Davidson, Donald , University of California, Berkeley

Subjective, Intersubjective, Objective

Philosophical Essays Volume 3
Print ISBN 0198237537, 2001
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ssay 13, !"iste#olo$y %ternali&e'!, (as rea' in an early version at a S)*)+
#eetin$ in B,enos )ires in 1989- ./e ne%t year it (as "resente' at a 0onferen0e in
Biel, S(it&erlan', an' ",1lis/e' in 1991 in Dialectica, 25 2334 1913202-
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+ro# t/e ti#e of *es0artes #ost e"iste#olo$y /as 1een 1ase' on first "erson
kno(le'$e- )00or'in$ to t/e ,s,al story (e #,st 1e$in (it/ (/at is #ost 0ertain4
kno(le'$e of o,r o(n sensations an'
en' "-%vi
t/o,$/ts- In one (ay or anot/er (e "ro$ress, if (e 0an, to kno(le'$e of an o15e0tive
e%ternal (orl'- ./ere is t/en t/e final, ten,o,s, ste" to kno(le'$e of ot/er #in's- In
Essay 13, !"iste#olo$y %ternali&e'!, I ar$,e for a total revision of t/is "i0t,re- )ll
"ro"ositional t/o,$/t, (/et/er "ositive or ske"ti0al, (/et/er of t/e inner or of t/e o,ter,
re6,ires "ossession of t/e 0on0e"t of o15e0tive tr,t/, an' t/is 0on0e"t is a00essi1le only
to t/ose 0reat,res in 0o##,ni0ation (it/ ot/ers- ./ir' "erson kno(le'$e7kno(le'$e
of ot/er #in's7is t/,s essential to all ot/er kno(le'$e- B,t t/ir' "erson kno(le'$e is
i#"ossi1le (it/o,t kno(le'$e of a s/are' (orl' of o15e0ts in a s/are' ti#e an' s"a0e-
./,s t/e a06,isition of kno(le'$e is not 1ase' on a "ro$ression fro# t/e s,15e0tive to
t/e o15e0tive8 it e#er$es /olisti0ally, an' is inter"ersonal fro# t/e start- Several for#s of
e%ternalis# are e%a#ine' an' fo,n' (antin$- It is ar$,e' t/at trian$,lation, (/i0/ /as
feat,re' in #any ot/er essays in t/is 1ook, 0orre0ts an' a,$#ents 1ot/ a version of
"er0e"t,al e%ternalis# an' a version of so0ial e%ternalis#-
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13 "iste#olo$y %ternali&e'

Donald Davidson
9e kno( in a (ay no one else 0an (/at (e 1elieve, fear, (ant, val,e, an' inten'- 9e
kno( /o( t/in$s see# to ,s, /o( t/ey look to ,s, feel to ,s, s#ell an' so,n' to ,s to
1e- 9e kno( t/ese t/in$s in a (ay (e 0an never kno( a1o,t t/e (orl' aro,n' ,s-
9/et/er or not (e are so#eti#es (ron$ a1o,t t/e 0ontents of o,r o(n #in's, (/et/er
or not (e 0an 1e in 'o,1t a1o,t o,r o(n sensations an' t/o,$/ts, one t/in$ is 0ertainly
tr,e of s,0/ 1eliefs4 t/ey 0annot 1e $enerally #istaken- If (e t/ink (e /ave a 0ertain
t/o,$/t or sensation, t/ere is a stron$ "res,#"tion t/at (e are ri$/t-
./e s"e0ial a,t/ority t/at "ertains to first "erson kno(le'$e /as see#e' to #any
"/iloso"/ers to s,it it ,ni6,ely to t/e task of s,""lyin$ a fo,n'ation for t/e rest of
kno(le'$e, "arti0,larly, of 0o,rse, for o,r kno(le'$e of t/e !e%ternal (orl'! an' of t/e
#in's of ot/ers- S,0/ kno(le'$e stan's in nee' of a fo,n'ation, it is t/o,$/t, "re0isely
1e0a,se t/ere is no "res,#"tion t/at o,r 1eliefs a1o,t t/e (orl' or t/e #in's of ot/ers
are tr,e-
I /ave no intention of re/earsin$ t/e 'iffi0,lties t/is "i0t,re of t/e #in' an' its "la0e in
nat,re /as $otten ,s into, nor of re#in'in$ yo, of t/e in$enio,s 1,t ,n"ers,asive (ays
t/at /ave 1een "ro"ose' for 0ir0,#ventin$ its o1vio,s failin$s- In t/is essay I 'es0ri1e
an alternative, an alternative t/at I t/ink is 0orre0t-
:,ine /as "ro"ose' t/at e"iste#olo$y 1e nat,rali&e'-
1

1
9- ;- :,ine, !"iste#olo$y Nat,rali&e'!, in Ontological Relativity and Other Essays-
By t/is /e /as #eant t/at "/iloso"/y s/o,l' a1an'on t/e atte#"t to "rovi'e a
fo,n'ation for kno(le'$e, or ot/er(ise to 5,stify it, an' s/o,l' instea' $ive an a00o,nt
of /o( kno(le'$e is a06,ire'- Criti0s /ave 0o#"laine' t/at in a15,rin$ t/e tra'itional
nor#ative task of e"iste#olo$y
en' "-193
:,ine /as si#"ly 0/an$e' t/e s,15e0t8 I s,s"e0t t/at /e a$rees, an' t/at t/is is "art of
(/at /e inten'e'- <f 0o,rse, t/e 'istin0tion 1et(een 'es0ri1in$ an' 5,stifyin$, 1et(een
an e#"iri0al a00o,nt of t/e $enesis of kno(le'$e an' a state#ent of t/e nor#s 1elief
#,st satisfy to 0o,nt as kno(le'$e, is 1y no #eans 0lear, as is "er/a"s evi'ent fro#
t/e fa0t t/at :,ine!s nat,rali&e' e"iste#olo$y, (/ile it #akes no serio,s atte#"t to
ans(er t/e ske"ti0, is re0o$ni&a1ly a fairly 0onventional for# of e#"iri0is#-
2

2
+or t/is 0/ara0teri&ation of :,ine!s e"iste#olo$y, see ssay 10 in t/is vol,#e, an' #y !=eanin$, .r,t/
an' vi'en0e!-
)n' in any 0ase, /o( 0an one 'es0ri1e kno(le'$e or its ori$ins (it/o,t 'e0i'in$ (/at
kno(le'$e is> :,ine!s ans(er to t/is 6,estion is t/at (e #,st a00e"t (/at s0ien0e an'
enli$/tene' 0o##on sense 'i0tate (it/o,t tryin$ to 5,stify it8 /is a00o,nt of /o( (e
0a#e 1y t/is kno(le'$e is, /o(ever, 5,st t/e kin' of a00o,nt t/at /as tra'itionally 1een
taken to 0onstit,te an atte#"t at 5,stifi0ation-
I 'o not a00e"t :,ine!s a00o,nt of t/e nat,re of kno(le'$e, (/i0/ is essentially first
"erson an' Cartesian- B,t I 'o fin' 0on$enial :,ine!s resol,tely t/ir' "erson a""roa0/
to e"iste#olo$y, an' to t/e e%tent t/at t/e nat,rali&ation of e"iste#olo$y en0o,ra$es or
e#1ra0es s,0/ an a""roa0/, I a# /a""y to 0o,nt #yself a nat,rali&e' e"iste#olo$ist-
./ere is at least a "res,#"tion t/at (e are ri$/t a1o,t t/e 0ontents of o,r o(n #in's8
so in t/e 0ases (/ere (e are ri$/t, (e /ave kno(le'$e- B,t any "arti0,lar ite# of s,0/
kno(le'$e is lo$i0ally in'e"en'ent of o,r 1eliefs a1o,t a (orl' o,tsi'e, an' so 0annot
s,""ly a fo,n'ation for s0ien0e an' 0o##onsense 1eliefs- ./is is /o( ske"ti0s, like
?,#e, reason, an' I t/ink t/ey are ri$/t4 kno(le'$e of t/e 0ontents of o,r o(n #in's
0annot 1e t/e 1asis for t/e rest of o,r kno(le'$e- If t/is is 0orre0t, t/en o,r 1eliefs
a1o,t t/e (orl' #,st, if t/ey are to 0o,nt as kno(le'$e, stan' alone- @et it /as see#e'
o1vio,s to #any "/iloso"/ers t/at if ea0/ of o,r 1eliefs a1o,t t/e (orl', taken alone,
#ay 1e false, t/ere is no reason (/y all s,0/ 1eliefs #i$/t not 1e false-
./is reasonin$ is falla0io,s- It 'oes not follo(, fro# t/e fa0t t/at any one of t/e 1ills in
#y "o0ket #ay /ave t/e /i$/est serial n,#1er, t/at all t/e 1ills in #y "o0ket #ay /ave
t/e /i$/est serial n,#1er, or fro# t/e fa0t t/at anyone #ay 1e ele0te' "resi'ent, t/at
everyone #ay 1e ele0te' "resi'ent- Nor 0o,l' it /a""en t/at all o,r 1eliefs
en' "-192
a1o,t t/e (orl' #i$/t 1e false- S,""ose I t/ink I see a #o,se 'isa""ear 1e/in' a 0/air-
Clearly t/is 1elief 0o,l' 1e #istaken- B,t (o,l' t/is 1elief 1e (ron$ if I 'i' not tr,ly
1elieve a #o,se (as a s#all, fo,r3foote' #a##al, or a 0/air an o15e0t #a'e for
sittin$> Per/a"s- ./ere #ay 1e no sayin$ e%a0tly (/at ot/er tr,e 1eliefs I #,st /ave in
or'er to /ave a "arti0,lar false 1elief- B,t it see#s 0lear t/at a 1elief of any kin', tr,e or
false, relies for its i'entifi0ation on a 1a0k$ro,n' of tr,e 1eliefs8 for a 0on0e"t, like t/at
of #o,se or 0/air, 0annot re#ain t/e sa#e 0on0e"t no #atter (/at 1eliefs it feat,res in-
It is "ossi1le to try to avoi' t/is 0on0l,sion 1y ar$,in$ t/at a 1elief s,0/ as t/at a #o,se
is a s#all, fo,r3foote' ani#al is tr,e 1y virt,e of t/e 0on0e"ts alone7it is an analyti0
tr,t/7an' so is not really a1o,t t/e (orl'- <ne 0o,l' t/en still say all o,r 1eliefs a1o,t
t/e (orl' #i$/t 1e false- ./is line is not availa1le to so#eone (/o, like #e, 'oes not
t/ink a 0lear line 1et(een analyti0 an' synt/eti0 tr,t/s is t/ere to 1e 'ra(n- B,t even if
t/ere are in',1ita1ly analyti0 tr,t/s, it is not "la,si1le t/at t/ese serve to eli#inate t/e
/ost of 0ases in (/i0/ 0on0e"ts are in'ivi',ate' 1y #,lti"le e#"iri0al 0riteria-
2
Be0a,se of t/e /olisti0 0/ara0ter of e#"iri0al 1elief, t/en, it is i#"ossi1le t/at all o,r
1eliefs a1o,t t/e (orl' are false- Aefle0tion on t/e reasonin$ t/at lea's to t/is t/esis
s,$$ests, /o(ever, t/at it /as 'ist,r1in$ li#its- 9/at it s/o(s is t/at (e 0annot /ar1or
"arti0,lar false Bor tr,eC 1eliefs a1o,t in'ivi',al o15e0ts ,nless (e /ave #any tr,e
1eliefs a1o,t t/e nat,re of s,0/ o15e0ts- ./is leaves o"en t/e "ossi1ility t/at (e #ay 1e
(ron$ in all o,r "arti0,lar 1eliefs a1o,t (/at e%ists in t/e (orl', an' t/is (o,l' 1e a
"retty e%tre#e ske"ti0is#, t/o,$/ not 6,ite total-
B,t 0o,l' t/is /a""en> S,""ose I kno( (/at a #o,se is an' (/at a 0/air is- ?o( 'i' I
arrive at #y false 1elief t/at I sa( a #o,se 'isa""ear 1e/in' a 0/air> Pres,#a1ly I
inter"rete' (/at I sa(, or e%"erien0e', as I 'i' 1e0a,se it satisfie' #y 0riteria for t/e
"resen0e of a #o,se an' of a 0/air Ban' of 'isa""earin$C- B,t (e /ave 5,st 'e0i'e'
t/at I 0annot 1e $enerally #istaken a1o,t t/e 0riteria- So #y #istake 0o,l' /ave 0o#e
a1o,t only in t/is (ay4 t/e s0ene t/at "resente' itself to #e (as one t/at 5,stifie' #y
1elief, even t/o,$/ t/e 1elief (as false- ./is 0an 0ertainly /a""en- It is /ar', t/o,$/, to
see /o( it 0o,l' /a""en al(ays, or even often- +or /o( 0o,l' t/e s0enes t/at "resent
t/e#selves to #e 5,stify 1eliefs none of (/i0/ are tr,e>
No ske"ti0 (ill 1e "ers,a'e' 1y t/is ar$,#ent- I (ill try to #ake
en' "-195
it #ore "ers,asive- )llo( #e for t/e #o#ent to #ake an ass,#"tion t/at 1e$s t/e
6,estion of an e%ternal (orl' in/a1ite' 1y ot/er "eo"le8 let ,s s,""ose (e /ave a
s"eaker an' so#eone else (/o is tryin$ to ,n'erstan' /is (or's- a0/ ti#e a #o,se
a""ears near1y in $oo' li$/t an' (it/ t/e s"eaker oriente' in t/e 'ire0tion of t/e
#o,se, et0-, t/e s"eaker ,tters (/at so,n's to t/e inter"reter like t/e sa#e e%"ression4
!AatDn!- 9/en t/e li$/tin$ is "oor or t/e s"eaker inattentive, t/e res"onse is less fir#ly
0orrelate' (it/ #o,se a""earan0es- I t/ink t/at ,nless t/ere is a /ost of evi'en0e
a$ainst s,0/ an inter"retation, t/e 0o#"etent inter"reter (ill take t/e s"eaker to #ean
1y /is (or's, an' to 1elieve, t/at t/ere is a #o,se "resent- 9/at re0o##en's t/is
inter"retation is t/e fa0t t/at t/e "resen0e of a #o,se /as a""arently in ea0/ 0ase
0a,se' t/e s"eaker intentionally to ,tter t/e sa#e e%"ression, !AatDn!, an' to ,tter it in
an affir#ative s"irit- <f 0o,rse an inter"reter #ay #ake a #istake4 /e #ay 1e in error
a1o,t t/e intention of t/e s"eaker, or a1o,t t/e tr,e re$,lar an' e%0l,sive 0a,se of t/e
s"eaker!s res"onse- ./e inter"reter (o,l' 1e (ron$, for e%a#"le, if a s6,irrel (o,l'
"rovoke t/e sa#e res"onse in t/e s"eaker, for t/en #i0e (o,l' not 1e t/e re$,lar an'
e%0l,sive 0a,se of ,tteran0es of !AatDn!- B,t "rovi'e' t/e inter"reter #akes none of
t/ese #istakes Bnor 0ertain ot/ers to 1e #entione'C, /is inter"retation is 0orre0t-
S,""ose t/e s"eaker sees a skillf,lly #a'e #e0/ani0al #o,se an' so,n's /is !AatDn!-
./e inter"reter #,st 'e0i'e (/et/er t/e s"eaker!s (or' an' 0on0e"t in0l,'e
#e0/ani0al #i0e, or (/et/er t/is is a #istake on t/e s"eaker!s "art- *e0i'in$ t/is is not
1eyon' t/e inter"reter!s "o(er- ?e #ay e%"ose t/e #e0/anis# to t/e s"eaker, for
e%a#"le, an' note t/e res"onse- ./e 0aref,l inter"reter (ill /ave to learn /o( t/e
s"eaker res"on's to #any ot/er 0lasses of o15e0ts 1efore /e arrives at /is final
inter"retive s0/e#e-
<1vio,sly t/e #atter is s,1tle an' 0o#"li0ate'- B,t as lon$ as (e a'/ere to t/e 1asi0
int,ition t/at in t/e si#"lest 0ases (or's an' t/o,$/ts refer to (/at 0a,ses t/e#, it is
0lear t/at it 0annot /a""en t/at #ost of o,r "lainest 1eliefs a1o,t (/at e%ists in t/e
(orl' are false- ./e reason is t/at (e 'o not first for# 0on0e"ts an' t/en 'is0over (/at
t/ey a""ly to8 rat/er, in t/e 1asi0 0ases, t/e a""li0ation 'eter#ines t/e 0ontent of t/e
0on0e"t- )n inter"reter (/o starts fro# s0rat0/7(/o 'oes not alrea'y ,n'erstan' t/e
lan$,a$e of a s"eaker70annot in'e"en'ently 'is0over (/at an a$ent!s 1eliefs are
a1o,t, an' t/en ask (/et/er t/ey are tr,e- ./is is 1e0a,se t/e sit,ations
en' "-19E
(/i0/ nor#ally 0a,se a 1elief 'eter#ine t/e 0on'itions in (/i0/ it is tr,e-
3
./ese re#arks a""ly 'ire0tly to so#e 1eliefs only- So#eone (/o /as learne' fro#
1ooks (/at a $,ana0o looks like #ay never /ave 1een 0a,se' to a00e'e to !./at!s a
$,ana0o! 1y seein$ a $,ana0o, an' yet 1e "re"are' B/avin$ seen "i0t,res of $,ana0os
"er/a"sC to a00e'e (/en /e 'oes see one- <r, to take a /ar'er 0ase, so#eone #ay
kno(, in so#e reasona1le sense, (/at a $,ana0o is, an' t/at it is not a lla#a, an' yet
1e re$,larly 0a,se' to assent to !./at!s a $,ana0o! in t/e "resen0e of lla#as- In 1ot/
t/ese 0ases, t/e 0ontents of t/e 1elief t/at t/ere is a $,ana0o "resent is 'eter#ine',
not 1y e%"os,re to $,ana0os, 1,t 1y /avin$ a06,ire' ot/er (or's an' 0on0e"ts, s,0/
as t/ose of lla#a, ani#al, 0a#el, 'o#esti0ate', an' so fort/- So#e(/ere alon$ t/e
line, t/o,$/, (e #,st 0o#e to t/e 'ire0t e%"os,res t/at an0/or t/o,$/t an' lan$,a$e to
t/e (orl'-
./e $eneral a""roa0/ to t/e i'entifi0ation of #ental states t/at I a# ,r$in$ /as
so#et/in$ in 0o##on (it/ (/at is no( so#eti#es 0alle' e%ternalis# or B1y .yler
B,r$eC anti3in'ivi',alis#8 1,t it also 'iffers fro# t/e 1est3kno(n versions of e%ternalis#
in i#"ortant res"e0ts- So at t/is "oint I (ant to 'istin$,is/ #y version of e%ternalis#
fro# ot/er for#s of e%ternalis#, "arti0,larly t/ose of ?ilary P,tna# an' .yler B,r$e-
I ret,rn to first "erson a,t/ority, t/e fa0t t/at ea0/ "erson $enerally kno(s (/at /e
t/inks (it/o,t a""eal or re0o,rse to evi'en0e, an' t/,s kno(s (/at is in /is o(n #in'
in a (ay t/at no one 0an kno( (/at is in t/e #in' of anot/er "erson- It /as 1een (i'ely
s,""ose' t/at e%ternalis#, (/i0/ /ol's t/at t/e 0ontents of a "erson!s "ro"ositional
attit,'es are "artly 'eter#ine' 1y fa0tors of (/i0/ t/e "erson #ay 1e i$norant, 0annot
1e re0on0ile' (it/ first "erson a,t/ority- ./,s P,tna# 'e0i'e' t/at 1e0a,se Ba for# ofC
e%ternalis# is tr,e, #eanin$s !5,st ain!t in t/e /ea'!7an' /el' t/at t/e sa#e a""lie' to
t/o,$/ts $enerally-
3

3
?ilary P,tna#, !./e =eanin$ of F=eanin$F !, 227-
<t/ers /ave 0o#e to t/e sa#e 0on0l,sion-

+or e%a#"les, see Go/n Searle, Intentionality8 an' )n're( 9oo'fiel', !Intro',0tion!, in 9oo'fiel' Be'-C,
in Thought and Object, "- viii-
./e 0on0l,sion 'oes not follo(, at least for t/e kin' of e%ternalis# I /ave 'es0ri1e'- I
/ave ar$,e' t/is at len$t/ else(/ere,
!

!
In ssay 2 in t/is vol,#e-
1,t t/e reasonin$ 0an 1e s,##ari&e' as follo(s- )n inter"reter #,st 'is0over, or
0orre0tly ass,#e on t/e 1asis of in'ire0t
en' "-197
evi'en0e, (/at t/e e%ternal fa0tors are t/at 'eter#ine t/e 0ontent of anot/er!s t/o,$/t8
1,t sin0e t/ese fa0tors 'eter#ine 1ot/ t/e 0ontents of one!s t/o,$/t an' t/e 0ontents of
t/e t/o,$/t one 1elieves one /as Bt/ese 1ein$ one an' t/e sa#e t/o,$/tC, t/ere is no
roo# for error a1o,t t/e 0ontents of one!s o(n t/o,$/t of t/e sort t/at 0an arise (it/
res"e0t to t/e t/o,$/ts of ot/ers-
9/ile I 'o not t/ink t/at t/e #ain for# of e%ternalis# t/at P,tna# en'orses
"

"
I /ave in #in' t/e sort of e%ternalis# ins"ire' 1y .(in art/ e%a#"les rat/er t/an t/ose "ro#"te' 1y
t/e !lin$,isti0 'ivision of la1or!-
t/reatens first "erson a,t/ority, I a# not entirely /a""y (it/ /is t/esis for ot/er reasons-
P,tna#!s e%ternalis# a""lies #ainly to nat,ral kin' (or's like !(ater! an' !leo"ar'!- ./e
i'ea is t/at if I learn t/e (or' !(ater! (/ile e%"erien0in$ ?
2
<, t/e (or' #,st /en0efort/
refer only to s,1stan0es (it/ t/e sa#e #i0rostr,0t,re- 9/ile I a$ree, as I sai' a1ove,
t/at t/e ,s,al 0a,se of #y ,se of t/e (or' 'eter#ines (/at it #eans, I 'o not see (/y
sa#eness of #i0rostr,0t,re is ne0essarily t/e relevant si#ilarity t/at 'eter#ines t/e
referen0e of #y (or' !(ater!- BI (ill say (/at I t/ink 'oes 0ontrol t/e relevant si#ilarity
"resently-C I also t/ink t/ere is no reason to li#it e%ternalis# to one, or a fe(, 0ate$ories
of (or's- I 1elieve it is 0/ara0teristi0 of lan$,a$e an' t/o,$/t 6,ite $enerally t/at t/eir
ties to t/e (orl' a00r,e fro# t/e sort of 0a,sal 0onne0tions I /ave 1een 'is0,ssin$-
.yler B,r$e /as ar$,e' for t(o for#s of e%ternalis#- In /is earlier arti0les
#

4
#
.yler B,r$e, !In'ivi',alis# an' t/e =ental!, !<t/er Bo'ies!, !.(o ./o,$/t %"eri#ents Aevie(e'!, an'
!In'ivi',alis# an' Psy0/olo$y!-
/e 0on0entrate' on t/e i'ea t/at t/e #eanin$s of a "erson!s (or's, an' t/e 0ontents of
t/at "erson!s t/o,$/ts, 'e"en' in "art on t/e lin$,isti0 "ra0ti0es of t/e "erson!s
0o##,nity, even in 0ases (/ere t/e in'ivi',al is #istaken a1o,t t/e relevant "ra0ti0es-
Hater arti0les
$

$
e-$-!Cartesian rror an' t/e <15e0tivity of Per0e"tion!, !Intelle0t,al Nor#s an' +o,n'ations of =in'!, an'
!In'ivi',alis# an' Self3Ino(le'$e!-
e#"/asi&e' t/e (ays in (/i0/ t/e 0ontents of ,tteran0es an' t/o,$/ts 'e"en' on t/e
0a,sal /istory of t/e in'ivi',al, "arti0,larly in 0onne0tion (it/ "er0e"tion- Het #e 0all t/e
t(o 1ran's of e%ternalis# so0ial e%ternalis# an' "er0e"t,al e%ternalis#- )s B,r$e /as
ar$,e' for t/e#, I t/ink t/ey are lar$ely in'e"en'ent in t/e sense t/at neit/er entails t/e
ot/er-
I a# not i#"resse' (it/ t/e ar$,#ents for so0ial e%ternalis#, for t/ree reasons-
First, it see#s to #e false t/at o,r int,itions s"eak stron$ly in
en' "-198
favor of ,n'erstan'in$ an' inter"retin$ an a$ent!s s"ee0/ an' t/o,$/ts in ter#s of (/at
ot/ers (o,l' #ean 1y t/e sa#e (or's- +or one t/in$, t/ere is t/e "ro1le# of 'e0i'in$
(/at $ro," is to 'eter#ine t/e nor#s- B,t #ore i#"ortant, (e ,n'erstan' a s"eaker
1est (/en (e inter"ret /i# as /e inten'e' to 1e inter"rete'8 t/is (ill e%"lain /is a0tions
far 1etter t/an if (e s,""ose /e #eans an' t/inks (/at so#eone else #i$/t #ean an'
t/ink (/o ,se' t/e sa#e (or's !0orre0tly!-
Second, I t/ink t/ere is a 0onfli0t 1et(een B,r$e!s so0ial e%ternalis#, (/i0/ ties a
s"eaker!s #eanin$ to an Jlite ,sa$e /e #ay not 1e a(are of, an' first "erson a,t/ority-
Third, I /ave a $eneral 'istr,st of t/o,$/t e%"eri#ents t/at "reten' to reveal (/at (e
(o,l' say ,n'er 0on'itions t/at in fa0t never arise- =y version of e%ternalis# 'e"en's
on (/at I t/ink to 1e o,r a0t,al "ra0ti0e-
%

%
See ssay 2 in t/is vol,#e-
I t,rn no( to B,r$e!s "er0e"t,al e%ternalis#- ?e #akes t(o i#"ortant "oints- ./e first is
t/at (e 0an /ave "er0e"t,al kno(le'$e, say t/at (e are seein$ a 0o(, (it/o,t /avin$
to as0ertain in'e"en'ently t/at (e are not 'e0eive' in one (ay or anot/er Ba /orse
"ainte' to look like a 0o(, a /olo$ra#, et0-C- 9/en (e /ave s,0/ a 0ase of "er0e"t,al
kno(le'$e, t/e 0ontent of o,r t/o,$/t is "artly 'eter#ine' 1y t/e 0a,se of t/e t/o,$/t-
?ere is (/at B,r$e says4
to t/ink of so#et/in$ as (ater - - - one #,st 1e in so#e 0a,sal relation to (ater7or at
least in so#e 0a,sal relation to ot/er "arti0,lar s,1stan0es t/at ena1le one to t/eori&e
a00,rately a1o,t (ater- In t/e nor#al 0ases, one sees an' to,0/es (ater- S,0/
relations ill,strate t/e sort of 0on'itions t/at #ake "ossi1le t/inkin$ of so#et/in$ as
(ater - - - .o think t/at (ater is a li6,i', one nee' not know t/e 0o#"le% 0on'itions t/at
#,st o1tain if one is to t/ink t/at t/o,$/t-
1&

1&
.yler B,r$e, !In'ivi',alis# an' Self3Ino(le'$e!, E5332-
It is /ar' to 'e0i'e, fro# t/is "assa$e, (/et/er t/e 0ontents of t/e t/o,$/t t/at t/is is
(ater are 'eter#ine', in t/e 0ase (/ere t/e t/o,$/t is tr,e, 1y t/e fa0t t/at it is (ater
t/at is 0a,sin$ t/e t/o,$/t, or (/et/er in t/is 0ase, as in t/e 0ases (/ere t/e t/o,$/t is
false, t/e 0ontents are 'eter#ine' 1y t/e nor#al 0ase, t/e $eneral r,n of t/e t/inker!s
0a,sal 0onta0t (it/ /is environ#ent- I see no o1vio,s 'iffi0,lty in a00e"tin$ an'
0o#1inin$ 1ot/ t/ese vie(s, t/o,$/ of 0o,rse t/ere #,st 1e a 'istin0tion 1et(een t/e
role t/e a0t,al "resen0e of
en' "-199
(ater "lays (/en it 0a,ses #e to t/ink t/is is (ater, an' t/e role t/e /istory of #y
relations to (ater "lay in #akin$ a false t/o,$/t t/at I a# seein$ (ater nevert/eless a
t/o,$/t a1o,t (ater- Clearly it is t/e latter t/esis t/at is essential to e%ternalis#- B,r$e
",ts it t/is (ay4 !./e nat,res of s,0/ states are 'eter#ine' "artly 1y nor#al relations
5
1et(een t/e "erson - - - an' t/e environ#ent- rror is 'eter#ine' a$ainst a 1a0k$ro,n'
of nor#al intera0tion-!
11

11
!Cartesian rror an' t/e <15e0tivity of Per0e"tion!, 125-
I a# in sy#"at/y 1ot/ (it/ t/e e"iste#olo$i0al vie( t/at "er0e"t,al kno(le'$e 'oes
not re6,ire t/at (e kno( in'e"en'ently t/at t/e ena1lin$ 0on'itions o1tain, an' of
0o,rse (it/ t/e vie( B#ore i#"ortant in t/e "resent 0onte%tC t/at t/e 0ontents of o,r
t/o,$/ts an' sayin$s are "artly 'eter#ine' 1y t/e /istory of 0a,sal intera0tions (it/ t/e
environ#ent-
)$reein$ on t/is "oint 0o#es nat,rally to so#eone like #e (/o /as for so#e t/irty
years 1een insistin$ t/at t/e 0ontents of o,r earliest learne' an' #ost 1asi0 senten0es
B!=a#a!, !*o$$ie!, !Ae'!, !+ire!, !Kava$ai!C #,st 1e 'eter#ine' 1y (/at it is in t/e (orl'
t/at 0a,ses ,s to /ol' t/e# tr,e- It is /ere, I /ave lon$ 0lai#e', t/at t/e ties 1et(een
lan$,a$e an' t/e (orl' are esta1lis/e' an' t/at 0entral 0onstraints on #eanin$ are
fi%e'8 an' $iven t/e 0lose 0onne0tions 1et(een t/o,$/t an' lan$,a$e, analo$o,s
re#arks $o for t/e 0ontents of t/e attit,'es-
B,r$e an' I are essentially in a$ree#ent, t/en, on "er0e"t,al e%ternalis#, 1,t t/ere is a
0losely relate' #atter on (/i0/ (e 'iffer, an' t/is 0on0erns t/e 6,estion (it/ (/i0/ I
1e$an t/is essay, t/e 6,estion (/et/er e%ternalis# "rovi'es an ans(er to 0ertain sorts
of ske"ti0is#- B,r$e says, !t/ere is no easy ar$,#ent a$ainst ske"ti0is# fro# anti3
in'ivi',alis# an' a,t/oritative self3kno(le'$e!-
12

12
!In'ivi',alis# an' Self3Ino(le'$e!, E55n-
In one sense, I a$ree, 1,t only 1e0a,se I 'on!t see (/at first "erson a,t/ority /as to 'o
(it/ it- B,t it 'oes see# to #e t/at i yo, a00e"t "er0e"t,al e%ternalis#, t/ere is an
easy ar$,#ent a$ainst $lo1al ske"ti0is# of t/e senses of t/e sort t/at *es0artes,
?,#e, A,ssell, an' en'less ot/ers /ave t/o,$/t re6,ires an ans(er- B,r$e says,
=ost "er0e"t,al re"resentations are for#e' an' o1tain t/eir 0ontent t/ro,$/ re$,lar
intera0tion (it/ t/e environ#ent- ./ey re"resent (/at, in so#e 0o#"le% sense of
!nor#ally!, t/ey nor#ally ste# fro# an' are a""lie' to- It
en' "-200
#akes no sense to attri1,te syste#ati0 "er0e"t,al error to a 1ein$ (/ose "er0e"t,al
re"resentations 0an 1e e%"laine' as t/e res,lts of re$,lar intera0tion (it/ a "/ysi0al
environ#ent - - -
13

13
!Cartesian rror an' t/e <15e0tivity of Per0e"tion!, 131-
It #ay see# t/at t/is ass,#es !ore t/an #ere e%ternalis#- B,t I 'on!t see /o(- B,r$e
0onsi'ers a 0ase #,0/ like stan'ar' 1rain3in3t/e3vat 0ases an' s/o(s (/y s,0/ a 1rain
0annot Bfor lon$C 1e ra'i0ally 'e0eive' a1o,t its environ#ent- I a""rove of t/is
ar$,#ent, /avin$ often ,se' it #yself- If anyt/in$ is syste#ati0ally 0a,sin$ 0ertain
e%"erien0es Bor ver1al res"onsesC, t/at is (/at t/e t/o,$/ts an' ,tteran0es are a1o,t-
./is r,les o,t syste#ati0 error- If not/in$ is syste#ati0ally 0a,sin$ t/e e%"erien0es,
t/ere is no 0ontent to 1e #istaken a1o,t- .o 6,ote #yself4 !9/at stan's in t/e (ay of
$lo1al ske"ti0is# of t/e senses is, in #y vie(, t/e fa0t t/at (e #,st, in t/e "lainest an'
#et/o'olo$i0ally #ost 1asi0 0ases, take t/e o15e0ts of a 1elief to 1e t/e 0a,ses of t/at
1elief-!
1

1
ssay 10 in t/is vol,#e-
)nyone (/o a00e"ts "er0e"t,al e%ternalis# kno(s /e 0annot 1e syste#ati0ally
'e0eive' a1o,t (/et/er t/ere are s,0/ t/in$s as 0o(s, "eo"le, (ater, stars, an'
0/e(in$ $,#- Ino(in$ (/y t/is is t/e 0ase, /e #,st re0o$ni&e sit,ations in (/i0/ /e is
5,stifie' in 1elievin$ /e is seein$ (ater or a 0o(- In t/ose 0ases (/ere /e is ri$/t, /e
kno(s /e is seein$ (ater or a 0o(-
I /ave re5e0te' so0ial e%ternalis# as 0/a#"ione' 1y B,r$e- *o I t/erefore t/ink so0ial
fa0tors "lay no role in t/e e%ternalis# of t/e #ental> Not at all- B,t I (o,l' intro',0e t/e
so0ial fa0tor in a (ay t/at 0onne0ts it 'ire0tly (it/ "er0e"t,al e%ternalis#, t/,s lo0atin$
6
t/e role of so0iety (it/in t/e 0a,sal ne%,s t/at in0l,'es t/e inter"lay 1et(een "ersons
an' t/e rest of nat,re-
B,r$e an' I a$ree t/at t/e 0a,se of 0ertain #ental states is relevant to t/e 0ontent of
t/ose states- )n' (e a$ree t/at one kin' of 0ase is es"e0ially i#"ortant4 an e%a#"le is
t/e (ay t/e fa0t t/at a 0ertain #ental state /as 1een ty"i0ally 0a,se' 1y seein$ 0o(s
allo(s ,s to t/ink !./ere!s a 0o(! even (/en no 0o( is "resent- B,t /ere a "ro1le#
arises- 9/at 'eter#ines t/e 0ontent of s,0/ 1asi0 t/o,$/ts Ban' (/at (e #ean 1y t/e
(or's (e ,se to e%"ress t/e#C is (/at /as ty"i0ally 0a,se' si#ilar t/o,$/ts- B,t (/at
has ty"i0ally 0a,se' t/e#> ./ere are #any 0/oi0es, for e%a#"le events t/at o00,rre'
1efore all 0o(s, or events s"atially 0loser to t/e t/inker t/an any 0o(- B,r$e at
en' "-201
one "oint says t/at 0a,ses ante0e'ent to t/e !nat,ral! 0a,se or inter#e'iate 1et(een
t/e nat,ral 0a,se an' t/e #ental effe0t B!s,0/ as arrays of li$/t strikin$ t/e retina!C
(o,l' #ake t/e 'es0ri"tion of t/e 0ontent !0o#"li0ate' in (ays t/at /ave never 1een
f,lly arti0,late'!-
1!

1!
!Cartesian rror an' t/e <15e0tivity of Per0e"tion!, 12E37-
B,t 0o#"li0ate' for (/o#> )rti0,late' 1y (/o#> <f 0o,rse all t/ose arrays of li$/t
strikin$ t/e retina /ave so!ething in 0o##on8 an' so for ot/er 0lasses of 0a,ses- It is
(e /,#ans for (/o# t/ese 0lassifi0ations are 0o#"li0ate' an' i#"ossi1le to arti0,late
Be%0e"t, of 0o,rse, 1y 0/eatin$ in fa#iliar (aysC- It is (e (/o 0lass 0o( a""earan0es
to$et/er, #ore or less nat,rally, or (it/ #ini#al learnin$- )n' even so, anot/er
0lassifi0ation is re6,ire' to 0o#"lete t/e "oint, for t/e 0lass of relevant 0a,ses is in t,rn
'efine' 1y si#ilarity of res"onses4 (e $ro," to$et/er t/e 0a,ses of so#eone!s
res"onses, ver1al an' ot/er(ise, 1e0a,se (e fin' t/e res"onses si#ilar- 9/at #akes
t/ese t/e relevant si#ilarities> ./e ans(er a$ain is o1vio,s8 it is (e, 1e0a,se of t/e
(ay (e are 0onstr,0te' Bevol,tion /a' so#et/in$ to 'o (it/ t/isC, (/o fin' t/ese
res"onses nat,ral an' easy to 0lass to$et/er- If (e 'i' not, (e (o,l' /ave no reason to
0lai# t/at ot/ers (ere res"on'in$ to t/e sa#e o15e0ts an' events Bi-e- 0a,sesC t/at (e
are- It #ay 1e t/at not even "lants 0o,l' s,rvive in o,r (orl' if t/ey 'i' not to so#e
e%tent rea0t in (ays (e fin' si#ilar to events an' o15e0ts t/at (e fin' si#ilar- ./is
0learly is tr,e of ani#als8 an' of 0o,rse it 1e0o#es #ore o1vio,s t/e #ore like ,s t/e
ani#al is-
./e i'entifi0ation of t/e o15e0ts of t/o,$/t rests, t/en, on a so0ial 1asis- 9it/o,t one
0reat,re to o1serve anot/er, t/e trian$,lation t/at lo0ates t/e relevant o15e0ts in a
",1li0 s"a0e 0o,l' not take "la0e- I 'o not #ean 1y t/is t/at one 0reat,re o1servin$
anot/er "rovi'es eit/er 0reat,re (it/ t/e 0on0e"t of o15e0tivity8 t/e "resen0e of t(o or
#ore 0reat,res intera0tin$ (it/ ea0/ ot/er an' (it/ a 0o##on environ#ent is at 1est a
ne0essary 0on'ition for s,0/ a 0on0e"t- <nly 0o##,ni0ation 0an "rovi'e t/e 0on0e"t,
for to /ave t/e 0on0e"t of o15e0tivity, t/e 0on0e"ts of o15e0ts an' events t/at o00,"y a
s/are' (orl', of o15e0ts an' events (/ose "ro"erties an' e%isten0e is in'e"en'ent of
o,r t/o,$/t, re6,ires t/at (e are a(are of t/e fa0t t/at (e s/are t/o,$/ts an' a (orl'
(it/ ot/ers-
+or t/is reason (e 0annot resolve t/e 6,estion of t/e 0ontents of
en' "-202
#ental states fro# t/e "oint of vie( of a sin$le 0reat,re- ./is is "er/a"s 1est seen 1y
t/inkin$ a1o,t /o( one "erson learns fro# anot/er to s"eak an' t/ink of or'inary
t/in$s- P,t in $reatly si#"lifie' ter#s, a 1asi0 as"e0t of s,0/ learnin$ 0an 1e 'es0ri1e'
in t/is (ay4 t/e learner is re(ar'e', (/et/er 'eli1erately or not, (/en t/e learner
#akes so,n's or ot/er(ise res"on's in (ays t/e tea0/er fin's a""ro"riate in sit,ations
t/e tea0/er 0lasses to$et/er- ./e learner is s,1se6,ently 0a,se' to #ake si#ilar
so,n's 1y sit,ations t/e learner instin0tively 0lasses to$et/er- Corre0tions are "ossi1le,
of 0o,rse- S,00ess at t/e first level is a0/ieve' to t/e e%tent t/at t/e learner res"on's
(it/ so,n's t/e tea0/er fin's si#ilar to sit,ations t/e tea0/er fin's si#ilar- ./e tea0/er
7
is res"on'in$ to t(o t/in$s4 t/e e%ternal sit,ation an' t/e res"onses of t/e learner- ./e
learner is res"on'in$ to t(o t/in$s4 t/e e%ternal sit,ation an' t/e res"onses of t/e
tea0/er- )ll t/ese relations are 0a,sal- ./,s t/e essential trian$le is for#e' (/i0/
#akes 0o##,ni0ation a1o,t s/are' o15e0ts an' events "ossi1le- B,t it is also t/is
trian$le t/at 'eter#ines t/e 0ontent of t/e learner!s (or's an' t/o,$/ts (/en t/ese
1e0o#e 0o#"le% eno,$/ to 'eserve t/e ter#- ./e role of t/e tea0/er in 'eter#inin$ t/e
0ontent of t/e learner!s attit,'e is not 5,st t/e !'eter#ine! of 0a,sality- +or in a''ition to
1ein$ a 0a,se of t/ose t/o,$/ts, (/at #akes t/e "arti0,lar as"e0t of t/e 0a,se of t/e
learner!s res"onses t/e as"e0t t/at $ives t/e# t/e 0ontent t/ey /ave is t/e fa0t t/at t/is
as"e0t of t/e 0a,se is s/are' 1y t/e tea0/er an' t/e learner- 9it/o,t s,0/ s/arin$,
t/ere (o,l' 1e no $ro,n's for sele0tin$ one 0a,se rat/er t/an anot/er as t/e 0ontent3
fi%in$ 0a,se- ) non0o##,ni0atin$ 0reat,re #ay 1e seen 1y ,s as res"on'in$ to an
o15e0tive (orl'8 1,t (e are not 5,stifie' in attri1,tin$ t/o,$/ts a1o,t o,r (orl' Bor any
ot/erC to it-
./is 1rin$s #e 1a0k to first "erson a,t/ority- I re#arke' at t/e start t/at first "erson
a,t/ority /as t(o 0losely relate' feat,res4 one is t/e fa0t t/at it yiel's kno(le'$e t/at is
not 1ase' on inferen0e or evi'en0e8 t/e ot/er is t/e asy##etry 1et(een /o( (e kno(
o,r o(n #in's an' /o( (e kno( t/e #in's of ot/ers- It is strikin$, for e%a#"le, t/at
B,r$e!s e%"lanation of first "erson a,t/ority fails to a00o,nt for t/e fa0t t/at t/e sa#e
t/in$, na#ely (/at is in one "erson!s #in', 0an also 1e kno(n 1y so#eone else,
t/o,$/ in a very 'ifferent (ay- ./e #issin$ "art of t/e e%"lanation is fille' in, I t/ink,
(/en (e re0o$ni&e t/e (ay intera0tion (it/ ot/er "eo"le "artly 'eter#ines t/e 0ontents
of #ental states- Ino(le'$e of one!s
en' "-203
o(n #in' is "ersonal- B,t (/at in'ivi',ates t/at state at t/e sa#e ti#e #akes it
a00essi1le to ot/ers, for t/e state is in'ivi',ate' 1y 0a,sal inter"lay a#on$ t/ree
ele#ents4 t/e t/inker, ot/ers (it/ (/o# /e 0o##,ni0ates, an' an o15e0tive (orl' t/ey
kno( t/ey s/are-
8