose in the same 4a( it ha- $een resol'e- in Ameri&an m(thi& eG,erien&e sin&e Coo,er1s
Leathersto&king Tales. . . . M3I'er( as,e&t of the Ne4 Frontier e'oke- the i-eal foun- in The Ugly American: the i-eal
&entral to the Ameri&an m(thi& heritage9 that Ameri&a &oul- ,reser'e the re4ar-s of gra&e onl( $( a -isregar- for them in
,ursuit of its erran-s.1; A &ru&ial -ifferen&e se,arates this e,o&hal &ontem,orar( o&&asion from the earlier histor( + ha'e
in'oke-. ?hereas the $enignit( of the eG&e,tionalist erran- 4as rarel( Duestione- in the ,ast: no -ou$t $e&ause the logi& of
eG&e,tionalism 4as in ,ro&ess $ut unfulfille-: the erran- in the Oietnam 4il-erness ina-'ertentl( ,ro-u&e- a
&ounterhistor(. +n the fa&e of an enem( that refuse- to $e ans4era$le to the militar( im,erati'es of the Ameri&an narrati'e:
Ameri&a: &onfi-ent in the righteousness of its trans&en-entall( or-aine- glo$al erran-: ,ursue- the ineGora$le logi&al
e&onom( of eG&e,tionalism to its self<-estru&ti'e fulfillment. +n the name of sa'ing Oietnam for the free 4orl-: it
unleashe- a 4ar of attrition that eG,ose- the 4ill to ,o4er informing Ameri&a s inter'ention in Oietnam. +n
un-ertaking this ruthless inter'ention in ,re&isel( the terms of the -is&ourse an- ,ra&ti&e of the frontier: it also $ore 4itness
to the histori&al &ontinuit( of the mur-erous 'iolen&e informing the logi& of Ameri&a s mission from the !uritan erran- in
the Ne4 3nglan- 4il-erness to the Ameri&an erran- in the 4il-erness of Oietnam. +n sum: Ameri&a s $rutal &on-u&t of
the Oietnam ?ar ,re&i,itate- the h(,otheti&al self<-estru&tion of the m(th of Ameri&an eG&e,tionalism an- the
meta,h(si&s that is its sour&e an- %ustifi&ation: a self<-estru&tion s(m$oli&all( e,itomize- in the &losing -a(s of the 4ar $(
the humiliating glo$al s,e&ta&le of the Ameri&an -i,lomati& &or,s: in utter -isarra(: s&ram$ling to $e lifte- to safet( off the
roof of the Ameri&an 3m$ass( in Saigon as their Oietnamese &lients &lamore- for ,rote&tion $e(on- the iron gates. Nut this
memor(: 4hi&h &ame to $e &alle- the Oietnam S(n-rome: 4as -imme- -o4n : if not entirel( effa&e-: $( the long
i-eologi&al effort of the -ominant &ulture to forget Oietnam: ai-e- $( the im,losion of the So'iet Bnion an- the
surgi&al -efeat of +raD in the first Lulf ?ar. The &onseDuen&es of this stu-ie- amnesia& rea&tion to the -is,ersion of
the Ameri&an national i-entit( in the 1"6*s 4ere re'olutionar(. #ne 4as the -e&isi'e emergen&e at the en- of the &entur(
of a nationalist neo&onser'ati'ism: e,itomize- $( a seDuen&e of trium,halist re,resentations of Ameri&a1s eG&e,tionalist
glo$al mission 7Fuku(ama: Haass: an- others8: eGem,lifie- $( the 4hite ,a,er entitle- P5e$uil-ing Ameri&a1s 0efenses:Q
,ro-u&e- in 2**2 $( neo&onser'ati'e mem$ers of The !ro%e&t for the Ne4 Ameri&an Centur( 7!NAC8. This ,a,er
anti&i,ate- the -e&ision of the Leorge ?. Nush a-ministration 7man( of 4hose mem$ers $elonge- to !NAC8 to o'erthro4
Sa--am Hussein in the name of the P!aG Ameri&ana:Q a Puni,olar 4orl-Q -ominate- $( the Bnite- States.1" Another
eDuall( im,ortant result 4as the ,re&i,itation of a 'irulent: ,oliti&all( rea&tionar( strain of e'angeli&al Christianit(
remarka$l( reminis&ent in its ra&ist an- ethni& ,re%u-i&es of the theo&rati& ,ers,e&ti'e that: -es,ite the &onstitutional
se,aration of &hur&h an- state: has al4a(s $een a ,o4erful ,oliti&al for&e in Ameri&a. A thir- &onseDuen&e 4as the ele&tion
in 2*** of Leorge ?. Nush: 4hose -omesti& an- foreign ,oli&ies ha'e &om$ine- the neo&onser'ati'es1 7P-efensi'eQ8
glo$al im,erialism 4ith the religious 5ight1s Christian eG&e,tionalism. +n kee,ing 4ith the ,ara-oGi&al logi& of the frontier
m(th: ho4e'er: this ,ost<Oietnam re&u,eration of &onfi-en&e ,re&i,itate- a ne4 national anGiet( in Ameri&an offi&ial-om9
an anGiet(: in the fa&e of the -emise of the threat of international &ommunism: o'er the a$sen&e of a frontier)enem( to
instigate the anGiet( that has $een the sine Dua non of the re%u'enating eG&e,tionalist erran-. Furthermore: this ne4 anGiet(
o'er the threat of ,ea&e an- the -emise of the frontier 4as eGa&er$ate- $( the -emogra,hi& transformation that ha-
o&&urre- in the Bnite- States sin&e the Oietnam ?ar an- the &i'il rights mo'ement. + mean the massi'e influG of
immigrants: es,e&iall( from Latin Ameri&a: 2eGi&o: an- Asia: 4ho: &ou,le- 4ith Afri&an Ameri&ans an- unlike ,re'ious
generations: ha'e resiste- the se-u&tions of assimilation to the Anglo<!rotestant &ore &ulture.
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Frontier k DDI 2011
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Anal+,ing the fra#ing of the Affir#ati&e is a prior -uestion $ the fra#e of frontieris# #ust %e rejecte!
Neal . 7Oalerie Neal is a &urator at the National Air an- S,a&e 2useum 0r. Oalerie Neal earne- a !h.0. in Ameri&an stu-ies from
the Bni'ersit( of 2innesota in 1"": follo4ing an 2.A. in Ameri&an stu-ies from the Bni'ersit( of Southern California: an- a N.A. in
3nglish an- histor( from TeGas Christian Bni'ersit(. She has taught at the Bni'ersit( of 2innesota: the Bni'ersit( of Ala$ama in
Hunts'ille: an- Oan-er$ilt Bni'ersit(. Nefore %oining the 2useum: 0r. Neal s,ent a -e&a-e as a 4riter: e-itor: an- manager for some
5* NASA ,u$li&ations on shuttle an- S,a&ela$ missions: the Hu$$le S,a&e Teles&o,e an- other great o$ser'atories: the s,a&e
s&ien&es: an- NASA histor(. She also ,arti&i,ate- in un-er4ater astronaut<training a&ti'ities an- 4orke- on the mission management
su,,ort team for four shuttle missions. Framing the 2eanings of S,a&eflight in the Shuttle 3ra htt,9))histor(.nasa.go')s,/;*1<
&ha,ter5.,-f
To ,ursue these Duestions a$out the meaning of Shuttle<era human s,a&eflight: it is hel,ful to a,,l( some &on&e,ts: terms:
an- te&hniDues from the literature of Pframe anal(sisQ that has $e&ome ,rominent in so&ial s&ien&e -is&i,lines: es,e&iall( in
me-ia stu-ies an- the stu-( of so&ial mo'ements. 1 in this &onteGt human s,a&eflight &an $e &onsi-ere- a so&ial mo'ement
that has an a&tion agen-a: an im,erati'e to muster resour&es: an- a nee- to mo$ilize ,u$li& su,,ort in or-er to &arr( out its
agen-a. NASA is the hu$ of this so&ial mo'ement: 4ith aeros,a&e &om,anies: s,a&e so&ieties: other go'ernment entities:
an- auGiliaries in the a-'o&a&( &ommunit(: in&lu-ing some in the me-ia. to anal(ze ho4 so&ial mo'ements moti'ate ,u$li&
su,,ort: some s&holars fo&us on framing ,ro&esses: an- the( use the term PframingQ for the P&onstru&tion of meaning.Q
Framing is the ,a&kaging of messages that resonate 4ith &ore 'alues an- a,,eal to su,,orters. a P&olle&ti'e a&tion frameQ is
a &onstru&t of i-eas an- meanings $ase- on share- $eliefs an- 'alues that 4ill moti'ate su,,ort. 2 it is the &on&e,tual
analog( to a stru&tural frame4ork or a ,i&ture frame. the s,a&e ra&e an- the s,a&e frontier are su&h &on&e,tual frames.
Frames are Pthe $asi& frame4orks of un-erstan-ing a'aila$le in our so&iet( for making sense out of e'entsQR the( hel, to
ren-er e'ents meaningful: organize eG,erien&e: gui-e a&tion: an- sim,lif( an- &on-ense as,e&ts of the 4orl-. . the( are
inten-e- to moti'ate su,,ort an- -isarm o,,osition: to ins,ire a-herents: an- to legitimize the a&ti'ities an- &am,aigns of a
so&ial mo'ement. Frames ,ro'i-e &onteGt for a ,ro,ose- a&tion or ,oli&(. o,,onents ma( &ontest or &hallenge them 4ith
&ounter<frames. / the mo$ilizing ,oten&( of a frame lies in its &re-i$ilit( an- resonan&e. it must $e &onsistent 4ith the fa&ts
an- goals of the mo'ement: an- it must resonate 4ith the $eliefs: 'alues: an- interests of the targete- su,,ort &ommunit( or
&onstituents. e'en more $roa-l(: it shoul- ha'e Pnarrati'e fi-elit(Q or &oheren&e 4ith &ultural assum,tions an- m(ths in the
,u$li& -omain. a&ti'ists use &ultural resour&esF $eliefs: 'alues: m(thsFas a Ptool kitQ to make their &ause a,,ealing an-
$elie'a$le: an- au-ien&es also use them to gauge resonan&e. 5 Ne&ause framing is an intentional ,ro&ess: frames nee- not
$e stati&. the( &an e'ol'e as &ir&umstan&es &hange: either to a&&ount for uneG,e&te- e'ents or to $etter a,,eal to the target
&ommunit(. To mo$ilize su,,ort: a frame ma( nee- to $e fairl( elasti&. 6
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Frontier k DDI 2011
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2NC Turns Case Args
Turns the aff $ ensures #one+ is spent inefficientl+
'illings 0( 7Lin-a Nillings is a resear&h ,rofessor at the Leorge ?ashington Bni'ersit( S&hool of 2e-ia an- !u$li& Affairs in
?ashington: 0.C. She -oes &ommuni&ation resear&h for the National Aeronauti&s an- S,a&e A-ministration1s 7NASA1s8 astro$iolog(
,rogram in the S&ien&e 2ission 0ire&torate. She also a-'ises NASA1s Senior S&ientist for 2ars 3G,loration an- !lanetar( !rote&tion
#ffi&er on &ommuni&ations. 0r. Nillings earne- her !h.0. in mass &ommuni&ation from the +n-iana Bni'ersit( S&hool of Kournalism:
2.A. in international transa&tions from Leorge 2ason Bni'ersit(: an- N.A. in so&ial s&ien&es from the State Bni'ersit( of Ne4 Sork
at Ninghamton 7no4 Ninghamton Bni'ersit(8. 0r. Nillings 4as a mem$er of the staff for the National Commission on S,a&e 71";5<
;68: a,,ointe- $( !resi-ent 5eagan to -e'elo, a long<term ,lan for s,a&e eG,loration. She is a mem$er of ?omen in Aeros,a&e
7?+A8 an- ser'e- as an offi&er of ?+A for 15 (ears: most re&entl( as ,resi-ent 72**.8. She re&ei'e- an #utstan-ing A&hie'ement
A4ar- from ?+A in 1""1. +n 2**: she 4as a Cheetah Conser'ation Station inter,reter at the National @oo in ?ashington: 0.C.
S,a&e !oli&( PFrontier 0a(s in S,a&e9 Are The( #'erQ htt,9))lin-a$illings.org)l$T,a,ers)FrontierTan-TS,a&e.,-f
Nut at the en- of the 2*th &entur( it ma( $e time to a$an-on: or at least rethink: the frontier meta,hor. The so&ial: ,oliti&al:
e&onomi& an- &ultural &onteGt of the B.S. &i'il s,a&e ,rogram has &hange- ra-i&all( sin&e the 1"6*s. NASA1s 2er&ur(:
Lemini: an- A,ollo ,rograms 4ere ,ro-u&ts of a geo,oliti&al &om,etition that is no4: 4ith the en- of the Col- ?ar:
histor(. +n the ,ost<Col- ?ar 4orl-: geoe&onomi& &om,etition is a ,re'ailing for&e. Thus: the rationale of national se&urit(
no longer masks the aeros,a&e in-ustr(1s relentless -ri'e for ,rofit. This ,rofit moti'e threatens to un-ermine future s,a&e
eG,loration efforts: $( a$sor$ing most of NASA1s $u-get into infrastru&ture ,ro%e&ts. ?ith ,rofiteers lan-ing &ontra&ts for
multi$illion<-ollar laun&h s(stems an- or$ital fa&ilities an- talking of mining the asteroi-s an- $uil-ing on the moon: s,a&e
a-'o&ates nee- to reeGamine 4hat the frontier meta,hor means to-a(.
1istor+ is not a #atter of !estin+ $ frontier rhetoric ensures the roll%ack of non2#ilitar+ space uses $ co2
option
'illings 0( 7Lin-a Nillings is a resear&h ,rofessor at the Leorge ?ashington Bni'ersit( S&hool of 2e-ia an- !u$li& Affairs in
?ashington: 0.C. She -oes &ommuni&ation resear&h for the National Aeronauti&s an- S,a&e A-ministration1s 7NASA1s8 astro$iolog(
,rogram in the S&ien&e 2ission 0ire&torate. She also a-'ises NASA1s Senior S&ientist for 2ars 3G,loration an- !lanetar( !rote&tion
#ffi&er on &ommuni&ations. 0r. Nillings earne- her !h.0. in mass &ommuni&ation from the +n-iana Bni'ersit( S&hool of Kournalism:
2.A. in international transa&tions from Leorge 2ason Bni'ersit(: an- N.A. in so&ial s&ien&es from the State Bni'ersit( of Ne4 Sork
at Ninghamton 7no4 Ninghamton Bni'ersit(8. 0r. Nillings 4as a mem$er of the staff for the National Commission on S,a&e 71";5<
;68: a,,ointe- $( !resi-ent 5eagan to -e'elo, a long<term ,lan for s,a&e eG,loration. She is a mem$er of ?omen in Aeros,a&e
7?+A8 an- ser'e- as an offi&er of ?+A for 15 (ears: most re&entl( as ,resi-ent 72**.8. She re&ei'e- an #utstan-ing A&hie'ement
A4ar- from ?+A in 1""1. +n 2**: she 4as a Cheetah Conser'ation Station inter,reter at the National @oo in ?ashington: 0.C.
S,a&e !oli&( PFrontier 0a(s in S,a&e9 Are The( #'erQ htt,9))lin-a$illings.org)l$T,a,ers)FrontierTan-TS,a&e.,-f
This rhetori& is ol- an- tire-: e'en threatening to-a(: an- &ertainl( not suite- to the &urrent glo$al ,oliti&al en'ironment.
Set it ,ersists among s,a&e a-'o&ates: su,,orte- $( a ,re'ailing $elief among Ameri&ans that the Bnite- States remains
PNum$er #neQ among all the nations of the 4orl-. 3'en !resi-ent Nill Clinton has -es&ri$e- his &ountr( as Pthe 4orl-1s
onl( su,er,o4er.Q The rhetori& of the B.S. s,a&e ,rogram: a rhetori& &on&ei'e- $( Ameri&a1s militar( in-ustrial &om,leG:
,ersistentl( retains the i-ea of manifest -estin( as a mo$ilizing &on&e,t. As the theor( of histori&al materialism eG,lains:
histor( is not a matter of P-estin(Q $ut human<ma-e. Nonetheless: the rhetori& of manifest -estin( still ,ermeates ,u$li&
-is&ourses on national i-entit( an- national se&urit(. An- s,a&e eG,loration is still -es&ri$e- as ,ioneering the frontier:
&onDuering the unkno4n: eG,loiting s,a&e resour&es. The Col- ?ar rhetori& an- to-a(1s rhetori& are 'irtuall( the same.
This sort of thinking reinfor&es the i-ea that &onDuest an- eG,loitation are reasona$le en-s for s,a&e eG,loration. Ameri&an
s,a&e eG,loration initiati'es to-a( are ostensi$l( inten-e- to ,romote glo$al lea-ershi,: e&onomi& &om,etiti'eness:
s&ientifi& eG&ellen&e: an- te&hnologi&al ,rogress. Nut the i-ea of &onDuest an- eG,loitation for the sake of ,rofit is an
insi-ious threat to a&hie'ing an( of these en-s.
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2NC 1eg 4ink
The pursuit of hege#on+ uphol!s the 56anifest Destin+7 i!eolog+
'illings 2011: 7Lin-a P2e-ia: S,iritualities: an- So&ial ChangeQ: Ne4 Sork9 Continuum: 2*11 +L8
The i-eas of frontier ,ioneering: &ontinual ,rogress: manifest -estin(: free enter,rise: rugge- in-i'i-ualism: an- a right to life 4ithout
limits ha'e $een ,rominent in the &ultural narrati'e that has &onstru&te- an- maintaine- an i-eolog( of UAmeri&anism1 V 4hat it means
to $e Ameri&an: an- 4hat Ameri&a is meant to $e: an- -o./ A&&or-ing to this i-eolog(: the Bnite- States is an- must remain UNum$er
#ne1 in the 4orl- &ommunit(: ,la(ing the role of ,oliti&al: e&onomi&: s&ientifi&: te&hnologi&al: an- moral lea-er. From this i-eologi&al
,ers,e&ti'e: li$eral -emo&ra&( an- free<market &a,italism &onstitute the onl( 'ia$le form of ,oliti&al e&onom(.5 #ffi&ial an- ,o,ular
a&&ounts of the B.S. &i'ilian s,a&e ,rogram ,la&e it firml( 4ithin this national narrati'e. Though the &ontem,orar( &ultural
en'ironment is 'astl( -ifferent from that of the Col-<?ar era: the offi&ial B.S. narrati'e of s,a&e eG,loration to-a( is still intimatel(
intert4ine- 4ith 4hat feminist &riti& Susan Falu-i 72**8 &alls se&urit( m(th an- nationalist fantas(: a stor( of &o4$o(s on the s,a&e
frontier. Throughout the first 5* (ears of s,a&e eG,loration: the mass me-ia ha'e hel,e- to ,er,etuate this national narrati'e 4ith its
themes of &onDuest an- eG,loitation in their &o'erage of the B.S. &i'ilian s,a&e ,rogram. At the same time: the me-ia ha'e also
ena$le- &itizens to see !lanet 3arth from s,a&e: an o,,ortunit( that has hel,e- to foster the -e'elo,ment of en'ironmental
&ons&iousness 4orl-4i-e.
2NC Coloni,ation 4ink
The state u,hol-s the &olonization of the final frontier an- eGten-s the 'alues of &a,italist im,erialism through
s,a&e ,oli&(
'illings 2011: 7Lin-a P2e-ia: S,iritualities: an- So&ial ChangeQ: Ne4 Sork9 Continuum: 2*11 +L8
To-a( national ,oli&( ,romotes &olonization: $ut 4ith a -ifferent rationale. +n the 21st &entur(: national ,oli&( a-'o&ates Uthe 2oon<
2ars thing1 as a means of o,ening u, the solar s(stem to ,ri'ate ,ro,ert( &laims: resour&e eG,loitation: an- &ommer&ial -e'elo,ment.
!resi-ent Leorge ?. Nush1s ?hite House #ffi&e of S&ien&e an- Te&hnolog( !oli&( 0ire&tor Kohn 2ar$urger 72**68 on&e sai- that
UDuestions a$out the M!resi-ent1sI 'ision Mfor s,a&e eG,lorationI $oil -o4n to 4hether 4e 4ant to in&or,orate the Solar S(stem in our
e&onomi& s,here: or not: Man-I for no4 the Duestion has $een -e&i-e- in the affirmati'e.1 A&&or-ing to 2ar$urger: Uthe fun-amental
goal of Mthe !resi-ent1sI 'ision is to a-'an&e B.S. s&ientifi&: se&urit(: an- e&onomi& interests through a ro$ust s,a&e eG,loration
,rogram.1 !ro,onents of ,ri'ate ,ro,ert( &laims: resour&e eG,loitation: an- &ommer&ial -e'elo,ment in s,a&e hear- these 4or-s as a
&all to a&tion. A fun-amental goal of B.S. s,a&e ,oli&( is to Ustrengthen the nation1s s,a&e lea-ershi,:1 an- offi&ial rhetori& has ten-e-
to reinfor&e the i-ea of B.S. -ominan&e in s,a&e. At a meeting 4ith the ?ashington s,a&e &ommunit( in A,ril 2**5: NASA
A-ministrator 2i&hael Lriffin: a Nush ,oliti&al a,,ointee: sai- that 4hen human &i'ilization rea&hes the ,oint 4here more ,eo,le are
li'ing off the 3arth than on it: U4e 4ant their &ulture to $e ?estern.1 ?estern &i'ilization: he asserte-: is Uthe $est 4e1'e seen so far in
human histor(:1 an- the 'alues s,a&e<faring ,eo,le shoul- take 4ith them into s,a&e shoul- $e ?estern 'alues.6 Though Lriffin later
tem,ere- his rhetori&: until he left offi&e in 0e&em$er 2**; he an- his -e,uties &ontinue- to -es&ri$e a human future in s,a&e 4here
UAmeri&ans1 are in &harge. #ffi&ial s,a&e rhetori& $oth &on'e(s the i-ea that the Bnite- States is an- must remain Num$er #ne in the
glo$al s,a&e arena an- refle&ts an assum,tion that the 'alues of materialism: &onsumerism: an- h(,er<&onsum,tion ,re'alent to-a(
are 'alues 4orth eGten-ing into the solar s(stem. The ,o,ular rhetori& of s,a&e a-'o&a&( refle&ts these assum,tions as 4ell. The
&on&e,tion of outer s,a&e a-'an&e- $( a-'o&ates of settlement: &olonization: an- -e'elo,ment em$o-ies the i-ea of a solar s(stem
7an- $e(on-8 of 4i-eo,en s,a&es an- limitless resour&es V a s,a&e frontier.
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2NC 4inear Ti#e 4ink Stuff
Their portra+al of the frontier is part an! parcel ith a linear conception of ti#e $ that is a !angerousl+
flae! historical un!erstan!ing
'illings . 7Lin-a Nillings is a resear&h ,rofessor at the Leorge ?ashington Bni'ersit( S&hool of 2e-ia an- !u$li& Affairs in
?ashington: 0.C. She -oes &ommuni&ation resear&h for the National Aeronauti&s an- S,a&e A-ministration1s 7NASA1s8 astro$iolog(
,rogram in the S&ien&e 2ission 0ire&torate. She also a-'ises NASA1s Senior S&ientist for 2ars 3G,loration an- !lanetar( !rote&tion
#ffi&er on &ommuni&ations. 0r. Nillings earne- her !h.0. in mass &ommuni&ation from the +n-iana Bni'ersit( S&hool of Kournalism:
2.A. in international transa&tions from Leorge 2ason Bni'ersit(: an- N.A. in so&ial s&ien&es from the State Bni'ersit( of Ne4 Sork
at Ninghamton 7no4 Ninghamton Bni'ersit(8. 0r. Nillings 4as a mem$er of the staff for the National Commission on S,a&e 71";5<
;68: a,,ointe- $( !resi-ent 5eagan to -e'elo, a long<term ,lan for s,a&e eG,loration. She is a mem$er of ?omen in Aeros,a&e
7?+A8 an- ser'e- as an offi&er of ?+A for 15 (ears: most re&entl( as ,resi-ent 72**.8. She re&ei'e- an #utstan-ing A&hie'ement
A4ar- from ?+A in 1""1. +n 2**: she 4as a Cheetah Conser'ation Station inter,reter at the National @oo in ?ashington: 0.C PTo
the 2oon: 2ars: an- Ne(on-9 Culture: La4 an- 3thi&s in S,a&e<Faring So&ietiesQ Fe$ruar( . 2**6
htt,9))lin-a$illings.org)l$T,a,ers)s,a&eTla4Tethi&sT&ulture.,-f
Historian Ste,hen !(ne 71";;8 has eG,laine- eG,loration as a &ultural in'ention that Preinfor&es an- reinter,retsWm(ths:
$eliefs: an- ar&het(,es $asi& to its originating &i'ilization.Q The mo-ern &ultural in'ention of eG,loration in 15th <&entur(
3uro,e fun&tione- as Pa means of kno4ing: of &reating &ommer&ial em,ires: of outmaneu'ering ,oliti&al e&onomi&:
religious: an- militar( &om,etitors V it as 4ar: -i,loma&(: ,rosel(tizing: s&holarshi,: an- tra-e $( other meansQ 7!(ne:
2**.8. The ,ostmo-ern eG,loration of s,a&e is -ifferent: !(ne has o$ser'e-. P?ith neither a ram$un&tious im,erialism nor
an eager 3nlightenment:Q the &ase for s,a&e &olonization is not &om,elling. 5ationales a-'an&e- for s,a&e settlement Pare
histori&al: &ulturall( $oun-: an- sele&ti'el( ane&-otal9 that 4e nee- to ,ioneer to $e 4hat 4e are: that ne4 &olonies are a
means of rene4ing &i'ilizationW.Q These rationales -o not resonate 4ell 4ith man( ,eo,le outsi-e the s,a&e &ommunit(
to-a(. S,a&e a-'o&ates &ontinue to &on&ei'e of PAmeri&an histor( MasI a straight line:Q historian !atri&ia Nelson Limeri&k
71""/8 has o$ser'e-: Pa 'e&tor of ine'ita$ilit( an- manifest -estin( linking the 4est4ar- eG,ansion of Anglo<Ameri&ans
-ire&tl( to the eG,loration an- &olonization of s,a&e. +n using this analog(: s,a&e a-'o&ates ha'e $uilt their ,lans for the
future on the foun-ation of a -ee,l( fla4e- un-erstan-ing of the ,ast: Man-I the $lin-ers 4orn to s&reen the ,ast ha'e
,ro'en to $e %ust as effe&ti'e at -istorting the 'ie4 of the future.
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That notion of ti#e naturali,es capitalis# as the cul#ination of hu#an enterprise
Khati% 10 7!rof. ,oliti&al e&onom( X FB Nerlin. PThe Time of Ca,ital an- the 2essiani&it( of Time9 2arG 4ith Nen%amin
PNo'em$er 22 2*1* htt,9))anthro,ologi&almaterialism.h(,otheses.org);//
Taking m( &ue from Agam$en1s ,lea: + 4ill argue in m( ,a,er that it is in 2arG himself that 4e &an fin- groun-s for a
materialist theor( of time. 2arG ne'er 4rote a &ha,ter on Pthe time of &a,italQR ho4e'er: the &on&e,t of time<as<measure is
&ru&ial to his entire theor( of the 'alue in terms of materialize-: P&ongeale-Q la$our. 0istilling from 2arG1s Umature1
4ritings on the &ritiDue of ,oliti&al e&onom( m( ,a,er &onfronts his im,li&it theor( of the Ptime of &a,ital1 4ith ?alter
Nen%amin1s late 4ritings on messiani& time as outline- in his famous theses On the Concept of History 71"/*8. Nen%amin1s
messiani& in'ersion of histori&al materialism a--resses 2arGism1s most -e&isi'e ,oints of &ritiDue9 718 the histori&ization of
&a,italism as a so&iall( s,e&ifi& an- histori&all( &ontingent mo-e of ,ro-u&tion: an- 728 the &on&e,tualization of histor( as
a ,ro&ess of -(nami& so&ial for&es an- their struggles. As 4e shall see: Nen%amin1s &riti&ism of 'ulgar<2arGist an-
histori&ist historiogra,h( la(s $are the fun-amental ,ara-oG of an( &on&e,t of histor( $ase- u,on linearit(: su&&ession: an-
homogeneit(. Nen%amin1s -ee,l( 2arGian Duestion is9 ho4 to &on&ei'e of a histori&al ,resen&e 4hi&h: on the one han-:
&onstitutes its o4n histori&al horizon 7that is to sa(: a histori&all( s,e&ifi& &ons&iousness of its e,o&h8 an-: on the other
han-: lo&ates itself 4ithin a meta< or trans<histori&al tra%e&tor( eGtrinsi& to this 'er( horizon 7that is to sa(: &a,italism itself
as one e,o&h 4ithin Weltgeschichte, ,re&e-e- $( Feu-alism et&.8. #r: to ,ut in -ifferent terms9 ho4 to histori&ize
&a,italism1s o4n mo-e of histori&ization 4ithout rel(ing on either a teleologi&al or a meta<histori&al &on&e,t of histor(.[3]
It is !ise#poering $ the inclusion of such an i!ea of ti#e ensures the failure of resistance
Khati% 10 7!rof. ,oliti&al e&onom( X FB Nerlin. PThe Time of Ca,ital an- the 2essiani&it( of Time9 2arG 4ith Nen%amin
PNo'em$er 22 2*1* htt,9))anthro,ologi&almaterialism.h(,otheses.org);//
As + 4ill argue: the histori&al horizon of this Pinfinite taskQ is ,re&isel( the Us,uriousl( infinite1 horizon of &a,italist time.
Against the latter: Nen%amin ,ro,oses a messiani& ,oliti&s of urgen&( that is o,,ose- to neo<Kantian i-ealism as 4ell as to
an( se&ular or religious 'ersions of So&ial 0emo&ra&(. ConseDuentl(: Nen%amin1s take on the messiani& i-ea is neither to $e
&onfuse- 4ith a theologi&al 'ersion of 2arGism nor 4ith a 2arGist a-a,tation of ,oliti&al theolog(R rather: he attem,ts to
&on&ei'e of a -ifferent histori&al tem,oralit( sus,en-ing an( linear an- ,rogressi'e &on&e,ts of futurit(. Although
Nen%amin full( affirms a 2arGian se&ularization of the i-ea of messiani& time: he -oes not &laim Pan atheologi&al heritage
of the messiani&Q[10]. !ara-oGi&all(: for Nen%amin profane histor( &an onl( $e trul( historical insofar as it maintains
stan-ing in an antitheti&al: unresol'a$le: an- un-e&i-a$le relation to the messianic. For PMoInl( the 2essiah himself
&om,letes all histor(: in the sense that he alone re-eems: &om,letes: &reates its relation to the 2essiani&.Q 7LS ++: 2*.8 This
ina&&essi$le relation 7or a<relation8 is not -ire&te- to4ar- a uto,ian future $ut a&&ounts for a &ertain &onstellation short<
&ir&uiting ,ast an- ,resent as No4<Time MJetztzeitI. This a<s(n&hroni& a&tualization of the ,ast &orres,on-s to a
Pweak messiani& ,o4erQ 7LS +: 6"/8 of ,ast generations stri'ing for re-em,tion. Thus: for Nen%amin histor( is not $ase- on
the linear: irre'ersi$le flo4 of Phomogeneous an- em,t( timeQ $ut on a P&on&e,tion of the ,resent as no4<time shot
through 4ith M,un&tuate- $(I s,linters of messiani& time.Q 7LS +: */8
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2NC AT 9er#utation
Footnoting science in fa&or of frontier rhetoric ensures a roll%ack of scientific #easures
Neal . 7Oalerie Neal is a &urator at the National Air an- S,a&e 2useum 0r. Oalerie Neal earne- a !h.0. in Ameri&an stu-ies from
the Bni'ersit( of 2innesota in 1"": follo4ing an 2.A. in Ameri&an stu-ies from the Bni'ersit( of Southern California: an- a N.A. in
3nglish an- histor( from TeGas Christian Bni'ersit(. She has taught at the Bni'ersit( of 2innesota: the Bni'ersit( of Ala$ama in
Hunts'ille: an- Oan-er$ilt Bni'ersit(. Nefore %oining the 2useum: 0r. Neal s,ent a -e&a-e as a 4riter: e-itor: an- manager for some
5* NASA ,u$li&ations on shuttle an- S,a&ela$ missions: the Hu$$le S,a&e Teles&o,e an- other great o$ser'atories: the s,a&e
s&ien&es: an- NASA histor(. She also ,arti&i,ate- in un-er4ater astronaut<training a&ti'ities an- 4orke- on the mission management
su,,ort team for four shuttle missions. Framing the 2eanings of S,a&eflight in the Shuttle 3ra htt,9))histor(.nasa.go')s,/;*1<
&ha,ter5.,-f
+nfluential 'oi&es outsi-e The Ne4 Sork Times also -ou$te- the 'alue of the s,a&e station an- the meaning of human
s,a&eflight in s&ientifi& resear&h. S,a&e s&ientist Kames Oan allen 4as one of the earliest an- most earnest &riti&s. he ma-e
the ,oint: often re,eate- in The Ne4 Sork Times: that Pthe o'er4helming ma%orit( of s&ientifi& an- utilitarian
a&hie'ements in s,a&e ha'e &ome from unmanne-: automate- an- &omman-a$le s,a&e&raft.Q ro$oti& satellites an-
,lanetar( ,ro$es ha- a-'an&e- the frontiers of kno4le-ge Duite su&&essfull( an- at far less &ost than ,eo,le &oul-. Oan
allen argue- that the s,a&e station 4oul- seriousl( -iminish: not eG,an-: o,,ortunities for s&ientifi& a-'an&es. he foun- the
human s,a&eflight<for<s&ien&e frame to $e -isingenuous an- the high 'alue ,la&e- on ,ilote- light to $e eG&essi'e. .. Oan
allen suggeste- that the &ultural o$session 4ith human s,a&eflight -efie- reason 4hen the moti'e 4as s&ien&e: $ut he
grante- the ,o4er of ,o,ular interest in s&ien&e fi&tion an- the s,a&e ,rogram1s ,otential for &reating real a-'enture.
arguments of s&ientifi& ,ro-u&ti'it(: ho4e'er: -i- not -erail the s,a&e station an-: 2* (ears after Oan allen 4rote: his
&ritiDue has $een ,artl( 'in-i&ate-. instea- of Pthe ti-al 4a'e of $asi& s&ien&eQ that naSa ha- ,re-i&te- for the s,a&e station:
a tri&kle has flo4e-. ./ &ir&umstan&es ha'e reDuire- &re4s to s,en- more time o,erating an- maintaining the international
S,a&e Station than eG,loiting its &a,a$ilities for la$orator( s&ien&e. if there ha'e $een -is&o'eries from &utting e-ge
eG,eriments a$oar- the station: the( ha'e not $een 4ell a-'ertise- a realit( &he&k of this frame no4 4oul- likel( sho4 it
out of alignment 4ith its ,remises an- less resonant 4ith so&ietal 'alues than at its origin.
6utuall+ e"clusi&e ith the propert+ rights aff
'illings . 7Lin-a Nillings is a resear&h ,rofessor at the Leorge ?ashington Bni'ersit( S&hool of 2e-ia an- !u$li& Affairs in
?ashington: 0.C. She -oes &ommuni&ation resear&h for the National Aeronauti&s an- S,a&e A-ministration1s 7NASA1s8 astro$iolog(
,rogram in the S&ien&e 2ission 0ire&torate. She also a-'ises NASA1s Senior S&ientist for 2ars 3G,loration an- !lanetar( !rote&tion
#ffi&er on &ommuni&ations. 0r. Nillings earne- her !h.0. in mass &ommuni&ation from the +n-iana Bni'ersit( S&hool of Kournalism:
2.A. in international transa&tions from Leorge 2ason Bni'ersit(: an- N.A. in so&ial s&ien&es from the State Bni'ersit( of Ne4 Sork
at Ninghamton 7no4 Ninghamton Bni'ersit(8. 0r. Nillings 4as a mem$er of the staff for the National Commission on S,a&e 71";5<
;68: a,,ointe- $( !resi-ent 5eagan to -e'elo, a long<term ,lan for s,a&e eG,loration. She is a mem$er of ?omen in Aeros,a&e
7?+A8 an- ser'e- as an offi&er of ?+A for 15 (ears: most re&entl( as ,resi-ent 72**.8. She re&ei'e- an #utstan-ing A&hie'ement
A4ar- from ?+A in 1""1. +n 2**: she 4as a Cheetah Conser'ation Station inter,reter at the National @oo in ?ashington: 0.C PTo
the 2oon: 2ars: an- Ne(on-9 Culture: La4 an- 3thi&s in S,a&e<Faring So&ietiesQ Fe$ruar( . 2**6
htt,9))lin-a$illings.org)l$T,a,ers)s,a&eTla4Tethi&sT&ulture.,-f
The 4il-erness meta,hor has $een suggeste- as an alternati'e to the frontier. This meta,hor is en&om,asse- in the &on&e,t
of Pastroen'ironmentalism:Qthe i-ea of a,,l(ing the 'alues of en'ironmental ,rote&tion an- ,reser'ation to s,a&e
eG,loration 72iller: 2**5: 2**18. Treating the solar s(stem like Pa s,a&e 4il-erness to ,rote&tQ rather than a frontier to
eG,loit " &oul- kee, nu&lear 4ea,ons: nu&lear ,o4er: human<ma-e -e$ris: an- en'ironmental hazar-s out of s,a&e an-
,rohi$it ,ri'ate an- so'ereign ,ro,ert( &laims. The ,oint is to Pa'oi- making the same mistakes in s,a&e as 4e ha'e on
earthQ 72iller: 2**1: n.,.8
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2NC AT :%jecti&it+;Science
The in&ocation of apolitical science is a rhetorical plo+ 2 it ser&es to legiti#ate state interests
Fernau 0 7Flet&her Fernau is an author. He freDuentl( 4rites a$out s,a&e ,oli&( NA Ameri&an Bni'ersit( !utting B.S. S,a&e
!oli&( in ConteGt Ho4 Ha'e !oli&(makers 0ra4n on 3Gisting 5hetori&al Common,la&es to Legitimate B.S. S,a&e !oli&(= 2a(:
2**" htt,9))ala-inr&.4rl&.org)$itstream)1"61)".)1)Fernau:Y2*Flet&her:Y2*2**"S.,-f
3isenho4er usuall( -is&usses s,a&e in the &onteGt of s&ientifi& a-'an&ement. A 2a( 1/: 1"5; statement reiterates su,,ort
for a &i'ilian agen&( for s&ientifi& reasons. PS&ien&eQ as a rhetori&al &ommon,la&e 4as suite- to 3isenho4er1s st(le. His
,oli&( 4as for a measure-: rationall( ,lanne- an-: im,ortantl(: &i'ilian s,a&e ,rogram to go for4ar- on the Bnite- States
terms. S&ien&e: as ,o,ularl( un-erstoo-: 4as &on&e,tuall( linke- to su&h a ,oli&( -ire&tion. S&ien&e 4as rational: 4hi&h
ser'e- $oth to legitimate the a-ministration1s s,a&e ,oli&( 7P+f the s&ientists sa( Z is ne&essar( 4e shoul- -o itQ8 as 4ell as
to -efle&t the &om,etiti'e Ps,a&e ra&eQ mentalit( that 3isenho4er 4ante- to a'oi-. S&ien&e 4as su,,ose- to $e a,oliti&al:
something 4hi&h -i'or&e- it from the rhetori& of the Col- ?ar. S&ien&e 4as a ,rimaril( &i'ilian ,rofession: 4hi&h again
hel,e- to a'oi- militarism an- the Col- ?ar.
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2NC I#pact Car!s
<thnocentris# an! I#perialis# is !eepl+ ingraine! in e"pansion toar!s outer space
6arshall 00 7Alan 2arshall: ?ollongong: Australia9 S&ien&e an- Te&hnolog( Stu-ies: Bni'ersit( of ?ollongong: 1""": Letting a
share of the final frontier: http://www.uow.edu.au/arts/sts/TPP/marshall.html +L8
+t is -e$ata$le 4hether these ,eo,le are $asing their i-eolog( u,on soun- ,remises. +t &an $e argue-: for instan&e: that at
$est intelle&tual: humanitarian an- te&hnologi&al ,rogress 4as Duite in-e,en-ent of eG,ansion a&ross the Atlanti& an-
a&ross the ?est an- that at 4orst su&h eG,ansion onl( ga'e rise to an- refle&te- the o,,ressi'eness of 3uro,ean i-eas an-
te&hnolog(. An entren&he- ethno&entrism is &ontaine- 4ithin the frontierist attitu-e to s,a&e eG,ansion. There are t4o great
mo-ern stories of 4est4ar- eG,ansion. #ne is of glorious an- &i'ilise- 3uro<Ameri&an -is&o'er( an- settlement an- the
other is of im,erialist 'i&timisation of &olonise- ,eo,les. +t is Duestiona$le 4hether either of these t4o stories is a-eDuate
4hen -ealing 4ith the man( lo&al an- enormousl( heterogeneous histories of North Ameri&an ,eo,le: $ut the ,oint is that
s,a&e frontierists onl( e'er a-o,t one of these t4o great stories9 that of gran- an- glorious 3uro,ean eG,ansion. +n the
man( 4ritings of s,a&e frontierists there is har-l( a senten&e a&kno4le-ging the ,light of &olonise- ,eo,les in the fa&e of
su&h eG,ansion: eG&e,t 4hen it &omes to re$utting the legitima&( of the alternati'e stor(. S,a&e frontierists feel safe in
rein'igorating the i-eas of frontierism $e&ause there are no in-igenes on the other ,lanets. Thus im,erialism &an
fore'ermore $e eG&ise- from the final frontier $e&ause there 4ill $e no 'i&tims in its ,ursuit. +n this last ,oint: ho4e'er:
the( ma( $e grossl( mistaken.
Space Fronteris# uphol!s i#perialis#
6arshall 1003 7Alan 2arshall: +nstitute of 0e'elo,ment Stu-ies at 2asse( Bni'ersit(: !almerston North: Ne4 @ealan-:
P0e'elo,ment an- im,erialism in s,a&e:Q htt,9))444.s&ien&e-ire&t.&om)s&ien&e)arti&le),ii)*265"6/6"5".2..N +L8
Frontierism: ho4e'er: is not so mu&h a so&ial or ,s(&hologi&al &on&e,t as an e&onomi& ,hiloso,h(. +t emerges from the
in-i'i-ualism so entren&he- in Ameri&an ,oliti&al an- e&onomi& thought 74hi&h ser'es to se&ure the o,eration of UlC4
faire<ism1 as sa&rosan&t8. Frontierism in'ol'es a $elief in the in-i'i-ual to surmount the &hallenges of a ne4 situation: a
ne4 territor( or a ne4 en'ironment an- &ar'e out an eGisten&e. #n&e the in-i'i-ual has -one this the( -eser'e-l( &all that
territor( or en'ironment their o4n. N( this ,ro&ess the frontier gro4s larger an- &ar'es out an eGten-e- $ase for e&onomi&
an- -emogra,hi& eG,ansion: so &ontri$uting to the 4ealth of the nation 7or more a&&uratel( to the 4ealth of the
$ourgeoisie8 $( turning un,ro-u&ti'e lan- into an e&onomi& resour&e. +n BS histor(: as in the histor( of some of the other
Ne4 ?orl- nations: frontierism 4as an e&onomi& ,oli&( -esigne- to tame the 4il-erness an- ,resent it in e&onomi& terms
as soon as ,ossi$le. +n realit( frontierism is a more a&&e,te- an- so&iall(<sensiti'e 4or- for &a,italist im,erialism: sin&e
7%ust as in &a,italist im,erialism8 it in'ol'es the a,,ro,riation of e&onomi& resour&es that are &onsi-ere- ,re'iousl(
uno4ne-. Like &a,italist im,erialism: frontierism ,er&ei'es nothing of 'alue in the frontier lan-s eG&e,t 4hat &an $e
s&ra,e- from it e&onomi&all( an- &on'erte- into &a,ital. +n nineteenth<&entur( BSA: the 'alue of nati'e ,eo,les an- the
'alue of the lan-s&a,e 4as arrogantl( ignore- as the ?est 4as ma-e to su&&um$ to the utilitarianism of the im,erialisti&
&a,italists. Su&h is also the outlook of those 4ho a-'o&ate ,ioneering the UFinal Frontier1. Frontierists 'ie4s that the ,lanets
an- moons of the solar s(stem are 'alueless hunks of ro&k until a&te- u,on $( humans to ,ro-u&e e&onomi& 'alue an-
&ontri$ute to &a,ital a&&umulation. S,a&e frontierists su&h as ?ernher 'on Nraun: Arthur C Clark: Kraft 3hri&k: ?illiam
Hartmann an- Lerar- #1Neill feel that im,erialism &an $e eG&ise- from their frontierism $( a,,ealing to the innate
&uriosit( in our ,ersonal &ons&iousness. To them: frontierism in s,a&e 4ill am,l( &hannel the human ,ro,ensit( to eG,lore
an- eG,an- in a &onstru&ti'e an- $ene'olent 4a(. These rationales for s,a&e eG,ansion must: ho4e'er: stan- u, for
themsel'es: sin&e the( are ultimatel( se,arate from the frontierism eG,erien&e- in histor(. The fa&t that there is &onfusion
$et4een these so&io<,s(&hologi&al elements an- the a&tual e&onomi& nature of fronterism in mo-ern -a( &alls for s,a&e
-e'elo,ment gi'es &re-it to the nineteenth &entur( i-ealogues 4ho so &on'in&ingl( tie- $ourgeois e&onomi& ,oli&( 4ith
,o,ulist i-eolog( that it &ontinues to fool so man( into $elie'ing fronterism is a 4orth( nationalist 7e'en uni'ersalist8 i-eal.
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Space <"ploration is !eepl+ i#perialist an! pro#otes unsustaina%le resource e"traction
'illings 2011: 7Lin-a P2e-ia: S,iritualities: an- So&ial ChangeQ: Ne4 Sork9 Continuum: 2*11 +L8
To sum u,: the -ominant narrati'e of B.S. s,a&e eG,loration is -ee,l( em$e--e- in an en-uring national narrati'e of
Ameri&an eG&e,tionalism that %ustifies unilateral a&tion an- the glo$alization of Ameri&an &a,italist -emo&ra&( an-
material ,rogress. Nut the stor( of s,a&e eG,loration is also 4o'en into a &om,eting narrati'e: a 'ision of Uuto,ian i-eas of
&olle&ti'e ,rogress1 7!enle(: 1"": ,,. 2*<2*;8 an- Ua s,iritual hum$ling of self1 75ushing: 1";6: ,. 2;/8. This &om,eting
narrati'e ma( ser'e as fo--er for $roa- ,u$li& -ialogue on ,ossi$le human futures in s,a&e: the s,iritual as 4ell as ,oliti&al
or e&onomi& or s&ientifi& 'alue of s,a&e eG,loration. U?hat is the s,a&e ,rogram for=1 asks AlterNet 4riter an- ,oliti&al
a&ti'ist Ta- 0ale(. U?h( shoul- ,rogressi'esW&areW=1 0ale( argues that s,a&e eG,loration -oes ha'e a ,ur,ose9 to
remin- us Uthat 4e ha'e o$ligations an- res,onsi$ilities not %ust to oursel'esW$ut also to the &ommunit(.1 He also argues
that s,a&e eG,loration ultimatel( 4ill ena$le U,lanetar( ,atriotism1 to take the ,la&e of Unational ,atriotism1 an- ,erha,s
Uengen-er ,ermanent human ,ea&e as 4ell1 70ale(: 2**: n.,.8. The -ominant &ultural narrati'e of s,a&e eG,loration
-e,i&ts outer s,a&e as a sort of su,ermarket of resour&es: o,en to eG,loitation $( 4hoe'er gets there first. A su$or-inate
narrati'e ,resents outer s,a&e as a ,ristine 4il-erness to $e stu-ie- an- a,,re&iate- $ut left unaltere-. +n ,u$li& -ialogue:
other narrati'es ma( emerge to eG,lain the human future in s,a&e. +n the mi-<1"*s: anthro,ologist Ashle( 2ontagu tol- a
NASA<s,onsore- s(m,osium on the su$%e&t of Ulife $e(on- 3arth an- the min- of man1 that ,eo,le Uare no longer humane
$eings: $ut si&k ,ersons V a si&kness in-u&e- $( the 4orshi, of false 'alues.1 2ontagu re&ommen-e- ,re,aring for 4hat he
&onsi-ere- to $e the e'entual -is&o'er( of eGtraterrestrial life U$( $e&oming 4hat (ou ought to $e: $( realizing (our
e'olutionar( -estin(: 4hi&h is to li'e as if to li'e an- to lo'e 4ere one1 7Neren-zen: 1".: ,. 268.
I#perialis# in space just enhances econo#ic ine-ualities=
Allen 6arshal: Alan 2arshall is in the +nstitute of 0e'elo,ment Stu-ies at 2asse( Bni'ersit(: !almerston North: Ne4 @ealan-:
2)03: 0e'elo,ment an- +m,erialism in S,a&e: ,g 1*.
5eturning to eGtra<or$ital s,a&e -e'elo,ment: man( are $oun- to enDuire9 U4hat is 4rong 4ith im,erialism in outer s,a&e if
there are no in-igenous ,eo,les there=1 Apart fro# the anthropocentris# inherent in this -uestion*>s hat is
pro%le#atic a%out e"traterrestrial i#perialis# is that it ill increase econo#ic ine-ualities %eteen the <arths
nations %+ gi&ing ine-uita%le access to* hat #a+ e&entuall+ %e* significant a#ounts of resources . ?hat also has to $e
note- is that im,erialism in'ol'es -ominion o'er territor( an- not %ust ,eo,le. The out&ome of this -ominion $eing that
others 4ho ha'e legitimate &laim on the resour&es 4ithin those 7eGtraterrestrial8 territories are effe&ti'el( eG< &lu-e-
from using them.
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2NC Alternati&e; In!i&i!uals ke+
All rejections of the 5Frontier 6entalit+7 are ke+ to !econstruction this #entalit+= The #+th on 6anifest
!estin+ is %uilt on in!i&i!uals=
Coles* 02 75o$erta: !h0: !rofessor at 2arDuette Bni'ersit(: P2anifest 0estin( A-a,te- for 1""*sH ?ar 0is&ourse9 2ission an-
0estin( +ntert4ine-Q htt,9))444.%stor.org)sta$le),-f,lus).12.**.,-f +L8
Ne&ause 2anifest 0estin( relies on the &hosen nation stor( for its foun-ation: it is 4hat Nulman 71""18 an- !aul Tilli&h 71"..8 &all a
Em(th of origin.E Su&h narrati'es &all a ,eo,le $a&k to a sense of their roots: their reason for $eing an- the res,onsi$ilities that atten-
those ,ur,oses. The( ha'e the a$ilit( to ,aint an i-entit( an- -efine the im,ortant features of a ,eo,le as the( gi'e meaning an-
moti'ation to their a&tions. Ne&ause the hero in 2anifest 0estin( is a nation: rather than an in-i'i-ual: an- a nation is &om,ose- of
in-i'i-uals: e'er( mem$er of the nation &an &ontri$ute to 7or -etra&t from8 its su,erior &hara&ter an- mission. A&&or-ing to Nro4ne
71""18: this s,eaker<hearer &olla$oration in'ites the au-ien&e in: sa(ing: PTogether 4e &an re-eem 'irtue.Q N( -oing so: a rhetori&al
&ommunit( is $uilt: the national i-entit( is re-efine- or its in-i'i-ual mem$ers are remin-e- of the nation1s su,erior &hara&ter: an-
ea&h mem$er &an gain some sense of ,ersonal signifi&an&e from $eing a ,art of this nation an- &ontri$uting to its mission.
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2NC Astroen&iron#entalis# Alt
Alt2 <#%race an ethics of Astro2en&iron#entalis#

'illings 200. 7Lin-a: !h0: 5esear&h Asso&iate at S3T+ +nstitute: PTo the 2oon: 2ars: an- Ne(on-9 Culture: La4 an- 3thi&s in
S,a&e<Faring So&ieties:Q +ASTS 21st Annual Conferen&e: Fe$ruar( .</: 2**6: Naltimore: 20:
htt,9))lin-a$illings.org)l$T,a,ers)s,a&eTla4Tethi&sT&ulture.,-f8 +L8
#ne logi&al eGtension of the i-ea of ,reser'ing the s,a&e en'ironment is the i-ea of outer s,a&e as a 4il-erness. Thinking a$out s,a&e
as a 4il-erness ,ro'i-es a means of en'isioning eG,loration in a less in'asi'e 4a( than &urrent frontier rhetori& -oes. Historian Neil
2aher has argue- that: 4hile the no4<i&oni& U3arthrise1 ,hotogra,h of our ,lanet: taken from s,a&e $( an A,ollo ; astronaut in 1"6;:
UUhel,e- eGten- Ameri&a1s 2anifest 0estin( into the ultimate 4il-ernessFouter s,a&e11: the eDuall( i&oni& UU?hole 3arth11
,hotogra,h: taken $( an A,ollo 1 astronaut in 1"2: su$seDuentl( UU-e$unkMe-I the frontier narrati'e suggeste- in 3arthrise11: $(
re&onfiguring ,u$li& ,er&e,tion of the home ,lanet as UUan en'ironmentall( threatene- home11 M.1I. The 4il-erness meta,hor is at the
&ore of the &on&e,t of Uastro<en'ironmentalism1: the i-ea of a,,l(ing the 'alues of en'ironmental ,rote&tion an- ,reser'ation to s,a&e
eG,loration. +t has $een argue- that treating the Solar S(stem like a 4il-erness to ,rote&t rather than a frontier to eG,loit &oul- hel, to
kee, nu&lear te&hnolog(: humanma-e -e$ris: an- other en'ironmental hazar-s out of s,a&e an- ,rohi$it ,ri'ate an- so'ereign
,ro,ert( &laims. The ,oint 4oul- $e to UUa'oi- making the same mistakes in s,a&e as 4e ha'e on earth11 M.2I. The &ase has $een ma-e
that some sort of ethi&al &o-e for s,a&e eG,loration an- -e'elo,ment 4ill $e ne&essar( to ,rote&t the s,a&e en'ironment M..I. +t has
$een argue- that a-o,tion of a &o-e of ethi&s for $usiness in s,a&e &oul- fa&ilitate the &ommer&ial -e'elo,ment of s,a&e an- a'oi-
,er,etuation of UUthe gree- an- ,o4er mo-els so ,re'alent to-a(11 M./I. #ne ,ro,ose- &o-e &alls for the ,ra&ti&e of en'ironmental
ste4ar-shi,: the ,romotion of honest -ealings: the im,ortan&e of safet(: the maintenan&e of a freemarket e&onom(: an- the
maGimization of 4ealth. The aim of this &o-e 4oul- $e UUto al4a(s ,rote&t outer<s,a&e an- its &elestial $o-ies: an- to engage in s,a&e
&ommer&e unfettere- $( go'ernment or other $arriers11 M./: ,. 6I. +t &oul- $e argue-: ho4e'er: that these aims ma( $e mutuall(
eG&lusi'e.
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Astro2 en&iron#entalis# ethics allos us to #ake the #ost #oral !ecisions* e&en in conse-uentialist
approaches
?ei#an >00* 7Saara: 0e,artment of So&ial an- 2oral !hiloso,h(: P+s s,a&e an en'ironment=Q
htt,9))444.s&ien&e-ire&t.&om)s&ien&e)arti&le),ii)S*265"6/6*"***2;" 8 +L8
From the ,oint of 'ie4 of en'ironmental 'irtue ethi&s it -oes not make an( -ifferen&e 4hether 4e a&t on 3arth or in s,a&e < if 4e a&t
an(4here at all: 4e &an e'aluate our a&tions using the &on&e,tual frame4ork of 'irtue ethi&s. +f 4e 4ish to eG,lore s,a&e: the $ig
Duestion is9 4hat kin- of eG,lorers 4ill 4e $e= ?ill our a&tions $e those of a s,e&ies that is gree-(: -estru&ti'e an- short<sighte-= #r
4ill the( s,eak of ,eo,le 4ho are &onsi-erate: $ene'olent an- ,ea&eful= The fa&t that 'irtue ethi&s &onsi-ers rules as rules of thum$
that ma( 4ork in most situations $ut are not the final 4or- on the issue is not a sign of im,ra&ti&alit(. #n the &ontrar(: it ,ro'i-es
fleGi$ilit( that is essential for the ethi&s of an eG,lorator( s&ien&e. +n -oing eG,lorator( s&ien&e it is &ertain that: sooner or later:
something unforeseen 4ill ha,,en. + argue that an( a&&ount of the ethi&s of s,a&e eG,loration shoul- $e &a,a$le of ans4ering this
un&ertaint( at the &ore of eG,lorator( s&ien&e. #ther4ise: the theor( of ethi&s -oes not &orres,on- 4ell 4ith the ,ra&ti&e of eG,loration
< its inten-e- area of a,,li&ation. +n fa&t: ,rin&i,le<$ase- ethi&s has alrea-( $een use- in the &onteGt of s,a&e eG,loration. 2argaret
5a&e an- 5i&har- #. 5an-ol,h ha'e suggeste- a set of ethi&al ,rin&i,les as gui-elines in the e'ent of -is&o'er( of nonintelligent
eGtraterrestrial life M1.I A rule<$ase- ethi&s relies hea'il( on ,re-i&ta$ilit(9 4hen someone makes a rule: s)he must ha'e a ,i&ture of its
inten-e- area of a,,li&ation in min-. +f something totall( uneG,e&te- ha,,ens: follo4ing the rule stri&tl( ma( not lea- to its inten-e-
result. ?here la4 is &on&erne-: it is sometimes sai- that: in tri&k( &ases: the %u-ge shoul- o$ser'e the s,irit rather than the letter of the
la4. The Us,irit of the la41 refers to the ,rin&i,les an- 'irtues that ha'e ins,ire- the la4 rather than the form in 4hi&h the la4 has $een
eG,li&itl( eG,resse-: an- a goo- %u-ge is also a4are of 4hat these ,rin&i,les are. 3stimating ho4 one1s inten-e- a&tions realize 'irtues
< for eGam,le: e'aluating if -oing G is &ourageous or &o4ar-l( < &an $e -one more relia$l( e'en in uneG,e&te- situations $e&ause
&on-u&ting su&h an estimation -oes not reDuire -etaile- kno4le-ge a$out one1s en'ironment. The ,ro,erties of the moral agent: not
the ,ro,erties of his)her en'ironment are the ke( to -oing the right thing: an- no matter ho4 strange the &ir&umstan&es an eG,lorer
ma( fin- himself in: she al4a(s has a&&ess to kno4le-ge a$out her o4n state of min-. Further kno4le-ge &an $e useful: $ut it is not
&ru&ial to moral -e&ision making in the 4a( it is in &onseDuentialist a,,roa&hes. An eG,lorer 4ho has a gras, of 'irtue ethi&s ma( fin-
that s)he shoul- learn more a$out the situation s)he is in: $ut the &a,a$ilit( to make moral -e&isions is ne'er &ri,,le- to a le'el 4here
making a moral &hoi&e is little more than a guess. +t is eas( to see that not all 'irtues are &om,ati$le 4ith ea&h other. Sometimes a
&ourageous a&t is not a fair one: sometimes 4hat is &areful is not effe&ti'e. ?hen 'irtues &onfli&t: a 'irtue ethi&ist &onsi-ers the 4hole.
Then it is ,ossi$le to reason that human $enefit &annot $e maGimise- $( su$mitting to a single 'irtue $ut rather $( me-iating 'irtues
so that eG&esses an- other harm are a'oi-e-. +n a short arti&le s,a&e &onstraints ,re'ent further -es&ri,tion of the 'irtue a,,roa&h: $ut
this sket&h 4ill suffi&e for our ,ur,oses of e'aluating the ,re'iousl( ,resente- arguments.
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2NC AT Doesnt sol&e %;c people are jerks
6ost hu#an interest in space are !ri&en %+ political con!itions an! resources= 5@e7 nee! #ore than
earth can offer us gree!+ hu#ans= @e shoul! e&aluate space in ter#s of Astro2en&iron#entalis# %efore
e pursue an+ interest in space=
?ei#an >00* 7Saara: 0e,artment of So&ial an- 2oral !hiloso,h(: P+s s,a&e an en'ironment=Q
htt,9))444.s&ien&e-ire&t.&om)s&ien&e)arti&le),ii)S*265"6/6*"***2;" 8 +L8
Thus far most -is&ussion of s,a&e eG,loration has $een &arrie- out $( those 4ith the most o$'ious interests in it an- these interests
ha'e $e&ome -ominant9 s&ientifi& interests: e&onomi& interests: 3arth<&entre- en'ironmental interests: ,oliti&al interests. Nut humans
ha'e -i'erse interests an- 4hi&h ones are ,ursue- often -e,en-s on ,oliti&al &on-itions an- resour&es. #ne of the reasons for
eG,loring s,a&e is that 3arth is not enough for us. ?e nee- more li'ing room an- resour&es than our home ,lanet &an offer. Nut 4ho is
this U4e=1 +s s,rea-ing out into s,a&e a goo- thing if the human ,resen&e there &onsists of large &ommer&ial enter,rises: s&ientists an-
mem$ers of a ri&h elite= Shoul- 4e not mark from earl( on another interest9 that of eDual free-om. 3Dual free-om means that the goal
of s,a&e eG,loration is to make s,a&e a&&essi$le to or-inar( ,eo,le 4ho are not ,arti&ularl( ri&h or influential or ,arti&ularl(
,rofessionall( in'ol'e- in it. Satellite ser'i&es are a goo- eGam,le of ho4 the eG,loitation of s,a&e has also im,ro'e- the li'es of
or-inar( ,eo,le. +f s,a&e is eG,lore- in ,art for the ,ur,ose of making human life $etter: it shoul- mean the life of the or-inar(
human. #ther4ise there is a risk that the ga, $et4een the ,ri'ilege- an- the ,oor 4ill eG,an- into something ne'er seen $efore: 4ith
eDuall( un,re-i&ta$le &onseDuen&es. The s,a&e en'ironment is like the 3arth1s en'ironment in the sense that 4e ha'e -i'erse interests
to4ar-s it $ut ,h(si&al an- so&ial realities set &ertain limits on the manner an- the eGtent to 4hi&h 4e ma( ,ursue these interests.
Treating s,a&e as an en'ironment highlights the nee- to -is&ern an- e'aluate our 'arious interests: as 4ell as the nee- to ask: 4ho
U4e1 in&lu-es in a gi'en situation.
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2NC AT Frontier 6etaphor Ine&ita%le
<&en if the alt !oesnt change the e"istence of a frontier #etaphor per se* e can change it in pro!ucti&e
a+s=
'illings 0( 7Lin-a Nillings is a resear&h ,rofessor at the Leorge ?ashington Bni'ersit( S&hool of 2e-ia an- !u$li& Affairs in
?ashington: 0.C. She -oes &ommuni&ation resear&h for the National Aeronauti&s an- S,a&e A-ministration1s 7NASA1s8 astro$iolog(
,rogram in the S&ien&e 2ission 0ire&torate. She also a-'ises NASA1s Senior S&ientist for 2ars 3G,loration an- !lanetar( !rote&tion
#ffi&er on &ommuni&ations. 0r. Nillings earne- her !h.0. in mass &ommuni&ation from the +n-iana Bni'ersit( S&hool of Kournalism:
2.A. in international transa&tions from Leorge 2ason Bni'ersit(: an- N.A. in so&ial s&ien&es from the State Bni'ersit( of Ne4 Sork
at Ninghamton 7no4 Ninghamton Bni'ersit(8. 0r. Nillings 4as a mem$er of the staff for the National Commission on S,a&e 71";5<
;68: a,,ointe- $( !resi-ent 5eagan to -e'elo, a long<term ,lan for s,a&e eG,loration. She is a mem$er of ?omen in Aeros,a&e
7?+A8 an- ser'e- as an offi&er of ?+A for 15 (ears: most re&entl( as ,resi-ent 72**.8. She re&ei'e- an #utstan-ing A&hie'ement
A4ar- from ?+A in 1""1. +n 2**: she 4as a Cheetah Conser'ation Station inter,reter at the National @oo in ?ashington: 0.C.
S,a&e !oli&( PFrontier 0a(s in S,a&e9 Are The( #'erQ htt,9))lin-a$illings.org)l$T,a,ers)FrontierTan-TS,a&e.,-f
!atri&ia Nelson Limeri&k has re&ommen-e- that the s,a&e &ommunit( a$an-on the frontier meta,hor. Nut at the same time
she a&kno4le-ges that it is Pan enormousl( ,ersistent an- -etermining ,attern of thought....Q Bltimatel(: it ma( not $e
feasi$le to eG,unge the frontier meta,hor from the ,u$li& -is&ourse a$out s,a&e eG,loration. Nut it &ertainl( is ,ossi$le: an-
,ra&ti&al: to reeGamine it as a moti'ating for&e for s,a&e eG,loration. ?hat is this s,a&e f r o n t i e r = +t might $e useful to
think of the s,a&e frontier as a 'ast an- -istant sort of Nrazilian rainforest: Ata&ama -esert: Antar&ti& &ontinent << a great
unkno4n that &hallenges humans to think &reati'el( an- eG,ansi'el(: to ,ush their &a,a$ilities to the limits: a 4il- an-
$eautiful ,la&e to $e stu-ie- an- en%o(e- $ut left unsullie-. Curiosit( is 4hat $rought humans out of &a'es: took them
a&ross o&eans an- &ontinents: &om,elle- them to in'ent air,lanes: an- no4 -ra4s them to4ar- the stars. The $roa-: -ee,
,u$li& 'alue of eG,loring the uni'erse is the 'alue of -is&o'er(: learning: an- un-erstan-ingR thus: the s,a&e frontier &oul-
$e a s&hool for so&ial resear&h: a ,la&e 4here ne4 so&ieties &oul- gro4 an- thri'e. This is the s,a&e frontier9 the 'ast:
,erha,s en-less: frontier of intelle&tual an- s,iritual ,otential.
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Its not %iological $ that kin! of !eter#inis# forecloses effecti&e solutions an! pre!eter#ines our actions
in space
6arshall 1003 7Alan 2arshall: +nstitute of 0e'elo,ment Stu-ies at 2asse( Bni'ersit(: !almerston North: Ne4 @ealan-:
P0e'elo,ment an- im,erialism in s,a&e:Q htt,9))444.s&ien&e-ire&t.&om)s&ien&e)arti&le),ii)*265"6/6"5".2..N +L8
+n the fifth &ha,ter of his $ook: 2o-es of +m,erialism: Charles 5e(nol-s s,eaks of so&io$iologi&al mo-els of
im,erialism.1. ?ith regar- to s,a&e -e'elo,ment: the eG,ansion of humans into s,a&e &an $e 'ie4e- $( the
so&io$iologi&al mo-el: as %ust another natural ,rogression of an a-'an&e- organism eGten-ing its e&ologi&al range. #r as
Lre(1/ states UeG,ansion into s,a&e is the neGt logi&al eGtension of our ,ast mo'ements on lan-: o'er seas an- into the
atmos,here of our home ,lanet. An- as 4ith all gro4ing organisms this eG,ansion is ine'ita$le1. From this ,ers,e&ti'e:
im,erialism is %ust the manifestation of naturall( sele&te- $eha'ior ,resent in humans as in other li'ing $eings. Humans
mo'ing into s,a&e to &olonize other ,lanets is essentiall( the same ,henomenon as a &o&onut falling into an o&ean to $e
trans,orte- to a ne4 islan- or &ontinent on 4hi&h it shall germinate an- instigate &olonization. This U&o&onut h(,othesis1
e'a-es the &entral ,oint that eGtraterrestrial eG,ansion $( humans is a so&ial ,henomenon an- not a $iologi&al one. The
for&es that in-u&e a &o&onut tree to -is,erse it1s see-s are Duite -ifferent to the for&es in'ol'e- in outer s,a&e -e'elo,ment.
A &o&onut tree a&ts a&&or-ing to geneti&all( an- e&ologi&all( ,res&ri$e- rules 4hi&h ha'e $een arri'e- at through millions
of (ears of e'olution. A nation: or a &or,oration: are so&ial entities that a&t a&&or-ing to so&ial: e&onomi& an- ,oliti&al
for&es arri'e- at through the &ourse of so&ial: e&onomi& an- ,oliti&al histor( 7a ,ro&ess Duite -ifferent to $iologi&al
e'olution8. The &o&onut h(,othesis argues that the eG,ansion of humanit( into s,a&e is a natural ,henomenon: %ust as it is
natural for a &o&onut to &olonize a ne4 lan- mass. Ho4e'er: a human em$r(o -oes not ha,,en to fall into s,a&e an- $egin
to &olonize another ,lanet. Niologi&al mo-els of human s,a&e eGtension are fa'orite theories 4ithin the s,a&e a-'o&a&(
&ommunit( sin&e the( $(,ass the nee- to -o so&ial anal(ses 4ith naturalisti& inter,retations of im,erialism.UQ
So&io,s(&hologi&al mo-els of im,erialism attem,t to eG,lain im,erialisti& en-ea'ours $( &on&entrating on the
so&io,s(&hologi&al &hara&teristi& 4ithin an in-i'i-ual or a so&iet( that &om,el it to ,ursue an eG,ansionist agen-a. A
&ommon eGam,le 4ith referen&e to s,a&e a&ti'ities is that humans are naturall( &urious an- Uha'e a fun-amental -esire to
eG,lore the unkno4n1.i6 #ne of the manifestations of the so&io,s(&hologi&al mo-el is the %ustifi&ation of s,a&e a&ti'ities
for the $enefits it offers for s&ientifi& a-'an&e. Throughout mu&h of the histor( of 4estern s&ien&e su&h s&ientifi&
im,erialism has $een asso&iate- 4ith the 3uro,ean eG,ansion into other ,arts of the 4orl-: in'ol'ing the -esire to
&ategorize nature an- ren-er its se&rets kno4a$le. Ho4e'er: the sear&h for s&ientifi& un-erstan-ing has not $een a ,rime
for&e $ehin- eG,ansionist -e'elo,ment $( itself: although: from Kose,h Nanks to Harrison S&hmi-t: its ,resen&e &lose
$ehin- im,erialisti& en-ea'ours moti'ate- $( other rationales is -emonstra$le. Ne&ause the $asis of human sur'i'al an-
,ros,erit( is essentiall( a fun&tion of e&onomi& 4elfare it is argua$le that the U-esire to eG,lore1 is not an inherentl( ,rime
&on&ern for most in-i'i-uals 7eG&e,t those 4hose e&onomi& 4ell$eing -e,en-s on it8. Li'en this: an- gi'en the fa&t that
&uriosit( a$out the unkno4n is a 'aria$le trait $et4een -ifferent in-i'i-uals an- so&ieties 7to the ,oint that some in-i'i-uals
an- some so&ieties are una$le to &om,rehen- 4hat all the fuss is a$out 4ith regar-s to s,a&e eG,loration8 the U-esire to
eG,lore1 rationale &an also not $e &onsi-ere- a ,rime moti'ator of outer s,a&e -e'elo,ment. +t is -ou$tful that man(
,oliti&al figures in histor( ha'e -e&i-e- on eG,ansionist ,oli&ies to satiate their o4n &uriosit( or that of their su$%e&ts.
Ha'ing sai- this: though: it is ,ossi$le that eG,ansionist en-ea'ours in the Solar S(stem $ase- on other rationales 7su&h as
the nee- to fin- an outlet for sur,lus &a,ital or the sear&h for ne4 resour&es8 might o&&ur un-er the &o'er of
so&io,s(&hologi&al U-esire to eG,lore1 reasons. This is e'i-ent in Antar&ti&a: 4here geo,oliti&al an- geostrategi& im,erialist
,oli&ies are ,ursue- $( a num$er of nations in the guise of s&ientifi& eG,loration.
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2NC Space <thics 1st
Space ethics co#e prior to an+ !ecisions an! can change our &ies fore&er in space
?ei#an >00* 7Saara: 0e,artment of So&ial an- 2oral !hiloso,h(: P+s s,a&e an en'ironment=Q
htt,9))444.s&ien&e-ire&t.&om)s&ien&e)arti&le),ii)S*265"6/6*"***2;" 8 +L8
S,a&e en'ironments are -i'erse an- therefore 4e shoul- treat ethi&al Duestions of s,a&e eG,loration 4ith sensiti'it(. Some s,a&e
en'ironments are %ust as s,e&ial as terrestrial en'ironments: others ha'e histori&al 'alue: an- some are e&onomi&all( 'alua$le. +t 4oul-
$e -iffi&ult to formulate an ethi&s $ase- on listing all the &hara&teristi&s that &an make some areas of s,a&e s,e&ial an- then e'aluate
,la&es $ase- on su&h a list;R sin&e s,a&e has still man( sur,rises in store for us: su&h a list 4oul- ,ro$a$l( la&k something im,ortant.
Sin&e humans are moral agents: 4e &an take oursel'es as a starting ,oint in the sense that 4e are alrea-( eG,erien&e- in e'aluating
4hether ,ro,ose- a&tions are short<sighte-: &areful or effe&ti'e e in light of 'irtue ethi&s. Oirtue ethi&s ,rin&i,les are ,ra&ti&al an-
a,,li&a$le to s,a&e eG,loration. +n ,arti&ular: sustaina$ilit( -eser'es s,e&ial em,hasis in the &onteGt of s,a&e eG,loration 4here the
&osts of resear&h are eGtremel( high an- -is&o'eries ma-e &an &hange our 4orl-<'ie4 fore'er. The en'ironmental ethi&s of s,a&e 4ill
ne&essaril( $e -ifferent from the en'ironmental ethi&s of 3arth: $ut &an still ,ro'i-e 'alua$le 'ie4s an- ,hiloso,hi&al tools for
assessing Duestions relate- to the eG,loration an- eG,loitation of s,a&e. The ethi&s of s,a&e eG,loration shoul- $e s&ientifi&:
,hiloso,hi&al ethi&s.
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2NC AT Frontier reps not central
<&en if it !oes not appear to %e central* frontier rhetoric legiti#ates state interests 2 e#pirics
Fernau 0 7Flet&her Fernau is an author. He freDuentl( 4rites a$out s,a&e ,oli&( NA Ameri&an Bni'ersit( !utting B.S. S,a&e
!oli&( in ConteGt Ho4 Ha'e !oli&(makers 0ra4n on 3Gisting 5hetori&al Common,la&es to Legitimate B.S. S,a&e !oli&(= 2a(:
2**" htt,9))ala-inr&.4rl&.org)$itstream)1"61)".)1)Fernau:Y2*Flet&her:Y2*2**"S.,-f
2( anal(sis suggests that in the &ase of the effort to legitimate the s,a&e ,oli&( agen-as of B.S. ,oli&(makers 7s,e&ifi&all(
!resi-ent Kohn F. Kenne-(8 the rhetori&al &ommon,la&es -e,lo(e- a&t as state<$uil-ing me&hanisms. !ut another 4a(:
state$uil-ing is an out&ome of the s,a&e ,oli&( legitimation ,ro&ess that is not al4a(s entirel( eG,li&it in the ,u$li&
rhetori&. As su&h: the rhetori&al &ommon,la&e of the frontier fun&tions as a ,ermissi'e me&hanism for state<$uil-ing. The
rhetori&al &a,ital of the frontier &an $e use- to harness ,u$li& su,,ort for other4ise ,rohi$iti'el( &ostl( go'ernment
,rograms. Histori&all(: the ,er&ei'e- nee- for territorial eG,ansion: sometimes eG,resse- through the rhetori& of manifest
-estin(: ser'e- to legitimate go'ernment s,onsore- ,ro%e&ts to $uil- state &a,a&ities. 3Gam,les in&lu-e the ,ur&hase of
large s4athes of 4estern lan- to $e turne- o'er to settlers: railroa- lan- grants an- su$si-ies: the !anama Canal: an- the
maintenan&e of a frontier militar( ,resen&e. +n the same 4a(: -e,lo(ing the frontier in ,u$li& rhetori& has $een use- to
legitimate &ostl( s,a&e eG,loration ,rograms 4hi&h in turn ha'e le- to the eG,ansion of state &a,a&ities. To a greater or
lesser -egree: go'ernment in'estment in s,a&e ,rograms fuele- s&ientifi& an- te&hnologi&al inno'ation: s,urre- a
generation of Ameri&an stu-ents to stu-( s&ien&e: eG,an-e- the state1s militar( &a,a$ilities: an- -ro'e glo$alization. These
effe&ts: ,arti&ularl( $e&ause so man( 4ere largel( unforeseen: might not ha'e suffi&e- to generate ,u$li& su,,ort for the
,oli&ies that le- to them. The rhetori&al ,o4er of the frontier a&te- 7at least un-er Kenne-(8 as a m(thi& &o'er for
state$uil-ing through the s,a&e ,rogram %ust as it ha- for Ameri&a1s 4estern eG,ansion.
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2NC Fra#eork;?eps 1
st

The fra#ing of the Space 9rogra# is an open2en!e! process
Neal . 7Oalerie Neal is a &urator at the National Air an- S,a&e 2useum 0r. Oalerie Neal earne- a !h.0. in Ameri&an stu-ies from
the Bni'ersit( of 2innesota in 1"": follo4ing an 2.A. in Ameri&an stu-ies from the Bni'ersit( of Southern California: an- a N.A. in
3nglish an- histor( from TeGas Christian Bni'ersit(. She has taught at the Bni'ersit( of 2innesota: the Bni'ersit( of Ala$ama in
Hunts'ille: an- Oan-er$ilt Bni'ersit(. Nefore %oining the 2useum: 0r. Neal s,ent a -e&a-e as a 4riter: e-itor: an- manager for some
5* NASA ,u$li&ations on shuttle an- S,a&ela$ missions: the Hu$$le S,a&e Teles&o,e an- other great o$ser'atories: the s,a&e
s&ien&es: an- NASA histor(. She also ,arti&i,ate- in un-er4ater astronaut<training a&ti'ities an- 4orke- on the mission management
su,,ort team for four shuttle missions. Framing the 2eanings of S,a&eflight in the Shuttle 3ra htt,9))histor(.nasa.go')s,/;*1<
&ha,ter5.,-f
#'er the ,ast fi'e -e&a-es NASA: the me-ia: an- intereste- se&tors 7aeros,a&e in-ustr(: s&ientifi& &ommunit(: ,oliti&al
figures: grass<roots grou,s: an- others8 ,lus thoughtful in-i'i-uals ha'e engage- in an ongoing ,ro&ess of asserting an-
&ontesting the 'alue of human s,a&eflight $( a-'an&ing a 'ariet( of 'isions or meta,hors meant to ans4er su&h Duestions
an- s4a( ,u$li& o,inion. the &ontinual effort to -efine the ,ur,ose of human s,a&eflight an- rea&h a so&ietal &onsensus on
its 'alue &an $e 'ie4e- as an eGten-e- eGer&ise in the so&ial &onstru&tion of meaning. in the Shuttle era: at least fi'e
referen&e frames ha'e $een &rafte-: ,romote-: &ritiDue-: reine-: a&&e,te-: re%e&te-: or transforme- in the ,ro&ess of sha,ing
an- &ommuni&ating the meaning of human s,a&eflight. these frames re'eal mu&h a$out 4hat ameri&ans ho,e forFan-
-ou$tFin our national 'entures into s,a&e
#ur re,resentations of s,a&e in the me-ia ha'e sha,e- our mentalit( to4ar-s outer s,a&e as Pan im,erialisti&
gra$$ing of territor(Q
'illings 2011: 7Lin-a P2e-ia: S,iritualities: an- So&ial ChangeQ: Ne4 Sork9 Continuum: 2*11 +L8
The mass me-ia ha'e ,la(e- a ke( role in the histor( of the B.S. &i'ilian s,a&e ,rogram: &on'e(ing to ,u$li& au-ien&es the
offi&ial rhetori& of heroi& frontier eG,loration an- the ne&essit( of B.S. -ominan&e in s,a&e. Throughout the Col- ?ar: this
rhetori& 4as in tune 4ith the -ominant national narrati'e of Ameri&an eG&e,tionalism. +n the 21st &entur(: the me-ia
&ontinue to frame s,a&e eG,loration as a matter of ra&es: threats: an- -ominan&e. Communi&ation resear&h has sho4n ho4
,u$li& -is&ourses &an: in the ,ro&ess of ,er,etuating national narrati'es: also fun&tion &o'ertl( to legitimate the ,o4er of
elites 75ushing an- Frentz: 1""18. ?hile some historians an- ,oli&( anal(sts ha'e &onsi-ere- the role of the mass me-ia in
the histor( of the B.S. s,a&e ,rogram15: fe4 s&holars of me-ia an- &ommuni&ation ha'e eGamine- this relationshi,. There
has $een little &olla$oration $et4een s&holars of s,a&e ,oli&( an- histor( an- eG,erts in me-ia an- &ommuni&ation 4ho
&oul- enri&h un-erstan-ing of the role of the me-ia in the histor( an- future of s,a&e eG,loration. Criti&al s&holarl( anal(sis
of the rhetori& of s,a&e eG,loration V offi&ial an- ,o,ular V an- the role of the mass me-ia in its &onstru&tion an-
-issemination &oul- a-'an&e ,u$li& un-erstan-ing of the fun&tion an- ,ur,ose of an [1;< $illion<a<(ear ,u$li& ,rogram an-
stimulate ,u$li& in'ol'ement in ma,,ing its future. 5hetori&al &riti& Kani&e Ho&ker 5ushing ma-e the &ase that the ,ost<
A,ollo<era fo&us of s,a&e eG,loration on the sear&h for e'i-en&e of eGtraterrestrial life is a ,ro-u&t of a 4i-es,rea-
un-erstan-ing that humankin- eGists in a uni'erse: not onl( on ,lanet 3arth. The narrati'e of s,a&e eG,loration to-a( might
$etter refle&t this un-erstan-ing $( telling a stor( of Ua s,iritual hum$ling of self1 rather than Uan im,erialisti& gra$$ing of
territor(1 75ushing: 1";6: ,. 2;/8. Cultural stu-ies s&holar Constan&e !enle( 71"": 1""28 notes that 4hile Uthe ?AS!
s,a&e &o4$o( 'ersion of s,a&eflight1 has ,ersiste- from the A,ollo era into the ,resent: at the same time NASA Uis still the
most ,o,ular ,oint of referen&e for uto,ian i-eas of &olle&ti'e ,rogress.1 +n the ,o,ular imagination: UNASA &ontinues to
re,resentW,erse'eran&e: &oo,eration: &reati'it( an- 'ision:1 an- these meanings em$e--e- in the narrati'e of s,a&e flight
U&an still $e mo$ilize- to re%u'enate the near<mori$un- i-ea of a future to4ar- 4hi&h -e-i&ate- ,eo,leW&oul- 4ork
together for the &ommon goo-1 7!enle(: 1""2: ,,. 2*<2*;8.
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AAA9earl 1ar%or Car! Buseful 2nc linkCAAA
The 9earl 1ar%or 6etaphor is historicall+ false an! creates a !angerous !istinction %eteen legiti#ate
an! illegiti#ate &iolence
@okush 1 7Heather ?okush is an international e-u&ator an- author PS,a&e !earl Har$orQ 2a( 2**1
htt,9))444.heather4okus&h.&om)in-eG.,h,=name>Ne4sCfile>arti&leCsi->"
As mo'iegoers throng to Holl(4oo-Hs ,oliti&all( &orre&t: -um$e-<-o4n 'ersion of EThe Loo- ?ar:E a -ifferent kin- of
!earl Har$or is $eing ,ursue- in NushHs EStar ?arsE ,rogram < an- in $oth: truth is the first &asualt(. +tHs easier to fo&us on
goo- looking a&tors an- gran-iose $om$ seDuen&es than on ,ainful realitiesR 4h( risk $oG offi&e mega<,rofits $( ,utting
!earl Har$or in its ,ro,er &onteGt= A&kno4le-ging the 1".* Lon-on Na'al Treat(: 4hi&h -enie- Ka,an hegemon( in its
o4n 4aters: or the em$argo on oil an- s&ra, metal 74hi&h one of the %u-ges in the ,ost<4ar Tok(o ?ar Crimes Tri$unal
terme- Ea &lear an- ,otent threat to Ka,anHs 'er( eGisten&eE8 is seen as less im,ortant than &lose<u,s of Nen Affle&k. ?h(
sho4 the internments an- atomi& $om$s that follo4e-: or -eal 4ith ra&ism as eGem,lifie- $( Harr( TrumanHs -es&ri,tion of
the Ka,anese as Esa'ages: ruthless: mer&iless: an- fanati&E= The 4ar is mu&h easier to EsellE $( toning -o4n the ugliness
that le- u, to an- follo4e- !earl Har$or: an- instea- ,um,ing u, BS nationalisti& fer'or glorif(ing Ethe greatest
generationE an- the militar(<in-ustrial &om,leG it su,,orte-. +solationism ,refers limite- &onteGt. Fast for4ar- almost 6*
(ears from !earl Har$or: an- the BS militar(<in-ustrial &om,leG is no4 so firml( entren&he- that the foreign ,oli&(
,latform of the &urrent BS a-ministration has $een 4ritten $( none other than a to, eGe&uti'e of Lo&khee- 2artin: Nru&e
Ka&kson. The fa&t that Lo&khee- 2artin is the 4orl-Hs largest 4ea,ons manufa&turer an- a ma%or $enefi&iar( of BS s,a&e
4arfare ,re,arations is not seen as a &onfli&t of interestR neither a,,arentl( is the fa&t that L(nne Chene(: the 'i&e
,resi-entHs 4ife: 4as a Lo&khee- 2artin $oar- mem$er right u, until Kanuar( of this (ear. So it &omes as no sur,rise that
the Nush<Chene( a-ministration no4 ,lans to arm the hea'ens: an- that 5 &or,orations 74ith Lo&khee- 2artin: Aero%et
an- Noeing at the to, of the list8 ha'e $een &hosen to rea, o$s&ene ,rofits ,ro'i-ing the 4ea,ons. The a-ministrationHs
gran- ,lan is lai- out in the Kanuar( 2**1 re,ort $( the BS ES,a&e CommissionE 7 Commission to Assess Bnite- States
National Se&urit( S,a&e 2anagement an- #rganization8 an- relate- -o&uments ,ut out $( the BS S,a&e Comman-9 The
o'erall mission is to -ominate Ethe s,a&e -imension of militar( o,erations to ,rote&t BS interests an- in'estments:E an-
sin&e un-er glo$alization Ethe ga, $et4een Hha'eH an- Hha'e<notH nations 4ill 4i-en < &reating regional unrestE more &reati'e
4ea,onr( is nee-e- to ,rote&t BS interests. +t is interesting that the re,ort freDuentl( refers to this ,er&ei'e- threat as
ES,a&e !earl Har$or.E
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