Rate Transient Analysis

NOMENCLATURE
Copyright Fekete Associates Inc. 2008 Printed in Canada
re exterior radius of reservoir
reD dimensionless exterior radius of
reservoir
rw wellbore radius
rwa apparent wellbore radius
s skin
Sgi initial gas saturation
Soi initial oil saturation
t flow time
ta pseudo-time
tc material balance time
tca material balance pseudo-time
tD dimensionless time
tDA dimensionless time
tDd dimensionless time
tDxf dimensionless time
tDye dimensionless time
T reservoir temperature
w fracture width
a semi-major axis of ellipse
A area
b hyperbolic decline exponent or semi
minor axis of ellipse
bDpss dimensionless parameter
bpss inverse of productivity index
B formation volume factor
Bgi initial gas formation volume factor
Bo oil formation volume factor
Boi initial oil formation volume factor
cg gas compressibility
ct total compressibility
ct total compressibility at average
reservoir pressure
D nominal decline rate
De effective decline rate
Di initial nominal decline rate
FCD dimensionless fracture conductivity
G original gas-in-place
xe reservoir length
xf fracture half length
ye reservoir width
yw well location in y-direction
Z gas deviation factor
Z gas deviation factor at average
reservoir pressure
Zi initial gas deviation factor
constant
porosity
viscosity
aq aquifer fluid viscosity
g gas viscosity
g gas viscosity at average reservoir
pressure
o oil viscosity
res reservoir fluid viscosity
pDi dimensionless pressure integral
pDid dimensionless pressure integral-
derivative
pi initial reservoir pressure
pp pseudo-pressure
pp pseudo-pressure at average reservoir
pressure
ppi initial pseudo-pressure
ppwf pseudo-pressure at well flowing
pressure
pwf well flowing pressure
q flow rate
qD dimensionless rate
qDd dimensionless rate
qDdi dimensionless rate integral
qDdid dimensionless rate integral-derivative
qi initial flow rate
Q cumulative production
QDd dimensionless cumulative production
-
Gp gas cumulative production
Gpa pseudo-cumulative production
h net pay
k permeability
kaq aquifer permeability
kf fracture permeability
kh horizontal permeability
kres reservoir permeability
kv vertical permeability
K constant
L horizontal well length
M mobility ratio
N original oil-in-place
Np oil cumulative production
p pressure
p average reservoir pressure
p0 reference pressure
pD dimensionless pressure
pDd dimensionless pressure derivative
Oil field units; (MMSCFD); (days) q t g
44. Rate Blasingame: 45. Rate Agarwal-Gardner:
Increasing rwa
Increasing M
M=10 (Constant Pressure)
M=0 (Volumetric Depletion)
M=0 (Volumetric Depletion)
tDd tDA
q
D
q
Dd
Increasing M
aq
res
res
aq

k
k
M =
Mobility ratio ( ) represents the strength of the aquifer. M
M = 0 is equivalent to Radial Type Curves (Figures 25-32). 48 = eD r
44-45: WATER-DRIVE TYPE CURVES
Reservoir
Infinite Aquifer
41. Integral-Derivative Blasingame:
0.1
e
=
x
L
43. Integral-Derivative Blasingame:
tDd tDd
q
Ddid
q
Ddid
L
xe
xe
42. Integral-Derivative Blasingame:
tDd
q
Ddid
Increasing L Increasing L
Increasing L
0.3
e
=
x
L
1.0
e
=
x
L
L
xe
xe
L
xe
xe
41-43: HORIZONTAL WELL TYPE CURVES
33-37: Finite Conductivity Fracture
33. Rate 34. Integral-Derivative
Increasing FCD
Increasing FCD
Increasing xe
Increasing xe
U
nit Slope
Unit Slope
Half Slope
Quarter Slope
Half Slope
tDxf tDxf
q
D
1
/p
D
id
xf
xe
xe
2
f t
00633 . 0
x c
kt
t Dxf =
fm
f
f
CD
kx
w k
F =
Fracture with finite conductivity results in bilinear flow (quarter
slope).
38. Rate Integral-Derivative Blasingame: and
Increasing xf
Unit Slope
Half Slope
tDd
re
xf
40. Rate Wattenbarger:
Increasing / yw ye
Half Slope
Unit Slope yw
ye
xe f = x 2
tDye
q
D
(
)
y
/
x
e
e
t
kt
c
Dye =
0 00633
2
.
fm e y t
q
Dd
q
Ddid
and
38-40: Infinite Conductivity Fracture
Fracture with infinite conductivity results in linear flow (half slope).
For >50, the fracture is assumed to have infinite conductivity. FCD
36. Integral-Derivative Elliptical Flow:
tDA
q
Did
37. Integral-Derivative Elliptical Flow: 35. Integral-Derivative Elliptical Flow:
Quarter Slope
Increasing a/b
tDA
tDA
q
Did
q
Did
0.5 CD = F 5.0 CD = F 50.0 CD = F
Increasing a/b
Increasing a/b
Half Slope
xf
b
a
2
f t
00633 . 0
x c
kt
t Dxf =
fm
xf
xe
xe Dimensionless Fracture Conductivity is defined as:
39. Pressure Integral-Derivative NPI: and
Increasing xf
Boundary-
Dominated Transient Half Slope
Unit Slope
tDA
p
D
p
Did
and
re
xf
33-40: FRACTURE TYPE CURVES
Note: Gas calculations are ITERATIVE because of pseudo-time.
23-24: Radial Flow Model: Type Curve Analysis
24. Calculations for Gas
(Agarwal-Gardner Type Curves)
23. Calculations for Oil All radial flow type curves are based on the same reservoir model:

Well in centre of cylindrical homogeneous reservoir.

No flow outer boundary.
Skin factor represented by . rwa

Information content of all type curves (Figures 25-32) is the same.

The shapes are different because of different plotting formats.
Each format represents a different look at the data and
emphasizes different aspects.
(Agarwal-Gardner Type Curves)
) ( ln
wa
w
r
r
s =
oi
oi e
B
hS r
N
2
p
=
f
) ( ln
wa
w
r
r
s = ,
gi
gi e
B
hS r
G
2
p
=
f
re
rwa
26. Integral-Derivative Blasingame: 25. Rate (Normalized) Blasingame:
25-26: Blasingame
Harmonic (Unit Slope)
q
Dd
tDd
q
Ddid
tDd

1.
2. Rate integral ( ) vs. (has the same shape as ).
3. Rate integral-derivative ( ) vs. (Figure 26).
is a constant for a particular well/reservoir configuration.
q t
q p q p
q t
Dd Dd
p
Dd Dd
and definitions are similar to Fetkovich.
Normalized rate ( / or / ) is plotted.
vs. (Figure 25).
In general:
D D
Three sets of type curves:
q t q
q t
b
Ddi Dd Dd
Ddid Dd
Dpss
Increasing rwa
) (ln
) (
Dd
Ddi
Ddid
t d
q d
q =-
=
Dd
0 Dd Dd
Dd
Ddi
1 t
dt q
t
q
D q Dpss Dd b q = DA
Dpss
Dd t
b
t
p 2
= ,
Dd =
) 1 )( 5 . 0 (ln
2
eD eD - - r r
t
D 2t
32. Integral-Derivative 31. Rate (Normalized)
31-32: Transient-Dominated Data
Increasing re
Zero Slope
1
/p
Did
tD tD
q
D

This format is
useful when most of the data are in TRANSIENT flow.
1. vs. (Figure 31).
2. Inverse of pressure integral (1/ ) vs. (not shown).
3. Inverse of pressure integral-derivative (1/ ) vs. (Figure 32).
Similar to Figures 27 & 28 but uses instead of .
and definitions are similar to well testing.
Normalized rate ( / or / ) is plotted.
t t
q t
q p q p
D DA
D D
p D D
Three sets of type curves:
q t
p t
p t
D D
Di D
Did D
29-30: Normalized Pressure Integral (NPI)

1. vs. (Figure 29).

2. Pressure integral ( ) vs. (has the same shape as ).
3. Pressure integral-derivative ( ) vs. (Figure 30).
p t
p/q p /q
q/ p p
D DA
p
p
and definitions are similar to well testing.
Normalized Pressure ( or ) is plotted rather than
normalized rate ( or q/ ).
D D
D D
Three sets of type curves:
p t
p t p
p t
D DA
Di DA D
Did DA
30. Integral-Derivative NPI:
) (ln
) (
DA
Di
Did
t d
p d
p =
p
Did
tDA
Boundary-
Dominated Transient
29. Pressure (Normalized) NPI:
qB
p p kh
q
p
i
2 . 141
) ( 1 wf
D
D
-
= =
Increasing rwa
tDA
p
D
=
DA
0 DA D
DA
Di
1 t
dt p
t
p
27. Rate (Normalized) Agarwal-Gardner: 28. Integral-Derivative Agarwal-Gardner:
27-28: Agarwal-Gardner
Increasing rwa
Boundary-
Dominated Transient
Harmonic (Unit Slope)
Unit Slope
1
/p
Did
tDA tDA
q
D

1.
2. Inverse of pressure derivative (1/ ) vs. (not shown).
3. Inverse of pressure integral-derivative (1/ ) vs. (Figure 28).
Notes
1. Pressure derivative is defined as
2. Inverse of pressure derivative is usually too noisy and inverse of
pressure integral-derivative is used instead.
q t
q p q p
q t
D DA
p
D DA
and definitions are similar to well testing.
Normalized rate ( / or / ) is plotted.
vs. (Figure 27).
D D
Three sets of type curves:
:
p t
p t
Dd DA
Did DA
A c
kt .
t
t
DA
00633 0
=
f ) (ln
) (
DA
Di
Did
t d
p d
p =
DA ) (ln
) ( D
Dd
t d
p d
p =
match
DA
ca
wa
) (
00633 . 0
match ) (r
t
t k
r =
eD
) ( i p c fm t g
) (
00633 . 0
match
DA
ca
e
t
t k
r = ,
) ( i p c fm t g
,
) ( match eD
) (
00633 . 0
match
DA
c
wa
r
t
t k
r
p
=
c fm t o
, ) (
00633 . 0
match
DA
c
e
t
t k
r
p
=
c fm t o
match
o
)
/
(
2 . 141
D q
p q
h
B
k
D
=
mo
fm
=
D
0 D D
D
Di
1 t
dt p
t
p
) (ln
) (
D
Di
Did
t d
p d
p =
Unit Slope
Unit Slope
match
6
)
/
(
10 417 . 1
D
p
q
p q
h
T
k
D
=
=
DA
0 DA D
DA
Di
1 t
dt p
t
p D q =
p
1
D
=
) (
2 . 141
wf p p kh
qB
i -

reD
reD
reD
) , 5 . 0 ln( eD D Dd - = r q q = eD r
wa
e
r
r
23-32: RADIAL TYPE CURVES
Gas
22. Procedure to Calculate Gas-In-Place 21. Gas: Flowing Material Balance
G
pss
i
pa
qb
G
G
+ =
a
pwf pi p p -
Summary:

Uses flowing data. No shut-in required.

Applicable to oil and gas.
Determines hydrocarbon-in-place, or .
Oil ( ): Direct calculation.
Gas ( ): Iterative calculation because of pseudo-time.
Simple yet powerful.
Data readily available (wellhead pressure can be converted to
bottomhole pressure).
Supplements static material balance.
Ideal for low permeability reservoirs.
N G
N
G
Calculating is ITERATIVE: G
1.
2. At any time, is known. Determine at from /
plot.
3. Obtain
4. Convert to and to (Figures 18 & 16).
5. Determine from Figure 20.
6. Determine from = + .
7. Plot / vs. and determine new .
8. Repeat steps 2-7 until converges.
Estimate ; plot / vs. from / to .
and at .
G p Z G p Z G
c p
G
G
p i i
g t
G p G p Z
t t p p
b
p p p qb
p Z G
p p
a wf pwf
pss
p pwf pss
p
pss
pa pwf pi
b
qG
G
q
p p
+ =
- a
pss pwf p qb p p + =
20
20. Gas: Determination of bpss
Transient
Boundary-Dominated
19. Oil: Flowing Material Balance
Normalized Cumulative Production
N
Norm
alized
Rate
Transient
Boundary-Dominated
Oil
/q a Gpa
Np /ct ( pi pwf ) -
t i g
i
) (
2
Z c
p

a =
=
a
0 a pa
t
qdt G
(
)
pss b
wf i pss
p
wf i ) ( p p Nb c
N
p p
q
t
+
-
- =
- pss
1
b
pss
p
wf i qb
N c
N
p p
t
+ = -
Note: is the inverse of productivity index and is constant during
boundary-dominated flow.
bpss
19-22: FLOWING MATERIAL BALANCE
16. Pseudo-Pressure ( ) pp
Pseudo-Pressure
(
)
p
p
Pressure ( ) p
15. Darcys Law
Liquid (Constant Viscosity):
Pseudo-Pressure ( ) pp corrects for changing viscosity
( ) and -factor with pressure. Z
Gas: Viscosity and Z-factor are not constant.
Define Pseudo-Pressure ( ): pp
Darcys Law for Gas:

Pseudo-pressure corrects for changing viscosity and -factor with

pressure.
In all equations for liquid, replace pressure ( ) with pseudo-
pressure ( ).
Note: For gas,
Z
p
pp
q p D p

=
p
p Z
pdp
p
g
p
0
2

g
15-16: Pseudo-Pressure
17. Gas Compressibility Variation
Pressure
Gas Com
pressibility
18. Pseudo-Time ( ) ta
) to Material Balance
Pseudo-Time ( ).
c
ca
Convert material balance time (t
t

Compressibility represents energy in reservoir.

Gas compressibility is strong function of pressure (especially at
LOW PRESSURES).
Ignoring compressibility variation can result in significant error in
original gas-in-place ( ) calculation.
Pseudo-time ( ) corrects for changing viscosity and compressibility
with pressure.
Pseudo-time calculation is ITERATIVE because it depends on and
at average reservoir pressure, and average reservoir pressure
depends on (usually unknown).
Note: Pseudo-time in build-up testing is evaluated at well flowing
pressure NOT at average reservoir pressure.
G
t

c
G
a
g
t
= =
t
t g
i t g t
a ca
c
qdt
q
c
qdt
q
t
a
0 0
) ( 1

) with Pseudo-
Time ( ).
In all equations for liquid, replace Time (t
ta
Note: and are evaluated at average reservoir pressure c g t
(unlike build-up testing).
17-18: Pseudo-Time
p p
Z
Z p
c
1 1 1

- = g
D q =
p
1
D
=
qT
) ( pwf p p kh pi -
1.417 10
6

=
t dt
c t
0 i t g a ) (
ct g

Gas properties vary with pressure:

-factor (Pseudo-Pressure, Figures 15 & 16)
Viscosity (Pseudo-Pressure & Pseudo-Time, Figures 15, 16 & 18)
Compressibility (Pseudo-Time, Figures 17 & 18)

Z
15-18: GAS FLOW CONSIDERATIONS
(t c) = Q/q
Material Balance Time
Actual Rate Decline Constant Rate

Constant pressure solution ( ) is converted to

constant rate (1/ ) using Material Balance Time ( ).
armonic.
q
p t
D
D c
Constant rate and constant pressure solutions using
are h
tc
U
nit
Slop
e
11. qD Comparison of and 1/pD 12. qD Equivalence of and 1/pD
Q
Q

Material Balance Time ( ) effectively converts constant pressure

solution to the corresponding constant rate solution.
Exponential curve plotted using Material Balance Time becomes
harmonic.
Material Balance Time is rigorous during boundary-dominated flow.
tc
t D (Material Balance Time)
q
D
and
1
/p
D
tD
U
nit
Slop
e
q
D
and
1
/p
D
Actual Time ( ) t
= =
t
c qdt
q q
Q
t
0
1
11-12: Material Balance Time
Constant rate solution
(1/ ) is harmonic. pD
Constant pressure solution
( ) is exponential. qD
14. Derivative and Integral-Derivative 13. Concept of Rate Integral
Rate Integral is cumulative average rate.
is an effective way to remove noise. Rate Integral
Integral-Derivative
Derivative
Rate (Normalized)
Combines rate with flowing pressure.
Derivative (Normalized Rate)
Amplifies reservoir signal but amplifies noise
as well.
p
q
D
Integral (Normalized Rate)
Smoothes noisy data but attenuates the
reservoir signal.
dt
p
q
t
t

D
c
0
c
1
) (ln
) (
c t d
p
q
d
D
-
Integral-Derivative (Normalized Rate)
Smoothes the scatter of the derivative. )
1
(
) (ln
c
0
c c
dt
p
q
t t d
d t

D
-
Time
13-14: Type Curve Interpretation Aids
Actual Rate =
Actual Time ( ) t
Rate Integral =
Actual Time ( ) t
Rate
Rate
Integral
11-14: MODERN DECLINE ANALYSIS: BASIC CONCEPTS
fm
tDd
Increasing rwa
9. Fetkovich Type Curves
5. Analytical: Constant Flowing Pressure
Boundary-Dominated
Multiple Curves
Exponential
6. Analytical: Constant Flowing Pressure
Transient
Multiple Curves
Boundary-Dominated
Single Curve
Exponential
Replot on Log-Log Scale
Concave down
Empirical
8. Empirical: Arps-Fetkovich Depletion Stems
Exponential
7. Empirical: Arps Depletion Stems
10. Fetkovich/Cumulative Type Curves
Rate
Cumulative

and definitions are similar to well test.

.
q t D D
Convenient for transient flow
Results in single transient stem but multiple boundary-
dominated stems.
Summary:

Combines transient with boundary-dominated flow.

Transient: Analytical, constant pressure solution.
Boundary-Dominated: Empirical, identical to traditional (Arps).
Constant operating conditions.
Used to estimate EUR, skin and permeability.
EUR depends on operating conditions.
Does NOT use pressure data.
Cumulative curves are smoother than rate curves.
Combined cumulative and rate type curves give more unique
match (Figure 10).
q
D
tD
Time
Rate
q
Dd
Q
Dd
and
tDd
q
Dd
Rate
q
Dd
Time
Concave up
Theoretical
Harmonic
Harmonic
Hyperbolic
Exponential
Transient
Boundary-Dominated
Hyperbolic
Transient
Single Curve
tDd

and definitions are convenient for production data

analysis.
.
q t Dd Dd
Convenient for boundary-dominated flow
Results in single boundary-dominated stem but multiple
transient stems.
) 1 )( 5 . 0 (ln
2
2
eD eD
D
Dd
- -
=
r r
t
t ) 5 . 0 ln( eD D Dd - = r q q

=
Dd t
d q Q
0 Dd Dd t Dd
5-10: FETKOVICH ANALYSIS
Summary:

Boundary-dominated flow only.

Constant operating conditions.
Developed using empirical relationships.
Quick and simple to determine EUR.
EUR depends on operating conditions.
Does NOT use pressure data.
depends on drive mechanism. b
Harmonic Decline:

Decline rate is directly proportional to flow rate (b=1).

straight line. Log flow rate vs. cumulative production is a
Hyperbolic Decline:

Decline rate is not constant ( ).

by
nonlinear curve fit.
D=Kq
b
Straight line plots are NOT practical and is determined b
Commingled layered reservoirs
Single phase gas
Effective edge water drive
Solution gas drive
Single phase liquid (oil above bubble point)
Single phase gas at high pressure
0.5-1.0
0.4-0.5
0.5
0.1-0.4
0
Reservoir Drive Mechanism b value
Exponential Decline:

Decline rate is constant.

Log flow rate vs. time is a straight line.
Flow rate vs. cumulative production is a straight line.
Provides minimum EUR (Expected Ultimate Recovery).
3. Exponential Decline
Rate
Cumulative Production
DQ q q i - =
Time
1. Traditional (Arps) Decline Curves
Harmonic (b=1)
q
t
Exponential (b=0)
Rate
Hyperbolic (0<b<1)
Dt
e q q
-
= i
303 . 2
log log
Dt
q q i - =
1
q
D t
=
+ i
qi
1
(1 ) b
q
b
=
+ D t i
qi
Cumulative Production
Time
4. Harmonic Decline
q1
q2
2. Decline Rate Definitions
t
q
t
q
1
2 1
e
q
q q
D
-
=
Nominal Decline Rate Effective Decline Rate
Rate
No Straight Line
dt
dq
q
D
1
- =
e e D
-
- = 1
D
i
i
i
q Q
q
D
q log
303 . 2
log + - =
Rate 1 Year
1- 4: TRADITIONAL DECLINE ANALYSIS